Contents

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 MUSCLES ARE MEAT
Chapter 2 KNIVES AND OTHER EQUIPMENT
Chapter 3 BEEF, BISON, AND VEAL
Chapter 4 SHEEP, LAMBS, AND GOATS
Chapter 5 PORK
Chapter 6 POULTRY AND OTHER FOWL
Chapter 7 VENISON, MOOSE, ELK, AND BIG GAME
Chapter 8 RABBITS, OTHER SMALL GAME, AND FISH
Chapter 9 MEAT BYPRODUCTS AND FOOD PRESERVATION
Chapter 10 MEAT CURING AND SMOKING
Chapter 11 SAUSAGES
Chapter 12 BUILDING A BUTCHERY BUSINESS
GLOSSARY
METRIC EQUIVALENTS AND CONVERSION
INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
 INTRODUCTION
T he meat our society consumes today comes mostly from domestically raised animals. As human
civilization has evolved toward urban living, the need for wild game in the diet has decreased and the
demand for domestic animal meat products has greatly increased. We are no longer a society of hunters
and gatherers like our ancestors were, though there are groups who still rely on wild game as a part of
their diets.
For years, a smaller and smaller percentage of meat products were secured directly from agricultural
producers, such as farmers, than in the past. This shift led to the rise of meat markets and butcher shops
across the country and within cities. As more consumers became disconnected from the farms and
livestock their ancestors may have known so well, the talents for butchering and deconstructing an animal
carcass also largely were lost. (The good news is that those talents may lay dormant within you. All you
need is a call to awaken them, along with the proper information and guidance.)
Human civilizat ion has consumed animal meat product s as part of it s diet f or t housands of years. Today’s consumers can choose
f rom a variet y of animal species, such as beef cat t le, t o include as part of t heir daily diet .
Historically, home butchering was done in the fall of the year when the weather was cooler. This decreased the chance for meat spoilage
before the era of modern refrigeration. Today, with proper care of the meat, home butchering can occur at any time during the year.

New Opportunities
The food industry in the United States has evolved so large corporations dominate many markets. Often,
large conglomerates involved with animal agriculture control the entire process, from birth to slaughter
and processing, distributing their products nationally and internationally. By providing a vast array of
meat products in a multitude of different forms, supermarkets offer consumers the convenience of meal
preparation and food access. Some see little need to butcher their own meat when it is so easily available
at what they consider to be a reasonable price.
 Still, in recent years, the trend has been swinging back in the other direction. The consolidation and
integration of food sources and products has dramatically affected consumer attitudes toward the food
they choose. As more consumers become aware of the sources of their food, some are starting to prefer
alternative sources for the meat they eat. Animals raised in large units or in confinement housing are one
concern leading people to evaluate their options. Also, concerns about the conditions in which animals
destined for the dinner table are raised—including their health and how they are ultimately processed—
have propelled consumers to seek sources of food that have a better connection with their own
philosophy. Small-scale farmers have eased many of these concerns due to the smaller-scale nature of
their businesses. This has, in turn, helped spawn an increasing number of small-unit farms for those
seeking an alternative to large-scale production.
One result of these changes has been the development of on-farm butchering and processing facilities
with a vendor for their meat products located in a village, town, or city. This provides new business
opportunities for those with an interest in butchering and processing meats. A business can be developed
that is based on slaughtering and butchering animals for customers in your area or region.
The resurgence of demand for locally grown food, whether raised or purchased, can be beneficial to
anyone intrigued by home butchering or processing meat cuts and sausages, and it opens up new
opportunities for those with an interest in providing those services.

How to Use This Book

The first edition of this book came out just as there was a renewed interest in butchery in the United
States. It was well received by a large audience, and the popularity of different topics and sections within
it resulted in several more books that expanded upon specific subjects. (These include The Hunter’s
Guide to Butchering, Smoking, and Curing Wild Game and Fish; The Complete Book of Jerky: How to
Process, Prepare, and Dry Beef, Venison, Turkey, Fish, and More; and The Complete Book of Pork
Butchering, Smoking, Curing, Sausage Making, and Cooking.)
The purpose of this revised edition remains the same as the original volume: to provide the reader
with accurate and useful information on all aspects of butchering, from slaughtering to processing to the
preservation of meat. In these pages, you will find all the fundamental processes involved with safely
handling beef, pigs, sheep, and wild game. Detailed step-by-step instructions—from securing an animal to
deconstructing the carcass—will allow you to safely and humanely transform a carcass to a family meal.
Both domestically raised animals and wild game are explained. Different meat cuts are discussed in each
section, and other products, such as sausages, receive attention too. The recipes are included as examples
and represent only a fraction of what you can do with each animal.
Many readers of the original edition wanted more information on smoking and preserving their meat.
This makes sense, as with whole-animal butchering, you are often faced with many more pounds of meat
than you can reasonably eat fresh—or sometimes even freeze. To that end, this book contains an expanded
chapter on smoking and curing, nearly triple the size of the original chapter.
It is difficult to envision our society reverting back to a hunter-gatherer system, regardless of the
publicity and support it receives in some circles. There simply is not enough land, space, or wild game
available to sustain such a dynamic. Yet butchering and processing your own meat does not need to be the
sole province of rural landowners, meat markets, or food conglomerates either. If you are interested in
making your own meat products, you can do so with a little ingenuity, the right resources, and a deliberate
plan of action. The information in this book will set you on the path to providing meat safely for yourself,
your family, or even potential customers.
The US Department of Agriculture reported its 2015 estimate of meat consumed in the United States, which is shown in the chart above. It is
based on a per capita consumption of 210.8 pounds of poultry and livestock.
It does not require owning a large acreage to raise meat animals. Small pastures of one to two acres would be sufficient to raise several
meat goats or sheep for home use.

Geese, ducks, and poultry are among the fowl that can provide a distinctive meal for special occasions. Small in size, they require less feeding
than large animals and reach target butchering weights in short time periods.
Heritage beef breeds, such as the Scottish Highland, can be grown for home use. Different species and breeds offer different carcass
characteristics and also have different habitat adaptabilities. You should study which ones may suit your situation best.

Ring-necked pheasants are one type of wild game bird that can be used for meat dishes. Game birds are regulated compared to domestically
raised fowl, which are not. You should check state rules and regulations before hunting.
 Chapter 1

MUSCLES ARE MEAT

I n the past, the internal organs of animals were a highly prized part of the carcass. Although many are
still used today in a variety of food, pharmaceutical, and health care applications, their value has become
secondary to that of the muscles. The decrease in selection choices has resulted from three major changes
in our society, namely cultural conditioning, industrial urbanization, and the difficulty in domesticating
some wild species and/or their supply.
Cultural conditioning resulted from a lack of variation in available food choices, particularly from
wild game. What was familiar and more readily available became the norm of what was eaten, moving
away from traditional foods. The movement of rural residents to urban centers during the industrialization
period of this country resulted in having to purchase meat from a local market rather than procuring it
from your own efforts in raising animals. Some wild species, such as bison, elk, and antelope, were
difficult, if not impossible, to domesticate or procure, resulting in fewer being used for meat purposes.
This evolution of eating preferences or choices has not gone unnoticed. In 1997, the World Health
Organization (WHO) issued a report that stated that affluent populations habitually consume a diet that
was unknown to the human species a mere ten generations ago.
Beef carcasses can reach and exceed seven f eet in lengt h af t er hanging and pork carcasses f ive f eet . If you hang t hem f or aging,
t hey must not t ouch t he f loor or ground t o avoid cont aminat ion.

Today’s Meat Animals

The animals we use in our diets are either herbivores, such as cattle and sheep, or more or less
omnivores, such as pigs and chickens. The texture of the muscles and the fats found in the bodies of
different species are largely reflective of their diet. Genetic factors are also involved. Grass-fed domestic
animals are the only group that has a fat profile that is similar to wild herbivores. Supplements of grains
or compounded feeds that are fed to domestic animals will change this fat profile in their bodies to reflect
the fats found in those plants. For example, pigs are often fed high grain and soybean diets to produce
rapid growth. This produces fat profiles that are typically high in oleic acids and lower in palmitic acids.
Because pigs are omnivores, their muscle fat reflects the kinds of fat they are fed. Cattle, however, are
natural grass eaters if given the opportunity, and their body fat profile will reflect the influence of plant
nutrients.

Marbling refers to the white specks of fat within a muscle and seam fat is the streaks that surround the muscle. Fat amounts may vary
between animals of the same species due to diet and genetics. Large amounts of fat should be trimmed off the carcass but can be useful for
rendering into lard or mixed with wild game to add texture and flavor to sausages.

Consumers are becoming more aware of differences in fat composition, production, and their effects
on human health. Grain-fed cattle, because of their high corn and soybean diets, have a higher omega-6
and lower omega-3 fat profile than their counterparts that are grass-fed. The latter typically have 7
percent of omega-3; wild animals can reach a level of about 4 percent. However, saturated fats have a
purpose. They aid in meats retaining their quality because they are less subject to oxidation. Highly
unsaturated fats are soft and oily and may lower the quality of pork and poultry carcasses because they are
more readily oxidized and may reduce shelf life. Oxidation produces off-flavors.
A result of these differences can be seen in the appearance of the cuts. Those from a high fat diet, such
as corn and soybeans, will typically have more fat in the body of the carcass as well as in the muscling,
commonly referred to as marbling. The white streaks interlaced in different cuts will change the texture of
the muscle.
Grass-fed beef has a higher antioxidant capacity than feedlot beef. This means grass-fed meat cuts
retain their red color longer without artificial manipulation.
What does this mean for you? If you are purchasing an animal to butcher yourself, it may provide
further information to make a more informed choice and alert you to what you may encounter in cutting up
a carcass.
Muscle Structure and Function
In its basic sense, the term muscle refers to numerous bundles of cells and fibers that can be contracted
and expanded to produce bodily movements. There are three major types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscles. Skeletal muscles are linked to bone by the bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons.
Skeletal muscles have several components known as muscle fibers that bundle together in various
configurations to give them a striated appearance. These fibers form the basic mechanism that controls
muscle contraction.
In meat, skeletal muscles are the most important of the three types because of quantity and economic
value. These muscles support the body and initiate movement. Smooth muscles are commonly found in
organs or the tubular system, such as the digestive tract, reproductive organs, circulatory system, and
urinary tract. The cardiac muscle is found in the heart.
Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscles in the body, meaning they are actively controlled by
the animal’s intentions. Smooth and cardiac muscles are involuntary, meaning their movements are
controlled by their own imprinted genetic nature rather than intentional.
A dense connective tissue sheath called the epimysium covers the skeletal muscles. Each of these
muscles is divided into sections, called bundles, by a thick connective tissue layer called the perimysium.
Clusters of fat cells, small blood vessels, and nerve bundles are found in this layer. The fat cells appear
white (called marbling). These fat deposits give the muscle flavor and moisture when cooked.
Oxidation, coupled with surface drying (dehydration of the proteins), causes a change in meat color because of the interaction between
oxygen and myoglobin. Myoglobin is a meat color pigment that gives the meat its red color. When it binds with oxygen molecules, the color
deepens. The longer muscles are exposed to air during the aging process, the more likely a change in surface color. You can cover exposed
muscle with plastic wrapping to minimize its effects, or you can slice off affected portions.
Well-grown lambs have a good layer of fat covering many of their prime cuts and in areas between the muscles. Most of the portions of fat
around the exterior part of the cuts should be trimmed.
Feedlot cattle are raised in close confinement to utilize labor and facilities to the maximum advantage. The animal’s diet is formulated to
provide rapid growth in the minimum amount of time to reach target market weights.

The purpose and reflex action of different muscle groups attached in different areas of the skeletal
system ultimately determines their texture as well as their economic value. Knowing their location and
value will give you a better understanding of why some meat cuts are easier to cook or have more flavor
than others.
Not all the muscles are the same. This means that their basic makeup—the muscle fibers—is different
too. Some muscles contract rapidly while others contract more slowly. Typically, the muscles closest to
the bones have higher proportions of red or slow fibers, giving them a darker red appearance, such as
seen in the cut face of a fresh ham.
Within the muscle cells are pigment proteins. The differences in these proteins are responsible for
variations in color between beef and pork, where beef is darker, or between a chicken leg and chicken
breast.
Some producers raise animals on pasture. They may or may not include supplemental grain to their diets with the grasses. It generally takes
more time to raise animals to market weight if exclusively raised on grass, but this will have some effect on their fat profile when compared
to grain-fed animals.

Older animals typically yield meat cuts that tend to be less tender and will not be cut or chewed easily
as younger animals. It is referred to as being “tough.” One major factor affecting this condition is
collagen, the single most abundant protein found in mammals. It is present in all tissues, with the highest
concentrations in bone, skin, tendons, cartilage, and muscle.
Collagen primarily functions to provide strength and support to muscles and acts in the case of skin as
a barrier to keep foreign materials out. Collagen also changes with age, leading to less tender cuts in
older animals. Muscles whose primary purpose is to support structures, such as front and rear legs,
typically have high connective tissue contents, while the loin and back areas have less, making these cuts
the more desirable and higher in economic value. The best way to break down collagen is with moist-heat
cooking methods.
There is also yellow-colored connective tissue that is found in carcasses called backstrap. This is a
large collective strip of elastin, which is also found in arterial walls and gives elasticity to those tissues.
Strips of elastin or backstrap cannot be broken apart or altered in form with moist-heat cooking and is
usually discarded. Muscle tissue contains only very small amounts of elastin, making it highly
consumable.
The amount and type of meat pigments in proteins differ between species. Beef, having more meat color pigment, is darker in color than meat
from pigs. Both are darker in color than meat from chickens, ducks, and other fowl. Different muscles within the same cut can also have
different amounts of pigment, resulting in color variation.

Converting Muscle to Meat

Changes happen within the muscles of an animal after it is slaughtered or harvested. Some life processes
stop almost immediately. Other life processes gradually cease over a slightly longer, but finite, time
period.
Although other dramatic changes occur initially, such as the loss of brain activity, heart action, lung
function, blood transport, digestive action, and mobility, the changes occurring within the muscles can
ultimately affect the eating quality of the meat.
Initially, when an animal is killed or dies in other circumstances, the muscle pH gradually drops. This
results because the animal’s glycogen reserves within the muscle are depleted and they are converted to
lactic acid. Oxygen is no longer available to the muscle cells after the animal is bled, causing a lactic
acid buildup and a subsequent drop in pH.
With the loss of certain muscle reserves such as creatine phosphates, which help in muscle movements,
the muscle filaments can no longer slide over one another and the muscle becomes still and rigid,
resulting in a condition known as rigor mortis.
Several factors influence the amount of time for the muscle to reach its final pH level. These include
the species, cooling rate, and the extent of the animal’s struggle at the time of death. Beef and lamb
muscles take longer to reach their final pH than those of a pig. Cooling affects the time because
metabolism is slowed when the carcass is subjected to lower temperatures. Finally, the animals’ activity
level immediately prior to the killing will affect the pH; less activity will prolong the period of pH
decline.
During the period after the slaughter or harvest, changes also occur in the muscle proteins as they begin
to break down. This generally occurs during the cool storage period and is referred to as “aging” and
results in increased meat tenderness. This process of protein fracturing will continue for one to two
weeks, after which there is little appreciable increase in tenderness.

Meat Quality Challenges

For generations, people butchering animals have known the importance of harvesting healthy animals that
have not been made excitable or stressed immediately prior to slaughter. If an animal undergoes vigorous
stress or exercise before harvest, the glycogen content within the muscles may drop dramatically. This can
result in a higher pH remaining in the muscles, causing the meat to become dark, firm, and dry—
effectively reducing the tenderness and quality.
High pH meat typically is dark in color, believed to be the result of a greater water-holding capacity,
which causes muscle fibers to swell. The meat from such animals generally has a reduced shelf life
because a higher pH is more likely to accommodate bacterial growth.
A second quality problem can result because of the rate of pH decline. If the muscle pH drops too
rapidly after killing, due to the muscle temperature being too high, it can become pale and soft. This
results in a soft, mushy texture, a pale color, and the muscle lacking the ability to hold moisture. This
condition typically results from high stress situations but also, in the case of some pigs, can be a
hereditary stress condition resulting from porcine stress syndrome (PSS). The muscle temperature can be
affected by animal excitement initiating a “fright or flight” response, further stimulating nervousness and
sweating.
While there are meat quality issues associated with harvest and post-harvest handling of carcasses,
quality and food safety issues can affect animals at pre-harvest. These include animal health, pregnancy,
injury and bruising, and genetic influences. Anyone performing a harvest for home use or for sale should
be aware of these factors. Recognizing unhealthy or unthrifty animals can help avoid subsequent meat
quality problems. Common ailments can affect the quality, value, and wholesomeness of a carcass. If you
are unsure about the health of an animal to be harvested for your own use, ask someone who is
knowledgeable or consult a veterinarian.
Animals that have received therapeutic protocols, such as injections of antibiotics or hormones, are
required to be withheld from the human food chain for a specific period of time, depending on what is
administered. It is extremely important to understand and abide by any withdrawal times associated with
antibiotic use, and it is illegal to send any animal to market prior to the expiration of the specified
withdrawal period.
Studing the pig´s anatomy before slaughter and butchering will help you understand the internal organ placement within the body cavity. This
will be useful, particularly when butchering a pig for the first time.

A beef animal has a much larger body structure than a pig, lamb, or most wild game animals. This drawing identifies areas for helping handle
the carcass after it has been put down and the location of the internal organs in relation to the skeletal structure.

Avoid harvesting a pregnant animal, particularly one in the last trimester. This period is characterized
by an increase in the hormonal level, including oxytocin and estrogen. These may affect the entire animal
and not simply specific parts. Also, the body temperature of a pregnant female may elevate slightly during
this period prior to or after parturition. However, once her body temperature returns to normal and
stabilizes at about 101 degrees Fahrenheit, in the case of a beef cow, you can proceed with a harvest.
Similar conditions are found in other species, so you will need to apply the same logic to whatever
female animal you will be using for meat.
Animals that are healthy but have been injured because of an accident, such as a broken leg or pelvis,
may be used for harvest but preferably as soon as possible. An injured animal easily becomes nervous or
agitated, especially if it cannot move about as it was generally accustomed to doing. Pain from an injury
may also influence its behavior. Although pain may influence the animal’s movements or lack of them, it
does not influence the quality of the meat by itself; it becomes a secondary contributor to meat quality. If
an animal dies due to some nonviral condition such as bloat, where the gas formed in the digestive system
has no way to escape and slowly builds pressure against the lungs to the point where they cease to
function, or from a heart puncture, they can be used for meat, providing a knowledgeable person is present
to immediately cut the throat and bleed the animal. Under no circumstances should a dead or diseased
animal be used for human food.
Bruising is another condition that can affect meat quality. Bruises result from the hemorrhaging of
blood vessels under the hide of the animal. You should not use any bruised meat for food. Most bruises
occur during the loading and unloading of animals to transport them to the point of harvest. In cattle, the
major sites for potential bruising are in the loin and sirloin area, ribs, and shoulders. In swine, the highest
percentage of bruising occurs in the ham, shoulders, and loin. Sheep experience the highest percentage of
bruising in the legs and loin due to grabbing them by the wool or catching them by the hind leg.

Factors Affecting Meat Safety

Other factors that can affect meat quality include toxins, bacteria, viruses, and temperature, time, and
moisture. For many years, it was thought that the muscle of an animal was sterile if it had not been injured,
cut into, or bruised. In recent years, however, researchers have found viable bacteria within muscle
tissue. This means that when you harvest an animal, whether domestic or wild, extreme care must be taken
to prevent the introduction of foreign bodies into the carcass through your actions. This care begins with
the knives you use to sever the jugular vein at the beginning of the slaughtering process and continues until
the cuts have been packaged, sealed, and stored—or the meat is immediately cooked for use. Sanitation is
extremely important and is discussed in greater detail elsewhere in this book.
Preventing and retarding the development of harmful microorganisms should be your primary objective
in harvesting your animal or in home processing any meat products. Consuming microorganisms that have
grown and propagated in meat can cause illness or even death. This concern should not be taken lightly.
When health problems arise related to eating meat, it is generally a result of intoxication or infection.
Intoxication occurs when the microbe produces a toxin that is subsequently eaten by a human and sickness
results. Infection occurs when an organism is eaten by a human, then grows and disrupts the normal
functions of the body, such as salmonella and listeria.
There are several types of toxins, including exotoxins and endotoxins. Exotoxins are located outside
the bacterial cell and are composed of proteins that can be destroyed by heat through cooking. Exotoxins
are among the most poisonous substances known to humans. These include Clostridium botulinum, which
causes tetanus and botulism poisoning.
Endotoxins attach to the outer membranes of cells but are not released unless the cell is disrupted.
These are complex fat and carbohydrate molecules, such as Staphylococcus aureus, that are not destroyed
by heat.
 Bacteria are the most common and important microorganisms that can grow on meat. Not all bacteria
are bad, however, as the human body may carry as many as 150 different kinds of bacteria on it.
Molds and yeasts are fungi that can affect meat quality, although their effect is far less significant or
life threatening than toxins or bacteria. Molds typically cause spoilage in grains, cereals, flour, and nuts
that have low moisture content and in fruits that have a low pH. Yeasts are generally involved where a
food product contains high amounts of sugar. Yeasts that affect meat are generally not a problem because
of the low sugar or carbohydrate content of muscle.
Viruses, while having the potential to cause food diseases, generally only affect raw or uncooked
shellfish. Viruses are inert and unable to multiply outside a host cell.
There are a few parasites that you should be aware of that may cause problems in meat. A parasite
infection will occur in the live animal before it occurs in a human. There are three parasites that are of
major concern to humans: Trichinella spiralis, Toxoplasma gondii, and Anisakis marina. Trichinosis has
long been identified as a parasite that can live in swine muscle and be transferred to humans through raw
or uncooked pork. Toxoplasma is a small protozoan that occurs throughout the world and has been
observed in a wide range of birds and mammals. Anisakis is a roundworm parasite found only in fish.
Using and maintaining adequate or recommended cooking temperatures and time will destroy parasites.

Temperature and Time Effects on Meat Safety

Mismanagement of temperature is one of the most common reasons for outbreaks of food-borne diseases.
This is closely followed by the time factor at a critical temperature where the correct temperature is
either used too late or for too short a period.
Meat can generally be kept safe from harmful bacteria if stored under 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Cooking
prevents most microorganisms from growing but does not kill them, although some parasites can be killed
if kept in a frozen state for various lengths of time. However, most microorganisms are merely dormant
and can revive when thawed. If meat is thawed from a frozen state, it should be used as soon as possible
and not refrozen.
To kill microorganisms with heat, you must maintain a recommended temperature for a minimum
period of time. You will damage or kill microorganisms more effectively by reaching a given temperature
and holding it for a period of time rather than reaching a higher temperature but for a shorter period.
Meat can be kept safe when it is hot or cold, but not in between. If meat is being cooked, it should pass
between the temperatures of 40 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit in four hours or less. If it is being cooled, it
should pass from 140 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit within the same amount of time.
Most, but not all, microorganisms are killed at 140 degrees Fahrenheit. While the outside of a piece of
meat may have become contaminated during your processing, the interior can be considered sterile, or
nearly so, unless it has been cut into. When a piece of meat is cooked by conventional methods, except for
by using a microwave oven, the outside cooks first and reaches a higher end temperature than the inside.
Recent recommendations state that meat should be cooked to 160 degrees Fahrenheit because some
microorganisms can still survive a 140-degree temperature. Poultry meat is more alkaline and should be
cooked to 180 degrees Fahrenheit, and if red meat is to be reheated, it should reach 165 degrees for
optimum safety. If you are grinding meat, be aware that it can become contaminated more easily than
whole cuts because more of the meat particle surface areas are exposed and more processing and
handling steps are involved.
Moisture in meat is essential for palatability but is also a medium for microbial growth. The level of
moisture in fresh meat is high enough to provide spoilage organisms with an ideal environment to grow if
unchecked. Research indicates that moisture levels in meat of at least 18 percent allows molds to grow.
Drying meat through a smoking process typically eliminates moisture concerns.
Microbes Affecting Meat Quality
Microbe T ypical Cause Ef f ect Control
Grows best in nonacid f oods, Killed by pasteurization. Avoid
Insulation f rom 3 to 36 hours.
transf erred f rom f arm animals cross contamination f rom raw
Salmonella Digestive upsets. Symptoms
and animal products to meat to cooked f ood or f ood
may last 1 to 7 days.
humans. eaten raw.
Severe abdominal illness;
Improper harvest methods,
watery, bloody diarrhea;
unsanitary handling of meat, Destroyed by internal
Escherichia coli (E. coli) vomiting. Can af f ect kidney
improper cooking, f ecal temperatures of 160ºF.
f unction and central nervous
contamination.
system.
Avoid cross contamination
Typically f ound in raw chicken Diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
between raw and cooked
C. jejuni because of high body nausea symptoms last 2 to 3
meat. Use good hygiene.
temperature and pH. days.
Destroyed by pasteurization.
Avoid raw milk products in
Most vulnerable are inf ants, meat recipes. Use good
chronically ill, elderly, and sanitation while processing
Grows in damp areas, sewage,
Listeria pregnant women. Can cause meat. Avoid cross
sludge; can survive f reezing.
meningitis, encephalitis, or contamination of raw and
abscession. cooked f oods. Avoid
postcooking contamination.

Oxygen is needed for any living animal to survive but is not a welcome agent when processing meat.
Oxygen is needed for aerobic microbes to grow. These include yeasts, molds, and many bacteria. Those
that cannot grow when oxygen is present are called anaerobic. This group of microbes can be deadly
because they include clostridium, which produces a toxin, and a group called putrifiers, which degrade
proteins and produce foul-smelling gases. Preventing the growth of anaerobic microbes is essential if part
of your food preservation plans includes canning.
Soon after an animal is harvested, the muscle undergoes a gradual change in pH, declining from about
7.0 to 5.5. This decline results from a loss of glycogen held within the muscle and its conversion to lactic
acid. The degree of acidity or alkalinity (pH) will influence the growth of microorganisms. Most will
thrive at a point that is nearly neutral—a pH of 7.0—than at any other level above or below. Although
meat pH ranges from about 4.8 to 6.8, microorganisms generally grow slower at a pH of 5.0 or below.
This acidity level helps preserve many sausages and acts as a flavor enhancer. Acidity levels are not a
concern unless there is a long delay in processing the carcass at room temperatures.
A whole carcass has the minimum amount of exposed surface area. As large cuts are made, more area
is exposed. When it is cut into smaller pieces, still more area is exposed. Finally, if the meat is ground, it
exposes the most area for possible contamination. Simply put, the more meat is processed, the more it
may be exposed to microorganisms. Using clean, sanitary equipment and clean table surfaces and keeping
work area temperatures low while working as quickly as possible will help reduce microbial activity.

Increased Awareness for Food Safety

Understanding the factors affecting meat quality is not intended to discourage those who want to process
their own meat. Rather, it is meant to increase your awareness to the potential for problems resulting from
mishandling or inadequately processing your food products.
Humans have been safely processing meat for their families for generations because they understood
the basic principles to preserve meat products properly. You can also learn these principles by studying
and understanding where problems could occur and take the necessary precautions and steps to avoid
them.

The Meat We Eat

A common vocabulary relating to the different cuts of meat is helpful to avoid confusion whether you are
purchasing the cuts from market, offering cuts for sale, providing a butchering and cutting service for your
customers, or simply eating at a restaurant that lists various cuts on their menu. Having this commonality
of language greatly reduces mistakes and specifically identifies the exact location the cuts are derived
from on the body of the animal.
A standardized system of naming wholesale or primal cuts for each species has been developed by the
meat industry in the United States. This standardization provides for uniform sale and purchase of meat
products as well as clarifies the terminology relating to them. Meat labeling practices adhere to these
standards as a way to avoid misunderstanding and misrepresentation and to allow for the fair trade of
meat cuts.

Wholesale Cuts
Wholesale cuts are large subdivisions of the carcass that are traded in volume. Wholesale cuts are
sometimes referred to as primal cuts because they are the first large portion of the carcass to be
fabricated. Fabrication is the industry term for cutting the whole carcass into smaller, more manageable,
and precise pieces. This breaking down of large portions into smaller ones allows for the sale of the more
valuable cuts separate from the rest of the carcass. The fabrication process transforms a heavy, unwieldy,
oddly shaped carcass into pieces that can be packaged and neatly stacked in freezers. These terms
typically are used referring to domestic animals that are slaughtered but can be used interchangeably with
wild game of the same general species. For instance, terms used for beef cattle, pigs, sheep, and poultry
can also be applied to bison, rabbits, pheasants, and others.
Wholesale or primal cuts separate the carcass into three general divisions: the legs that make up the
large muscles used for locomotion; the back and loin, which are composed of large support muscle
systems; and the thinner body walls.
From these sections, the subprimal cuts or subdivisions are made. These can be further broken down
into smaller pieces called retail cuts. They are often sold to consumers in a form that is ready to cook or
eat.


Shoulder Arm Cuts

Arm Bone

Shoulder Blade Cuts

(Cross Sections of Blade
Bone) Blade Bone (near rib)
Blade Bone (center cuts)
Blade Bone (near neck)

Rib Cuts

Backbone and Rib Bone

Short Loin Cuts

Backbone (T -Shape) T -Bone

Hip (Sirloin Cuts)

Flat Bone (Center cuts)
Pin Bone (near Short Loin)
Wedge Bone (near round)

Leg or Round Cuts

Leg or Round Bone

Breast or Brisket Cuts

Breast and Rib Bones

Bone shapes in meat cuts can help identify where they are derived from in the carcass. The following drawings illustrate the bone structures
for the seven retail meat cuts: arm, blade, rib, short loin, sirloin, leg or round, and breast or brisket. The shapes will be similar regardless of
species.

Seven Retail Cuts

If part of the bone is included in the cut, it is called a bone-in cut and can be classified into one of seven
types based on the muscle or bone shape and the size relative to it. These seven primary retail cuts
include the loin, rib, leg, arm, hip, blade, and belly or plate. Familiarizing yourself with them and
understanding their location on the animal or carcass will help you do a better job of cutting up the
carcass.
Loin and rib: Two of the seven retail cuts, the loin and rib, have an eye muscle that makes up part of
the back’s muscle structure. The loin lies in a length-wise direction on both sides of the spinal column and
is a major muscle component. Although it has use in support and movement, its location makes it less used
than other major muscle groups. Less use translates into a more tender muscle texture.
 The ribs are designed for the protection of the internal organs and to provide sufficient room to allow
them to expand and contract as the animal eats or fasts. Ribs are connected by small amounts of muscle
and connective tissue. However, their large percentage of bone to meat makes ribs less valuable as cuts
but very useful for specific, lower-value cuts and soup stock.
Legs and arm: The legs and arm cuts have a similar cross-section because of the round bones
involved. However, there is a difference in the leg muscle configuration at the top, bottom, eye, and
sirloin tip when compared to the arm cuts. Arm cuts are located in the front legs and contain more small
muscles arranged in a different pattern.
Hip and blade: The hip and blade are two different cuts that have flat or irregularly shaped bones. The
cuts from the hip are composed of a small number of fairly large, parallel muscles, while the blade cuts
have numerous small, nonparallel muscles, much like those found in the foreleg.
Belly or plate: The seventh type of cut is the belly or plate. This is easily recognized by the alternating
layers of fat, lean, and rib bones that make up the body wall and complete the enclosure of the internal
organs. The meat taken from belly or plate cuts includes bacon, spare ribs, and beef brisket.
Bones: From a butchering standpoint, bones have little market value. Bones from home processing are
often discarded or may be used as pet treats. However, from a culinary point of view, they can make
remarkable soup stocks. The center part of the larger round bones is hollow and filled with the marrow.
Bone marrow can have two different characteristics: either red or yellow. Yellow bone marrow is mostly
fat, while red bone marrow is partly a fat but is interlaced with a network of blood vessels, connective
tissue, and blood-forming cells. The proteins found in these cells can add to the nutritional value of
sauces, soups, and other dishes.
Color identification and size: The color of the meat can be used for identification of species from
which the cuts are derived. Beef cuts are typically large and have a cherry red color and a white, firm fat.
Pork cuts are more intermediate in size and tend to have a grayish pink color. Their fat is also the softest,
which makes it adaptable in making sausage and wild game cooking to prevent dryness. It is easy to
understand why lamb cuts are small; they come from a much smaller animal than beef or pigs. In general,
the larger the animal, the larger the cuts will be. The size of the cuts will decrease in relation to the
decreasing size of the animal being butchered. Although there are cuts available in squirrels, rabbits, and
other small domestic or game animals, there will only be very small pieces that can be used.
 Chapter 2

KNIVES AND OTHER EQUIPMENT

Y ou will achieve a more satisfactory result in your butchering process if you use equipment and knives
that are sturdy, sharp, and appropriate for the task applied. The use of proper equipment and knives as
well as the safety issues surrounding butchering need to be taken seriously. Injuries resulting from
mishandling animals, using inappropriate equipment for the task, and not properly handling knives can be
avoided by studying and understanding the importance of each.

Four dif f erent knives can accomplish most t asks involved in slaught ering and f abricat ion of animals f or home harvest . These
include, f rom t op t o bot t om, a 6-inch curved (f lexible) knif e, a 6-inch st raight (st if f ) knif e, an 8-inch breaking (st eak) knif e, and
a 10-inch breaking knif e.
A skinning knif e is slight ly more curved t han ot her knives and has a wider blade. It is used in making short , sweeping mot ions t o
separat e t he skin/hide f rom t he carcass. A hook is used t o pull t he hide away f rom t he carcass as it is being skinned t o minimize
cont aminat ion by f oreign mat erials and dirt y hands.
Meat saws are used t o cut t hrough bones or ot her areas of t he carcass t hat may be less accessible f or knif e use. Most meat saws
range f rom 12 t o 25 inches in blade lengt h.

Safety First
Personal safety for you and anyone working with you is of prime importance when handling live animals, slaughtering them, and cutting up
the carcasses. Being injured by live animals can have devastating consequences. Similarly, you can be injured by unstable or inappropriate
butchering equipment, whether it is being used for slaughter or for food processing. Knife injuries can occur quickly and unexpectedly and,
in severe cases, may be life threatening. Common sense, caution, and alertness to potential dangers will help avoid serious injury.
The most simple knife rules include the following:
• Always use a sharp knife when cutting meat.
• Never hide the knife under your arm or under a piece of meat.
• Keep knives visible.
• Always keep the knife point down.
• Always cut down toward the cutting surface and away from you.

A large animal carcass, such as beef, has considerable weight, and the equipment you use to suspend it
while working on it needs to be stable and strong enough so that it won’t tip, buckle, or break while in
use. Even smaller carcasses, such as deer and pigs, can have weights that challenge the equipment you
might have.
Any carcass that falls to the floor or onto the ground, whether large or small, will be difficult to lift if
no alternative method is available. Having to lift again a carcass that has fallen from its holding can cause
delays in processing the meat, which can lead to spoilage. Also, there is potential damage from bruising
of the muscles by the collapse or possible contamination of the carcass by dirt, manure, or any foreign
substances it comes in contact with.
Knives will be needed from the start of the butchering process until your last cut is made. The number
or style of knives you use may depend on the species or size of the carcass you are working with as well
as what you deem necessary to complete the work safely and satisfactorily. This may range from a small
hand knife to a large, sturdy butchering knife and a variety in between.
Different knives are available to make certain cuts easier and more precise while other, larger knives
have many advantages for cutting up larger pieces of the carcass. One simple rule is that sharp knives
always work best. However, they also carry safety concerns when using them.

Choosing Knives and Saws

An assortment of knives and saws used specifically for meat processing is available for home
slaughtering and butchering. You can buy most, if not all, of the equipment used in commercial or local
slaughterhouses. Purchase what you need at hardware stores, through companies on the Internet, or at
stores specializing in such equipment.
When butchering, have a minimum of three types of knives available: one for sticking or cutting the
throat, one for skinning, and one for eviscerating. The same holds true for cutting up the carcass and
muscles. You should have a knife for larger cuts, one for boning or trimming, and one for breaking or
cutting bones. You may also add to this list a saw specifically designed for use on meat.
You can purchase several knives for general use or even use knives you already have, depending on
their size, condition, and intended purpose. For small animals, you may not need or want large knives or
saws. You will need to use large knives and saws for big carcasses. You may want to have a separate
knife for each task or you may consolidate these tasks by using only two or three different knives.
Gather together all the knives you will need before you begin butchering. Once you begin the process,
you will need to work quickly and efficiently to get the animal from a live state to the freezer. Stopping to
find a specific knife that is not on hand will delay this process. Take an inventory of the knives on hand
and identify where they can be used during the butchering process.
Knives are typically available with wooden or plastic handles, have flexible or stiff blades, and come
in many sizes and shapes. Some meat processors prefer wooden-handle knives, but these should not be
cleaned in a dishwasher. Others prefer dishwasher-proof plastic handles. One disadvantage to these is
that they can become slippery unless dried prior to use. This problem can be mitigated by using knives
with handles that have a gritty finish, which allows increased safety when they become wet greasy.
Buy knives that are affordable, sharp, easy to maintain, and completely sanitary. Knives that are not
sharp pose a safety hazard by not allowing you to complete the task at hand efficiently; they can slip, and
more effort is required to pass the knife through the muscle or bone. If your knives are not easy to clean
and kept sanitary, they may harbor harmful microorganisms that can affect the quality of the meat and
possibly your health.
Identify the purposes of each knife before you begin butchering. Many knives can be interchangeable
with different tasks. Always use the right size knife for the right task.
Fillet knives are long and flexible with thin blades. They are useful when trimming around bones. They are a preferred knife when skinning and
cutting up fish. Fillet knives also can be used on small game animals.

For slaughtering, a sticking knife is used for cutting an animal’s throat and severing the jugular veins to
obtain a good bleed before butchering the carcass. A sticking knife is generally long, thin, and has a
double edge.
A boning knife has a long, straight edge for trimming and separating muscles from themselves and from
the bones they are attached to. The tip of a boning knife may be ridged or flexible, allowing it to easily
move around the bones. They usually range from 5 to 7 inches in length.
A trimming knife is a smaller, shorter version of a boning knife. It is useful for cleaning fat and tendon
from small cuts and cleaning up steaks, chicken breasts, or cutting away small pieces of muscle in places
that are difficult to reach.
A breaking knife is used to break down larger primal cuts into smaller pieces. It is essentially a longer
version of a boning knife and is thin and curves gently up to a sharp point. A breaking knife is very useful
for piercing and slicing and can be used to make primal and subprimal cuts on beef and deer.
Butcher knives are long and inflexible and are designed to allow piercing as well as cutting in a
smooth linear direction. They may have either a tapered or rounded tip.
A skinning knife is generally short with a dramatic curve to the blade, and it has a bulbous tip to help
the blade slide easily between meat and skin without damaging either when butchering. Those used for
beef are slightly more curved than the ones used for lamb or other small animals.
 Cleavers are the heaviest of all butcher knives. They have a thick square blade designed to crack and
split bone.
Fillet knives are long, thin, and flexible. A good fillet knife bends easily to let you cut very thin slices
of fish and meat with exact precision.
Meat saws are used to cut through bones or to sever portions of large carcasses into smaller, more
manageable pieces. Most meat saws are between 12 to 25 inches in length with a serrated blade. Blades
should be complete, and those that have developed rust spots or have chipped or missing teeth should not
be used. Any meat saw should be thoroughly washed and sanitized before use, paying particular attention
to the area where the handle attaches to the metal frame.

Folding Knives
Folding knives, as their name indicates, are those that have blades with joints that allow them to fold
over, securing the edge in a protective cover—the handle. Jack knives, Swiss Army knives, and camping
knives are some of the different folding knives available. They can have single or multiple blades.
Folding knives are often used during hunting because they have multiple uses, are easy and safe to
carry, and are sturdy enough to accomplish quick, precise cuts. Like larger knives, they also require
special care. You should keep the blades sharp and the knife clean.
Folding knives will have a locking device that keeps the blade from opening on its own. They also
have a pivot that is the rotation point that allows the blade to fold into the handle. Both the locking
mechanism and the pivot need to be kept clean and free of debris to prevent contamination of the meat.
Use a drop of light oil at the joint, or each joint in the case of multiple blades, to create a smooth blade
action while opening and closing it. As with other knives used for butchering, your folding knives should
be cleaned before and after each use.
Many folding knives come with leather pouches or sheaths. When not in use, you should store the knife
and leather sheath separately because leather will absorb moisture and can rust the blades. Also, there are
tanning salts and acids in leather that can rust or tarnish the steel. You can protect the leather sheaths and
keep them limber by using a leather preservative or mink oil.

Electric Knives
Electric knives can be used in place of standard knives. If using an electric knife, be sure it has the
appropriate blade attached for the task at hand. Electric knives may be easier to use to carve or fillet
different cuts of meat, particularly if handling heavy portions is a concern. Electric knives and blades will
need care and maintenance like other electric equipment and should be kept away from water sources.

Blade Considerations
Regardless of the different kinds of knives you use, you will want ones that have high-carbon steel blades;
usually most reliable ones are at about 0.5 percent carbon. If the blade is made of too little carbon, it will
be soft and the edge of the knife may bend over. If it is too high in carbon, it will generally be too hard
and will be more difficult to sharpen.
Many knives sold through commercial outlets today are made to hold their edge or their sharpness for
long periods of time and use. Older knives may not have those characteristics but may be very usable if
correctly sharpened. Even high quality knives will dull after a period of use and need sharpening. You
may have them sharpened by someone specializing in blades or you may sharpen them yourself.
Hunting knives include general-purpose types, such as a folding drop-point (top left) and a folding clip-point (at bottom). The tip of a clip-point
is more acute and curves up higher than that of a drop-point. Special-purpose types include a folding bird knife (top right), with a hook for
field-dressing birds. Creative Publishing international

A folding combination knife (top) with a blunt-tip blade used for slitting abdomens without puncturing intestines, a clip-point blade, and a saw
for cutting through breastbones and pelvic bones of big game is another special-purpose knife. A big-game skinning knife (bottom) whose
blade has a blunt tip to avoid punching holes in the hide is also useful in the field. Creative Publishing international

Sharpening Knives
There are three basic steps in sharpening knives: grinding, honing, and steeling. Each is a different
technique, although they may seem the same to most beginners, and each can be used depending on the
condition of the knife.

Grinding
Grinding gives the blade the thinness and will remove part of the blade. Because of this, you will need to
be cautious with any grinding so that you do not lose more of the blade than intended. Some knives need to
be ground before they can be honed or sharpened. Purchased knives will come with a properly beveled
blade.

Sharpening your knife before each use will make cutting up a carcass much easier. A sharpening and honing stone can be part of one unit, and
the process for each can be changed by turning the stone over.

Grinding produces a beveled or angled edge on the blade. In most cases, grinding is not used for
sharpening, only for creating a proper angle that can then be honed to sharpen it. One of the easiest ways
to grind an edge is to use a round stone that spins to grind the blade. These can be hand-turned, foot-
pedaled, or electric-driven while the knife is held stationary against the stone.
Some professional knife sharpeners advise against using a power-driven grinding wheel because of the
potential of creating too much heat from the friction of the wheel, causing it to burn the temper on the
blade. However, if sharpened slowly in steps, you can avoid most problems with heat generated from
wheels.
 The purpose of the grinding process is to make one side of the blade meet the other side while pushing
up a small curl of metal called a burr. If you stop grinding before the burr is formed, your knife will not be
as sharp as it could be. If you grind too much, you lose any burr. As you are grinding, always check both
sides of the blade all along its length. The burr tends to form quickly at the base of the blade but takes a
little longer at the tip. To have fully ground one side, you must feel a burr running all the way from the
heel of the blade near the handle to the tip.

Safety First: Steps for Grinding a Knife Blade

• Wet the grind wheel with oil.
• Hold the knife in one hand with blade at a 20-degree angle to the wheel; turn the wheel with the other hand, or pedal with feet; draw the
knife slowly across the moving wheel.
• Avoid grinding the blade farther back than the 1/4-inch bevel.

Honing
Honing sharpens the beveled edge. You will need a stone with a finer surface than a grinding stone. In
honing, the stone remains stationary. It is important to keep the honing stone from moving while applying
the blade pressure. Putting it in a wood base or attaching the stone to a table with clamps will help.

Steps to Hone a Knife Blade

• Wet the stone with oil or water and place
• securely on a flat surface.
• Hold the knife handle. Place the end of the knife blade nearest the handle near the edge of the stone closest to you.
• Tilt the blade so the bevel lies flat on the surface, making a 20-degree angle.
• Place your fingertips on the flat side of the blade near the back, unsharpened edge.
• Use your fingertips to apply the pressure on the blade.
• With a sweeping motion, draw the knife across the stone in one direction, then turn it and draw it in the opposite direction.
Keeping a round steel close at hand during the slaughter and fabrication will allow you to maintain the edge on your knife for easier cutting. It
can be suspended from your waist by a chain.

Steeling
After honing, you will need to steel the blade. Steeling makes the edge perfectly straight by removing any
burrs so that they do not roll over on themselves, which can cause tearing of meat when cutting. A steel
will realign the edge of the knife, forcing any rolled over spots back into line and making it useable again.
A quick steeling of your knife with a steel sharpener will keep the blade edge perfectly straight and in top condition for cutting. During a
butchering session steel your knife frequently. Hold the base of the blade against the steel at the angle at which it was originally sharpened.
Draw the knife toward you in an arc from base to tip. Repeat on other side. Alternate sides until the blade is sharp.

Knife steels come in a variety of sizes and shapes including round steels, oval steels, grooved steels,
and several others not typically used in homes. A coarse steel texture will create more tiny points of
contact with the edge of the blade, causing a more aggressive abrasion. You will need to be careful in not
applying too much pressure so that an uneven surface is created.
A round steel is generally 10 to 12 inches long and can be held in one hand or placed in a vertical
position with the handle up and the tip resting on a folded towel to keep it from slipping. By using this
position, you will be able to place the knife edge against the steel with the blade held perpendicular at a
90-degree angle. Rotate your wrist to reduce the angle by half—45 degrees—and then rotate it again by
half to about 22.5 degrees and then slightly more to a desired point at approximately 20 degrees. In
general, you want to steel at a slightly steeper angle than the edge bevel of the knife.
The best result of your steeling action occurs when you lock your wrist and stroke the knife from heel
to tip by moving your shoulder and slowly dropping your forearm. By locking your wrist and elbow, you
will keep a stable angle from top to bottom. This is the key to maintaining a consistent angle all the way
through the stroke. Standard steels do not remove metal, but only realign the cutting edge. One advantage
of this method is that you won’t have to apply much pressure to realign the edge. Steeling keeps the edge
straight and honing sharpens it.
With a properly sharpened knife you “cut” through the carcass rather than “push” through the meat,
which is often the case with dull knives. If you learn to sharpen knives correctly, it will save wear on
them later. If you are unsure of your ability to sharpen knives or prefer not to, there are professional
sharpening businesses that may be able to help you.
Keep your knives sharp, clean, and dry, and avoid storing them in places where they can get nicked and
damaged by other objects. Even small nicks or scratches can dull the sharpest knives.
 Testing a sharpened knife should be done with paper rather than your fingers. Avoid running your
finger across a newly sharpened edge to test it. A better and safer method is to cut a single piece of paper
while holding it loosely between two fingers. A suitably sharp knife will allow you to cut through the
paper with little motion.
Remember there is an inherent danger to handling, using, and sharpening knives. Knife safety,
particularly during sharpening, is a matter of common sense. If you go slowly, pay attention, and stay
focused, you should have little trouble. Always keep knives out of the reach of young children.

Knife and Saw Care

You should clean your knives before and after each use to keep them in the best condition and to promote
food safety. Use mild soapy water and clean by hand. A dishwasher’s hot temperatures may affect the
temper of the blade so it will not hold its edge later when sharpened. Also, the water jets in the
dishwasher can toss your knives about and cause nicks in the blades.
When cleaning knives, you should pay close attention to the area where the blade attaches to the
handle. This is the most likely area where meat or blood residue will remain after cutting and is an ideal
habitat for microorganisms to grow. A thorough washing before, after, and in between cutting will
maintain cleanliness.
Washing meat saws will require more attention because of the teeth on the blade. They can be cleaned
with mild soapy water like knives but should never be washed in a dishwasher. Pay close attention to
cleaning the teeth and the connecting joints where the blade attaches to the frame. Most meat saws have
the ability to be dismantled for washing.

Storing Knives
Knives can be useful for years if stored properly. Keep knives or meat saws in an area that is cool with
low humidity. Avoid storage areas with a high relative humidity or that have a great shift in temperature,
such as attics or basements that are not insulated or heated. Large variations in temperature and humidity
can cause condensation and moisture to come in contact with knives that are left exposed.
Using a silica gel or other drying agent will help keep knives dry if you live in a humid area. Although
tarnishing or oxidation is a normal part of high carbon steel knives and cannot be entirely avoided, using a
gel or drying agent helps protect the knife from rust. Its residue will appear as a blue-gray hue rather than
red rust tones. You can protect the blades by applying drops of any quality oil or silicon treatment with a
soft cotton cloth or by removing moisture with the cloth.
If your butchering knives are to be stored for long periods between use, you should check them
periodically for reddish spots that may show early signs of tarnish or oxidation—the initial rust stages. If
this is present, you should clean the blades. Stainless-steel blades are not rustproof, although most are rust
and stain resistant. You can remove any stains or tarnish by using a standard metal cleaner or polish.

Cutting Surfaces
The cutting surface will have a major impact on knife blades. Always use a cutting surface that will allow
you to get the most out of the knives’ sharpness. Cutting surfaces or cutting boards should be made of
material that is easy to clean and fairly soft. Natural wood or synthetic materials, such as soft
polyethylene, are good cutting surfaces. Avoid using glass, ceramic, metal, marble, or any other hard
surface material for cutting meat because these can have a damaging effect on knife blades and edges.
Cutting surfaces can provide an ideal area for cross contamination of food products, which is a major
food safety concern. Bacteria transferred from knives to cutting surfaces or cutting boards to other foods
can lead to food poisoning. Always clean and sanitize the surface you use for cutting meat before and after
each use.

Gloves and Aprons

Other items you should have include protective gloves and aprons. Gloves are one of the best protective
items you can use. A butcher glove is designed to be worn on the free hand from which you hold a knife.
They come in several sizes and are easy to wash. Some are made of thousands of braided stainless-steel
threads woven into the glove that resist cuts and are difficult to puncture. A heavy mesh glove is made of
solid stainless-steel rings that protect hands against cuts, slashes, and laceration hazards but may not
entirely stop punctures. Both types of gloves serve to reduce the chances for injury to hands and fingers.
Before and after each use, you should thoroughly clean, sanitize, and dry them.
A heavy mesh butcher’s cutting glove is worn on the off-knife-holding hand and is designed to protect your hands against cuts, slashes, and
punctures from your knives. Always wash and disinfect the glove before and after use and dry properly. Gloves of this type are sold in
different sizes and can be used on either hand.

Aprons made from leather, naugahyde, heavy canvas, or rubber can be a protection from injury or keep
your clothes from becoming soiled or bloody during the slaughtering process of large animals. An apron
will also keep you dry.
A heavy apron or abdominal protection made of material impenetrable from sharp knives is a good
safeguard. While they may restrict some leg movement, such aprons are an insurance against injury should
your knife slip or you accidentally draw it toward your body.

An abdominal apron is an essential barrier against accidental slippage of your knife. Their effectiveness in providing safety will outweigh any
inconvenience in wearing one. Fully outfitted, you will be ready for cutting up the carcass.
A rubber apron is easy to wash and will protect your clothing from splattering of blood and keep you dry when rinsing the carcass with water.
Using a barrel to catch the blood draining from the carcass will keep your work area clean. It will also help in disposing or composting the
blood. If you plan to keep the blood for sausage making, be sure the catch barrel or tub is thoroughly washed and sanitized, and free of any
rust or foreign matter, before being used.
 Chapter 3

BEEF, BISON, AND VEAL

B eef has been a diet staple and popular meat for millennia because of its availability, nutrition, and
volume derived from one carcass. Its versatility allows it to be included in a wide array of dishes made
from whole cuts, ground meat, and strips. Also, beef adapts well to different curing methods such as
smoking, canning, and pickling.
Concerns about dietary fats have directed attention to bison meat because of its leanness, or higher
ratio of muscle to fat when compared to conventionally raised, domesticated beef animals. This lower fat
level within the carcass and muscles is perceived as a more healthful alternative.
Veal is immature beef produced from calves weighing about 200 pounds. They are raised on diets,
often indirectly dictated by consumer tastes and expectations, to produce a specific color and texture. In
recent years, concern about their housing and feeding protocols has increased consumer awareness of
humane veal production. As a result, growing procedures have often been altered or changed to address
these concerns and minimize animal stress.
A 2005 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) report noted that worldwide consumption of
beef, bison, and veal accounts for about 23 percent of the total meat products consumed.
According t o a 2005 USDA report , worldwide consumpt ion of beef , bison, and veal account s f or about 23 percent of t he t ot al
meat product s consumed. Shutterstock/Joe Mercier
Select a healthy animal for home butchering, whether you raise or purchase it. Well-grown, healthy animals will yield the best carcasses both
in quality and quantity of meat.

Handling a Live Animal

While the process for handling a carcass is very much the same in each case for beef and dairy cattle or
bison (buffalo), it is the live animal that may pose a challenge. A 1,000-pound live animal can vary in
attitude and temperament. If it must be transported, it will need time to adjust to your surroundings before
you plan to butcher it.
Although a beef animal and a dairy cow may be more docile to work with, it is good to remember that
bison, no matter how domesticated they may be perceived to be, are still only one step from being in the
wild, and their attitude may demonstrate that. Any animal sensing a threat will react in unexpected ways.
If you choose to work with a live animal, be sure you have sturdy gating and pens, a plan to quickly and
safely dispatch it, and proper and safe equipment that is ready to use. Preparation for your harvest should
include a thorough knowledge of the carcass, sharp and clean knives, and meat cutting saws. You must
have adequate help available when needed.
You can eliminate the concerns about handling live animals by arranging the purchase of an animal and
have it killed at a local meat locker. Then you can retrieve the carcass to cut it up yourself if you have a
safe, sanitary, and refrigerated means to transport it.

Choosing an Animal
If you raise livestock, you will be aware of the care they need to reach a sufficient weight for harvest and
which animal appears to be the healthiest for your use. If you choose to purchase a live animal from a
livestock producer, make sure it is healthy in appearance. If you choose to dispatch it yourself, you will
need a place to keep it until you are ready.
You should withhold any feed from your animal for at least 24 hours before you choose to harvest it.
However, make certain it has full access to water so that it does not dehydrate. Cattle will lose about 3 to
4 percent of their weight if kept off feed for this period. This is called shrinkage, but it will eliminate
much of the rumen contents and intestinal fecal material so that you will not have to work with it later.
During this fasting period, it is very important to eliminate any excitement for the animal or unnecessary
handling. Rough handling or excitement causes the blood to be forced to the outermost capillaries from
which it will not drain as thoroughly as it would under normal heart action. This retained blood will
lower the quality of the meat.

Restraining large animals is the best way to assure a clean kill and allows you to properly place the compression gun or rifle used. A stunning
gun renders the animal unconsciousness so that it feels no further pain but allows for a more complete bleed because the heart is still
pumping.

Putting the Animal Down

If working with a live animal, you will be faced with the decision of how to put the animal down so that
you can begin the first of the harvesting processes: the sticking of the jugular vein to facilitate a bleeding
of the carcass. There are several ways to dispatch an animal, and none of them are for the faint of heart. A
misapplied stun or gunshot will result in a frantic animal that will be harder to approach for a second
attempt and also increase its heart rate, causing the capillary effect on the muscle and lowering the quality
of your carcass.

Stun or shoot the animal in the forehead, at a point where imaginary lines from each eye to the opposite horn root, or pole, crosses. If the
animal does not have horns, imagine where they would be if they did.
 It is best if you decide prior to harvest how you will put the animal down. A gunshot to the middle of
the forehead is used by some, but it is not an effective method to create a complete bleed as possible
because it causes the heart to stop beating. That makes for a slower and incomplete bleed.
You can use a power-activated compression gun if you have properly restrained the animal. They have
either long or short handles and can be a penetrating or nonpenetrating type. One advantage is that they are
portable and can be moved from one farm to another and from one position in your facility to another.
These advantages make them comfortable to use. However, if you are inexperienced in their use, you may
want to have someone who is skilled provide the service. The advantage of stunning the animal is that
while it loses consciousness, its heart keeps beating, aiding in the desired blood loss after sticking.
A major consideration about where you down the animal is how you will raise it off the floor or
platform where it is standing. The weight of the animal should be a consideration in how you approach
this procedure as well as the height of any ceiling present. You can use a shed or even lift the animal to an
open area if you have the machine to handle it properly. Remember that once the animal is stunned or shot,
you need to begin work to bleed it quickly after raising it in the air.
Your work should proceed in an area that is clean and free from dust, dirt, insects, and anything that
might contaminate the carcass once it’s opened. Dripping blood will quickly attract insects and flies that
can lay eggs in a very short period of time. For these reasons, it is best if the sticking and evisceration is
done in an enclosed area.
How you lift the animal depends on where you work. An electric winch that is firmly attached to a
ceiling will work in enclosed rooms. If you choose an outdoor area, you can use a tractor with a front end
lift or a skid loader that allows you to move it into place and has enough reach to keep the head from
touching the ground. A 1,000-pound animal carcass will increase in length—as much as 7 to 8 feet—as
the muscles relax and stretch as it is suspended.

Equipment Needed
Prior to stunning the animal, you should have all of your equipment, knives, and saws ready for immediate
use. The list can be extensive as you wish, but you should have several knives available, two meat saws,
a catch pan for the blood, a metal or plastic tub for the entrails, a pan for the liver, and any other items you
deem necessary. A metal rod with a spiral-looped end will help with separating the trachea and
esophagus. All of these items should be thoroughly washed and sanitized before they are used. A pail with
soapy water and one with clean warm water should be available to wash your hands, and towels and
cloths should also be handy.

Starting the Process

Once the animal is unconscious, you can wrap a chain around the end of the canon bone above each ankle.
These bones are strong and will allow you to raise the carcass. The standard method for sticking is to
make an incision, through the hide only, between the brisket and jaw. Peel the skin apart to expose the
carotid arteries and jugular vein and sever them with your knife. Catch the blood in a large tub, vat, or
barrel. The blood volume may vary between animals but will generally be between 6 to 8 percent of the
live weight. For a 1,000-pound animal, this will amount to about 60 to 80 pounds. A good stick will
remove about 50 percent of the total blood in the carcass, or in this case about 30 to 40 pounds will fall
into your catch pan, tub, or barrel.
The evisceration will be easier later if you separate the esophagus from the trachea while the carcass
is suspended. If they are still attached when you try to remove the entrails, they will not come free from
the thoracic cavity. It is easier to separate them at this point and makes your work less difficult later. After
the bleeding is completed, you can use a metal rod that has a handle on one end and several spiral loops
at the other. These loops should be threaded onto the esophagus just behind the Adam’s apple and forced
toward the rumen. An alternative method is used if the animal is laid on its back in a skinning cradle.
Then after the brisket is split, the esophagus is tied with string to seal it off and prevent any rumen
contents from spilling out into the carcass cavity.

To raise the animal off the ground or floor, tightly chain the hind legs together between the hock and feet and lift it with a winch or loader. Be
careful to avoid injury to yourself because once an animal is stunned, you may only have about 15 to 20 seconds to set the chains before the
involuntary body reflexes react to the stunning and the legs begin to kick and thrash. However, they will subside within the next few minutes.
After the animal is raised, sever the carotid arteries and jugular vein to begin the bleeding. Make a deep incision just in front of the brisket and
then down to the jaw. While you are waiting for the blood to completely drain, you can begin other steps.
It will be easier to remove the head if you make a cut at the atlas joint just behind the poll or top of the head. Skin the head before you finish
removing it. The atlas joint is the first neck bone and is connected to the axis joint (connected to the skull).

Removing the Head

The head should be one of the first parts removed because of its weight, to aid in bleeding, and to provide
easier access to the carcass. Begin by making a cut from the poll at the top of the head down the center of
the nose and down to the jaw. You can skin out one side of the face, peeling the skin back as you go,
before skinning out the other side. Grasp the bottom jaw with your free hand, pulling upwards so the poll
bends back and cut through the Adam’s apple and the atlas joint at the base of the skull. Be careful when
removing the head because a 1,000-pound animal will have a head that weighs about 25 pounds.
However, it is not all waste product because you can utilize the cheek meat and the tongue.
 In the past, some families made use of the brain. However, because of the development of links
between bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) found in infected cattle and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob
disease (CJD) in humans, you are strongly advised not to eat any part of the brain, spinal column, and
other parts of the nervous system. Discarding the head, except for the cheek meat and tongue, and any
remnants of the spinal cord is the safest route. Also, you should not feed the brain, spinal cord, blood, or
other nervous system parts to other livestock or chickens. This will reduce the potential for any
transference of infective agents from one animal to another.

Tie the esophagus shut tightly with a string before cutting through it when removing the head. Cut below the string to keep all the stomach
contents in the gastrointestinal tract. Without tying the esophagus closed, fecal material will spill throughout the inside body cavity and
contaminate it.
With the head skinned, finish cutting through the atlas joint with a breaking knife or saw. The face (cheek) muscles can be trimmed for sausage
and the tongue cut out to cook as a specialty dish.

Removing Legs
Your next step is to remove the legs to prevent possible contamination of the carcass with manure and dirt
dropped from the hooves. Depending on your harvesting facility configuration, you can do this while the
animal is suspended, or if you have a skinning cradle, you can lay the carcass out on its back and remove
the legs.
 Use the tip of your knife to open the skin, starting with a circle cut around the backside of the front leg
near the dewclaw. Cut a line up the foreshank until you reach the elbow and then continue across to the
midline of the brisket. Peel back the skin to expose the entire leg bone.

Remove the legs and feet first to minimize contamination of the carcass by manure or dirt attached to them. The front feet can be removed
while the animal is still suspended. Make your cut about 1 inch below the knee joint, which should allow you to break it once the tendons are
severed.
After the bleeding is finished and the head and front legs are removed, lower the carcass onto a sturdy trolley or platform called a cradle to
begin removing the hide and the hind legs.
Remove the hind feet and legs by making cuts similar to those made in the front legs, except you will need to avoid cutting the tendons so
they can be used to lift the carcass for evisceration. Make a cut at the joint located just below the hock. This will allow you to break the leg in
half to finish severing it. Then finish the other hind leg. A handsaw can also be used to remove the leg.

To remove the foreleg, cut across the shank to sever the tendon, which will release the tension on the
lower part of the leg. Next, cut through the flat joint, which is about 1 inch below the knee joint. If it is too
difficult to cut with your knife, use your meat saw. Then make the same cuts on the other foreshank.
The procedure for removing the hind legs is almost identical, except you will be making your initial
cut up the inside of the hind leg and across to a midline point directly below the anus. In removing the
hindshank, be sure to make your cut below the point where the tendon anchors itself to the joint. This will
allow you to hang the carcass by the tendons, which are strong enough to hold the weight. However, to do
this, the tendons must still be attached and intact.

Removing the Hide and Lifting the Carcass

To open the hide, you can start at either end, and this is easier if the carcass is on its back. Pull the hide
upward as you make a cut from the throat to the anus, following an imaginary midline of the carcass.
Pulling the hide toward you will prevent cutting into the carcass or through the abdominal wall. Next,
firmly grasp the hide and use your skinning knife to make long, smooth strokes to separate and peel the
skin from the carcass. Avoid unnecessary cuts in the hide if you plan to use it later for tanning.
After removing both sides of the hide as far as possible while the carcass is lying on its back, you can
open the brisket. To do this, use your knife to cut through the fat and muscle covering it. When the brisket
bone is exposed, you can use a saw to open it. You can separate the esophagus and trachea now unless
you did it earlier when the carcass was suspended.
 To lift the carcass, attach hooks to the hind leg tendons and lift so that the legs spread apart when
suspended. Raise the carcass to a level that is comfortable to work with and is clear of the floor space.
You can use clean chains or cables wrapped around the hind leg, but these will need to be tightly attached
so they do not slip off because of the carcass’s weight.
Because of the carcass’s length, it will be easier to split the pelvic bone, or the aitchbone, before it is
fully suspended and while still at a convenient height. It will also be easier to cut the anus loose, remove
the tail, and the hide from the rump and rear quarters before lifting it. If it is a male carcass, remove the
pizzle by cutting it loose from the belly and back to the pelvic junction where it originates.
Cut through the muscles and membranes at a center point in the pelvis to expose the aitchbone, using
your saw to cut it in half. Loosen the anus by cutting completely around it, severing all connecting tissue.
Be careful not to cut into the intestine. When the anus is loose, tightly tie the end shut with a clean cord or
clean heavy string, and let it slide into the body where it can be reached from the belly cavity later. You
can remove the pizzle with the anus. Remove the tail by severing the two joints where it attaches adjacent
the body and cut the skin completely around its base. You should now be able to pull out the tail.
If you prefer, you can begin to split the carcass while it is in this position by using a saw to cut part
way down the backbone; again, be careful not to cut into the intestines. Or you can raise the carcass until
it is fully suspended and begin removing the remaining hide and start the evisceration process.
Remove the remaining hide by starting at the top and running your skinning knife down along the
carcass. The weight of the hide will help separate it from the carcass. When finished, you can discard the
hide or save it for tanning.
Begin removing the hide by making a small midline incision from the brisket to the anus. Pull the skin up and away from the body to prevent
cutting into the muscle or through the abdominal wall. Rinse your knife several times to minimize contamination.
After removing as much of the hide as you can while the carcass is still on its back, open the brisket by cutting through the fat and muscle
with a butchering knife. When the brisket bone (sternum) is exposed, use a saw to open it and expose the thoracic cavity.
Above and Below: Once the brisket is opened, pull the esophagus and trachea out. Use a weasand rod, which is placed over the windpipe and
pulled through the looped rod. This separates the esophagus, which goes to the stomach, from the trachea, which connects to the lungs. You
can also strip these two apart using your hands. This separation is done so that the stomach will not be attached to the thoracic cavity during
evisceration, potentially causing the esophagus to tear and result in stomach content spillage.
The carcass can be lifted by inserting the points of the gambrel between the rear shank bone and the tendon attached to it. Before lifting it,
you can remove the tail by cutting through the joint closest to the last sacral vertebrae. The oxtail is often used for soup stock.

Evisceration
Place a tub beneath the carcass to catch the viscera after it is cut loose and to collect any blood still
draining from the carcass. To open the body cavity, start at the point where you cut through to the aitch
bone. Slice an opening large enough to insert your knife, handle first, into the cavity and position the blade
upward and outward. This allows you to protect the intestines and rumen with your fist. You do not want
the blade to cut into the intestine or rumen, as it will contaminate the carcass with fecal and rumen
materials. Since you’ve already opened the brisket, you should make one continuous cut from the top
down to the brisket opening.
 As you slice down the belly, part of the viscera will spill outward but will still be held by membranes
that hold the anus, intestines, liver, and bladder to the inside body cavity.

Several steps need to be taken before evisceration. First, make a circular cut around the anus to loosen the muscles from the pelvic bone.
When free, tightly tie it shut with a heavy string or cord so fecal content will not contaminate the interior of the body cavity.

With the belly completely open, sever the fat and membranes that hold the viscera. Start at the top and
cut the ureters that hold the kidneys. These can be removed later. You can loosen the liver with your hands
and then sever it from the backbone with your knife. Set it in a separate pan for later inspection.
As you loosen more connective membranes, the weight of the viscera will cause it to drop outward. As
it does, pull the loosened esophagus up through the diaphragm. This should allow everything to fall freely
into your collecting tub.
The diaphragm separates the abdomen from the lungs, heart, and esophagus. Some people like to leave
the diaphragm muscle intact and use it as hanging tenderloin. To remove the heart, lungs, and esophagus,
sever the membrane and pull them out and drop them into your tub.

The aitchbone can be split with a saw either before loosening the anus or after lifting the carcass. Once the carcass is suspended, you can
finish removing the hide.
Begin evisceration with a slow and careful cut below the aitchbone and down the midline to the brisket. Avoid cutting the intestines, stomach,
or internal organs with your blade. The weight of the viscera will draw it down and outward, and it can be placed in a tub once removed.
With the viscera removed, the diaphragm can be opened to remove the lungs, heart, and trachea. By separating the esophagus and trachea,
the esophagus was removed when the viscera fell out. Once the thoracic cavity is cleaned, you can split the carcass.

Splitting
With all the internal organs and intestines removed, you can now split the carcass in half. You can use
your handsaw or an electric meat saw. Begin at the top and slowly make your cut in the exact center of the
spine. Continue down until each half is free. Wash the carcass inside and out with cold or lukewarm water
to remove any remaining blood, tissue, or foreign material. It is now ready for chilling. When you have
finished with the carcass, inspect the liver and other internal organs to assess their health. A healthy-
looking liver that is pink- or salmon-colored and free of lesions or dark spots will suggest a healthy
animal. The liver and heart may be cooled and used later in sausage making. Generally, the intestines from
cattle are too large to be very useful as casings in making sausages.

You can split a carcass using a handsaw or an electric meat saw. Start at the aitch bone and carefully cut down the middle of the spine and
down the center of the spinal column. If done correctly, the backbone will be split in half, and the loin eye muscles will not be scored or cut
into.
After the carcass is split in halves, wash the interior and outside with cold water. Carefully inspect the carcass and remove any remaining hair,
skin, dirt, feces, blood, or other materials attached to the carcass before cooling and cutting it up. The carcass needs to be as clean as
possible to minimize microbial growth on its surface.

Chilling
Prior to any harvest, you should decide how you are going to chill the carcass to keep it from spoiling.
After the butchering process, internal temperatures of animal carcasses will generally range between 85
to 102 degrees Fahrenheit. This body heat must be removed during the initial chilling. Meat is a
perishable product and can spoil at temperatures of 40 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. It is important to chill
the carcass for at least 24 hours to prevent the meat from spoiling. Letting it remain in temperatures of 34
to 38 degrees Fahrenheit will make the process of cutting up the carcass much easier as well.
 Chilling a large carcass may not be feasible for a single animal, and you may have to make
arrangements with a local meat service with adequate cooling facilities. You may be able to convert a
large chest freezer into a cooler by setting its thermostat to a temperature just above freezing. This will
approximate or mimic a still air cooler at some meat services. Depending on the size of the carcass and
the cooling activity used, it may take up to 48 hours for the carcass to reach an internal temperature of 40
degrees Fahrenheit or lower. If you use a chest freezer to chill the carcass, make certain that there is space
between the two sides of the freezer so that the air will completely circulate around it for even cooling.
You can expect about a 2 to 3 percent loss in carcass weight during the chilling of a hot carcass
immediately after slaughter. Most of this is due to loss of water.

Aging
Aging is the process that allows the enzymes in meat to change structure in the collagen and muscle fibers
that will enhance the beef flavor and increase its tenderness. Seven to eleven days is typically required to
reach maximum flavor. Aging is useful for meats to be frozen but tends to decrease the shelf life of fresh
meat products. There will typically be some weight loss during the aging process due to dehydration of
the lean and fat. The length of time to age beef is mainly a personal preference. If unsure, it is probably
better to age it for a minimum of seven days as is typically done.
There are several considerations if you decide to age beef on your own. First, it should be done in
sanitary surroundings. Air should be allowed to circulate around the carcass sides completely, and avoid
freezing the carcass, as that will temporarily stop the aging process. Remember that as the length of the
aging time increases, so does the aged beef flavor, the tenderness, and the weight loss.

A beef anatomy can be broken down into imaginary cuts while still alive. Studying the drawing and comparing it to a live animal will lead to
better understanding of the structure when the slaughter process begins.

Cutting the Carcass

After the carcass has been aged, you can begin to break it down into smaller parts and pieces, which is
called fabrication. Each carcass can be divided into quarters: the two forequarters and two hindquarters.
Each forequarter consists of five major cuts: chuck, rib, brisket, plate, and shank. The hind-quarter
contains the most valuable retail cuts, including the round, loin, and flank.
 Begin by dividing the forequarter and hindquarter between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs. These can be
easily found by counting the exposed vertebrae rather than the individual ribs. From the rear, count off
seven and a half vertebrae, reaching a point midway between the twelfth and thirteenth rib. Use a saw to
cut through the vertebrae and a knife to cut through the rest.

Forequarter
After splitting one side in half, separate the rib and plate from the chuck, brisket, and shank of the
forequarter by making a cut between the fifth and sixth ribs, again using your saw to sever the vertebrae.
Separate the plate, which is the bottom portion of the ribs, by making a horizontal cut across them starting
about 10 inches below the rib eye muscle. There are two ends to this piece, one called the blade end
(nearest the scapula), and the other is the loin end because it is next to the loin in the hindquarter.
The next cut should be made about 3 inches from the loin eye so that it severs the bottom portion of the
ribs. Those rib ends may be made into short ribs. Next, with a saw remove the chine bones, which are
located at the top of the ribs. There is very little usable meat on this cut, but it can be used for soup stock.
There is a strip of flexible but solid connective tissue called the backstrap that is still attached to the
bottom portion of the ribs. This needs to be removed because it is not palatable, even with cooking.
Next, remove the blade bone and any cartilage with it. Finally, trim any outside fat off that is more than
1/4-inch thick. What is left is called a standing rib roast. The blade end will be larger than the loin end. If
you slice the rib roast into separate pieces, those from the loin end are called rib steaks, small end. Rib
steaks removed from the blade end are called rib steaks, large end. However, these will have more
accessory muscles and won’t be as palatable if used strictly as steaks. Another option is to remove the
ribs to make a boneless rib roast or boneless rib steaks.
The carcass side is divided into a forequarter and hindquarter by making a cut between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs, counting from the
anterior (front) end. Use a saw to cut through the bone, and finish the cut with a knife, splitting the side in half.
To separate the forequarter from the ribs, make a perpendicular cut to the shoulder between the fifth and sixth ribs. The shoulder, foreshank,
and brisket can be set aside until needed.
Trim fat from the bottom of the ribs and make lateral saw cuts about 1 1/2 half inches from the previous cut. These will be short ribs that can
be used for soup stock or boned out for ground beef or meat trimmings for sausages.
The ribs can be trimmed and the trim used for ground beef. It generally contains too much fat to be used in sausage making or soup stock.
Expect to trim and remove discolored and dried parts of the carcass, such as this piece of diaphragm attached to the plate. The longer a
carcass is held in a cooler before cutting, the more that will have to be removed and discarded.
The ribeye roll is a valuable cut and can be sliced into 1 or 2-inch portions for grilling or braising. It can also be left intact to make boneless
ribeye roasts for prime rib.

Chuck
After the rib and plate have been removed, the chuck, brisket, and shank remain. The chuck is the largest
cut on the beef animal, and the two (right and left) will account for about 25 percent of the carcass weight.
Although the chuck contains much connective tissue and is often made into roasts, there is a considerable
amount of lean trim, which can be used, and several minor cuts that can be used in various dishes.
One subprimal cut called the ribeye roll can be made when the ribs are cut out. If the rib bones are left on, bone-in rib roasts or rib steaks can
be made. By removing the bones, boneless ribeye roasts or steaks can be made. You should remove any parts of the shoulder blade that
remain if making boneless cuts.

To separate the chuck from the brisket and shank, use your knife to make a cut parallel to the top side
of the chuck to sever the upper part of the shoulder. Then use your saw to cut through the rest of the
shoulder bone.
As its name suggests, the square-cut chuck will have the shape of a square when you saw parallel to
the arm 3 to 5 inches on the lower side of the brisket. Arm and blade roasts and steaks are made from this
cut. The square-cut chuck will have fat seams even after trimming. It should be slowly cooked with moist
heat for best results.
The chuck will contain some neck and rib bones that can be trimmed out by sawing across the ribs near
the spine.
 There is a piece of connective tissue called the backstrap that was responsible for holding the animal’s
head erect when it was alive. It is located on the top part of the chuck and is readily recognizable by its
firm, white texture, which is impossible to make palatable. It is very similar to the backstrap you cut from
the ribs, and this can also be discarded.
The chuck can be cut into several pieces. First, make two or three blade roasts by sawing across the
section that had attached to the ribs. You will be cutting through the scapula or blade bone, which gives
the roasts their name. A small portion of the rib eye will be in these cuts. Cut them about 11/2-inch thick.
Then turn the chuck 90 degrees to make several cuts across the arm bone. These are called arm roasts.
They will be made of fewer, but larger, muscles than the blade roasts.
There is a natural seam you can cut through to remove the portion called the clod. This is typically made into roasts because it contains much
connective tissue and some neck and rib bones, which can be trimmed. Practice your cutting skills on the less-valued cuts, such as the plate
and brisket, before cutting the more valuable ones.
A strip of solid, flexible, yellowish-colored connective tissue is found in two prominent places in the carcass: the neck and the top of the back
or rib section. This is called backstrap and is shown here as a yellowish strip running above the ribs. It is inedible and unpalatable, and it should
be discarded. Trim these portions out of the rib section now and later when cutting up the neck.

After removing two or three arm roasts, you can remove several more blade roasts. As you remove
these, the spine of the scapula becomes evident with the shape of a number seven. When you arrive at the
neck, this can be left as a seven-bone roast, but remove the lymph node and surrounding fat deposits in it.
The neck roast can be trimmed and used for ground beef because it is a low-quality cut. It can also be cut
and used for soup stock.
The chuck roasts are fairly large pieces. To make them easier to work with and cook, cut them in half
before packaging. You may want to trim excess fat from all these cuts prior to packaging. There are
alternative methods for breaking down the chuck that you may want to study and become familiar with
before beginning. Books describing different methods typically may be obtained through universities or
agriculture extension offices.
The chuck roll is located anterior to the ribeye roll. It can be cut into steaks, roasts, or trimmings. Typically, roasts are greater than 1 1/2 in
thickness when cut and steaks are less than 1 1/2 inches in thickness. A band saw can quicky cut the chuck into arm and blade roasts.
Animals with less finish will have less seam fat and fat between and over the outside of the muscles. Cuts with more connective tissue in the
meat, such as shoulder roasts, will make them less palatable. A high degree of finish on the animal will also yield more kidney and pelvic fat.

Foreshank and Brisket

The foreshank and brisket are considered rough cuts but make up about one-quarter of the total carcass
weight, about half of which can be utilized. The plate of the forequarter is the lowest part of the ribs but
does not include part of the brisket. This will contain the diaphragm membrane, which should be trimmed.
The plate can be used for ground beef or cut for stew meat.
Separate the foreshank from the brisket by making a cut through the natural seam that separates them.
The brisket can be trimmed of all bone and used as a boneless brisket roast. Removing all the hard fat and
muscles on the inside of this cut will allow you to use it for making corned beef. You can crosscut the
foreshank or trim out the bone and use the lean meat for ground beef. Retain the bones for soup stock if
desired.
Above and Below: After the elbow is removed, there will be a choice to make. You can bore all the meat out or you can cut to make crosscut
shank or soup bones. These can be cut with a knife and meat saw, or with a band saw if available. The rest can be cut into a roast.
To remove the foreshank, make a parallel cut to it from the point of elbow 4 to 5 inches toward the ribs. Then cut through the arm bone and
look for the natural seam under the armpit that attaches to the foreshank and elbow, and cut off the elbow with your knife.
Four major cuts can be made from the hindquarter. These are the flank, round, shortloin, and sirloin. There are twelve ribs on the forequarter
but only one on the hindquarter, the thirteenth rib. Begin by removing the flank, as there is only one per side. The tough membrane covering it
can be pulled off and discarded.
The flank can be easily peeled out by hand. It should then be trimmed with a knife to remove any excess fat or connective tissue.
Remove the kidneys and kidney fat, but be careful not to damage the tenderloin area with your knife. You can leave the kidney fat intact after
slaughter to reduce the dehydration of the meat, which can cause browning or brown spots on the loin, lowering its sale value and
appearance. If you remove the kidney fat before cooling, don’t age the carcass as long as you normally would if it was left intact.

Hindquarter
The hindquarter contains three cuts that compose about half of the carcass weight: the round, loin, and
flank. As with other parts of the carcass, there are several different ways to break down the hindquarter
into cuts for your home use. The following is one method you can use.
One of the earliest cuts you should make is to remove the flank, which may be the easiest while the
carcass is still suspended. Begin your cut by following the contour of the round—the large muscle above
the hind leg, cutting toward the ribs but getting no closer than 6 inches to the loin. Use a saw to cut through
the thirteenth rib. After this cut, you can finish the separation of the flank with a knife.
The flank is used mainly for trim and can be made into ground beef or used for sausage. Flank steak
can be cut from each side. Because of the fat and connective tissue attached to it, you may as easily pull it
from the interior surface as to trim it out. The flank steak can be broiled, marinated, or cubed.
You will not need to remove the kidneys or pelvic fat if you did this earlier during harvest. If the
kidneys are still intact, you will need to remove them. They can be pulled free or trimmed but be careful
with a knife so that the tenderloin muscle that lies under the fat is not cut.
Remove the round by making an angle saw cut from the point immediately next to the aitchbone and through the fifth sacral vertebrae. Use
your knife to finish the cut to eliminate jagged edges on the round.

Round
To separate the round from the rest of the hindquarter, use a saw to begin your first cut at the rear of the
aitchbone or pelvic bone. Cut just behind it and parallel to it, then saw through the large bone in the thigh
called the femur. Removing the rump from the loin in this manner will provide you with two pieces
without having split the sirloin tip, which may happen with other cutting options.
The round is fairly easy to cut up. The name of each cut is derived from their position when the round
is laid out on a table. The top round is also called the inside round because in its natural position; it
would be on the interior side of the live animal. The outside round is also called the bottom round
because that is its position when it is placed on the table for cutting; it is on the bottom. The eye is located
between the bottom round and the top round. The sirloin tip is that portion that is in front of the femur, or
thigh bone, in the standing animal and is composed of four muscles. The top round and sirloin tip are more
tender than the bottom round and the eye.
There is a natural seam that separates the knuckle from the top and bottom rounds. Use a knife to make this separate. You should be able to
feel the femur bone as you cut along

If the round has been trimmed correctly, you will see the large round thigh bone (femur) positioned in
about the middle. Begin by turning the round over so that the natural seam that separates the round tip from
the top round is facing upward. Use your knife to cut along this seam until the end. Then sever the bottom
round by cutting along the seam between it and the eye.
From the cut just made, you can trim out the round sirloin tip, which is located at the junction of the sirloin and the round. This can be cut into
1-inch-thick steaks or left as a roast.
After the knuckle has been removed, the top and bottom rounds will be left. These will be large slices because this area of the round includes
several muscle groups with different striations. You can cut round steaks or separate the top and bottom portion into boneless top round
steaks/roasts and boneless bottom round steaks/roasts.

From this cut, you can trim out the round tip, which is located at the junction of the sirloin and the
round. This makes an excellent roast and may be cut into steaks. The round tip cuts can be identified by
the oval- or horseshoe-shaped connective line in the center of each cut.
Begin removing the top round by inserting your knife in the natural seam between the top round (top of picture) and the bottom round.
After removing the top round, the remaining portion of the rump is composed mainly of the bottom round (on left) and the eye of round (on
right). Connective tissue and fat should be trimmed off with your knife.

Cut the round steaks to a width of about 1 inch after you have removed the round tip by cutting across
the face of the round. These will be large pieces and can be folded over to be packaged or cut in half.
Next, remove the hind shank bone. Cut the Achilles tendon, which had held the weight of the carcass as
it was suspended. Strong connective tissues in the shank anchor the muscles in the lower round. These
must be severed to remove the shank bone. Tip your knife up and cut along this bone up into the round to
the stifle joint. You can sever this joint with a knife and trim any remaining connective tissues; then
remove the shank bone.
Turn the round over and trim out the rest of the stifle joint, making sure to cut close to the bone. The
bottom round then can be separated from the top round by following the natural seam between them. You
can cut steaks from the top round as they are considered more tender than other parts of the round. Steaks
can also be cut from the bottom round if desired, or the meat can be used as cube steaks.

Rump
The rump is considered as part of the round and can make up about 4 percent of the carcass weight. To
separate the rump from the loin, make your cut along a line that would connect a point on the backbone
between the fifth and first vertebra of the tail and the front tip of the inside end of the femur.

The eye of the round is a boneless cut made by separating it from the outside rounds, following the natural seams. On this view, the eye of
the round is located as the bottom right triangular piece and can be separated from the other muscles by natural seams.

Begin trimming by cutting closely on both sides of the aitchbone until it is free. The remaining cut is the
boneless rump that will tend to spread because it is not connected to any bone. It can be wrapped with
netting to hold its shape.

Loin
The whole loin is composed of two parts: the sirloin and shortloin. The steak yields from the sirloin are
about 5 percent of the carcass weight while the shortloin will be about 7 percent.
For the loin, make your cuts between the vertebrae. If you are cutting the entire loin into steaks, there
will be different sizes and shapes as you move from front to back. The round bone steak contains the most
meat of all the steaks of the sirloin because it has the smallest amount of bone and few fat seams.
 Porterhouse steaks come from the end of the sirloin nearest the shortloin. They are easily identified by
the large size of the tenderloin. The porterhouse also has an extra muscle attached to it, which decreases
in size and disappears when you arrive at the shortloin. From this point on, the steaks become T-bone
steaks, identified by their characteristic letter-shaped configuration.
You can trim the tenderloin as one cut if you desire. It can then be trimmed of accessory muscles and
fat. Tenderloin fillet steaks come from trimmed tenderloin. It is the most palatable meat in the beef
carcass.
When you have completed the last cut on this beef side, you can begin the same process with the
second side of the carcass.

The whole loin is made up of two cuts, the sirloin and shortloin. The sizes and shapes will vary as you move from the front of the loin to the
rear. They can be cut into porterhouse and T-bone steaks. The difference between them is the size of the loin eye. The porterhouse has a
larger tenderloin than the T-bone.
A cut called the tri-tip, or angular roast, is located below the bottom sirloin. To trim it out, follow the natural seams because it has muscle
groups running in three different directions.
When cutting T-bone steaks, don’t stack them on top of each other for very long or you will get brown spots due to oxidation or muscle
exposure to air. This can be avoided by putting plastic wrapping over each piece.

Bison (Buffalo) Meat

American bison can be considered domesticated if they are raised on specialized farms or as big game in
states that allow them to be hunted. Arrangements must be made for the transport and care of the carcass if
it is hunted. The hunter may be given the head and hide, but the cost of the meat may be many times higher
than beef due to various fees and licenses.
Buffalo may be difficult to handle and transport, and raising them in conventional ways or facilities
may not be feasible. It may be difficult to find a local meat processor who is willing to harvest any
buffalo you raise because of their size, difficulty in handling, and ability to damage equipment. However,
harvested buffalo carcasses are broken down in a similar manner to beef. The head and hide are
considered two of the most valuable trophies to be taken from them, and care must be used at the time of
harvest so that they are not damaged.
Veal
The harvest of a veal calf is very similar to that of mature cattle, except the obvious difference in animal
size and subsequent carcass weight and the amount of meat procured.
Veal is identified as meat from calves of all ages and weights, from birth to 20 weeks of age. There are
four classifications of veal recognized by the meat industry: (1) baby, or bob veal, that includes calves 2
to 3 days to 1 month of age; (2) vealers, 4 to 12 weeks old, 80 to 120 pounds; (3) calves up to 20 weeks,
125 to 300 pounds; and (4) nature or special-fed veal, about 20 weeks of age, 180 to 240 pounds.
There are several important differences to recognize in harvesting a veal calf. First, there is very little
fat cover on the body, and the carcass and muscles will have a higher moisture content than older animals.
Second, the size of the cuts will be smaller, and some may be treated in a similar way to lamb cuts. For
example, you may leave the sirloin on the leg instead removing it as a separate cut.
The meat of a veal calf will be pinkish white to grayish, or light pink in color. Veal has a mild, delicate
flavor and is often served with sauces and/or spices.

The anatomy of a veal calf is similar to a large beef animal. This drawing shows the skeletal structure in relation to some of the wholesale
cuts.

Brisket of Beef
3 lbs. beef brisket
1/2 c. sliced onions

1/2 c. sliced carrot s

1/2 c. diced celery wit h leaves

11/2 t sp. salt

Cover beef with hot water, add vegetables, and simmer, covered, until meat is tender, about 21/2 to 3 hours. Do not boil. Add salt when
half done and more water if necessary. Remove meat from broth, slice, and serve with a sauce, if preferred. Allow 1/2 pound per serving.

Corned Beef
6 lbs. beef brisket
11/2 lbs. f ine salt
1/2 lb. brown sugar

1/2 oz. commercial cure

Scrub a plastic barrel thoroughly. Put as much fresh beef as desired to be corned in barrel and cover with cold water. Fill with enough
water so that it is 2 inches above meat. Let stand for 48 hours. Drain off the water and measure the amount of water before discarding.
Measure the same amount of cold water (hard water if possible) to every gallon of water formerly used, add the above proportions of salt,
sugar, and cure. Boil for 15 minutes and skim the surface. When cold, pour over the beef. Keep meat under the brine. Store at a cool
temperature. The corned beef will be ready for use after 10 days.

Boiled Corned Beef

6 lbs. corned beef
1 carrot
1 onion
Vinegar
But t er

Cover meat with cold water and let stand 1 hour. Drain and put into kettle with carrot and onion and enough cold water to cover. Add 1
teaspoon vinegar for each quart of water. Simmer until tender, 30 to 40 minutes for each pound. Let stand in the liquid 20 minutes, then
drain and rub butter over the meat just before serving, if desired. Serves 12.

Baked Corned Beef Hash

2 c. diced cold boiled pot at oes
11/2 c. chopped corned beef
1 small onion, minced
3/8 c. cream

3 t bsp. but t er
Salt , pepper, and paprika
6 eggs

Combine potatoes, corned beef, and onion. Add 1/4 cup cream and 1 tablespoon melted butter. Season and mix well. Place mixture in
buttered oblong baking dish. With the bottom of a custard cup, make 6 indentations in the hash and dot each with bits of butter, using 1
tablespoon in all. Bake at 450ºF for 15 minutes. Remove from oven and break one egg into each indentation. Season and cover each egg
with 1 teaspoon of cream and dot with remaining butter. Bake at 350ºF until the eggs are set, 15 to 20 minutes. Serves 6.

Braised Oxtail
1 oxt ail, about 2 lbs.
2 t bsp. f at
2 small onions, sliced
1 carrot , chopped
1 t bsp. chopped celery
2 t bsp. f lour
1 c. hot wat er
1 c. t omat oes
3 bay leaves
3 whole cloves
Salt and pepper

Cut meat into 2-inch pieces and brown in fat. Add onion, carrot, and celery, and cook until brown. Sprinkle with browned flour. Add hot
water, tomatoes, bay leaves, cloves, and salt and pepper. Place in casserole and cook 3 hours at 350ºF until very tender. Serves 5 or 6.

Variation: Use beef stock instead of tomatoes and water, and omit cloves and garlic. Serve with noodles.

Braised Short Ribs

3 lbs. short ribs of beef
Flour
Salt and pepper
1 c. wat er

Cut meat into serving portions. Coat the meat with flour and brown in a hot kettle or oven. Season with salt and pepper, add water, cover
and cook in kettle at simmering temperature or in oven at 300ºF until tender, 11/2 to 2 hours. Allow 1/2 pound per serving.

Oxtail Soup
1 oxt ail
1 t bsp. f at
1 large onion, chopped
3 pint s st ock
1 carrot , cut in t hin slices
1 st alk celery, cut in t hin slices
1/2 c. chopped t omat oes

1 sprig t hyme
2 springs parsley
1 bay leaf
1 t bsp. Worcest ershire sauce
6 peppercorns
Salt

Wash oxtail well, split in small joints, and brown in fat with the chopped onion. Add stock, carrot, celery, tomatoes, and thyme, parsley, and
bay leaf tied in cheesecloth sack. Season with Worcestershire sauce, crushed peppercorns, and salt, and heat to boiling. Simmer over low
heat for 3 hours or until meat is tender. Remove herbs. Separate meat of oxtail from the bones, reheat, and serve meat with soup. Serves
6.

Beef Pot Roast

4 lbs. chuck, round, or rump of beef
1/4 c. f lour

3 t bsp. f at
Salt and pepper
1/2 c. wat er

Coat the meat with flour and heat fat in a Dutch oven. Brown meat on all sides, seasoning with salt and pepper. Add water, cover, and
cook slowly over a low heat until tender, 3 to 4 hours. As the liquid cooks away, add more, as needed. Serve with gravy and vegetables.
Serves 8.

Sauerbraten
4 lbs. beef (chuck, rump, or round)
Salt and pepper
1 pint vinegar
4 bay leaves
12 peppercorns
4 cloves
1 bunch carrot s, cut int o st rips
6 onions, sliced
1 t bsp. sugar
12 gingersnaps

Wipe meat with damp cloth, and sprinkle thoroughly with salt and pepper. Place in an earthen dish and add vinegar and enough water to
cover. Add bay leaves, peppercorns, and cloves, and let stand tightly covered in a cool place for 5 days. Drain meat, place in a Dutch
oven, and brown well on all sides. Add carrots, onions, and 1 cup of spiced vinegar mixture. Cover tightly and cook over low heat about 3
hours or until meat is tender. When meat is cooked, add the sugar and crumbled gingersnaps and cook for 10 minutes. This makes gravy.
If necessary, more of the spiced vinegar may be added for cooking meat or making gravy. Serves 8.

Swiss Steak
1/2 c. f lour

Salt and pepper

2 lbs. st eak, cut 21/2 inches t hick f rom shoulder, rump, or round
2 t bsp. f at
A f ew slices of onion
1/2 green pepper, chopped f ine

1 c. boiling wat er
1 c. st rained t omat oes

Season flour with salt and pepper, and pound the seasonings into the meat with a wooden meat mallet. Brown the meat. Add onions, green
pepper, boiling water, and tomatoes. Cover closely. Simmer for 2 hours. This may be cooked in casserole at 350ºF for about 1 to 11/2
hours. Vegetables may be added as desired. Serves 6.

Roast Beef with Yorkshire Pudding

4 lbs. boned or boneless beef roast (chuck or round)
Salt and pepper
Onion or garlic (opt ional)
Bacon

Wipe the roast with damp cloth but do not wash. Rub with salt in proportion of 1 teaspoon per pound of meat. Rub with pepper, onion, or
garlic if desired. Place meat, fat side up, on rack of pan. If the roast has little or no fat, place strips of bacon over it. This will baste the
roast, and no other basting is needed. Do not add water, and do not cover pan. If meat thermometer is to be used, insert into center of
thickest part of cut, being sure bulb of thermometer does not touch bone or fat. Roast at 300ºF for 30 to 45 minutes. Allow about 1/2 pound
per serving.

Beef Stew with Dumplings

11/2 lbs. shank, neck, plat e, f lank, rump, or brisket
1/4 c. f lour

11/2 t sp. salt

1/4 t sp. pepper

1 small onion
1/3 c. carrot s, cubed

4 c. pot at oes, cut int o quart ers

Wipe meat, remove from bone, and cut into 11/2-inch cubes. Mix flour with salt and pepper and coat meat with it. Cut some of the fat
from meat and heat. When part of fat has fried out, brown the meat in it, stirring constantly. Add enough boiling water to cover the meat
or add a pint of stewed and strained tomatoes and simmer until meat is tender, about 3 hours. Add onion and carrots during the last hour of
cooking and the potatoes 20 minutes before serving. Add dumplings to stew, 15 minutes before serving. Cover kettle closely, and do not
remove for at least 12 minutes. Serves 5.

Yorkshire Pudding
1 c. sif t ed f lour
1/2 t sp. salt

1 c. milk
2 eggs
Drippings f rom roast beef

Mix flour and salt. Combine milk and eggs, add to flour, and beat well until smooth. Pour hot drippings into hot shallow pan to depth of 1
inch. Pour in mixture quickly, and bake at 400ºF for 30 minutes. The pudding may then be placed under the rack holding the roast beef and
left for 15 minutes to catch the juices from the roast. If a rack is not used, cut pudding into squares and arrange in pan around roast. Serve
with the meat.

Veal Birds
2 lbs. veal st eak, cut 1/4-inch t hick
1 c. bread st uf f ing
Salt
Flour
Fat
1 c. milk or wat er

Cut veal into 2×4 inch pieces. Place a mound of stuffing on each piece, fold veal over stuffing, and fasten with toothpick. Season, roll in
flour, brown in fat, and add milk. Cover and simmer or bake at 350ºF for 1 hour. Serves 6.

Variation: Wrap veal around sausages, cooked whole carrots, pickles, or olives instead of stuffing.

Fillet Mignon
3 lbs. beef f illet
Salt pork
But t er
Salt and pepper
Flour

The fillet is the underside of the loin of beef, the tenderloin. Remove skin, fat, and ligament. Rub the entire surface with butter. Coat well
with salt, pepper, and flour, and place the fillet, without water, in a small pan. Bake at 550ºF for about 10 minutes. You can also cut the
tenderloin into steaks and broil. Serves 8.

Wiener Schnitzel
6 veal chops or st eaks
Salt and pepper
2 eggs, slight ly beat en
Flour
3 t bsp. bacon drippings
Juice of 1 lemon
1 t bsp. f lour
1 c. t hick sour cream

Sprinkle veal with salt and pepper. Dip into eggs, then into flour. Brown on both sides in hot bacon drippings. Cover and cook slowly until
chops are tender, about 1 hour. Sprinkle with lemon juice and arrange on hot platter. Blend flour with fat in pan, add sour cream, and cook
3 minutes, stirring constantly. Season with salt and pepper and serve with chops. Garnish with lemon slices. Serves 6.

Veal Cutlets with Cream Gravy

2 lbs. veal cut let s
Salt and pepper
2 eggs, beat en
Bread or cracker crumbs
Drippings
1 c. milk or cream
1 t bsp. f lour
Wipe cutlets and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Dip into beaten eggs, then into fine bread or cracker crumbs. Brown the cutlets in the
drippings. Place on platter, add cream to liquid in pan, and thicken slightly with mixture of flour and water. Serves 6.

Smoked Beef Tongue

1 smoked beef t ongue
1 c. Spanish sauce (see next page)
10 chopped, cooked mushrooms

Scrub tongue and let stand overnight in cold water. Cover with fresh cold water and simmer for 4 hours or until tender. Drain, place in cold
water 2 or 3 minutes, remove skin and roots, and place in hot water for a few minutes. Drain. Place on serving dish. Add mushrooms to
Spanish sauce and pour over tongue. Serves 6.

Spanish Sauce
1 green chili pepper
2 cloves garlic
2 jalapeno peppers
3 green peppers
3 red t omat oes
1/2 c. chopped onion

1/8 t sp. soda

Chop tomatoes and sauté with onion. Mix garlic and peppers in blender and add to pan. Simmer 1 hour or until well cooked and thick. Stir
in soda at very end. Pour over tongue.

Bison Meatloaf
1 pound f resh ground bison burger meat
1/2 c. oat s

1/4 c. chopped onion

1 t sp. salt
2/3 c. ket chup

1/2 c. packed brown sugar

11/2 t sp. prepared must ard

1 egg
3/4 c. milk

Beat the egg and milk together. Stir in oats, onion, and salt. Add ground bison and mix together well. Shape into eight loaves and place in a
well-greased 13×9 baking dish. Combine ketchup, brown sugar, and mustard; spoon over loaves. Bake, uncovered, at 350°F for 35 minutes
or until meat is no longer pink. Serve with baked potato slices and mixed vegetables.
 Chapter 4

SHEEP, LAMBS, AND GOATS

M eat from sheep, particularly lambs under one year of age, and goats is increasingly popular in
restaurants, grocery stores, ethnic food outlets, and the everyday family food table. The meat is high in
protein and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a unique and potent antioxidant naturally produced through
pasture grazing.
The meat from sheep up to one year of age is referred to as lamb and is usually taken from an animal
that weighs between 90 and 140 pounds. Lamb is typically sold as whole or half carcasses if you decide
to purchase one for cutting up yourself.
Whether you are harvesting sheep, lambs, or goats, make certain the animal is healthy and that you have
the proper equipment and an appropriate place to butcher that is clean and free of dust, dirt, insects, flies,
and rodents. Also have sufficient help on hand and the physical ability to carry out the work.
Wit h rest aurant s, grocery st ores, and et hnic f ood out let s of f ering more and more opt ions, meat f rom sheep, part icularly lambs
under one year of age, and goat s is increasingly becoming a part of t he American diet . Shutterstock/Joe Mercier
Lambs are typically marketed at between 90 to 140 pounds and sold as half or whole carcasses.

First Considerations
A well-devised butchering plan will help achieve good results. It starts a day before you plan on
slaughtering the sheep, lamb, or goat. Sheep and goats have a digestive tract that has a higher percentage
of the live weight than other livestock, such as cattle and pigs. This makes it important to withhold all
feed for between 18 to 24 hours. Fasting your animal will allow it to empty the stomach and intestinal
tract of fecal material that has the potential to contaminate the carcass during evisceration. You will still
need to provide full access to water. Providing water will avoid dehydration, which can result in tissue
shrinkage and difficulty in removing the pelt.

Chops
The term chop originally referred to any piece of meat that was chopped off with a cleaver. These were usually only small cuts because
of the difficulty of chopping huge pieces of meat off at one time. If a saw was used, the pieces were called steaks. This is why lamb cuts,
except for the leg slices that are steaked, are called chops.

Choosing an Animal
If you raised your own sheep or goats, you should be able to determine the healthiest one in your flock as
a good candidate for butchering. It should also be one with the most muscling and least fat.
If you are purchasing a live sheep, goat, or a lamb, be sure to examine it first. The eyes, nose, and
mouth should be clean with no watering or discharge. It should move about easily without exhibiting any
lameness or limping. The presence of either may indicate an injury or other physical illness that will
lower the carcass and muscle quality. Observe the animal’s breathing pattern. If it is labored or fast, it
may indicate lung problems or a fever. Refuse to purchase any animal if the physical signs you see do not
appear as normal or you sense something might be wrong.
You may want to consider purchasing a female for butchering to avoid removing the male sex organs.
Some believe there is a distinct difference in meat flavor between a female and intact male.
Lambs are typically marketed when they reach between 90 to 140 pounds live weight. After slaughter,
the resulting carcass will weigh roughly 50 percent of this amount. Depending on your storage capacity,
you may be able to purchase a whole or half carcass for butchering.

Handling
Proper handling of sheep and goats at all times is good husbandry and minimizes damage or injury to the
live animal. It is particularly important during the time leading up to slaughter to reduce the chances of
damaging or bruising the muscles. Bruised muscles yield a lower quality carcass and, if severe enough,
may require the bruises to be cut out of the meat, lowering your total yield. To prevent bruising, provide
sufficient room for the sheep to move about and still be caught without injury. Avoid lifting it by its fleece
or hair, as this will also cause bruises to the carcass. When moving your animal to the confinement area,
place one hand under its jaw and the other at the dock (tail) and lead it.
Be careful of the sheep or goat if it has horns, which can be used in defense if they perceive to be in
imminent danger. Sheep or goat horns have pointed tips, which can cause serious injury to anyone
handling them.
The process to harvest a sheep or goat is essentially identical, so the following descriptions apply to
each.

Equipment and Tools

The minimum equipment you should have available include a sharp skinning knife for removing the pelt, a
table or platform on which to lay the eviscerated carcass, or a hoist to lift the sheep by the hind legs to
eye or chest level. If available, you can use a cradle, which is a trough about 6 inches wide at the bottom
with sloping sides 6 inches high to be used for skinning. A dripping pan to catch the blood after sticking
will keep the area below the carcass from becoming messy. Using a chain-mail glove on your free hand
will prevent accidental cuts.
Stun or shoot the lamb as close as possible to the place where the imaginary lines intersect.
Lift the lamb by its hind legs to complete the bleed.
Once it is finished, place the carcass on a table or a V-shaped trough to begin removing the legs and pelt.

Stunning and Sticking

Several methods can be used to either stun or quickly dispatch a sheep. Inexpensive electrical stunners
can be used for only one or two animals. These use an electric current to initiate cardiac arrest to kill the
sheep. The animal can then be placed on a table, cradle, or hoist to begin the butchering process.
The simplest method to kill the sheep is to stick the jugular vein with your knife to create blood flow.
This can be done by placing the sheep on its side, wrapping the front feet and rear feet together so that the
hooves cannot cause you injury, and then placing it on a table or platform with its head draped over the
edge.
If you choose to hoist the sheep by its hind legs, tie its front feet together with a rope or cord and then
pull it tight toward its hind legs. This will hold the front legs steady, restrain the sheep, and allow you to
make a swift, clean kill.
To cut the jugular veins, grasp the jaw or ear with one hand and insert the knife behind the jaw while
drawing it blade edge outward and out through the pelt. This will sever the jugular veins and carotid
arteries.
One advantage of sticking a sheep versus stunning it is that you achieve a more complete bleed from
the body because the heart is still beating. If the sheep is suspended by its hind legs, the flow of blood is
downward and will continue while the heart works. Gravity will assist in making as complete a bleed as
possible. For lambs, the blood yield may be as much as 3 percent of their live weight.
Begin removing the pelt by slicing down the rear legs from the hock to the midline of the pelvis and down the forelegs to the brisket. Peel the
pelt back to expose the leg bones. Then remove them by making cuts at the break joint, which is located just above the foot.

Skinning
When the blood has finished flowing from the carcass, you can place the sheep on its back in the cradle or
on a table. To begin skinning the carcass, grasp a foreleg and slice the skin open with the point of your
knife down toward the chest. Do the same with the other foreleg, having the two cuts meet at the front of
the breastbone. Then finish skinning out both front legs.
Next, skin the hind legs. Begin by holding one leg and open it down the backside from the hoof to the
rectum by holding your knife fairly flat as you slice down. Holding it in this way will help avoid cutting
the tendon and the colorless connective tissue membrane just under the skin that separates it from the meat
in the carcass. All four legs should now be skinless. You can start removing the feet at either the front or
rear.
 Remove the front feet by cutting through either the break joint or spool joint, depending on the age of
the animal. In young lambs, the break joint will be a swelling in the long canon bone just above the foot.
Break joints in yearlings and older sheep are denser and harder to cut. For these, you should remove the
foot at the first joint above the hoof.

Place your fist between the pelt and muscles in the opening at the brisket and push inward to loosen the skin. This is called fisting and is the
most effective way to separate the pelt from the body. Continue this motion down both sides while the carcass is still horizontal.

To remove the hind feet, begin by removing the foot at the joint closest to the hoof. By not cutting it
higher, you will leave the backside tendon anchored, which you can use to suspend the carcass. Carefully
slice along the leg bone for about 3 inches, separating tissue holding the tendon to the leg bone. These
slits will allow you to insert hooks that will hold the carcass for evisceration. Do the same with the
opposite hind leg.
To separate the skin and fleece from the body, grasp the pelt at the cut, make a fist with your free hand,
and slide it forward separating the skin from the body. Push your fist against the pelt and not the carcass
as you are loosening it. By repeating this motion, you will loosen the skin without needing to use a knife.
This will eliminate cuts and bruises to the body of the carcass. Always have clean hands when loosening
the pelt to avoid contaminating the carcass with wool and dirt from the fleece.
Make a circular cut around the anus to loosen the pelt and then pull downwards to strip it from the carcass.

With most of the skin now loosened from the body, you can attach hooks to the hind leg tendons and
raise the sheep to a level that allows you to comfortably work with the carcass. Once suspended, you can
remove the head by cutting behind the jaw and separating it at the base of the skull.
The pelt will still be attached to the front feet and head. Next remove the head by severing it at the atlas joint and finish removing the front
feet at the break joints.

The trachea and esophagus are still attached to the internal organs and must now be separated so that
you can remove those organs during evisceration. You will then be able to pull them out when you remove
the internal organs. If this separation is not done, you will need to split the brisket prior to evisceration to
remove the abdominal and thoracic organs at the same time.
With the carcass suspended, cut open the center of the loosened pelt. Pull the fleece toward you as you
slice down the belly being careful not to cut into the abdomen. Loosen all the skin by moving your fist
around the entire carcass and up the legs. Avoid pulling or stripping the pelt off the carcass as this may
damage the connective tissue membrane by tearing and exposing the muscle.
Sever the anus by cutting across it where it is attached to the pelt. Then use your fist to loosen it. Finish
loosening the pelt at the shoulders. Once the pelt is completely loose, it should easily slide off the
carcass.
Rinse the carcass with clean, lukewarm water before opening the body cavity. This will remove any
dirt, wool, or other foreign materials that may have attached to it.
To open the thoracic cavity, make a cut through the muscles to the brisket and saw through the sternum bone. Unlike beef, the esophagus and
trachea do not need to be separated if the brisket is opened before both are removed.

Evisceration
Evisceration of sheep is very much like that of cattle and pigs, except they are smaller. Avoid cutting into
the intestinal and digestive tract while opening the body cavity so that it is not contaminated by fecal
material.
Place a bucket under the carcass to catch the intestines and blood. Begin by cutting around the anus,
loosening it from the pelvis. Cut as close around the pelvic and tail bones as you can until it is free to pull
out. You should tie the anus shut with string or a light cord so that any fecal contents do not spill out. Once
securely tied, you can let it slide down into the body cavity.

The visceral and thoracic cavities can be cleared in one step and placed in a tub for disposal or inspection. The carcass is now ready for
trimming, followed by washing with clean, cold water.
Inspect the carcass and remove any hair, fecal, or foreign matter attached to it. These are the main causes of lamb carcass contamination,
which most often occurs during removal of the pelt. Once the carcass is clean, it is ready for washing, cooling, and later fabrication.
This drawing represents the five primal cuts in relation to the skeleton, shoulder, rack, loin, leg, foreshank, and brisket.

To open the belly, start your knife tip at a point just below the junction where the outer skin of the two
hind legs intersects. Pull the skin toward you as you make a cut long enough to insert your first and second
fingers to help guide the knife point. Or you can insert the handle into the abdomen cavity the same way as
in cattle or pigs to open it.
After the body cavity is open, grasp the tied end of the anus that you let slide into the cavity earlier
with your free hand and slowly pull the intestines and organs toward you. Gravity will help pull these
from the body, and the bladder and kidneys will also drop as you sever the ureters.
When all the viscera have been removed, split the breastbone with a saw or sturdy knife. Wash both
the inside and outside of the carcass with cool water and remove any traces of blood, dirt, tissue, and
other foreign matter. You can also trim any scraggly ends or pieces from around the neck or other areas.
The carcass is now ready to cool. Chilling the carcass makes it easier to cut up the various parts as the fat
within the meat and the muscles become firm.

Lamb Cuts
With an average bone-out of about 30 percent meat for a market lamb, you can expect a yield of about 15
pounds from a lamb from a 100-pound carcass.
Five primal cuts begin the process of deconstructing the chilled carcass: leg, loin, rack (ribs),
shoulder, and foreshank. These can be further broken down into the more valued cuts.
If cooled, lamb carcasses typically are left whole and not split in half before fabrication begins. If splitting the carcass, use a heavy knife or
meat saw and slice down the backbone to separate the two sides. If not splitting the carcass lengthwise, you can begin with a lateral cut.
Split the carcass by first separating the foresaddle and hindsaddle between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs. The two carcasses shown here have
been split but are still hanging in a cooler. Once they are placed on a cutting table, begin by cutting off the legs at the rear hocks and front
knees.

The lamb carcass is not split longitudinally, from rump to shoulder. Rather it is cut laterally, across the
body. For home use, this is not necessary because you are cutting the carcass to suit your needs rather than
a specific market or other customer.
To split the carcass in half, you will need a meat saw or a heavy, sturdy knife to slice down the
backbone. This is most easily done by suspending the carcass by the hind legs. Begin at the aitchbone of
the pelvis and saw a straight line down and through the end of the neck.
If you are going to process the carcass during the same session, you can leave one half suspended
while you cut up the other. Lay one half on a clean, sanitized table, making sure that the equipment you use
has been thoroughly cleaned and sanitized. The process of cutting up a lamb carcass allows you to break
down large sections into smaller pieces for further cutting. Try to cut it up in a room with a cool
temperature to keep the meat from becoming too warm.

Live Animal Lamb Cuts

12 percent from legs
4 percent from loin
4 percent from rack
10 percent from shoulder
30 percent total meat

There are thirteen ribs on a lamb carcass. To separate the rack from the shoulder, count eight ribs from the posterior end and cut through the
muscle with a knife; finish cutting through the backbone with a saw. There will be four ribs remaining in the shoulder.

Begin by dividing the half into two parts: the foresaddle and the hindsaddle. This roughly cuts it in
half. The foresaddle consists of the shoulder, rack, foreshank, and breast and makes up about 51 percent
of the carcass. The hindsaddle composes the loin, leg, and flank and represents about 49 percent. To
separate them, make a lateral cut across the carcass between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs.
One very useful tool is a plastic bone scraper. This helps scrape away bone dust caused by the blade sawing through bone. Bone is a good
medium for microorganisms to grow and reduces the shelf life of meat. Scraping away this bone dust will minimize those effects.
Remove the neck with a lateral cut just in front of the shoulder. It can then be cut into neck slices for roasting or braising, or trimmed and
used as stew meat, ground lamb, or for sausage.
Split the shoulder in half and trim away the fat. Cut off the breast where cartilage appears and then remove the remaining portion of the
foreshank. This should expose the brisket bone, which can be pulled out by hand.

Foresaddle
Slightly larger than the rear of the carcass, the foresaddle contains four major portions that can be further
reduced. Begin by dividing it into two pieces that contain the shoulder and rack (ribs). This cut is made
between the fourth and fifth ribs and will leave you with an eight-rib rack for later. At this point, the
breast and foreshank are still attached. They should be separated from the shoulder and rack. Remove
them by sawing across the arm bone at a point slightly above the junction of the arm bone and the
foreshank bone.
 The shoulder is the largest cut in the foresaddle and contains a number of bones that make it more
difficult to carve and slice. However, if properly cooked, shoulders provide a delightful meal.
Remove the neck from the shoulder by cutting across it laterally, leaving about 1 inch of neck on the
shoulder. The neck then can be sliced into small pieces.
The shoulder is often called a square-cut because it fits the dimensions of a square. It includes the
blade face, which has a surface mostly of bone and lacks muscle, with part of the blade cartilage. Any
chops removed from the shoulder are called blade chops because of the presence of the scapula, or
shoulder blade. The most forward portion of the ribeye will extend through this area.
The arm chops come from the arm face that is positioned at a right angle to the blade face. This is the
muscular part of the shoulder, but it is less tender because these muscles do a lot of work in providing
locomotion for the live animal. Typically, muscles that have more use are less palatable and also contain
a considerable amount of connective tissue to other less-used muscles.
Instead of making chops, you can cut out the rib cage and then the ribeye by following the natural seam.
This is the boneless blade roll that can be held together with skewers. You can also cut out the shoulder
bone and use it as a boneless roast. The rest of the shoulder pieces can be diced for stew meat or kabobs
after the bones have been removed.

Hindsaddle
The hindsaddle contains the most valuable cuts of the sheep or lamb. These include the loin, leg, and
flank. Start your cuts by removing as much of the flank as possible. Do this by making a cut about 2 inches
away from the loin eye. The flank is a large, flat, straight muscle that, in beef, is cut into flank steaks.
Because of its size, texture, and flavor, it is best used for ground meat with sheep and lambs, or it can be
rolled to be roasted.
Before cutting the hindsaddle, remove as much of the flank as possible by making a cut 2 inches from the edge of the loin through the
thirteenth rib and following the cut parallel to the loin and along the leg. These can be cut later into flank steaks or ground meat. Remove the
leg by making a cut through the last lumbar vertebrae. Use your knife for your initial cut and finish with your saw.
Split the leg portion of the hindquarters into halves by sawing through the aitchbone.
You can remove the leg (shank portion) first if using a band saw. Otherwise, it can remain and be used to hold the lamb leg as you remove leg
sirloin chops. There are two to three sirloin chops per leg per side. They are recognizable because part of the pelvic bone will be in them.

The leg is the largest cut and represents about one-third of the lamb carcass. When you cut the leg from
the loin, the sirloin will be included with it. Although typically referred to as a leg of lamb, this term also
implies that it is the whole leg with the sirloin still intact.
To separate this primal cut from the loin, sever it at the seventh, or last, vertebra. Use a saw to make
your cut, as this will result in a flat face surface on the loin. To remove the tailbone with your knife, make
the cut so that it leaves three tail vertebrae on the leg.

Judas Goat
Sheep have a natural flocking instinct and will huddle together or follow the leader of the group, particularly if they perceive an outside
threat. Because of this behavior, they can be manipulated in their movements by using a goat. At some packing houses, goats are usually
reliable and will return time after time to lead lambs to slaughter. Any goat that fills this role is known as a Judas Goat for its deception and
betrayal of the lambs.

You can trim off any outside fat, but avoid removing the thin membrane that separates the pelt from the
muscle. This membrane holds the shape of the leg and helps retain moisture and juices during cooking.
To remove the leg, cut the Achilles tendon, the large tendon above the hock where it attaches at the
base of the leg muscle, leaving the other end attached to the hock. Cut through either the hock joint to
remove the lower part of the leg or through the break joint that is located about 11/2 inches above the
hock. In lambs, you may be able to use your knife to break this soft area, but it will generally require the
use of a saw for older sheep or goats.
 The hindshank is composed of a large amount of connective tissue, which can be identified as white,
silvery streaks. Because this is a less tender portion, it is best used as ground meat. You can remove the
shank muscle by cutting through at the stifle joint, which is the second joint above the foot. Once
separated, you can trim the meat from the bone and set it aside for grinding, or it can be cut into smaller
pieces for braising. The shank can also be roasted.

The loin is the most valuable cut of the lamb carcass and will vary in size from end to end. It can be cut with the backbone attached for loin
chops or completely cut out to make a boneless loin roast.
Above and Below: Split the loin down the spine into two separate halves being careful not to cut into the loin eye. You can make 2-inch
lateral cuts to create chops. The bones can remain intact or removed as desired. Removing them creates boneless chops or a boneless loin
roast.
 The sirloin may be removed from the leg with lateral cuts made into sirloin steaks. The largest of these
will be located at the top of the sirloin. You can saw the whole leg into chops and steaks. This will result
in four to six sirloin chops, depending on how thick you wish to make them. These chops are similar to
beef sirloin steaks in bone and muscle structure.

The ribs can be cut into four sections from the two carcass sides. Each of these can be grilled or roasted as a rack of ribs or riblets.

Because of the pelvic bone, the rump is not sliced or made into steaks. However, by trimming and
removing this bone, the meat can be used for kabobs, stews, or ground into patties.
The lamb’s legs may be separated into sirloin and shank halves, and these may be further broken down
if desired. The leg can be either boned out or made into steaks. The boneless leg then can be roasted or
tied into a rolled roast.
To remove the pelvic bone, cut around the ball where it joins the leg. You will be able to trim it out
and then separate it from the leg bone at the ball joint. Remove the shank at the stifle joint, which will
allow you to cut around the end of the leg bone until it is loosened.
You should be able to remove the entire leg by pulling on it without cutting any of the muscles. There is
a lymph node, usually surrounded by fat, located at the rear end of the boned leg between the bottom and
the eye muscles. Carefully trim this node off without cutting into it. With the leg now finished, you can
begin work on the loin.
Loin
The loin is the most valuable cut in the carcass because it contains the most tender muscles. The loin and
rack (ribs) often compete for the higher price because there are so few of them from each animal. Only 4
percent of the live animal will end up being cut into loin chops.
From end to end, the loin will vary in size and shape. At the seventh lumbar verte-brae, the loin eye is
oval-shaped and the tenderloin is at its maximum size. At the front end, the loin is larger and more
symmetrically shaped.
You can cut the loin into chop widths of between 2 to 3 inches, leaving the bone, which looks like a T,
and is similar to the T-bone steak in beef cuts. Or you can remove the vertebrae to produce a boneless
loin chop, which can be rolled, netted, or tied. You can also leave the loin intact for a loin roast.

Rough Cuts
There are several pieces still left to cut, including the flank of the hindsaddle and the foreshank and breast
of the foresaddle. These account for about 10 percent of the carcass weight but typically have more fat
than muscle. Trim as much of the fat away as possible and use the meat pieces for grinding into patties.
The breast contains rib bones and the breastbone. You can cut each rib apart for riblets or you can cut
them into sections of several ribs together for lamb spareribs. There is a thick muscle in the breast, which
corresponds to the beef brisket, that can be trimmed and used for cubes.
The foreshank can be braised or trimmed and cubed for stew meat, or ground into patties. When
finished with the first half of the carcass, you can begin with the opposite half to make the same cuts.
Lamb carcasses can create a wide variety of choice cuts, including roasts, chops, loin and rib chops, ribs, racks, and legs. Lamb cuts are
increasing in popularity and provide an interesting alternative to beef and pork.

Broiled Lamb Patties

11/2 lbs. ground lamb
2 t bsp. grat ed onion
1 t sp. salt
1/2 t sp. pepper

Mix all ingredients thoroughly. Shape into thick patties. Place on a rack under preheated broiler, about 3 inches from source of heat so that
by the time the patties are browned on the top they will be half done. Turn and brown on other side. Allow about 15 minutes to cook.
Serves 6.

Roast Leg of Lamb

1 leg lamb, 5 t o 6 pounds
11/2 t bsp. salt
1/4 t sp. pepper

Remove shank bone. Rub meat with salt and pepper. Place fat side up on a rack in an uncovered roasting pan. Roast at 300º to 325ºF for
30 to 35 minutes to the pound or until a meat thermometer registers 175º to 180º. Serve with a garnish. Variations: 1) Rub meat with the
cut edge of a clove of garlic or place slivers of garlic into deep narrow gashes cut in meat. 2) Rub 1 teaspoon ginger over surface of meat.
3) Baste lamb with vinegar that has been seasoned with finely cut mint leaves. 4) Baste lamb with a mixture of 1/2 cup tomato ketchup
and 2 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce. 5) Rub meat with finely chopped mint leaves. Baste meat frequently the last hour of roasting
with 1/2 cup grape jelly melted in 1/2 cup water.

Shepherd’s Pie
Lef t over st ew
Mashed pot at oes

Use leftover stew. Line a baking dish with hot mashed potatoes. Fill the center with hot stew, cover with additional mashed potatoes, and
place in hot oven at 425ºF for 15 minutes or until potatoes are browned.

Braised Leg of Lamb or Mutton

1 leg of lamb or mut t on, 5 t o 6 pounds
1/2 c. each f inely chopped celery, carrot , and onion

2 t bsp. drippings or ot her f at

3 cups vinegar
3 cups wat er
1/2 t sp. each of powdered t hyme and marjoram

6 whole cloves
1 clove garlic
2 t bsp. chopped parsley
12 peppercorns
1/2 bay leaf

1 t bsp. salt
1 pint sour cream
1/2 pint st ock

Sauté celery, carrot, and onion in drippings until light brown. Add vinegar and water, and cook until vegetables are tender. Cool. Place
meat in a deep dish. Pour the first mixture over meat, being careful to have the meat entirely covered. Add seasonings. Marinate meat in
this mixture for 24 hours. Drain and dry thoroughly. Place in a roasting pan and bake at 300ºF for 30 minutes. Add sour cream and stock,
cover and cook until tender, allowing 30 to 35 minutes per pound. Baste frequently. Boil the liquid in which the meat was marinated until
only a small amount remains, strain, and pour over meat when serving.

Lamb Stew
2 pounds lamb cubes, shank, breast , neck, or shoulder
2 t bsp. f lour
2 t bsp. f at
Salt and pepper
Hot wat er
6 pot at oes
6 carrot s
3 onions
1 c. f resh peas
3 t omat oes
Flour

Coat lamb with flour and brown in hot fat. Season with salt and pepper, cover with water, and simmer until nearly tender, about 1 to 11/2
hours. Add peeled vegetables, except tomatoes, whole or cut in cubes and simmer 30 minutes longer or until tender. Add tomatoes and
simmer 10 minutes longer. Mix a little flour with water to a smooth paste and add enough to the liquid to thicken slightly. Serves 6.

Barbecued Lamb
6-pound leg of lamb
2 t sp. salt
Flour
1 onion, sliced
1 c. wat er
1/2 c. ket chup

2 t bsp. st eak sauce, such as A-1

2 t bsp. Worcest ershire sauce
1/4 t sp. cayenne powder

Wipe leg of lamb with damp cloth, rub with salt, and coat with flour. Place in a roasting pan and surround with onion. Combine remaining
ingredients, mix well, and pour over meat. Roast at 350ºF for 30 minutes for each pound. Baste every 20 minutes with the sauce. Serves
8.
 Making Use of Leftovers
Coarse-grind meat trimmings. Add water and flavoring mixture. Regrind through 1/4-inch plate. Using this formulation the following
products can be made:

• Wieners—stuff in sheep casings; smoke and cook to 155ºF internal temperature.

• Dinner franks—stuff in hog casings; smoke and cook to 155ºF internal temperature.
• Ring bologna—stuff in 6-inch diameter fibrous casings; smoke and cook to 155ºF internal temperature.
• Leona—add 10 pounds cooked, diced, and skinned hog jowls plus 51/3 tablespoons garlic powder to the emulsion; stuff into 2-inch
diameter fibrous casings; smoke and cook to 155ºF internal temperature.
• Pickle and pimento loaf—add 21/2 pounds sweet pickles and 21/2 pounds pimentos. Stuff into parchment-lined metal molds or waterproof
fibrous casing. Can be water-cooked or baked to internal temperature of 155ºF.
• Macaroni and cheese loaf—add 21/2 pounds cheese and 21/2 pounds cooked macaroni. Proceed as with pickle and pimento loaf.

Source: North Dakota State University Agriculture and University Extension

 Chapter 5

PORK
T hree eras stand out from a modern historical perspective in pork production that explain as much
about society’s taste patterns as they do about farming trends. These can be described as the eras of lard,
meat and bacon, and lean white meat.
Lard once found many uses, such as in making candles, soaps, and cooking fats. As lard demand
decreased with the advent of petroleum products, vegetable oils, electricity, and consumer dietary
changes, the trend moved away from fat hogs to leaner ones with a higher ratio of muscle to fat. A period
followed where the fat composition in pork meat dropped so dramatically that consumers found it lacking
in flavor and moved more toward chicken consumption for their white meat. Today, a more tasteful pork
product is produced because of a favorable balance between fat and lean.
A 200-pound pig with a typical 72 percent dressing weight will yield a carcass of about 145 pounds,
or about 73 pounds per each half or side. This will include meat, bones, and fat. The cutting yield is the
amount of meat you get from the total carcass. Using a typical cutout rate of 60 percent for pigs, this 145-
pound carcass will yield about 110 pounds of meat for your use. The other 35 pounds will include fat
trim, bones, and skin.
The largest part of the carcass is usually the ham, which can be about 23 percent of the live carcass,
but 18 percent of a dressed one, or in this case about 27 pounds. The side or belly and the loin areas
represent about 15 percent each, or about 40 pounds. The picnic and Boston butt are each about 10
percent or 16 to 20 pounds, and the miscellaneous portions—including the jowl, feet, neck bones, skin,
fat, bone, and shrink—account for about 25 percent of the carcass weight. In our example, this would
amount to about 38 pounds, which is well over a third of the entire carcass. There may be some variance
between pigs; these percentages generally hold true for normal, well-developed pigs of that weight range.
A healt hy, well-grown, 200-pound pig is a good choice f or home but chering because it will yield about 100 t o 110 pounds of
eat ing meat . Shut t erst ock/Adriano Cast elli
You can raise the pigs yourself, purchase them live from a grower, or purchase a dressed carcass from a local butcher and fabricate the
carcass yourself.

Pork Cuts
The five major areas where cuts are derived can be further broken down into cuts often found in retail
markets: the picnic shoulder, Boston butt, loin, ham, and belly or sides. One reason retailers or you, if you
are marketing your meat to others, decide to charge higher price for certain cuts is because of supply,
demand, taste, and ease of cooking. For example, pork chops typically are in demand and relatively easy
to prepare. They sell quickly while other cuts may not move as fast.
The picnic shoulder includes the upper front leg above the knee. This cut lies just below the Boston
butt and contains a higher level of fat than the other cuts, which makes it a flavorful and tender portion.
The picnic shoulder can be smoked and cured to make the picnic ham, which is then ready to eat cold or
hot. The arm and shank bones make up the shoulder and create a high ratio of bone to lean meat. When
well-trimmed, this cut is used for lean ground pork and can be cubed or cut into strips to use for kabobs,
stir-fry, or stews.
The Boston butt, also called the shoulder butt, is often a better cut than the picnic shoulder. It lies at the
upper portion of the shoulder from the top to the plate to make the backbone. This cut is tender, full of
flavor, and can be cut into roasts with the bone intact or cut out for boneless roasts. The roasts can be cut
into blade steaks that can be broiled, grilled, or braised.
 The pork loin cuts are located directly behind the Boston butt and include a portion of the shoulder
blade bone. The loin includes most of the ribs and backbone all the way to the hipbone at the rear. There
is a loin area on each side of the pig and together will account for about 20 percent of the carcass weight.
Many retail cuts are derived from the loin, including top loin roasts, pork chops, baby back ribs, pork
tenderloins, loin chops, rib chops, and blade chops.

Loin chops are cut to 1/2 to 1 inch thicknesses. The loin chop has a portion of the loin on one side and tenderloin on the other, and it is
located toward the junction of the leg and loin. The rib chop (on left) only contains the loin muscle.
The sirloin chop can be identified by the round bone or flat bone shape. The rib chop, on the right, contains part of the rib bone the sirloin
does not.

The loin constitutes a long strip that contains the top section of the ribs. When these are trimmed away,
the result is a boneless pork loin. The section of the loin between the blade end and sirloin end is usually
referred to as the center, as in center chops and center roasts. A boneless pork loin is smoked to produce
Canadian bacon. Rib bones trimmed from the loin can be barbecued as pork back ribs. This is also the
area where pork backfat is located. This is the thick layer of fat between the skin and the eye muscle,
which may have some cooking uses but is used mostly to help determine carcass grades.
The meat and fat trimmings from pork can be used in several different ways, including mixing in sausage, particularly with wild game, to add
texture and flavor.

Hams make up about one-quarter of the carcass weight and come from the rear leg area of the pig and
include the aitch, leg, and hindshank bones. This is a prime cut area of the pig because it contains little
connective tissue, making it more flavorful whether it is cooked, cured, or smoked. Hams can be deboned,
and the shank portion of the ham, called the ham hock, is used the same as the shoulder hock.
The pork belly or sides are where the bacon and spareribs are cut. They are located below the loin on
each side and account for about 15 to 20 percent of the carcass weight. This area contains a lot of fat with
streaks of lean meat. It also provides the spareribs, which are separated from the rest of the belly before
cooking.
 The miscellaneous portion of the carcass includes the jowl, pig’s feet, tail, neck bones, skin, and fat.
Some cooks highly prize these areas, but the parts are often dismissed by the general public as unusable.
Eating raw pork is strongly discouraged because of the presence of a parasite Trichinella spiralis that
causes trichinosis in humans. These little roundworms migrate into pig muscles and mature into an
infective stage. Unless destroyed by minimum cooking temperatures of 140 degrees Fahrenheit, they still
will be viable parasites for infections. Most experts recommend a minimum of 150 degrees Fahrenheit for
cooking because of the inaccuracy of many thermometers. Trichinosis infections in humans can cause
nausea, diarrhea, muscle pains, and aching joints. It is a treatable infection but nevertheless is an
uncomfortable experience.

Butchering at Home
Whether you are butchering at home or having a pig processed at a local meat slaughter plant, you will
have to decide which pig to use if you have more than one to consider. Pork carcasses for home meat use
should be the highest quality pig you produce and one that is from five to eight months of age. Pigs fed
liberal amounts and quality feeds grow rapidly and will produce pork of proper size and finish.
Butchering at home requires some thought before, during, and after the entire process. Planning ahead
for this event will minimize mistakes, reduce the chance of injury to helpers, and provide you with quality
meat products for your family.
Develop a list of all the steps needed, from beginning to end, several days before butchering your pig.
Planning ahead will reduce any surprises during the butchering process and help organize the event in a
logical, efficient manner. Having a list of the equipment and butchering tools required will ensure
everything is at hand when needed. Attention must be paid to cleanliness at all times so the meat isn’t
contaminated during any part of the process. A review of the skeletal structure, digestive system, the
placement of organs, and some understanding of the circulatory system will be useful when you are cutting
the carcass. Knowing the precise location of the jugular veins with in the neck will help you make a clean,
swift kill.
Begin with a clean work area before bringing the pig in to kill. The area used should be as free of dirt, dust, flies, and insects as possible. When
everything is ready, you can use an electric stunner or a gun to immobilize the pig and to render it unconscious.

The location where you plan to carry out the kill should be properly equipped for the job. A shed or
building that is free from dust or outside elements can provide a good place for the initial stages. If this is
used, construct a small holding pen near the butchering table to reduce the distance the carcass has to be
carried. If you decide to butcher the pig outside, a sheltered pen can be built near the area you will work
to cut it up.
 There are two ways to remove the skin and hair. One is by manually skinning the pig, which actually
requires less effort, and the other is by using a scalding procedure. These will be detailed later in this
chapter, but keep in mind that if you choose to use the scalding method, you will need a convenient heating
arrangement, such as a scalding vat, and an efficient way of swinging the carcass into the boiling water
with a block and tackle or some other apparatus.
A proper set of butchering tools includes sticking knives, skinning knives, boning knives, butcher
knives, a steel sharpener, meat saws, and meat hooks. Other useful items include thermometers, a meat
grinder, meat needles for sewing rolled cuts, hair scrapers, hand wash tubs, clean dry towels, soap, and
vats with hot and cold water.
Providing a proper location and sharp tools will aid in more efficient slaughtering and less time spent
looking for items at critical moments.

Care Before Butchering

Two to three days before butchering, confine the pig in a small solitary pen. Provide plenty of fresh water,
but restrict feed 24 hours before butchering so the pig has less material in its stomach and intestines.
Providing a cool and calm environment several days beforehand will keep the pig rested and quiet. Never
attempt to butcher a pig that is overheated, excited, or fatigued. When the body temperature is above
normal, the meat easily becomes feverish and is difficult to chill properly; poorly chilled meat cannot be
properly cured. This increase in temperature can cause the meat to spoil or be tainted before it is cut up.
Some spoilage and low-quality meat can be directly attributed to natural forms of bacteria that have
been allowed to develop and multiply. The bacteria that is found in the blood and tissues of a live pig
must be held in check to prevent it from multiplying until the meat is cured. This is one reason butchering
was historically done in the early spring or late fall of the year when the weather was cool. Think of it as
a race between the bacterial action in the blood and tissues that want to multiply and the curing agents
used, such as salt, cold water, and other factors, which depress bacterial growth. You need to win this
race.

Dispatching Your Pig

When the butchering tools are laid out, the table is thoroughly washed with soap and dried, enough help is
on hand, dripping pans are ready to catch blood, ice is in the cooling vat, and everything is in place, you
can dispatch your pig.
This is perhaps the most critical time in the whole process, and if you feel uncomfortable sticking a
knife into the throat of a live pig, you may want to have someone else adept at the task handle this part of
the process. This should be arranged prior to this day and not be a last-minute decision.
Stun or shoot the hog at a point near the intersection of the two imaginary lines, just above the eyes and at the center of the forehead.
After the pig is unconscious, tie the rear feet with a chain or sturdy rope and raise it. Use your sticking knife positioned between the lower jaw
and breastbone and press the blade deep into the center of the neck. Make a small vertical incision to sever the jugular vein. This will release a
large quantity of blood, which can then be caught in a pan or tub.

Butchering a pig by only sticking it with a knife is the most practical, efficient, and humane method of
killing a pig. Other methods, such as shooting, are less reliable unless the pig is very agitated. A good
bleed is difficult to obtain when the pig is shot because the heart stops and no longer pumps blood through
the body. If you shoot the pig, you will need to rely on gravity to drain most of the blood from the carcass
rather than being assisted by heart action.
You can stick the pig either in a raised or prone position, depending on whether or not you have
equipment to raise it in the air. To hoist the pig in the air, a chain or straps can be looped between the
hock and the hoof in order not to bruise the hams. The pig has less ability to free itself if hanging upside
down than if it is rolled on its back and the feet are held by several people while one person sticks it.
This upside down posture tends to immobilize the pig and makes the actions with your knife easier and
safer for you. The most satisfactory bleed occurs when a pig’s head hangs downward. Be aware that this
position will be very uncomfortable for the pig and it will typically flail its feet that are free. The feet
must be firmly immobilized, as they can be used by the pig to defend itself.
After the bleeding has stopped, place the carcass on a table or rack. The V-shaped trough shown here can be made for use with pigs, sheep,
deer, goats, or veal calves.

When the pig is safely immobilized, press the sharp blade edge of the sticking knife in front of the point
of the breastbone and quickly slide it in to make a short vertical incision about 4 inches long in the center
of the neck. This should sever the jugular veins and release large quantities of blood. Having tubs placed
below to catch the blood will make cleaning up easier and allow you to work around the pig in dry
conditions. The knife should not be inserted too far into the neck so that it enters the chest cavity, as this
will cause internal bleeding and blood clots.
Do not stick the heart, as it is needed to continue working properly to pump out the blood as rapidly as
possible. Cutting the heart will cause internal bleeding and create lower quality meat. The key to this
phase is to get a good bleed as quickly as possible. When the blood flow has stopped or slowed to a drip,
your pig can be moved to a table where it can be skinned, which requires less time and effort than
scalding it.
Skinning is the easiest way to remove the hair and hide if it is not used for tanning. Begin by making a vertical cut down the midline, knife
blade out, of the carcass from the jowl to the pelvis, but avoid cutting through the abdominal wall.

Skinning
Skinning is the removal of the hide from the pig and takes off the outside layer without using hot water or
the extra effort of scraping the hair. Most home butchering will not require the use of the skin, which is
generally discarded. In the past, the skin was left on the bacon and hams to protect them, but this is not
required with modern refrigeration.
When skinning a pig it’s important to remove the skin from the belly without puncturing the abdomen
with your knife. This is best accomplished by laying the carcass on a table or trolley for suspending it at
an appropriate work height.
Remove the front feet by cutting at a point just below the back of the knee joint. Severing the tendons will allow you to break the joint
forward. Then cut completely through the exposed joint to sever the foot. Do the same with the rear feet.
Begin the skinning process by pulling the skin up and away from the carcass, and make slow, sweeping motions between the skin and body
with your skinning knife. Applying an outward pressure with you knife blade while skinning will help avoid cutting into the carcass.

With a short skinning knife, begin your first cuts at the rear ankles and slice completely around them,
but avoid cutting the tendons above the hocks. Cut down the inside center of each leg to a point below the
pelvis and avoid deep cuts into the meat. Do the same with the front legs and cut to a center point at the
base of the chest. Use your knife to score a line down the center of the belly, from the anus to the base of
the chest, without penetrating the abdominal wall. Start at the chest and create tension on the skin by
pulling it away with one hand as you slice with the other. This tension will help separate the skin from the
body.
When finished with both front legs, start on the belly and slowly work to the rear, pulling the skin away
from the center until you reach the base. Do the same with the other side. Start at the top of the rear legs
by pulling the skin over the hams. At this point, the skin should be loose from the belly and legs, and by
pulling downward and slicing the skin, the weight of the skin will create tension to help with the rest of
the process. Once the skin is completely removed, it can be set aside.
As you work the length of the carcass, avoid contaminating it with hair or dirt from the skin. Have clean water nearby to wash your free hand.
Also, wash your knife frequently. If the carcass is on its back, you will need to turn it or raise it to finish removing the skin. Be sure the surface
where you lay the partially skinned carcass is clean.

Scalding
If you do not want to use the skin for any further processes, such as tanning, you can dispense with
scalding the pig. If you choose to scald the carcass, having the proper equipment makes the job easier, and
you can use a tank or barrel for this step. The tank needs to be filled with water brought to a boil prior to
immersing your pig. The water can be brought to a boil by using a pit fire underneath the tank, a gas or
propane heater, or other means to safely raise the water temperature. This saves time in keeping the
process moving because it is difficult to raise the water temperature once the pig is immersed in the
water. The water should be kept at between 150 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit.
 If you are using a long horizontal tank, rotate the carcass until the hair starts to slip. If using a barrel,
first lower the head into the water while the feet and legs are dry. Then turn it around, placing the meat
hooks in the lower jaw and lower the rear end into the boiling water. This is a more difficult method but
will work if no other tank is available. Using an accurate thermometer will help you maintain the
temperature, making the scalding easier and eliminating the chance of the hair setting tight against the skin.
After lifting the carcass from the scalding water, wash it clean with hot water, scrape off any remaining
scruff, and rinse it down again with cold water.
Be very careful when working with boiling water, as any spills can be harmful to you or anyone else
helping. An accidental tipping of a barrel of boiling water can create hazardous conditions.

Scraping
Scraping the hair off the skin is the next step of the butchering process, and some of it can be done while
the pig is still in the scalding vat when you are ready to lift the carcass out and place it out on the table.
Using a scraper, start first at the head and feet, as these areas are the first to cool. Your scraping strokes
should go in the direction the hair lays, as it will come off easier. After the hair has been removed, use
your scraper in a circular motion to work out dirt or scruff that may be imbedded in the skin. A soft bristle
brush is useful for cleaning up the carcass once the hair is removed. Any stray bristles of hair can be
removed with a little hot water and a sharp knife.
Use a clean chain, rope, or gambrel to lift the carcass to allow easier removal of the remaining skin. To use a gambrel, make a slit in front of
the rear leg bones without cutting the tendons. Place the gambrel points in the slits and raise the carcass. The tendons are strong enough to
hold the heavy carcass while suspended if they haven’t been cut.

Hanging
If the pig is laid out on the table, locate the area between the foot and the hock on the rear legs. Make deep
cuts up the center of the bone on each leg to find three tendons. Use your fingers to pull the tendons out
and slip the gambrel stick through one tendon and then the other. These tendons are strong enough to hold a
hanging carcass while you open up the body cavity. Before you make any cuts and incisions to open the
carcass, be sure all knives and butchering tools have been scalded and cleaned. Any knife or other tool to
be used should be scalded again before use if they have been dropped on the floor. From here on,
cleanliness is absolutely essential.

The head can be removed before skinning or after the carcass is raised. If left until skinning is finished, remove it by making a cut behind the
ears between the axis and atlas joint and around the lower jaw to sever it. The axis joint is the first cervical vertebrae. Then remove the cheek
muscles, tongue, and fat.

Removing the Head

Removing the head first accomplishes two things: It gets it out of the way and aids in quickly cooling the
carcass. It also permits blood to completely drain from the carcass. Begin by cutting above the ears at the
first joint of the backbone and then across the back of the neck. When you reach the windpipe and throat,
cut through them and the head will drop, but don’t slice the head completely off just yet. Pull down on the
ears and continue your cut around the ears to the eyes and then toward the point of the jawbone. When you
slice through the last part of the skin at the end of the jaw, the head will come free, but the jowls will still
be attached. Wash the head quickly and trim it as soon as possible.

Begin evisceration by cutting around the anus to loosen the muscles holding it. Tie the anus shut.

Splitting the Carcass

Splitting the carcass is easiest to accomplish when it is suspended. Cut a clean line down the center of the
belly between the hams to the sticking point at the base of the chest, but do not cut through the belly wall.
To split the breastbone, place the heel of your knife against the bone and cut outward. You may have to
work the blade to split the breastbone and divide the first pair of ribs. If your knife will not cut through
the breastbone, you may need to use a saw to cut it.
 In either case, you should avoid cutting past the upper portion of the breastbone and into the stomach.
This is a thin area, and you do not want to cut the stomach open. By cutting through the breastbone and
first rib, you will open the chest cavity sufficiently to allow any blood that has accumulated to drain out.

A castrated male pig, or barrow, will have the penis and sheath still intact. This should be removed like the skin by cutting upward toward the
anus until it is severed. It can be finally removed where it is attached at the aitchbone.
 After splitting the breastbone, make an incision near the top of the abdominal wall to pull the skin
outward with your fingers. Gravity will pull the intestines down toward the bottom of the chest cavity and
leave room for you to insert the knife and your free hand. Grip the handle of the knife with the blade
turned toward you. You will slice downward and cut with the heel of the blade and push the intestines
away from the knife as you slice down the belly. Keep the intestines away from the blade so that you don’t
cut them and spill their contents, which can contaminate the cavity. As you reach the parted breastbone,
the intestines will fall forward and downward. They are still attached by muscle fiber and will not fall
far. This is an easier method than drawing the knife upward to slice open the belly. Although it is a bit
awkward, it minimizes the chance of puncturing the intestines.
The next step is to split the aitchbone. This will separate the hips and make the cut down the spine
easier. A tub should be placed under the carcass to catch the viscera as you pull the kidneys, heart, liver,
and stomach toward the opening. First, make a cut in the center between the two hams until you reach the
aitchbone. This can be severed either with the heel of the blade or with a meat saw. At this point, the
intestines are still suspended by the gut leading to the anus. Before you make a cut around this, tie the end
of the anus securely with a cord to keep any fecal contents from falling out. Start in front and cut
completely around the anus until it is free. This should allow the viscera to fall outward and downward.
The diaphragm will now be exposed, and you will see the gullet that leads to the stomach. When you
sever the gullet, the entire mass of viscera should come free and drop into the tub.

The sternum can be split while the carcass is on its back or after it has been lifted. This will allow access to the thoracic cavity once the
abdominal wall is opened.
Open the abdomen by starting at a midline point at the pelvis. Once you carefully slice an opening large enough to insert your hand and knife,
turn the blade outward while holding the heel with your hand on the inside. Use your hand to hold back the intestines as you slice down the
midline in a smooth, continuous motion until reaching the opening of the thoracic cavity.

You can place the viscera on a table to cut off the liver and wash it in clean, cold water. Trim out the
gallbladder and remove the spleen. The stomach should be tied off with a cord and cut free. The heart and
lungs should still be inside the carcass cavity at this point, located in front of the diaphragm. Make an
incision in the diaphragm where the red muscle joins the connective tissue. This will expose the heart and
lungs, which should be pulled downward and cut free from the backbone. Trim any fat off the heart and
lungs and wash them with cold water.
 If you plan to use the intestines for sausage casing, they will have to be cleaned and rinsed with a salt
solution several times. The easiest way to do this is to turn them inside out after cutting them into several
lengths and scrape off the mucous coating. Generally, the small intestines are used for sausages, so tie off
the large intestine and sever it from the small intestines and discard it. The heart and liver can be saved
and ground in with meat for sausage.

As you slice down, the viscera will fall down and out, but because they are held by connective tissue, they will not come out completely. Sever
the connective tissues to allow the intestines and internal organs to fall free from the body cavity. Have a tub placed under the carcass before
making this cut to catch the viscera.
Splitting the Backbone
The hanging carcass should be split apart while it is still warm. First, wash the inside of the carcass
cavity and, using either a hand or electric meat saw, slice down the center of the backbone. Be sure to
make a straight cut, or you may damage some of the loin areas. You can leave about 12 inches of skin
uncut at the shoulders to keep the carcass from separating if you are concerned about it slipping off the
gambrel. If you are not concerned about it slipping, continue to separate the back.
If you choose, the hams can be partially filleted while the carcass is suspended. Start your cut at the
flank and continue to follow the curvature of the ham until you reach the pelvis; do the same on the other
side.

Chilling
Your carcass is now ready to be chilled. A cold carcass is easier to trim and cut up than a warm one.
Cooling it quickly also minimizes bacterial growth and souring of the meat. It is easier to cool the carcass
when it has been split apart, as the air circulates around more of the body.
To properly chill your carcass, have a separate tub or vat large enough to completely submerse both
halves in ice water maintained at a temperature between 34 to 38 degrees Fahrenheit for a minimum
period of 24 hours. If you are using a refrigerator, it is possible to maintain a temperature of 38 degrees
Fahrenheit at the bone within 12 to 24 hours. Chilled carcasses should not be worked with until all the
tissue heat is gone. When it is thoroughly chilled, you are ready to cut up the carcass.

Cutting the Carcass

Before you begin to cut up the carcass, make sure you have sharp knives and several tubs available with
cold water mixed with salt to start the curing process. One cup salt for 2 gallons of water is a good
mixture. There are many ways of creating salt brines for curing meat. Too little salt may result in spoilage,
while too much salt creates hard, dry, over-salty meat.
If you use a meat saw to make the cuts, you should scrape the bone dust from the cuts after sawing. This
mixture of small particles of meat and bone results from sawing. Cleaning off the saw blades or the cuts
makes them less “crunchy” and reduces the chances of creating a bacterial haven.
To begin fabrication, place one carcass side on a clean table. There are four major cuts to be made to separate the ham, shoulder, loin, and
belly. To remove the ham, make a cut perpendicular to the leg bone from 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches anterior to the aitchbone.

Place one side of the carcass on a clean table, and start by removing the front and rear feet. Using the
meat saw, cut off the legs at the hocks and the knees. The hind feet are generally not used because they
contain a very high proportion of bone to edible meat. However, the front feet have a larger percentage of
muscle to bone and can be used as pickled pigs’ feet or trimmed and used for sausage.
Separate the shoulder from the loin by sawing between the second and third rib, perpendicular to the back. This will separate the Boston butt
and picnic shoulder from the belly and loin.

The next step is to remove the ham. Begin with a cut at a point about 21/2 inches in front of the tip of the
aitchbone and then cut through the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae. After the bone has been severed with a
saw, use a knife to complete the cut through the rest of the tissue. Trim off most of the fat, but leave about
1/4 inch on the whole ham. The pelvic bone will still be part of the ham and may be a problem in
packaging or cooking because of its large size. You can trim out the bone and cut the ham into smaller
pieces for easier cooking and packaging. You can also make bone-in roasts by cutting across the face of
the ham to create ham steaks.
The next step is to saw off the shoulder at the third rib, counting from the neck. The shoulder has two
major primal cuts—the Boston butt and the picnic shoulder—and three minor cuts—the neck bones, the
jowl, and the clear plate. The shoulder can be kept whole, cured, smoked, or it can be divided into
Boston butt and pork shoulder picnic.
The hog carcass anatomy in relation to the primal cuts.

The first step in cutting the shoulder is to remove the neck bones. There will be seven neck vertebrae,
regardless of the length of neck. Trim these out as completely as possible. The neck bones can be used for
soup stock or sauces, or may be barbequed.
To remove the jowl, cut at the fat immediately above the foreshank and continue across the top portion
of the shoulder. Trim out as much of the muscle as possible. This piece can be smoked or used in sausage.
The clear plate is a fat cut, much like that of backfat. It is removed from the top part of the shoulder by
trimming close to the Boston butt. This large fat piece can be trimmed of any lean and the rest discarded
or rendered, if you choose.
Divide the shoulder into picnic and Boston butt by cutting about 1 inch below the shoulder blade and
parallel with the breast. The most popular cut of the Boston butt is the pork shoulder blade steak, which
contains only one blade bone. Square the picnic by sawing off the foreleg. Most bones in the shoulder are
located in the picnic, including the foreshank bone and the arm bone. First remove the foreshank, which is
high in connective tissue, before removing the arm bone.
Removing the jowl begins at the fat collar immediately above the foreshank and continues straight across the top part of the shoulder. This
should be trimmed of muscle and the fat set aside for sausage making.
After removing the jowl, remove the clear plate, a fat cut much like the backfat, from the shoulder. The shoulder is composed of two
wholesale cuts, the Boston butt and the picnic shoulder.
Separate the Boston butt and picnic shoulder by cutting 1 inch below the shoulder blade toward the leg and parallel with the sternum. Make
the first cut with a knife, and then with a saw to sever the blade bone. Continue to trim excess fat down to 1/4 inch or less when making your
cuts.
Separate the loin from the side (belly) by making a long, straight cut from the first rib (anterior) close to the backbone to the ham end, where
the cut will be next to and closely follow the tenderloin, without cutting into or scoring the tenderloin.
 The loin is usually the most valuable cut in the pork carcass and may be about 16 percent of the
carcass weight. The pork loin is a longer area of the carcass than that of the beef or lamb loin. The loin is
separated from the shoulder by sawing across the third rib.
To separate the loin from the ribs, make a straight cut from a point close to the lower edge of the
backbone at the shoulder to a point just below the tenderloin muscle from which the ham was cut. The
spareribs and belly are now separated from the loin. When trimming the loin, leave about 1/4 inch of fat.
The trimmed pork loin has a center that is higher valued than the two ends, which include muscles from
the leg or ham and shoulder.
The whole pork loin is comprised of a blade section, a center section, and a sirloin section. The whole loin can be cut into bone-in pork chops
or roasts. Or if preferred, the bones can be removed to make boneless pork chops or loin roasts.

Begin your cuts with the end of the loin that was nearest the shoulder. Make cuts between each rib bone
and the attached cartilage to create blade chops until you reach the fifth rib. The loin from the fifth to the
tenth ribs will yield the center-cut loin chops, which are very desirable because they contain the
tenderloin. The cuts from the rear end of the loin are referred to as sirloin chops, which contain portions
of the eye and tenderloin, the top sirloin muscle, and hipbone.
The portion left is the belly or side. This will contain parts of the ribs that must be trimmed. You can
use a straight knife and cut between the backfat and the belly to remove the ribs. The length of the ribs and
the width of the belly will be determined by the location of the cut you made to separate the loin. You
should remove all remaining bones and cartilage with the spareribs, because these will make very
unpalatable bacon.
Once the spareribs have been removed, you can slice the belly or side into strips for bacon. You
should square up the belly by trimming the outside parts evenly. This will remove any rudimentary
mammary glands and teat lines that remain. The most common use of the belly is to cure and smoke it for
bacon. Some people enjoy fresh pork belly, also called side pork, which may also be sliced. Most bellies
are skinned before being cured and smoked.
 The spareribs may be cured and smoked but can also be used fresh and barbequed. Generally,
spareribs are cut into portions containing between two to six ribs.

Bacon is made from the belly after the spare ribs have been removed. Square up the belly, trim the fat, and remove any rudimentary mammary
glands and teat lines. It is then ready for smoking and curing.
The spareribs are removed from the belly after the belly is separated from the loin. Be sure to trim out all bone and cartilage from the belly,
as this is not desirable in bacon.

Roast Spareribs
2 lbs. spareribs
Salt and pepper
1 c. bread crumbs
1/4 t sp. sage

1/4 t sp. minced onion

Place spareribs in a shallow baking dish, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Roast at 350ºF, allowing 40 to 45 minutes per pound. Allow 1
pound per serving.

Cover spareribs and roast for 3/4 hour, then roast uncovered for remaining time. Just before taking meat from oven, sprinkle with 1 cup
bread crumbs seasoned with 1/4 teaspoon each of sage and minced onion. Baste with drippings in pan and return to oven 5 minutes longer.

Variations: Stuffed spareribs—Use 2 matching sections of spareribs. Sew the edges together, except at one end. Fill with bread stuffing,
celery stuffing, apple stuffing, or other desired. Sew or skewer the edges together. Bake at 325ºF for 11/2 hours.

Braised spareribs—Place spareribs in a baking dish and brown in hot oven at 450ºF. Season with salt and pepper, add 1/2 cup water, cover
pan, and return to oven. Reduce temperature to 325ºF and continue cooking until tender, about 50 minutes longer.

With sauerkraut—Brown spareribs. Place sauerkraut in a greased baking dish. Sprinkle with brown sugar. Add 1/2 cup water and arrange
spareribs on top. Cover dish and cook at 350ºF for 1 hour.

Stuffed Pork Chops

6 double pork chops
2 c. bread crumbs
3/4 t sp. salt

1/4 t sp. pepper

11/2 t bsp. minced parsley

1 t sp. sage
1 t bsp. grat ed onion
3 t bsp. milk
Fat

Cut a pocket on the bone side of each chop. Combine next 7 ingredients and mix well. Stuff each chop with mixture. Brown chops in fat,
season, add a little water, and bake at 350ºF about 1 hour or until tender. Serves 6.

Baked Ham
1 smoked ham
Glaze
Whole cloves

Have ham warmed to room temperature and bake, allowing 15 minutes per pound for hams 12 pounds or over. Allow 18 minutes per
pound for hams under 12 pounds, and allow 22 minutes per pound for half hams. Or bake to an internal temperature of 150ºF, being sure
bulb of thermometer is inserted into center of thickest part of meat and does not touch bone. Bake at 300ºF until within 45 minutes of total
baking time. Spread with desired glaze. Bake uncovered at 325ºF for remaining 45 minutes.

Pork Tenderloin
1 lb. t enderloin
Flour
3 t bsp. bacon drippings
Salt and pepper
3/4 c. sour cream

Cut tenderloin crosswise into 2-inch pieces. Flatten out and dredge into flour. Place in hot pan or skillet containing drippings. Brown on
both sides; season with salt and pepper. Reduce heat, add cream, cover, and simmer 30 minutes. Serves 6.

Boiled Pigs’ Feet

6 pigs’ f eet
11/2 t bsp. salt

Scrape feet, wash thoroughly, and tie each separately in a piece of cheesecloth. Cover with boiling water and add salt. Heat to boiling,
reduce heat, and simmer 6 hours. Cool in the water. When cold, drain, but do not remove cloth. Chill. Use for broiling, frying, or pickling.
Serves 6.

Pigs’ Knuckles and Sauerkraut

4 pigs’ knuckles
3 t sp. salt
2 qt s. boiling wat er
1 qt . sauerkraut

Place whole knuckles in boiling salt water. Cover and simmer until meat is tender, about 21/2 to 3 hours. Twenty minutes before serving,
pour off most of the water and add sauerkraut. Heat thoroughly. Serve the meat on a bed of sauerkraut. Serves 4.

Headcheese
1 hog’s head
1 hog’s t ongue
Salt and pepper
Sage or chili powder

Clean and scrape hog’s head and wash thoroughly. Wash and trim tongue. Cover head and tongue with slightly salted water and simmer
until meat falls from bone. Drain meat, shred, and season with sage or chili powder. Pack tightly in bowl, cover, and weight it down. Let
stand 3 days in a cold place. Slice. Makes 6 to 8 pounds.

Glazes
• 1 c. brown sugar, juice, and grated rind of 1 orange
• 1 c. brown or white sugar and 1/2 c. maraschino cherry juice, cider, or sweet pickle juice from pickled fruit
• 1 c. honey
• 1 c. brown sugar, 1 tbsp. mustard
• 1 c. puréed apricots, rhubarb, or applesauce
• 1 glass currant jelly, melted
• 1/2 c. orange marmalade
• 3/4 c. pineapple juice, 3/4 c. strained honey, and 1/2 tsp. mustard cooked until thick
• 1/2 c. maple syrup, 1/2 c. cider or apple juice, and 2 tbsp. mustard
• Cook 1/2 pound fresh cranberries with 1 c. maple syrup until skins pop open. Press mixture through sieve and spread over ham.
 Chapter 6

POULTRY AND OTHER FOWL

B utchering poultry and other fowl has been a human experience for thousands of years. Throughout the
world, chickens are common livestock in agrarian cultures. The eggs and meat they provide are an
important source of protein. As recently as 70 years ago, it was still very common on U.S. farms for
chickens to be butchered at home. Providing meals for large gatherings, such as wedding dinners or for
crews harvesting crops, meant chickens were butchered in the morning and served later that day. Today,
refrigeration allows at-home butchering to be done anytime and the poultry or fowl are frozen for use
throughout the year.
In the United States overall consumption of chicken has greatly increased in the last 10 years. Several
reasons account for this increased consumption including lower fat content of the meat, lower store price,
and the versatility of use in meat dishes.
Many cities and villages have adopted ordinances to allow raising backyard poultry. This is most often
for egg production; however, once the hens reach the end of their productive egg-laying life, they are
generally culled and can be butchered. Understanding the procedures for safely handling poultry and other
fowl, allows you to harvest your own at a convenient time that fits your schedule with little or no special
equipment.
St art wit h healt hy chickens f or home but chering, eit her by raising t hem yourself or purchasing t hem f rom ot her growers.
Wit hhold f eed f or eight t o t welve hours bef ore but chering, but allow f ull access t o wat er. A well-grown, 7-pound bird can have a
dressing yield of 70 percent , giving you a 5-pound carcass.

Raising Poultry
Raising poultry and other domesticated fowl is relatively easy. You will need to provide the basics of
food, shelter, and water, but, by and large, poultry are very self-sufficient. Many books and guides are
available on how to raise poultry and other fowl (including Voyageur Press’ How to Raise Poultry), and
you should consult them.
 Selecting Healthy Birds
Whether you are purchasing live birds for slaughter or raising them yourself, make sure you choose healthy birds. Considerations for
selecting or raising healthy birds are:

• Purchase chicks from reputable companies or farmers.

• Consider available space for number of birds desired.
• Observe daily for any physical, respiratory, or digestive abnormalities.
• Select meat-type breeds for home butchering.
• Feed proper nutritional ration to reach target weights in about 7 weeks of age.

If you raise poultry, some breeds are good for laying eggs, others for meat production, and some that
are good for both. Some breeds are deep-sided and rangy, some have a thin meat, and others are thick-
meated and full-breasted. Deciding which of these characteristics are most important to you will largely
determine which breed you choose to raise. Laying hens can later be used for meat, and meat hens can be
used for modest egg production. If your layers are finished producing eggs, you can place them on a
special finishing ration to develop their muscles for butchering.
Home-grown poultry and fowl typically receive a varied diet when compared to their counterparts
raised in confinement. A varied diet tends to allow their muscles to grow in a rhythm more in line with
their natural body processes. While they may take a little longer to reach a desired body weight, the
exercise they receive in open spaces will increase the muscle density, yielding a more substantial flavor
when compared to commercial broiler production.

Purchasing Birds
If you don’t wish to raise them yourself, you may be able to purchase birds for butchering from local
farmers. This will reduce your feeding and housing needs, but not necessarily be less costly than raising
them yourself. If its flavor and texture you’re looking for, then the cost of raising them will seem minimal.
If purchasing birds to butcher, make sure they are healthy and free of any physical defects, such as
damaged limbs, wings, or skin tears. Breaks or bruises will have some impact on the quality of muscle
you will harvest as meat. Healthy birds will give you healthy meat; unhealthy birds will not.
You may be able to buy whole dressed birds and finish cutting up the birds yourself. If purchasing this
way, keep the carcasses cold during transport and until you are ready to cut them up. Time and
temperature will be your two biggest allies in processing your chickens, but they can also be your two
biggest concerns in regard to food safety.
Chickens may be kept in their coop until needed, or you can move them into a more confined area where they may be easier to catch.
Depending on the number of people helping, you may want to divide the work into equal sessions. For example, start with four birds and
complete all the steps from head removal to ice chest before beginning work on a second group.

Butchering Basics
There is more than one way to butcher chickens, and you can make the process as elaborate as you wish,
but a simple procedure is explained here. Processing poultry requires four basic steps, which should be
done in separate areas to prevent contamination:
1. Slaughtering
2. Scalding and plucking feathers
3. Eviscerating (cutting open and removing the internal organs) and washing
4. Chilling and packaging
Arrange your work area prior to starting to help move the process along swiftly and safely. If properly
done, your processing can be a pleasant experience.
Assemble your equipment and lay it out before you begin. Use a sturdy table for cutting up the carcass. Supplies should include soap; pans for
icing internal body parts, such as the heart, liver, and gizzard; clean water; towels; and any other item you may want handy.

Equipment Needed
The tools, knives, and equipment needed for processing a few birds is often less than if you are handling
many birds, although the processing principles are the same.
Use sharp knives for working with the carcasses. These can include a straight boning knife shown on the left, a meat shears for cutting
cartilage and bone, a butchering knife, a steel for sharpening knives during use, and a small, folding knife. Other knives can be used as needed.

In the most basic operation, you will need knives for eviscerating and cutting, an axe and chopping
block for removing the heads, several five-gallon pails, a scalding tub, heating coil, a propane tank, a
canvas or tarpaulin, and a sturdy table. Your chopping block will work best if you pound two large nails
into it at distance of about 1 or 2 inches apart, depending on the size of the birds. For ducks and geese,
you may want to increase that width an inch.
The area you use for processing should be clean, have plenty of water available, and be as free from
flies and insects as possible. Working early in the morning is often a good idea if you expect flies and
insects to be a problem later in the day. Scrub tables with soap, water, and a diluted chlorine solution
prior to use. If this is not possible, use a disposable plastic cover.
Sharpen and sanitize all knives before starting. Keep in a clean and accessible area.
 You can use galvanized or plastic garbage cans or pails to hold the cooling water. Be sure these
containers have been thoroughly washed, sanitized, and rinsed with clean water before they are refilled
with carcasses to be chilled. Set up similar cans, pails, or plastic-lined boxes to use for feathers and
unwanted body parts. While butchering, keep a water thermometer handy for checking the scalding water,
which should be kept between 120 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit.
Keep your packing materials close by. Have plastic-lined boxes or portable coolers filled with ice
where you can cool the eviscerated carcasses quickly.
Make a list of all things needing to be done. This will allow you to envision the process from
beginning to end. It is better to make adjustments at this stage than when the processing begins. Identify
areas where the potential for contamination may exist, and keep these in mind as you are working so you
can avoid them. Once all your equipment is clean and set out, you are ready to begin.

Other equipment or supplies may include 5-gallon pails for bleeding the birds. Using a tarpaulin on which you can pluck feathers will make for
easier cleaning later. The feathers can be composted or placed in a plastic-lined bin for disposal.

Handling and Slaughtering

The chickens or other fowl you choose for slaughter should be taken off feed between 8 to 12 hours
beforehand. Always provide them access to water. The removal of feed allows time for the crop and
digestive tract to empty, helping prevent contamination during butchering. Birds can be kept in the same
area used for housing them and then moved into a smaller, more accessible enclosure when ready to
begin.
The method you use to slaughter the bird may involve an axe, a killing cone, or suspending them by
their feet with a shackle or cord. Using an axe will require some coordination with a heavy blade, wood
block, and an agitated bird that may not wish to cooperate. Safety with a sharp axe blade is very
important, and it may help to restrain or tie the feet and legs of the bird together. If you feel you can hold
the feet and legs steady while chopping off the head, you may not need to use any other restraints.
However, several other methods can be used, such as wrapping the body in a linen sack or cloth. This
will hold the wings close to the body and immobilize them. Once the head is chopped off, you will need
to hold the bird by the legs for a few moments until its reflexes stop.
A cone is a safe and effective aid in restraining the bird for butchering. It is a large funnel in which the
bird is placed upside down with its head falling through the small opening at the bottom. This method
accomplishes several objectives by restraining the bird safely, preventing damage to its body, and using
the downward pressure of its weight to force the blood toward its head to aid in bleeding.
Shackles or cords can be used to hold the feet steady and keep the legs apart as the bird is suspended
upside down. A clothesline or other sturdy design can be used to hold a bird off the ground and will allow
you unencumbered movements around it. Suspending the bird at your eye level will help with the process.
If using this method, allow time for the bird to settle down before beginning.
The butchering process proceeds quickly once the head is removed. Before you begin, make sure the water temperature in the scalding tank is
between 120 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit. A simple method is to set up an open flame heater fueled by bottled propane that can be regulated.
Plucking feathers will be easier if the water is maintained at a constant temperature during the entire butchering session.

You can use a wood block with two nails set 1 to 2 inches apart to chop off the heads of your chickens. A sharp hatchet will make a swift,
efficient cut to remove the head.

Whether using an axe, cone, or shackles, you want to have a clean and humane kill. With an axe, you
can chop against a wood block with one quick motion. Hold the bird tightly by the feet and legs with your
free hand. Place its head on the wood block between the nails and stretch out the neck by pulling back on
the legs. One quick chop with the axe should be sufficient.
Begin by grasping the chicken’s feet and hold it upside down to immobilize it until you place its head on the block. Stretch the neck by pulling
on the legs as the head is held between the nails. One swift chop should be sufficient to sever the head from the body. Be sure to keep your
hand and fingers clear of the hatchet.

If using either a cone or shackles, you have ready access to the neck of the bird. There are several
options for killing the animal. The simplest is to sever the head completely. Another option is to sever the
jugular veins. This is done by making a cut just behind the jaw. This cut should sever the veins without
cutting the esophagus or windpipe. Cutting only the neck vein, reduces the chance of carcass
contamination by blood being drawn into the air sacs. This is a humane method because the bird is
unconscious due to the loss of blood from the brain.
To do this, hold the beak with one hand and pull down slightly to steady the bird. There are two veins
in the neck leading to the head, and both pass near an ear lobe. Be sure to hold the front part of the head
firmly to avoid cutting your hand. Press the point of the knife into the flesh, lift the handle upward, and cut
downward with the blade severing the veins. This should result in a good bleed. If not, try again until
there is free bleeding.

Bleeding the Bird

It will not take long to bleed the bird. However, it is still important that your bird is killed in a manner
that allows as much of the blood to drain from the body as possible while preventing damage to the
carcass. Only about 50 percent of the blood is actually removed from a bird. What remains does no harm
if the carcass is to be cooked immediately. Since blood spoils more quickly than other parts, it is
beneficial to remove as much blood as possible to lengthen the shelf life for either fresh or frozen poultry
or fowl.

Once the head is removed, hold the bird upside down in a 5-gallon pail or similar container for 15 seconds to begin the bleed. The bird’s
reflexes will continue to flap the wings, but the confinement will eliminate or greatly reduce any damage to the bird. They can remain in the
pail or container until you are ready to scald the carcass.

Be aware that any method that involves beheading or breaking the neck will accomplish the killing but
will not produce the same type of bleeding as severing the jugular veins because the heart stops when the
spinal cord is severed.
If you are removing the heads, you can bleed the birds by placing them upside down in a 5-gallon pail
once the head is off. Hold them by their legs until their reflexes stop to prevent any damage to their body
and leave them in the pail until you are ready to scald them.
If using a cone or shackles, you can let the blood drop into a container below for easier cleanup. When
the bleeding is finished, you are ready to remove the feathers.

Scalding Carcasses
Birds must be properly bled and all body reflex movements stopped before any scalding should be done.
Hot scalding, with water temperatures above 155 degrees Fahrenheit, is an easy, quick method to remove
feathers. Start by holding the bird tightly by its legs and immerse it neck first into the scalding water. It is
important to get enough water into the feathers. Move the bird up and down and from side to side to get an
even and thorough scalding, which will make the feathers easier to remove. Repeated dips may be
needed, but don’t overdo it to prevent burning.
One simple rule to follow when scalding is that the higher the temperature of the water, the less time of
immersion needed (although another method that involves immersing the carcass for longer periods at
lower temperatures can be successfully used too). You can avoid over-scalding by following the
temperature and time recommendation for the birds you are using. Over-scalding causes the skin to tear
and discolor and gives the bird a cooked appearance; the carcass will lack bloom and turn brown rapidly,
or bright red when frozen.
To scald the carcass, hold the feet and gently dip it into the hot water. Hold for five seconds before pulling out. Then dip again while slowly
moving it from side to side, completely submerging the feathers. Do not overscald the bird.

Water that is hot will cause the outer cuticle layer of the skin to slough off as the feathers are plucked
from the carcass. This cuticle layer is the yellow pigment area commonly seen on dressed chickens. The
use of high temperature for a shorter period of time, while it increases the ease of plucking, risks the loss
of this yellow cuticle layer of the skin, which may result in the skin tearing more easily. If you choose not
to keep the skin, this may not be a concern.
 For young birds with tender skins, the scalding temperature should be between 125 to 130 degrees
Fahrenheit for 30 to 75 seconds. It may reach between 155 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit for older birds for
the same length of time. At this temperature, the cuticle covering the skin typically will be removed.
Feathers from waterfowl, ducks, and geese are more difficult to remove. Scald these birds at higher
temperatures of between 160 to 170 degrees Fahrenheit for 1 to 2 minutes. Waterfowl have natural water
repellant oils in their feathers. You can add detergent to the scalding water used on waterfowl to help the
water penetrate through the feathers.
Fat birds will hold their color longer because the melted fat forms a film over the skin, reducing the
effects of the air. You can increase the yellow coloring on fat birds of the yellow-skinned variety by
dipping them into boiling water and then immediately plunging them into cold water. The hot water melts
the fat and draws it and the yellow pigment to the surface of the skin. The cold water causes the fat to
harden and the color to set in the fat.

Plucking Feathers
Picking off the feathers, or plucking feathers, is the next step. Birds should be plucked immediately after
scalding. You can lay them on a canvas or tarpaulin, or suspend them by their legs to do this. There is no
one correct way to remove the feathers, and all feathers need to be removed.
You can remove the tail and wing feathers first and then the rest of the body feathers. If properly
scalded, the tail and wing feathers can be quickly and easily removed before you move on to the main
body. Chickens and other domestic and wild fowl have pinfeathers, which are tiny, immature feathers
lying below the surface of the larger feathers. They are more difficult to remove because of their size.
Remove them by using a pinning knife or dull knife to gently scrape or pluck them off.
When scalding is complete, begin to remove the feathers by pulling on them. You can place the feathers on the tarpaulin for later disposal. The
large feathers can be removed quickly. If needed, you can quickly dip the carcass again to loosen the rest.
Some pin feathers may remain after plucking. There are several ways to remove them if you choose to keep the skin on, including singeing,
removal with a small knife, or continued plucking by hand. Pin feathers can remain on the carcass through cooking with no effect upon the
meat. Whether you keep the pin feathers completely intact is a matter of personal choice.

Plucking feathers is not hard but takes time and patience. Work quickly and dip the carcass again if
needed to avoid it drying out. You can use a rolling or rocking motion to remove feathers or pull in the
direction they grow to minimize skin tears. If you intend to show your carcass at an exhibition, tears in the
skin need to be avoided because the skin needs to be completely intact.
Inspect the carcass to ensure all feathers have been removed. If some very fine “hairs” remain, you can
remove them by a process called singeing. This is where a gas bottle torch or an open flame on a gas
range can be used to burn them off. The potential for injury to you or your bird by using this method may
not outweigh the advantages of removing every last one, particularly if you don’t intend to eat the skin.
Singeing is usually not necessary on young birds, but more mature chickens and turkeys may have hairs
remaining after the feathers are removed.

Dry-plucking Feathers
Dry-plucking (also called dry-picking) is a process used to remove feathers from birds such as
waterfowl. This involves removing the feathers without first immersing the carcass in water. However,
this method requires a prior process called debraining, which relaxes the feather muscles, aiding in their
removal. This process also requires the bird be suspended so that you can work more easily.
To begin, locate the slit in the roof of the mouth and insert a small-blade knife, blade edge up, into the
cleft in the roof of the mouth at a slight angle. Force it toward the back of the brain with the handle about
parallel to the upper beak. If properly debrained, the bird may give out a peculiar squawk. In contrast, a
turkey will relax its wings and spread out its main tail feathers in the shape of a fan.
 The puncturing of the brain relaxes the feather muscles, causing the feathers to become loose and more
easily plucked. However, this condition generally only lasts about three minutes before the muscles begin
to tighten up. You will need to quickly pluck the feathers with this method.
In dry-picking, it is easiest to remove the feathers in the order in which the parts of the bird bled out,
beginning with the tail because it was bled upside down. Twist out the tail and the main wing feathers
first, and then pluck the breast, neck, back, thighs, and legs. After the large feathers have been removed,
you can begin removing the pinfeathers. Again, handle and pluck the bird so that the outside layer of skin
is free from tears, bruise spots, or abrasions and cuts.
After you have completed plucking the feathers, rinse the carcass with clean water to remove any loose feathers, dirt, blood, or other foreign
matter that may still adhere to it. You are now ready to dress the carcass.

Wax Picking
Wax picking works well to remove small feathers and down from ducks and geese after most feathers
have been removed and the carcass has dried for a short time. Paraffin wax can be heated in a tub
separate from the scalding water to about 135 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit to create a liquid bath. Dip the
bird into the wax bath for 30 to 60 seconds, and then dip it into cold water to set the wax. The wax will
adhere to the dry feathers, down, and stubs, which are very short broken feathers. You may need to dip the
bird a second time if enough wax does not cover the bird.
While the wax is still flexible, you can begin to peel it off. This will remove any feathers, pinfeathers,
hair, and down that has adhered to the wax. Finally, rinse or wash the carcass to remove any remaining
particles and to moisten the carcass again.

Chilling the Carcass

Unless you immediately proceed to cut up the carcass, removing the body heat is important at this stage.
Put the carcasses in a cold water bath with temperatures between 32 to 36 degrees Fahrenheit. Birds
should never be frozen before being chilled down because the meat will be less tender later as the muscle
fibers slide and lock together. Placing the birds in chopped ice will rapidly cool them.

Evisceration
To make your work easier, there is a proper order for evisceration, which is cutting open and removing
the internal organs from the body cavity, plus the removal of the head and feet.
First, remove the head and neck. The head will have been removed if you used an axe and chopping
block earlier. If the bird was suspended by its feet and you simply cut its throat, you will now need to
remove the head and neck.
To remove the head, cut between it and the first neck vertebra, giving it a little twist as you cut. Avoid
cutting through the spine. As you cut through the back of the skin on the neck, peel down the skin and sever
the skin close to the shoulders where it enters the body cavity. This will expose the crop, trachea
(windpipe), and gullet (esophagus). These can be removed by hooking the short gullet with your index
finger and peeling the crop loose from the skin by pulling it out without using a knife. Next, cut off the
neck by cutting into the neck muscle at the shoulder and then twisting it off. You can wash it and set it in a
chilling pan for later.
Next, remove the shanks. To remove the feet, place the bird breast up on a table or a stable cutting
surface while holding a shank (leg) in one hand. Cut through the hock joint by drawing the bottom part
toward you as you cut away.
Begin cutting up the carcass by removing the feet. Make your cuts at the first joint. Feet can be discarded, or they can be used for soup stock.
Next place the carcass breast side up and remove the oil gland in the tail by making a first cut in the anterior portion of the rectum. Cut along
the sides as you pull back on the tail. Sever the oil gland by making a final cut where the tail vertebra joins the backbone.

With the bird breast down on the table, you can remove the oil gland near the tail. The oil gland can be
seen at the base of the tail. Make a forward cut 1 inch from it and cut deep into the tail vertebra, then
follow it to the end of the tail in a scooping motion to remove the gland.
The body cavity can be opened by making a small cut near the rectum. Be careful not to cut the
intestines or contaminate the carcass with fecal material. Two types of cuts can be used to make this
opening, depending how you will use the bird. A midline, vertical, or “J” cut is often used for broilers
and other small poultry not to be trussed when cooked. The traverse or bar cut can be used for turkeys,
capons, or other large fowl.
To make a vertical or midline cut, pull the abdominal skin forward and up away from the tail. Start just
to the right of the breastbone with your knife point and cut through the skin and body wall. Extend the cut
to the tail alongside the vent (rectum). Go slow so that you do not cut the intestine. Cut entirely around the
rectum as you slowly pull it and the end of the intestine out and away from the opening of the body cavity.
The opening created by removing the oil gland should be large enough for you to reach your hand into the body cavity pull out the internal
organs and intestines. Make a short cut with your meat shears if the opening needs to be larger. Draw out the viscera and organs, and place
them on a clean surface.
Open the body cavity using a meat shears, cutting the breastbone lengthwise to the neck if it is still intact. If not, the neck can be cut from the
body now more easily than if done earlier. Then use the shears to cut the bottom half of the body.
The heart, liver, lungs, gizzard, and other organs and viscera should have a healthy look. Examine them. If they appear off-color or any lesions
are noticeable, it may indicate an unhealthy bird, and you may want to consider disposing of it. A healthy bird will have bright-colored, vibrant
organs and viscera.
The gizzard is highly prized by some people. Slice it in half and remove any feed contents that may remain. It should be nearly empty if feed
was withheld for 12 hours prior to butchering. The lining on the inside should be removed before cooking and is easily peeled off.

To make a bar cut, cut a half circle around the rectum next to the tail. Insert your index finger as a guide
to make a complete circle to free the rectum taking care not to cut the intestine.
Next, draw the intestinal tract, the heart, lungs, and liver through this opening. You may insert your
hand to assist in extracting these parts. You can loosen the lungs from the entrance of the shoulder with
your hand if these organs do not easily pull out. When the lungs are loose, you can use a scooping motion
with your fingers to bring out the rest of the viscera (internal organs).
 After the viscera have been removed and placed on a clean table, you can remove the green
gallbladder from the liver. It can either be cut or pinched off. The gizzard, liver, and heart should also be
removed. Cut the gizzard from the intestines and stomach. It can be split lengthwise and the contents
washed away. The lining inside the gizzard should be peeled away and can be easily removed by using
your fingers.
Remove the heart and trim off the sac and heavy vessels around its top. Squeeze it to force out any
remaining blood. Rinse the giblets (heart, gizzard) well and place all the parts in a pan of cool water.
Next, wash the inside of the carcass thoroughly with clean, cold water after you have finished
removing the insides. The carcass is now ready for cooling.

Cooling
After evisceration is complete, cool the carcass as soon as possible by placing it in a cold bath of clean
water at a temperature of 35 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Once cool, it is ready for cooking, freezing, or
cutting it up.
If birds are to be frozen, the gizzard, heart, and liver can be wrapped in waxed paper and placed
inside the body cavity. The birds can then be placed in a moisture and vaporproof bag and frozen. Birds
can be shaped to give them a plump, attractive appearance. Birds for roasting should be trussed by using
cord or wire that is drawn over the fore part of the breast, over the wings, and then crossed over the back.
Then bring the wire over the ends of the drumsticks and tie it tightly at the back of the rump.
You may decide not to cut up the carcasses until all of the butchering, feather plucking, and viscera removal is completed for all the birds. If
you wait to cut up the birds until later, you need to place the whole eviscerated carcasses in cold water to remove the body heat of each bird
as quickly as possible.

Chilling and Packaging

Before packaging a poultry carcass, it should be cooled to below 40 degrees Fahrenheit within two to six
hours after cutting it up to maintain high quality meat and minimize bacterial growth. Small birds can be
chilled in a couple of hours while turkeys, large capons, and roasting birds may require several hours to
reach this temperature. If using a container with ice water, you may need to change the water several
times. Always make sure that the water is clean and your container is large enough to submerge the entire
carcass. For this you can use an ice water bath in an insulated chest, bucket, or other clean container.

Skinning
If you do not wish to use the skin later, you can remove it along with the feathers, saving you the scalding
and feather plucking steps. The birds are killed and bled in the same way as those which have their
feathers plucked.
To skin your bird, begin with a cut into the skin at the bottom of the breastbone with the carcass on its
back and its head away from you. Lift the skin and cut it forward to the front of the neck. Peel the skin and
feathers back with your hands and expose the breast muscles. Use your hands to work the skin loose from
the thighs. Push back the skin to expose the hock joint and then cut through the joint. Remove the skin from
this area on each foot. Next, loosen the skin to the joint between the first and second section of the wing.
Then remove the last two sections of the wing along with the skin.
Loosen the skin at the base of the neck and cut the meat around the base of the neck near the shoulders.
Twist the neck off the carcass. The final cut is the removal of the tail and the attached skin with feathers.
The carcass is now skinless, neckless, tailless, and only has the upper section of the wing left. Remove
the skin with feathers and place the carcass in a pan of clean water while you clean and sanitize your
table or cutting surface before eviscerating the bird.

Cutting Up Birds
Unless you decide to roast the entire bird, you will likely want to cut the carcass into various pieces.
Most of these pieces are made by cuts at certain joints. Breaking down the bird into parts is a simple
procedure using a sharp knife. Typically, the edible yield for fryers and broilers is about 65 percent with
the rest lost as bones and viscera.
Your cuts should leave you with two legs and two breast pieces, as well as assorted internal parts. The heart and liver can be ground up to be
used in sausage or dressing. After your cuts are finished, place those in cold water until you package them.

Legs, Thighs, and Drumsticks

It is easier to cut up the carcass if you remove the wings and legs first. A leg includes the thigh and
drumstick and is removed by making a first cut at the hip joint. The skin on the back or on the pelvic bone
is not included with this cut.
Start by laying the carcass on its back. Cut the skin between the thighs and the body. Then lift the
carcass by holding a leg in each hand. Bend the legs back until the hip joints snap free. This will allow
you to cut each leg off at the joint as close as possible to the backbone.
Next, cut through the knee joint to separate the thigh from the drumstick. If you are unsure of its
location, you can find it by squeezing the thigh and drumstick together. The joint that moves is the one you
are seeking.

Wings
Wings include the entire wing with all muscle and skin intact. You can remove the wing tips, which can be
used for soup stock. Cut through the joint closest to the body to remove them.

Tail
The tail can be removed by cutting along each side and through the joint at the end of the backbone.

Breasts
A breast is separated from the back of the bird at the shoulder. Start by placing the carcass on the neck
end. Cut along the side of the backbone, starting from the tail and continuing through the rib joints to the
neck. Then bend the carcass back to find the joint before cutting through the meat and skin. The ribs may
or may not be removed.
You can split the breast lengthwise by first placing it skin side down. Then cut through the white
cartilage at the V of the neck. You can bend each side back as you push up on the breast from the bottom to
snap the breastbone free. The wishbone is the clavicle and can be removed by severing it from the breast.
Make your cut halfway between the front of the backbone to a point where the clavicle joins the shoulder.

Turkeys
Domestic turkeys differ from wild turkeys, but they can be cut up in similar ways to chickens, only larger
portions are involved. Butchering wild turkeys is discussed in a following chapter. A domestic turkey
will yield a greater volume of meat than a chicken because it is a much larger and denser bird. A typical
turkey will yield about 71 percent edible meat with about 29 percent of the carcass lost to bones and
viscera.
Because of a turkey’s large size, the containers used for scalding it need to be larger if you decide to
keep the skin on. This also requires more water and a greater physical effort to handle a large, heavy bird.
The wings should be removed by cutting as close to the shoulder as possible, severing them at the joints. Some prefer to remove the
outermost tip of the wing while retaining the two inner shanks.

Ducks and Geese

Waterfowl are difficult to scald because they are very tight-feathered. This allows them to stay dry and
warm in their natural habitat by keeping the water and cold away from their bodies. But it presents
challenges in butchering because you need to use a much higher water temperature or steam to help
remove the feathers. To do this, wrap the bird in a burlap cloth and then immerse it in water that is near
the boiling point. You can use a lower temperature to 160 degrees Fahrenheit, but the scalding time will
be much longer—up to two or three minutes.
 You can dry-pick properly bled and debrained waterfowl, but you will need to remove the fine down
feathers by scalding or waxing if you want to retain the skin.
Geese present a special challenge in removing all the pinfeathers. Typically, geese can be raised and
ready for market within 10 weeks or less. To produce geese with minimal pinfeathers, they will require
20 weeks or more for them to mature.

Guinea Fowl and Pheasants

You can dry-pick or semi-scald most guinea fowl as you do chickens, and they can be processed in a
similar manner. Pheasants can be skinned or semi-scalded before you pick and eviscerate them.

Ostriches and Emus

Ostriches and emus are flightless birds referred to as ratites and are distantly related. Both have the same
genetic base as the turkey but reach a larger mature size with the ostrich and emu weighing up to 300
pounds and standing 6 feet tall at the shoulder.
At one time ostrich and emu meat was a byproduct, as the birds were traditionally used for the
production of feathers, high-quality leather, and fat. The feathers were used for making hats and long,
fluffy scarves known as boas, while the hides were processed into expensive leather for shoes, boots,
purses, and other accessories. Their 4-pound eggs could be sold to painters and collectors.
In recent years, their intense red-colored meat has appeared on gourmet menus in upscale restaurants
and in home processing. Their meat can be made into steaks, ground meat patties, sausages, and jerky. It is
low in fat and cholesterol, and the best cuts come from the thigh and the larger muscles of the drum and
lower leg.
If butchering one of these large birds, you should use good restraint methods for the feet and head, both
of which can be used as weapons by a frightened bird.
Because of their large size, skinning the ostrich or emu would be the easiest method instead of trying to
scald them. The feathers can be saved for other uses. Cutting up the ostrich or emu is roughly similar to
cutting up a large turkey.

Game Birds
The major game birds taken by hunters include pheasants, quail, grouse, partridges, wild turkeys, and
mourning doves. With the possible exception of the wild turkey, game birds are generally cleaned by
removing the skin with the feathers intact because it is much easier and faster than plucking.

Pheasants
Pheasants are popular game birds that are one of the meatiest for their size, commonly yielding a 1 to 2
pound carcass. The majority of their edible meat is located on the breast.
Pheasants grow in a number of states, and they are subject to a considerable variation of laws and
regulations relating to the hunting season and the bag and the possession limits. Hen pheasants are off-
limits for hunting in most states, and you should always check the regulations before hunting them. It is the
hunter’s obligation to know, understand, and abide by the state regulations. Because it is illegal to shoot a
hen pheasant in most states, you are required to leave the head and feet on the bird while it is being
transported.
You can clean pheasants using two different methods. The first is to skin the bird and process it in the
same way as poultry. The second method is faster and neater and is preferred by hunters who do not like
to handle the entrails. However, in states where the heads must be left on as they are transported across
state lines, this procedure may not be legal.
In this second method, you skin the bird by making a small cut on the underside of the breast before
pulling the skin and feathers off the carcass. Next, cut down both sides of the back, starting by the neck
and cut through to the last rib. Pull the breast apart from the neck, back, and legs. This should leave the
intestinal tract, heart, lungs, and liver attached to the back portion. Then remove the feet and lower legs at
the joints below the drumsticks. To remove each leg, cut through the joint attached to the back.
You will produce three pieces by dressing pheasants as two thighs and a drumstick and one breast. You
can discard the back and neck because they contain very little meat, although they may be used for soup
stock.

Quail, Grouse, Partridges, and Doves

Small game birds such as quail, grouse, partridges, and doves have the majority of their edible meat in the
breast. This portion is the most used as the rest of the carcass has limited food value. Removing the
feathers and skin together is a favored way of dressing them because it eliminates the tedious task of
picking them off small bodies. It is generally easier to dress these birds by removing the entrails from the
whole carcass.

Roast Chicken
Roast uncovered at 325ºF until tender. Season when half done. A chicken from 4 to 5 pounds requires 35 to 40 minutes per pound; for a
smaller chicken, roast at 350ºF for 40 to 45 minutes per pound.

Fried Chicken
2 broilers
Salt and pepper
Flour
1/4 c. but t er

Cut each chicken into four to six pieces, dip each piece quickly into cold water, drain, season with salt and pepper, and roll in flour to make
a thick coating. Sauté the chicken in a little butter until each piece is tender and brown on both sides. Drain the pieces well and arrange on
a warm platter. Set the dish in a warm oven to keep the meat from cooling while the gravy is made. Serves 4. For one variation, roll the
pieces of chicken in whole cereal flakes instead of flour before frying.

Chicken and Dumplings

1 4-lb. chicken
Salt and pepper
1 whole onion, if desired
1 st alk celery, if desired
3 t bsp. f lour
1 c. milk
1 recipe egg dumplings (below)
Cut the chicken into serving portions. Place in a pot, season, and nearly cover with water. Cover the pot and simmer gently for about 11/2
hours. Remove the cover during the last half hour of cooking, reducing the broth to about 11/2 pints. If desired, an onion and a stalk of
celery may be cooked with the chicken before the dumplings are added.

About 20 minutes before serving time, add egg dumplings. When dumplings are cooked and ready to serve, remove to hot pan.

Egg Dumplings
1 egg, beat en
1 t sp. salt
1/2 c. milk

11/2 c. sif t ed f lour

Add salt and milk to beaten egg, and stir into flour to form a smooth batter. Drop by teaspoons into boiling salted water or soup, cover
tightly, and cook 15 minutes. Makes 8 dumplings.

Roast Duck
1 5-lb. duck
Apples (opt ional)
Celery (opt ional)
Onions (opt ional)
Salt and pepper
Garlic
Currant or cranberry jelly

Some consider that ducks have too strong a flavor, and to absorb this flavor, lay cored and quartered apples inside the body.
These are removed before the duck is put on the table. Celery and onions also may be placed inside the duck to season it and
improve the flavor. Use two tablespoons of chopped onion to every cup of chopped celery.

Wash and clean the duck; season with salt and pepper, rub with garlic, and fill with apples, if desired. Place in pan and roast uncovered at
325ºF, allowing 20 to 30 minutes per pound. Baste every 10 minutes using 1 cup of orange juice, if the flavor is desired. Serve with currant
or cranberry jelly. Serves 5.

Roast Goose
1 8-lb. goose
Salt and pepper
Flour

Rinse goose with cold water and dry on outside. Roast at 325ºF for 45 minutes on rack in uncovered roasting pan. Remove from the oven,
pour off fat, season with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and return to oven.

When the flour is browned, pour 1 cup hot water into pan and baste the goose often, dredging each time with a slight sifting of flour to
absorb fat. Allow 20 minutes per pound for a young goose, and 25 minutes for older goose. Remove from pan and add 1 cup hot water to
gravy and thicken, if necessary, with browned flour. Serves 5.

Salamis of Goose
Use leftover roast goose. To 4 cups sliced goose, add 2 tbsp. each of lemon juice and Worcestershire sauce, and 2 cups goose gravy;
simmer 20 minutes. Add 1/2 cup sherry and 12 ripe, sliced olives, and reheat. Garnish with parsley and serve on hot buttered toast.

Roast Turkey
Place the fresh turkey breast up on rack of a shallow pan. Brush with melted butter and cover with aluminum foil, making sure the breast,
wings, and legs are well covered. Roast uncovered at 300ºF until tender. Allow 25 minutes per pound for birds under 12 pounds, or 20
minutes per pound for larger birds. Baste several times with melted butter or drippings in the pan. Season when half done. Allow 3/4 to 1
pound per serving. Any frozen turkey must be properly thawed prior to baking. Thaw in cold water or in refrigerator overnight before use.

Roast Canadian Goose

1 5-lb. wild goose
Lemon juice
6 c. dressing
2 t bsp. melt ed but t er
2 c. wat er

Prepare goose. Brush cavity with lemon juice. Insert stuffing (see recipe below) and sew the cavity shut. Mix salt and pepper in melted
butter and brush on the outside of goose. Heat oven to 450ºF. Pour water in roasting pan. Place goose on a rack in pan. Turn oven down
to 350ºF and cook 20 minutes per pound or until tender.

Dressing
21/2 qt s. dried bread, chopped
1 large onion, chopped
Giblet s
Giblet st ock
2 diced apples
Salt
Pepper
Sage
Garlic

Boil giblets until tender; reserve stock. Remove skin from giblets and chop fine. Combine bread, onion, and apples; mix well. Add salt,
pepper, sage, and garlic to taste. Moisten with giblet stock.

Rub cavity of goose with 1/8 teaspoon salt per pound. Bake at 375ºF for 15 to 20 minutes. Dip out fat and stuff the bird. Prick fat on back,
around the tail, and the skin around the wings and legs. Cover and roast at 325ºF for 4 hours for an 8-pound goose; 41/2 hours for an 11-
pound bird. If goose is very fat, remove excess fat from pan during roasting.

Braised Duck
1 4-lb. duck
4 slices bacon
1 onion, minced
1 carrot , diced
1/2 t sp. powdered t hyme

2 t bsp. minced parsley

Salt and pepper
4 c. boiling wat er
2 t bsp. melt ed but t er
4 t bsp. f lour
1/4 c. cold wat er

Prepare duck as for roasting and sauté in bacon fat until brown. Add onion, carrot, thyme, parsley, salt, and pepper, and cover with water.
Simmer until the duck is tender, then remove from stock. Blend flour and cold water together until smooth and add gradually to stock,
stirring constantly. Pour gravy over the duck. Serves 4.

Braised duck with mushrooms: Omit bacon and carrot. Use 1/2 pound of sliced mushrooms and sauté in fat.

Roast Wild Duck

Clean the duck by wiping the inside and outside with a damp towel. Tuck back the wings and truss. Dust with salt, pepper, and flour. If
there is not a lot of fat on the duck, cover breast with 2 thin slices of salt pork. Place duck in a pan and add 1 cup of water and 2
tablespoons of fat. Roast uncovered and breast down at 350º F, allowing 20 to 25 minutes per pound, according to rareness desired. Baste
frequently. Turn the duck to breast side up when half done. Serve with slices of lemon or orange and a brown gravy. Wild ducks are
served rare and are seldom stuffed when roasted.
 Wild Fowl (Pheasants, Partridges, Quail, and Grouse) Cooking

A distinction must be made between white meat and dark meat in cooking game. Quail and partridges are
white meat and, like chicken, must be thoroughly cooked. Ducks, pigeons or squabs, grouse (prairie
chicken), and snipe and woodcock are dark meat and are cooked rare and served very hot.

All these birds are cooked by the same methods, varying only as to the degree of rareness desired. Pick
out shot from birds with a sharp pointed knife. Wash quickly under running water. Small birds may be
skinned when they are clean.

Broiled Birds
Season with salt and pepper and dust with flour. Brown the bird on both sides, allowing 8 to 12 minutes for quail and 25 to 40 minutes for
partridges and pheasants. A strip of bacon, smoked ham butt, or salt pork may be placed over the top of each bird. When done, brush with
melted butter. During broiling, if the breasts are quite thick, cover the broiling pan with another pan, lower the temperature, and lengthen
the cooking time.

Roasted Birds
Clean and stuff the birds. Brush with unsalted melted fat. If the birds do not have a lot of fat, lay strips of salt pork across the breasts.
Roast uncovered at 350º F until the meat is tender and the bird is well browned. Baste every 30 minutes with butter and water. Season the
bird with salt when about half done. Place on a warmed platter and cover with gravy made from pan drippings. Garnish the platter with
parsley. Allow 1/2 to 1 bird per person.

Sautéed Partridge Breast with Figs

4 boneless breast halves f rom part ridge or ruf f ed grouse
6 dried f igs, chopped
1 t bsp. but t er or margarine
1 c. part ridge st ock or chicken brot h
1/4 t sp. dried t hyme leaves

1 t bsp. balsamic vinegar

1/4 c. but t er, cut int o 4 pieces

Salt and ground black pepper

In small saucepan, heat figs and stock to boiling. Reduce heat; simmer until stock thickens and darkens slightly, about 15 minutes. Remove
from heat and set aside.

In medium skillet, melt 1 tablespoon butter over medium-low heat. Add breast halves. Cook until well browned on both sides but still moist
in the center, 6 to 10 minutes. Remove from skillet. Set aside and keep warm.

Add balsamic vinegar after wiping skillet clean with paper towels; swirl vinegar around skillet. Add the reserved fig mixture. Cook over
high heat until mixture is thick; stir in thyme. Remove skillet from heat. Add butter, 1 tablespoon at a time, stirring well between each
addition. Add salt and pepper to taste. Slice the reserved breasts; pour sauce over breasts. Serves 2.
 Doves or Quail in Cornbread Stuffing
8 dove breast s

Stuffing
1/2 c. chopped celery

1/4 c. sliced green onion

2 t bsp. dry, snipped f resh parsley if available

1/4 c. but t er or margarine

3 c. cornbread st uf f ing mix

1 c. game bird st ock or chicken brot h
1/2 t sp. dried marjoram leaves

1/2 t sp. salt

1/8 t sp. pepper

Heat oven to 350º F. Lightly grease 2-quart casserole; set aside. In medium skillet, cook and stir celery, onion, and parsley in butter over
medium heat until tender. Add remaining stuffing ingredients. Mix until moistened. Place half of stuffing mixture in prepared casserole.
Arrange dove breasts over stuffing. Cover completely with remaining stuffing mixture. Bake, uncovered, until dove is cooked through and
tender, about 1 hour. Serves 4.

To substitute quail for doves, use 6 quail and split in half. Proceed as above.

Stewed Partridge with Sage Dumplings

3 part ridge, whole or cut up
11/2 quart s wat er
2 bay leaves
1 t sp. dried t hyme leaves
1 t sp. dried rosemary leaves
1 t sp. dried summer savory leaves, opt ional
2 t sp. salt
1/8 t sp. ground black pepper

4 carrot s, cut int o 1-inch pieces

3 st alks celery, cut int o cubes
2 medium onions, cubed

In saucepan, combine partridge, water, bay leaves, thyme, rosemary, and savory leaves. Heat to boiling. Reduce heat; cover. Simmer for
11/2 hours. Add 2 teaspoons salt, pepper, carrots, celery, and onions; cook until partridge and vegetables are tender, about 45 minutes.
Remove from heat. Remove partridge and bay leaves from stock and vegetables; discard bay leaves. Cool partridge slightly.

Skim fat from broth. Remove partridge meat from bones and any skin. Tear meat into bite-size pieces and return to broth. Discard bones
and skin.

Sage dumplings
11/2 c. f lour
2 t sp. baking powder
1/2 t sp. salt

1/2 t o 3/4 t sp. crushed sage

2/3 c. milk

3 t bsp. but t er or margarine, melt ed

To make dumplings, combine flour, baking powder, 1/2 teaspoon salt, and sage in medium mixing bowl; stir with fork to combine. Add milk
and melted butter; stir until flour is moistened. Set aside.

Heat meat, vegetables, and broth until the broth boils. Drop dumpling dough by heaping tablespoons onto broth mixture. Cook over
medium-high heat for 5 minutes; cover and cook until dumplings are firm, about 10 minutes longer. Serves 4 to 6.

Roast Pheasant with Sauerkraut

1 whole pheasant , skin on
2 t bsp. but t er, sof t ened
2 slices bacon, cut up
1 16-oz. can sauerkraut , rinsed and drained
1 c. pheasant st ock or chicken brot h
1/4 c. cognac or brandy

1/3 c. canned cranberries, rinsed

3 t bsp. but t er or margarine

Heat oven to 375ºF. Rub softened butter over pheasant. Place in small roasting pan; cover. Roast until pheasant is tender and juices run
clear when thigh is pricked, about 35 to 45 minutes.

Prepare remaining ingredients while roasting pheasant. In medium skillet, cook bacon over low heat until lightly browned. Add sauerkraut
and 1 cup pheasant stock. Cook over medium heat until most liquid evaporates, about 12 to 15 minutes. Remove from heat, set aside, and
keep warm.

When the pheasant is done, transfer from roaster to heated platter; set aside and keep warm. Pour drippings from roaster into small bowl;
set aside. In small saucepan, heat cognac gently over low heat until warm. Remove from heat and carefully ignite the cognac with a long
match. When the flame dies, add 1 cup pheasant stock and cranberries. Cook over high heat until liquid is reduced by half, about 10 to 15
minutes. Skim fat from reserved drippings. Add drippings and 3 tablespoons butter to cranberry mixture; cook, stirring occasionally, until
butter melts, about 2 minutes. Serve cranberry sauce with pheasant and sauerkraut and crusty French bread. Serves 2 to 3.
 Pigeon and Squab Cooking

Domestic pigeons are the most desirable. Wild pigeons are likely to be tough. Squabs are the
nestlings of pigeons, usually marketed at about 4 weeks of age. They are tender and delicately
flavored. Both are prepared by the same methods as chicken, with pigeons taking a long, slow
cooking time.

Broiled Squab
6 squabs
Salt and pepper
But t er
Toast

Wash birds quickly under running water, split the birds down back, flatten the breast, season, and broil. When browned, brush with melted
butter and serve on toast. Serves 6.

Pigeon and Mushroom Stew

3 pigeons
1 t bsp. f at
2 c. st ock or gravy
Salt , pepper, cayenne pepper
2 t bsp. mushroom ket chup
1/2 c. mushrooms

2 t bsp. cream

Clean and cut pigeons into serving portions. Sauté in fat, but do not brown. Add stock or gravy, salt, pepper, cayenne, and mushroom
ketchup. Simmer 1 hour, or until tender. Add mushrooms, simmer 10 minutes more, and stir in cream. Serve on hot platter with mushrooms
arranged around pigeons. Serves 3.

Bread Stuffing
Bread stuffing is popular for roast poultry. The following is one recipe for bread stuffing based on one quart of 1/2-inch crumbs
cut or torn from the loaf or from sliced bread. A 4- to 5-pound bird will require about 4 cups of crumbs, while a 14- to 15-pound
turkey will require 10 to 12 cups of crumbs. An ordinary 1-pound loaf of bread will make approximately 4 to 5 cups of crumbs. If
boiled rice is used, it should be 1 cup less than the bread crumbs because the rice will swell.
1/3 c. but t er/margarine/poult ry f at

3/4 c. chopped celery

3 t bsp. chopped parsley

2 t bsp. chopped onion
1 quart breadcrumbs
1/2 t sp. savory seasoning

1/2 t o 3/4 t sp. salt

Pepper t o t ast e

Melt the fat in fry pan, add celery, parsley, and onion, and cook a few minutes. Mix lightly but well.

For variety: Oyster stuffing—omit celery and reduce parsley and onion to 1 tablespoon each. Add 1/2 pint oysters heated in their own
liquid and drained.

Nut stuffing—omit parsley and savory seasoning and add 1/2 cup chopped nut meats, such as pecans, roasted almonds, filberts, or cooked
chestnuts.
 Chapter 7

VENISON, MOOSE, ELK, AND BIG GAME

D eer, moose, elk, antelope, and bighorn sheep are typically referred to as large game animals. Your
ability to hunt and harvest these is dependent on the state or federal legislation that restricts the period
when large game animals may be legally shot. Conservation efforts of past decades have provided for a
more abundant population of each.
Large wild game animals have become an attractive addition to meal preparation for many families.
Animals may be hunted in the wild or sourced from commercial production facilities that specialize in
raising big game. Regulations apply to both commercially produced and hunted game, and if you choose to
secure animals through either route, you are obligated to know and understand the rules and regulations
governing them and to abide by them.
Large game animals, such as deer, elk, moose, ant elope, and bighorn sheep, may be hunt ed in t he wild or sourced f rom commercial
product ion f acilit ies t hat specialize in raising big game. Regulat ions apply t o bot h commercially produced and hunt ed game,
t hough. Shut t erst ock/Richard Wat ers
The deer skeletal structure as shown in relation to the major cuts.

It is considered a privilege to hunt and receive licenses to secure game, so you are also obligated to
minimize the suffering of the animal and to make a quick and efficient harvest to achieve optimal meat
quality. You will also want to prevent or minimize waste of the carcass taken.
There are vast differences in size between big game animals, and these differences may influence your
choice or your ability to handle a carcass in the field. It is much easier to harvest, clean, and cut up a 150-
pound deer than a 500-pound elk, or an even larger moose.
You should plan ahead before embarking on a big game harvest to ensure that you can safely and
efficiently dress and transport the carcass, sometimes over large distances. Planning for as many
variables as possible in the wild will reduce the risk to yourself and possible contamination of the
carcass if you have a successful hunt. These may include transport, weather conditions, distance from
shelter, and equipment.

Safety
Without some precautions at the time of harvest, you may be at risk for injury or worse from the actions of
a wild animal that suddenly comes back to life. You should approach all big game that has been shot with
caution. Any wounded animal can turn aggressive, and those with antlers can be extremely dangerous for
unsuspecting hunters.
The anatomy of a male whitetail deer.

Bleeding Deer
Having assured yourself that the animal is dead, you can consider bleeding it, although it is not necessary
for deer unless it was shot in the head, and often not even then. Bleeding deer can be done by either
cutting the jugular vein in the neck just behind the jaw or, in the case of a trophy-size buck, by cutting into
the base of the neck several inches in front of the breast.
You can begin by inserting a hunting knife with a 5-inch blade into the breast with the point of the blade
aimed at the tail. Insert the blade all the way and press it downward toward the backbone. With a slicing
motion, withdraw the blade. Then elevate the hind legs to allow gravity to drain the blood.

Field Dressing
A clasp knife or a sheath knife work best for dressing deer in the field because they are easier to use than
larger 10- and 12-inch knives. You can use small knives to make more precise and sensitive cuts if
needed.
Temperature and insects are two variables that can affect the quality of any carcass you dress in the
field. You can minimize the effects of flies by wrapping the dressed carcass in cheesecloth. This will
prevent flies or insects from entering the body cavity and laying eggs. Warm weather can cause spoilage
in a short time, and getting the carcass to a refrigerated cooler within a day of killing it will prevent or
minimize spoilage.
Field dress the animal immediately to drain the blood and dissipate the body heat. Wearing rubber gloves will protect you from any parasites
or blood-borne diseases the animal may be carrying and make cleanup easier. Locate the base of the breastbone and then make a shallow cut
that is long enough to insert the first two fingers of your hand, being careful not to puncture the intestines when cutting. Creative Publishing
international

To dress a deer in the field, you can either tie the deer’s legs to a tree with cords to give you room to
work or while it’s lying on its side if there is no place to elevate it.
Form a V with the first two fingers of your hand. Hold the knife between your fingers with the cutting edge up. Cut through the abdominal wall
to the pelvic area using your fingers to prevent puncturing the intestines. Creative Publishing international
Separate the external reproductive organs of a buck from the abdominal wall, but do not cut them off completely. Remove the udder of a doe
if it was still nursing. The milk sours rapidly and could give the meat an unpleasant flavor. Creative Publishing international
Straddle the animal, facing its head. If you do not plan to mount the head, cut the skin from the base of the breastbone to the jaw, with the
cutting edge of the knife up. If you plan to mount the head, follow your taxidermist’s instructions. Creative Publishing international

First remove the genitals if you have shot a buck, but be careful when cutting the hide in the abdomen
area. If you need to drag the carcass some distance later, you will want to make as small a cut as
necessary to remove the viscera. Dragging or carrying the deer will expose it to weeds, soil, and insects,
which may contaminate it.
Once you have removed the genitals, cut a small opening in the hide in front of the aitchbone. If you
have elevated the carcass, you can make a downward cut with the knife blade pointing outward and use
the heel to slice down the inside. If your deer is lying on its side, elevate the pelvis to begin your cut
down the abdomen. Then lay it back on the ground and use your free hand to push intestines away from
your knife.
Cut until you reach the rib cage, and tilt the carcass sideways to drop the viscera and drain any blood
from the body cavity. Cut around the anus and pull it back through the abdominal cavity after tying it
closed to prevent fecal contamination.
These cuts should let you pull out the rest of the intestine and stomach from inside the body. You can
then remove the heart, lungs, liver, esophagus, and windpipe by cutting as far forward in the chest cavity
as possible. Cut the heart and liver free and save them for making sausage. Place the heart and liver in a
portable cooler to keep them fresh.
Many hunters tag their deer after they have dressed it; some before. Either way, you will need to tag the
deer before you load it into your vehicle. If the carcass is too large to drag or carry to your vehicle from
where you dress it, such as with a large elk or antelope, you may have to split or quarter the carcass.
Knowing and understanding the laws and regulations regarding the identification of and dressing of large
game animals in your hunting area will eliminate potential problems if the carcass needs to be divided.
Normally you will have a specified period of time in which to register your deer at a designated check
station.

Cut through the center of the breastbone by bracing your elbows against your legs, with one hand supporting the other, and use your knees to
provide leverage. An older animal may require using a game saw or small axe. Creative Publishing international
Free the windpipe and esophagus by cutting the connective tissue. Sever the windpipe and esophagus at the jaw. Grasp them firmly and pull
down, continuing to cut where necessary, until freed to the point where the windpipe branches out into the lungs. Creative Publishing
international

To free a buck’s urethra, slice between the hams or split the pelvic bone on either a buck or doe. Make careful cuts around the urethra until it
is freed to a point just above the anus. Be careful not to sever the urethra. Cut around the anus; on a doe, the cut should also include the
vulva above the anus. Free the rectum and urethra by loosening the connective tissue with your knife. Tie off the rectum and urethra with
sturdy string to prevent fecal contamination of the inside body cavity. Creative Publishing international

Carcass Disposition
If you intend to process the carcass yourself, be sure to keep it in temperatures that do not exceed 40
degrees Fahrenheit while it is aging. You can age a deer carcass for a week before cutting it up, as this
should improve its tenderness and palatability. During aging, keep the hide on to reduce moisture loss or
shrinkage and to avoid discoloration of the meat.
If you don’t process the carcass yourself, you may be able to make arrangements with a local meat and
locker service to do it. Federal and state regulations require that wild game not be processed in
conjunction with domestic animals. If you are home processing, avoid handling wild and domestic
carcasses at the same time. Be aware that a wild game carcass must be dressed before it enters the
processing or refrigerated areas of a licensed facility. Also, it is essential that all equipment you use that
comes in contact with wild game be thoroughly cleaned and sanitized before you again use it on domestic
animal or poultry carcasses.

Hold the rib cage open on one side. Cut the diaphragm from the rib opening down to the backbone. Stay as close to the rib cage as possible;
do not puncture the stomach. Repeat on the other side so that the cuts meet over the backbone. Creative Publishing international
Cut the tubes that attach the liver and remove it. Check for spots, cysts, or scarring, which may indicate parasites or disease. If any are
present, discard the liver. If the liver is clean, place into a plastic bag with the heart. Place on ice as soon as possible. Creative Publishing
international
Remove the heart by severing the connecting blood vessels. Hold the heart upside down for a few moments to drain excess blood and then
place it in a plastic bag. Some hunters find it easier to remove the viscera first, and then take the heart and liver from it. Creative Publishing
international
Pull the tied-off rectum and urethra from the pelvic bone and into the body cavity, unless you split the pelvic bone, making this unnecessary.
Roll the carcass on its side so that the viscera begin to spill out the side of the body cavity. Creative Publishing international

Skinning
Elevating the carcass allows you to skin a deer easily and effectively. Before raising it, cut slits in the
skin between the rear leg bone and the tendon of the hock. Insert hooks and a strong piece of wood or
metal bar into the slit. This will let you raise the carcass to a level that is comfortable to work with. If it
is a buck and you wish to preserve the head, take extra care when you elevate it to a height where the
horns no longer touch the floor or ground to avoid breaking them.
Sponge the cavity clean, and prop open with a stick. If the urinary tract or intestines have been severed, wash the carcass with snow or clean
water. If you need to leave the carcass, drape it over brush or logs with the cavity down, or hang it from a tree to speed cooling. Creative
Publishing international
Firmly grasp the windpipe and esophagus, and pull down and away from the body. If the organs do not pull away freely, the diaphragm may
still be partially attached. Scoop from both ends toward the middle to finish rolling out the viscera. Creative Publishing international

The hocks should be spread apart to give you easier access to the abdominal area. You can make the
first cuts for skinning before you elevate the carcass. First, make a complete circular cut around each hock
just below the inserted hooks, and avoid cutting into the tendons. Place the blade tip on the top of the
tendon and carefully slice toward the rectum. Do not cut into the hindquarter. Do the same for the other
leg. From this point on, you will need very little knife work because the skin can be easily pulled and
fisted from the carcass.
When moving the carcass, leave the hide on to protect it from dirt and flies. An intact hide prevents surface muscles from drying too much
during aging. Drag a deer with each front leg tied to an antler to keep from snagging brush, or tie a rope around the neck if anterless. In dusty
terrain, you should tie the carcass shut. A bear may be dragged on a heavy tarp to avoid damaging the hair. An elk or moose may have to be
quartered to transport it from the field. Some hunters skin the carcass before quartering, so the hide can be tanned in one piece. To quarter
an elk or moose, begin by bending a leg sharply and then cut the skin around the joint to remove the lower leg. Creative Publishing
international

Remove the forelegs by making cuts just below the knee at the smooth joints. Then begin pulling the
hide from the rounds or rump and inside the rear legs with even tension. You may have to work the inside
skin free before pulling from the top part of the anus. Use your hand or fist to remove the skin from the
sides as you pull it down the back.
If you plan to mount the head, you will need to retain enough of the hide for a cape. Open the skin on
the top side of the neck and behind the shoulder to make enough for the cape. Leaving too much skin
available for a taxidermist is better than too little.
To remove the head, you should cut at the atlas joint so that it and the cape of skin can be removed in
one piece. After the head is removed, you can split the underside of the neck and remove the remaining
esophagus, windpipe, and any other part, such as the lungs and heart, if they have not already been
removed. Then brush and wash the inside body cavity with clean water to remove any hair or soil
attached to it. After a thorough washing, you are ready to cut up the carcass.
Hindquarters can be dragged out of the field by cutting a hole behind the first rib, and then threading a rope through and tying it. This lets you
drag the quarter with the grain of the hair. To drag out a forequarter, tie a rope tightly around the neck. Creative Publishing international
Skin the neck area before sawing off the head. Skinning the neck first will eliminate the chance of forcing hair into the meat with the saw.
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Skinning a deer, elk, moose, or bear is similar to that of a beef or pig. Start with cuts at the inner parts of the hind legs, peel the hide away,
sever the tailbone, and continue peeling with your fist along the back, using your knife only when necessary, until reaching the head, which can
be cut off at the atlas joint. Creative Publishing international

Head Mounting
If you desire to have the head mounted, you will need to care for it and the hide before taking it to a
taxidermist. To help preserve it, you should liberally apply salt to the head and rub it into the skin side of
the hide. Let the salt be absorbed for 24 to 48 hours before folding the skin together with the hair side out.
Tie it and tag it according to the laws pertaining to your area before delivering it.

Cutting the Carcass

You can divide the carcass by splitting the aitchbone and sawing down the center of the backbone.
Remove the neck first before you split the carcass if you plan to use the neck for pot roast or neck cuts and
don’t need to keep the head.
Lay the carcass on its side on a clean table, abdomen-side down, and begin by removing the hind legs.
You can now split one side into three pieces: hindquarter, ribs, and shoulder. Make your first cut just in
from and close to the hipbone. Then separate the shoulder from the ribs and loin by cutting between the
fourth and fifth ribs. The breast or flank is removed by cutting across the ribs about 3 inches from the
backbone, from front to back. Then you can separate the ribs from the loin by cutting directly behind the
last rib.
To remove the rump from the leg, you can turn the aitchbone upward and make a saw cut parallel to it.
You can then remove the flank with your boning knife.
The shanks, breast, and flank are generally boned and ground into burgers or mixed with pork fat for
sausage. The neck slices can also be boned for ground meat and sausage. Venison rib chops, boneless
tenderloins, round steaks, and rolled shoulder roasts are the most important cuts. Many of the principles
used for cutting a lamb carcass can be applied for deer processing.
The evisceration process is similar to that used with deer. After the viscera are removed, cut between the third and fourth ribs, from the
backbone to the tips of the ribs. Make your cuts from inside the body. Creative Publishing international
Split the hide along the backbone on both halves, and then peel it back several inches on each side of the cut to expose the spine for cleaner
sawing. Creative Publishing international
To separate the front half of the carcass from the rear half, use your saw to cut through the backbone after making your first knife cut. A
quartered hide is still suitable for tanning. Creative Publishing international
Begin sawing lengthwise through the backbone by propping one half against your legs. Be careful to saw down the middle of the spine and not
through any of the loin. Creative Publishing international
Keep the back off the ground as you continue cutting. Gravity will help pull the quarters apart so that your saw doesn’t bind, as it would if the
half were lying on the ground. Creative Publishing international
Remove the front leg by cutting between the shoulder blade and the back. Repeat with the other leg. Remove the layer of brisket meat over
the ribs (inset). Moose or elk brisket is thick enough to be rolled for corning. Grind thin brisket for burger. Creative Publishing international
Begin fabrication by pushing the front leg away from the body and cut between the leg and the rib cage. Then continue until reaching the
shoulder. Creative Publishing international
Cut the meat at the base of the neck to begin removing a backstrap. There are two backstraps, one on each side of the spine. They can be
butterflied for steaks, cut into roasts, or sliced thinly for sautéing. The lower part, or loin, is the most tender. Creative Publishing
international
Make two cuts between the shoulder and rump bone along the spine and the other along the rib tops. Keep your knife close to the bones,
removing as much meat as possible. Cut off this first backstrap at the rump, and then remove the backstrap on the other side of the spine.
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Cut the tenderloins from inside the body cavity after trimming the flank meat below the last rib (inset). The flank meat can be ground or cut
into thin strips for jerky. Many hunters remove the tenderloins before aging the carcass, to keep them from darkening and dehydrating.
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Begin cutting one hind leg away, exposing the ball-and-socket joint. Push the leg back to pop the joint apart, and then cut through the joint.
Work your knife around the tailbone and pelvis until the leg is removed. Repeat with the other leg. Creative Publishing international
Remove the ribs if desired by sawing along the backbone. Cut around the base of the neck, and then twist the backbone off. Separate the neck
and head. Bone the neck to grind for burgers or keep it whole for pot roasting. Creative Publishing international
Trim the ribs by cutting away the ridge of meat and gristle along the bottom. If the ribs are long, saw them in half. Cut ribs into racks of three
or four. If you don’t want to save the ribs, you can bone the meat between them to grind for burgers or sausage. Creative Publishing
international
Cut along the back of the leg to remove the top round completely. The top round is excellent when butterflied, rolled, and tied for roasting. Or
cut it into two smaller flat roasts, cubes for kabobs, or slice for sautés. Creative Publishing international
Remove the rump portion. Cut the rump off at the top of the hipbone after removing the silverskin and pulling the muscle groups apart with
your fingers. A large rump is excellent for roasting; a small one can be cut for steaks, kabobs, or sautés. Creative Publishing international
Cut the bottom round away from the sirloin tip after turning the leg over and separating these two muscle groups with your fingers. Next,
carve the sirloin tip away from bone. Sirloin tip makes a choice roast or steaks; bottom round is good for roasting, steaks, or kabobs. Creative
Publishing international
Large-diameter steaks can be made from a whole hind leg by cutting across all the muscle groups rather than boning as before. First, remove
the rump portion, and then cut the leg into 1-inch-thick steaks. As each steak is cut, work around the bone with a fillet knife, and then slide
the steak over the end of the bone. Continue steaking until you reach the shank. Creative Publishing international
The hind leg consists of the sirloin tip, the top and bottom rounds, the eye of the round, a portion of the rump, and the shank. The sirloin,
rounds, and rump are tender cuts for roasting or grilling; the shank is tough and best used for ground meat or soups. Creative Publishing
international
A front leg consists of the shoulder, arm, and shank. The meat from the front leg is less tender than that from the hind leg, and it is used for
pot roasting, stews, jerky, or grinding. Creative Publishing international
Quartered elk will look like this. Depending on the animal’s size, elk quarters weigh 60 to 125 pounds each, moose up to 225 pounds. Where
the law allows, some hunters bone the carcass in the field to reduce weight. Creative Publishing international

Mutilated Areas
Portions of the carcass may have sustained damage from a gunshot or arrow wound, depending on the
season. This damaged meat may have materials imbedded in it, such as hair, metal shards, and any mixture
of blood, bone chips, and fecal matter. Carefully cut out damaged tissue and dispose of it.

Meat Volume
Some estimates can be made of the amount of edible meats that can be derived from deer carcasses. Many
factors will influence the weight of the animal, including its age and diet, but the percentages will remain
fairly typical. A 100-pound, field-dressed deer will typically be about 1.5 years of age and can dress out
at up to 80 percent. This yields a carcass weight to cut of 80 pounds. Roughly 50 percent of this, or 40
pounds, will be edible meat, while the other half will consist of bone, fat, and mutilated areas or areas
affected by shot and the resulting blood damage.

Antelope, Elk, and Moose

Antelope, elk, and moose are all members of the deer family. Antelope are smaller than deer, which
makes them easier to process. Elk are larger than deer and antelope, but much smaller than moose. This
size difference, as well as the habitat in which they live, will largely determine the procedures you use in
the field to handle them.
It is essential to cool the carcass of any large game animal as completely as possible to prevent
spoilage. You may need to halve or quarter the carcasses of larger game, such as elk and moose, to get
them out of the field and cool them within an acceptable period of time. The principles of cutting a large
wild game carcass are similar to handling and processing large domestic animals.

Bighorn Sheep
Bighorn sheep are a very specialized big game animal hunted only by permits during a restricted season.
Only a few states allow bighorn sheep to be hunted. In states that do, such as South Dakota, only a few
licenses are issued, resulting in lotteries or auctions to fill them. In the United States, the permit prices
can reach into tens of thousands of dollars. If you secure a license and bag a bighorn sheep, they can be
processed in much the same way you would handle a deer. However, you need to be careful in handling
the head, horns, and pelt because of their trophy value.

Roasting Big Game

The two basic ways to roast big game include dry and moist heat. Dry-heat roasting includes using high and low temperatures. The most
common method of moist-heat roasting is braising, which includes pot roasting.
Use only prime roasts, such as top round, sirloin tip, backstrap, and rump roasts, for dry-heat, high-temperature cooking. Tenderloins from
moose, elk, or deer may be cooked this way, but they typically do not need long, slow cooking because they are naturally tender.
High-temperature cooking requires a hot oven between 400º to 450º Fahrenheit, but roasts should only be cooked to rare or medium. Well-
done cooking will dry out the meat and cause shrinkage. Low-temperature roasting can be used for prime cuts too. This involves using a
slow oven at 300º to 325º Fahrenheit. Low heat allows for roasts to be cooked at rare, medium, or well-done degrees. Use a meat
thermometer to check for doneness when roasting with dry heat.
Internal Temperature of Meat at Various Degrees of Doneness
Degree of Doneness Internal T emperature (Fahrenheit)
Rare 130º to 135º
Medium rare 135º to 140º
Medium 140º to 145º
Medium well 150º to 155º
Well done 155º to 160º
 Venison

Venison differs little from beef or veal, except that it has less fat. The flavor is gamey but not
strong, and the texture of the meat is fine. The most desirable cut is the round, which may be used
for steaks but is most satisfactory for roasting. Other roasting pieces are the saddle and the leg.

Roast Leg of Venison

Leg of venison
1/4 c. f at salt pork

Salt and pepper

Flour

Wipe the leg carefully and remove any dry skin. Lard the lean side of the leg with strips of pork. Soften the fat, rub it over the meat, and
coat with salt, pepper, and flour. Lay the leg on rack of roaster, sprinkling flour on the bottom of the pan. Roast uncovered at 300ºF,
allowing 20 to 22 minutes per pound. When flour in the bottom of pan is browned, add boiling water to cover the bottom of the pan. Baste
venison frequently, renewing water in pan as often as necessary. Serve with gravy made from the juices in the bottom of the pan. Always
serve with a tart jelly like currant, wild grape, or plum with venison. Allow 1/2 pound per person.

Venison Steak
3 lbs. venison st eak
Sliced onions
1 c. t omat o soup
1 t bsp. vinegar
1/2 c. wat er

1 t bsp. Worcest ershire sauce

1 t bsp. brown sugar

Fry steak until well done. Cover steak with onions; simmer for 1 hour. Mix soup with vinegar, Worcestershire sauce, salt, brown sugar, and
water. Pour over steak and onions. Bake at 350ºF for 1 hour. Add more water if needed. Serves 8.

Venison Breakfast Sausage

1 lb. t rimmed deer, ant elope, elk, or moose meat
6 oz. lean bacon ends or slab bacon
3/4 t sp. salt

1 t sp. dried crushed sage leaves

1/2 t sp. ground ginger

1/4 t sp. pepper

Cut meat and bacon into 3/4-inch cubes. Place in a medium mixing bowl. In a small bowl, mix salt, sage, ginger, and pepper. Sprinkle over
meat; mix well. Chop or grind to desired texture. Shape into thin patties and fry over medium heat until browned and cooked through,
turning once. Sausage can also be frozen uncooked.
 Venison and Beans
11/2 lbs. ground deer, ant elope, elk, or moose
6 slices bacon, chopped
1 medium onion, chopped
16 ounces (1 can) pork and beans
16 ounces (1 can) kidney beans, drained
16 ounces (1 can) but t er beans, drained
1/3 c. brown sugar

1 c. ket chup
2 t bsp. vinegar
1 t bsp. Worcest ershire sauce
1/2 t sp. salt

1/2 t sp. prepared must ard

Heat oven to 350ºF. Cook bacon until crisp. Remove with slotted spoon; set aside. Add meat and onion to pan with 1 tablespoon bacon fat.
Cook over medium heat, stirring occasionally, until meat is no longer pink and onion is tender. Add reserved bacon and remaining
ingredients to pan; mix well. Cook and bake until bubbly around edges, about 45 minutes. Serves 8 to 10.

Venison Meatloaf
2 lbs. ground deer, ant elope, elk, or moose meat
2 c. sof t breadcrumbs
1/2 c. beef brot h or venison st ock

1/2 c. chopped onion

2 eggs, slight ly beat en

1 t sp. salt
1/2 t sp. Worcest ershire sauce

1/4 t sp. sugar

1/4 t sp. celery salt

1/4 t sp. dried crushed sage leaves

1/4 t sp. dried oregano leaves

1/4 t sp. pepper

2 small t omat oes, peeled, halved, and seeded

Heat oven to 325ºF; grease 9×5-inch loaf pan and set aside. In a large mixing bowl, combine all ingredients except tomatoes; mix well. Pat
half of the meat mixture into the prepared pan. Arrange tomatoes on the meat mixture, leaving 1/2 inch around the edges of the pan.
Spread the remaining meat mixture over tomatoes, pressing around the edges to seal. Bake until well browned, about 11/2 hours. Let stand
10 minutes. Remove to serving platter. Serves 6 to 8.
 Moose, Elk, and Big Game

Peppered Antelope Roast

3 t o 5 lbs. boneless rolled ant elope or deer t op round roast
2 medium garlic cloves
Veget able oil
Cracked black pepper
8 t o 10 slices bacon

Heat oven to 325ºF. Cut each garlic clove into 4 or 5 slivers. Make 8 or 10 shallow slits in roast and insert a garlic sliver into each slit.
Place roast on rack in roasting pan; brush with oil. Sprinkle pepper over roast. Cover roast with bacon slices. Roast to desired doneness,
about 22 to 32 minutes per pound; remove roast when temperature is 5ºF less than desired. Allow meat to rest for 10 to 15 minutes before
carving. A pound equals 2 to 4 servings. You can substitute a deer or small elk sirloin tip or a deer, elk, or moose backstrap or rump roast
for this recipe.

Fillet of Venison, Moose, Antelope, or Elk

1 whole t enderloin, 1 t o 3 lbs.
1 t o 2 t bsp. but t er or margarine
1 t bsp. olive oil or veget able oil
Salt and f reshly ground black pepper

Remove all surface fat and silverskin from tenderloin. Slice across grain into 1-inch thick fillets. In a medium skillet, melt butter in oil over
medium-low heat. Add fillets; cook to desired doneness over medium-high heat, turning once. Salt and pepper to taste. Serves 2 to 3.

Big Game Baked Round Steak

2 t o 3 lbs. boneless deer, ant elope, elk, or moose round st eak, 1-inch t hick
1/2 c. f lour

2 t sp. salt
1/4 t sp. pepper

1–2 t bsp. but t er or margarine

2–3 t bsp. olive oil or veget able oil
3 t bsp. f inely chopped onion
Brown sugar
Ket chup
Dried basil leaves
1 t bsp. but t er or margarine, cut up
1/4 c. venison st ock or beef brot h

Heat oven to 350ºF. Trim meat and cut into serving-sized pieces. Pound to 1/2-inch thickness with a meat mallet. Mix flour, salt, and
pepper on a sheet of waxed paper. Coat steaks on both sides with the flour mixture. In a large skillet, melt 1 tablespoon butter in 2
tablespoons of oil over medium-high heat. Add coated steaks; brown on both sides. Arrange browned steaks in a baking pan. Sprinkle with
onion. Top each steak with 1 teaspoon brown sugar and 1 teaspoon ketchup. Sprinkle lightly with basil. Dot with 1 tablespoon butter. Add
stock to drippings in skillet. Cook over medium heat for about 1 minute, stirring to loosen any browned bits. Add to baking pan, and cover
the pan with aluminum foil. Bake for 45 minutes. Remove foil and add water or stock to pan if dry. Bake until browned on top, about 15
minutes longer. Serves 6 to 8.

Moose Roast
3 lbs. moose meat
1 package onion soup mix
1 can golden mushroom soup
1 can wat er
1 c. sherry

Trim all fat and tallow from roast. Place in roaster; cover with all ingredients. Bake covered for 20 minutes per pound at 325ºF. Baste
occasionally. Gradually add 1 cup sherry during bastings.

Bear Stew
11/2 t o 2 lbs. bear st ew meat
1/4 c. f lour

1 t sp. dried marjoram leaves

1 t sp. salt
1/8 t sp. pepper

2 t bsp. veget able oil

1 16-ounce can whole t omat oes, undrained
1 c. wat er
1/4 c. whit e wine or wat er

1 t bsp. vinegar
1 medium onion, cut in half lengt hwise and t hinly sliced
1/2 c. chopped celery

2 cloves garlic, minced

1 bay leaf
2 medium baking pot at oes

Remove all fat and silverskin from meat. Cut into 1-inch pieces. Combine flour, marjoram, salt, and pepper; shake to mix. Dip pieces in
mixture, coating all sides. In large saucepan, heat oil over medium-high heat until hot. Add meat and flour mixture. Brown the meat,
stirring occasionally. Add remaining ingredients except potatoes; mix well. Heat to boiling. Reduce heat and cover. Simmer 1 hour, stirring
occasionally.

Cut potatoes into 1-inch pieces. Add to saucepan. Heat to boiling. Reduce heat and cover. Simmer until meat and potatoes are tender,
about 1 hour, stirring occasionally. Discard bay leaf before serving. Serves 4 to 6.

Elk Tenderloin Sauté

11/2 lbs. elk t enderloin, t hinly sliced
2 c. wat er
1 t sp. salt
1/2 pound f resh pearl onions (about 11/2 c.)

1/4 c. f lour

1/2 t sp. salt

1/4 t sp. pepper

2 t bsp. but t er or margarine

2 t bsp. veget able oil
13/4 c. beef brot h
1 16-oz. can whole t omat oes, cut up and drained
1/2 c. burgundy wine

1/4 c. t omat o past e

1 t sp. Worcest ershire sauce

1/4 t sp. dried t hyme leaves

1 or 2 cloves garlic, minced

2 bay leaves
1/2 lb. f resh mushrooms, cut int o halves

Hot cooked rice or noodles

Heat water and 1 teaspoon salt in small saucepan to boiling. Add onions. Return to boiling. Reduce heat and cover. Simmer onions 15
minutes or until tender. Drain and rinse under cold water. Set aside.

Combine flour, 1/2 teaspoon salt, and pepper; mix. Add elk slices and coat all sides in the flour mix. In large skillet, melt butter in oil over
medium heat. Add elk slices and cook over medium-high heat until browned but still rare, stirring occasionally. Remove with slotted spoon;
set aside. Add remaining ingredients except mushrooms and rice to cooking liquid in skillet; mix well. Add mushrooms and reserved
onions. Heat to boiling. Reduce heat and cover. Simmer 10 minutes. Stir in elk slices. Cook, uncovered, over medium-heat until slightly
thickened, about 5 minutes. Discard bay leaves before serving over rice or noodles. Serves 4 to 6.
 Chapter 8

RABBITS, OTHER SMALL GAME, AND FISH

A number of wild species can be harvested for home use, including rabbits, raccoons, fish, squirrels,
bear, turtles, snakes, and feral pigs. Except for feral pigs and domestic rabbits, all the others are
controlled through designated hunting seasons and licensing programs. You will need to learn and abide
by all rules and regulations that apply to any particular area.
Field-dress rabbit s, hares, and squirrels as soon as possible t o prevent unpleasant t ast es in t heir delicat ely f lavored meat .
Shut t erst ock/Lincoln Rogers

Rabbits
Wild and domestic rabbits can be dressed in a similar manner. Domestic rabbits are among the most
efficient meat producers of all animals. They can reach market weights of 4 to 5 pounds by eight weeks of
age while typically converting 2.5 pounds of feed into 1 pound of gain. They can be fed a high-forage
(grass, legume), low-grain diet, which minimizes production costs without sacrificing growth rates. They
are extremely prolific and can average 45 to 60 offspring per year.
 Rabbit consumption has not significantly increased over time and remains fairly low when compared
to all other meat animals. This may be a result of limited supply or the perception that they are a pet
animal rather than one destined for a family meal.
Wild rabbits will have a darker-colored meat than domestic rabbits, largely due to diet and exercise.
Unfortunately, wild rabbits are susceptible to a communicable disease known as tularemia, which causes
rabbit fever, a very infective disease caused by bacteria that attack the internal organs. It can be
transmitted from one rabbit to another by lice or ticks or to humans by handling the flesh of an infected
animal, inhaling the bacteria during the skinning process, or through a tick bite. Because its entry is
through cuts, abrasions, or inhalation, you will need to take precautions when skinning a wild rabbit
carcass. However, this is not a condition that affects domestic rabbits. The bacteria are destroyed when
the rabbit is thoroughly cooked.
You should wear rubber or latex gloves when dressing and skinning rabbits, as well as during the
preparation for cooking. Always handle the rabbit carcass with care to prevent bruising. If hunted, rabbits
are most likely dead by the time you dress them. For domestic rabbits, you can stun them with a hard blow
to the head before severing their jugular veins to bleed them. After stunning the rabbit, make an incision at
the rear hocks between the leg bone and the tendon to suspend the carcass by hooks through the hocks.
One alternative is to suspend it only by one leg, leaving the other leg free to begin the skinning.

Tips for Rabbits

• Dipping rabbits in boiling water may help remove parasites in the fur or hide.
• Dipping rabbits in cold water will reduce risk of fur contacting the meat.
• It is illegal to hunt rabbits out of season; check local laws before hunting.
• Always cook rabbit meat thoroughly at minimum of 180 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Rabbits are active in early morning and at sunset, which are the best times for hunting them.
• Cold weather may reduce number of parasites but not eliminate them completely.
• Always wash your hands while preparing food, and keep raw meat away from other food.
Equipment for field-dressing small game includes a hunting knife, rubber gloves, plastic bags, paper towels, and a cord for hanging dressed
animals. Creative Publishing international
Small furred game can be skinned in one of two methods, open or cased skin. The cut marks on the rabbit show an open-pelt method.

To sever the head, make a cut where the vertebrae joint meets the base of the skull. If you left one hind
leg free, you can remove it at the hock join before removing the pelt. Remove the tail and the forelegs at
the knee joints.
To skin the rabbit, make a cut on the rear side of the loose leg, slicing to the base of the tail and then
back up the suspended leg. Pull the pelt away from the muscle and down the carcass. They should
separate without needing to make any further cuts in the skin.
 After the hide is removed, you can open the abdomen by cutting the midline of the belly from the anus
to the rib cage, making sure not to puncture the intestines. Pull out the viscera before cutting off the other
rear leg. Inspect the liver for white, yellow, or any other spotting, which could indicate tularemia. Wash
and rinse the carcass thoroughly with cold water to remove any materials. If field dressing the carcass,
you can use paper towels to clean the body cavity until you return home. Place the carcass in a cool water
bath or ice chest during transport, particularly during warm weather.

Small furred game can be skinned in one of two methods, open or cased skin. Cased skin allows for the stripping of the pelt from the carcass.
Begin with a shallow cut from the vent to the rib cage along the midline. Be sure not to puncture the intestines. Some hunters extend the cut
through the rib cage to the neck. Creative Publishing international
To skin a rabbit or hare, start by pinching the hide up and away from the middle of the rabbit’s spine. Slit the hide from the spine down the
sides, being careful not to cut the meat. When handling rabbits, wear rubber gloves not only for dressing and skinning, but also during all
stages of kitchen preparation to avoid contracting any bacterial disease they may have. Thorough cooking destroys the tularemia bacteria.
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Grasp the hide with both hands and pull in opposite directions. Keep pulling until all the legs are skinned up to the feet. Then cut off the head,
feet, and tail. If you did not field-dress the rabbit before skinning, slit the underside from the vent to the neck, and then remove all internal
organs. Creative Publishing international
Pull out the viscera. Check a rabbit’s liver for white spots indicating disease; if it’s clean, save it in a plastic bag with the heart. Wipe the body
cavity with paper towels. Small game can transmit diseases to humans. Such diseases are contracted by handling viscera or uncooked meat
from infected animals because bacteria passes through cuts in a person’s skin or through the mucous membranes. Never use an animal that
appears sick or moved erratically. Creative Publishing international
Clean the body cavity, removing any material left after dressing. Rinse briefly under running water and pat dry. Squirrels can also be skinned
this way, but not as easily. Creative Publishing international

You can cut the carcass into three sections: forequarters, loin, and rear quarters. Place the rabbit
carcass on its back on a clean surface. Cut into the rear leg at a point near the backbone but stop before
cutting through the bone. Bend the leg back to pop the ball joint of the hip. Cut through the joint to remove
the leg.
The front legs can be split at the shoulders by cutting through the shoulder joints and severing them.
The loin can be portioned by cutting off at the shoulder and at the hip joint. The ribs can be trimmed
because they contain very little meat, but they can be used for soup stock. The rear legs contain the most
meat, followed by the loin and then the front legs.
To portion a rabbit, begin by cutting into the rear leg at a point near the backbone. When you come to the leg bone, stop cutting. This
portioning method works with squirrels, rabbits, hares, and raccoons. Creative Publishing international
Remove the front legs by cutting close to the rib cage and behind the shoulder blades. The legs come off easier this way because you don’t cut
through joints. On a large animal, cut each leg in two at the elbow. The ribs contain very little meat, but they can be used for soup stock.
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Next, bend the leg back to pop the ball-and-socket joint. Cut through the joint to remove the leg. Repeat with the other leg. On a large rabbit,
hare, or raccoon, each rear leg can be split in two at the knee. The rear legs are the meatiest pieces, followed by the saddle or loin portion.
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Cut the back into two or three pieces, depending on the animal’s size. If you choose, remove the rib cage. When portioning a raccoon or large
hare, split the back along the spine to make four to six pieces. Creative Publishing international
To portion a squirrel, begin by cutting it in half behind the ribs or along the backbone. If the squirrel is small, no further cutting will be
necessary.Creative Publishing international
You can quarter a large squirrel by cutting each half apart. Quartered squirrels are easier to fry than halved ones, and they look more
attractive when served. You can snip the meat around the bone if you are using a game shears. Game shears are an excellent tool for cutting
up squirrels, rabbits, and hares. You may need a heavy knife to cut through the thick backbone of a raccoon. Creative Publishing international

Squirrels
Squirrels are considered rodents, and three major types can be used for meat: red or brown, gray, and fox
squirrels. They can be trapped or hunted, but like many other game animals, you need to hunt in seasons
and obtain a small game hunting license.
Skinning a squirrel is similar to rabbits because the pelt can be easily stripped off rather than trimmed.
Begin by making a cut through the base of the tailbone on the underside of the tail. Stop when the bone is
severed and make a circular cut around both rear legs. Do not cut the skin on the top side of the tail.
Securely suspend the hind legs and peel the skin down the body, like peeling a banana, until reaching the
front legs. Peel the skin on the rear legs back to the ankles.
To remove the hind feet, cut through the ankle joint with a knife or game shears. Pull each front leg out
of the skin as far as the wrist joint. Then cut each foot off at that joint.
 Finish pulling the skin down to the head, and in most cases this will also remove the head. If not, you
will remove the pelt when you cut the head off. You can open the body cavity, clean it, and make the cuts
as you would with a rabbit.

Raccoons
Raccoons can yield two useful products: meat and pelts. While the price of pelts can vary considerably
depending on market conditions, their meat can be used at home. The most important cuts are found in the
hind legs.
An open-pelt method for a raccoon.

If the pelt is to be sold, you need to carefully skin the carcass. Begin by suspending the carcass by the
hind legs and making circular cuts just above the hocks. Cut along the inside of each leg to a point below
the tail. Make a circular cut around the anus to free all the skin on the rump. Peel the skin down the hind
legs with even tension until you reach the tail. Cut through the tailbone close to the rump, leaving the
tailbone inside the pelt.
Continue peeling off the pelt until you reach the shoulders. Next, make circular cuts above the knee
joint on both front legs and then make an incision on the inside of each leg to a point at the brisket. Then
make a singular cut from the brisket to the tip of the lower jaw.
Make circular cuts around the eyes and the rear base of the ears to free the skin from the sockets and
ears. Peel the skin down the front until the head, where you will need to skin the face with a knife. The
pelt should then be free.
A case-pelt method for a raccoon.
Raccoons can be skinned to keep the pelt saleable. Begin by hanging it by the rear legs and cut the skin around the rear feet. Some raccoon
populations carry a roundworm that may be found in the droppings and on the pelt. In very rare circumstances, this parasite can be
transmitted to humans. Raccoon hunters should wear rubber gloves while dressing and skinning the carcass. Creative Publishing international
Cut along the inside of each rear leg to the base of the tail. Peel the pelt back to the base of the tail. Begin peeling the skin off the abdomen.
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Continue peeling off the pelt until you reach the shoulders, using your knife only when necessary. Cut the skin around the front feet. Creative
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Use your knife to skin the pelt from the spine above the tail. Cut through the tailbone close to the rump. Leave the tailbone inside the pelt.
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Pull the pelt off the front legs and then off the head, cutting carefully at the eyes and rear base of the ears. Cut the pelt off at the nose and
turn it right-side-out to dry. Cut and peel the tail skin to remove the bone. Creative Publishing international

Remove the viscera by cutting down the center line of the abdomen, being careful not to puncture the
intestine or internal organs. Once the intestines and internal organs are removed, you can wash the carcass
with clean water.
Raccoons have several small scent glands located under the front legs and above the base of the tail
that need to be removed. Use your knife point to trim them away from the flesh, being careful not to
puncture or break them open with your knife or fingers.
 After removing these glands, cut through the flank to the backbone. Then cut through the hip joints to
remove each hind leg. The rest of the carcass will contain little meat and can be discarded or composted.
Rinse the legs in clean water and place in salt brine for several days before use.

Remove the glands that lie under the front legs and above the base of the tail. Cut off the head and feet. Slit the abdomen from vent to neck.
Remove the internal organs, rinse the raccoon, and pat it dry. This method of skinning can also be used for opossums and muskrats. Creative
Publishing international
Small game can be quartered or cut into chunks.

Opossum
The opossum is a large rodent-like animal found in North and South America. In recent decades, they
have been expanding their territory, including into urban areas. Depending on their age and sex, opossums
can range from 5 to 15 pounds. Their meat is light in color and fine-grained, but tends to carry a lot of fat
within the muscles. This can make them difficult to cook. They can be skinned in similar ways to raccoon,
rabbits, squirrels, and other small furred game.
 After skinning and eviscerating the carcass, remove as much of the fat as possible. Be sure to remove
the reddish gland located under the forelegs and at the small of the back before storing or cooking. The
carcass can be placed in a salt brine of 1 tablespoon salt in 1 quart of water to remove some of the strong
flavor of the meat.

Muskrat
The muskrat is a medium-sized, semi-aquatic rodent native to North America. It is found in wetlands but
can range over different climates and habitats.
You can skin muskrats in a manner similar to other furred game. Be sure to check for any county or
state regulations that may apply to hunting or trapping them.
The meat from muskrats can be fried or broiled, made into casseroles or sausage, or used in a variety
of ways like other small game animals.

Snakes
Most common snakes are unprotected by hunting laws and can be used for meat. Many rattlesnakes are
protected, and you should check your local or state regulations before capturing any wild snakes. Some
snake species are venomous, and you need to use great care in capturing or handling them. If you are
bitten by a snake, particularly a venomous one, immediately seek medical treatment. Reptiles also are
known to spread salmonella, so be sure to wash hands and equipment thoroughly after handling.
Begin by removing the head, as it’s easier to work with them because its reflexes will still allow it to
“move.” Snakes have been known to strike even when they are considered dead, and those with fangs can
still be dangerous.
Wash the outside of the snake well and lay it on a clean, flat surface, belly-side up. Use the knife tip to
cut an incision down the center from the head to the tail. Cut only through the skin while avoiding cutting
into the body.
Use your hands to pull the skin from the flesh with even tension, beginning with the head. The hide
should be loose enough to detach it from the carcass. Trim areas if the flesh begins to tear as you peel off
the skin.
Remove the tail and skin by severing them just in front of the cloaca. Remove the viscera by hand after
making a centerline cut the length of the body and into the flesh. Try to avoid deep cuts at the lower end of
the digestive tract.
After the viscera are removed, rinse the carcass in cool water and then cut it into segments. When
cutting segments, make sure your cuts are between the ribs and not across them. This will avoid severing
the ribs, which may be difficult to remove from the meat after it is cooked.
The flavor and texture of snake is somewhere between chicken and fish, and you may be able to make
them taste like either, although this will detract from the uniqueness of having snake for its own flavor.
The pieces may be placed in salt water for a day or two before cooking to remove any remaining blood or
reduce the wild flavor.
Although cooking should remove all venom contained in any snake, you should check for any signs that
the snake has been bitten by another. If you see bite marks on that snake, be careful with those areas of the
meat and consider discarding the snake.

Turtle
Turtles are vertebrates that have two skeletons: an endoskeleton that consists of all the internal bones, and
an exoskeleton, which is its outer shell. The endoskeleton is divided into two subsections called the axial
and appendicular skeletons. The axial skeleton is made up of the skull and both the cervical and thoracic
vertebrae, while the appendicular skeleton consists of the remaining bones, including the legs.

The turtle anatomy includes four different types and numbers of vertebrae: cervical (eight), dorsal (ten), sacral (two), and caudal (twenty to
thirty).

There are two parts to the shell: the carapace, which is the hard upper part, and the plastron, which
sometimes is referred to as the belly. Both shells are made of many fused bones. Turtles have the ability
of pulling the carapace and plastron together tightly while the animal retracts its body into the shell. This
is the joint where you will cut to open up the shells.
Begin by decapitating the turtle, but realize that its reflexes will still be working. Avoid the head and
feet so you don’t get bitten or clawed. Place the body upside down in boiling water for 5 minutes to
loosen the exterior layer of the skin.
Tail, neck, and all four legs are attached to the carapace. Separate them from the bottom shell, or
plastron, by turning the turtle on its back and making a circular cut at the joint between them. As the
plastron is loosened, trim until it is completely free from the body. This should expose the viscera, which
can be removed by hand.
Most of the meat will be located in the carapace and include the legs, shoulders, loins, and neck. First,
remove the legs by severing them at the shoulder and pelvic joints. Then remove the neck and tail. These
can be boned later because the skin is not edible.
The loins or hams are located in the top part of the carapace and are protected by a rib-like structure
made of hard cartilage. You will need a sturdy shears to cut through the cartilage before you can remove
the loins.
After you have removed as much of the muscles as possible, separate them from fat particles and wash
all the pieces in clean, cool water. You do not need to debone the legs, neck, or tail before you cook them
as pieces, in stews, or soups.

Frogs
Frogs and other amphibians are cold-blooded animals that grow slowly whether in the wild or in
intensive indoor frog farms. A number of frog species, including the green frog, leopard frog, and pickerel
frog, are harvested from the wild and sold as luxury food, such as frog legs, in restaurants. The common
bull frog is the largest native North American species, often reaching 8 inches in length, which makes it
best for human consumption. However, wild populations of frogs are declining throughout the world as
environmental pollution, development pressures, and other factors affect their habitats.
While some prefer to only use the hind legs for meat, the whole body can be utilized, especially if they
are large frogs. To begin, you can kill the frog by inserting your knife into its lower jaw and thrusting up
into its cranial cavity.
Begin by making a circular cut behind the ears, which appear as round spots behind each eye. Pull the
skin out below the jaw and grasp it with your fingers or pliers. While holding the head, pull the skin down
with your free hand. It should slip free of the front legs. Continue pulling until you reach the hips at the top
of the hind legs. The skin is constricted at this point, so either cut a small incision in the skin or slowly
work the skin over the hips with your fingers. Once the skin is past the hips, continue to pull it off the back
feet. Now the skin should be completely removed.
Remove the four feet by cutting at the joint where each foot bends at the tip. Remove the head by
cutting just behind the skull and around the bottom jaw. Either sever it or pull the head apart from the
body.
To open the abdomen, insert the tip of your knife at a point slightly anterior to the pelvis and slice up to
the ribs. A little pressure with a sharp knife should split the rib cage up through the breastbone.
Remove the viscera and esophagus if it does not come out with the head. Rinse the carcass with clean,
cool water before you cook or refrigerate it.

Fish
Fish make up the largest and most diverse class of vertebrates. There are more than 20,000 species, but
only a limited number are readily available for most anglers in the United States.
Although fish are caught in abundant numbers in lakes, streams, rivers, ponds, and other open water
areas, fish farms are found in all 50 states. Raising fish in controlled conditions has provided an abundant
harvest that may be more sustainable than if long-term fish supplies are only confined to the wild or the
seas.
Fishing seasons help manage available stocks and are more plentiful and timely than hunting seasons.
This allows you to secure your favorite fish for long periods during the year, in contrast to other species
with limited harvest seasons.
Fish are extremely perishable, and proper care insures firm flesh for cooking. Coolers filled with ice keep fish cold. Avoid placing fish in the
sunshine or in a nonporous wrapping such as a plastic bag. Fish spoil quickly without air circulation. Creative Publishing international
Different techniques for dressing fish are used for different species, generally related to size and whether they will be cooked with their skin
on or not. A basic approach starts with removing the gills by cutting the throat connection and then cutting along both sides of the arch so
that the gills pull out easily. Creative Publishing international
Insert the knife in the vent and run the blade tip to the gills. Pull the viscera and gills out of the cavity. Most fish that are filleted do not need
their scales removed. Those that are cooked whole or with their skin on should have their scales removed. Creative Publishing international
Cut the membrane along the backbone. Scrape out the kidney or bloodline underneath the membrane. Use a mesh glove on your free hand to
prevent accidental cuts from your knife and to protect it from the external spines. Creative Publishing international
Anglers use a variety of filleting techniques. One way is to begin by lifting the pectoral fin with your knife and angle it toward the back of the
head to start your cut to the backbone. Creative Publishing international
Turn the blade parallel to the backbone and cut toward the tail with a sawing motion until the fillet is cut off. Having a sharp knife is essential
to making easy cuts. Creative Publishing international
Remove the rib bones by sliding the blade along the ribs. Turn the fish over and remove the second fillet. Cutting through rib bones will dull
knives quickly. Keep a steel handy to touch up your knife when needed. Creative Publishing international
Remove the thin strip of fatty belly flesh on oily fish such as salmon and large trout. Any contaminants ingested by the fish will settle into this
fatty tissue. Discard the viscera and belly. Creative Publishing international
Skin the fillet, if desired, by cutting into the tail flesh to the skin. Turn the blade parallel to the skin. Keep the skin on fillets that will be charcoal
grilled. This helps prevent the flesh from falling apart, sticking to the grill, and overcooking. Creative Publishing international
Finish by pulling the skin firmly while moving the knife in a sawing motion between the skin and the flesh. Clean the fillets by wiping with paper
towels or rinse quickly under cold water and then dry thoroughly. Creative Publishing international
Northern pike, muskellunge, and pickerel have a row of Y-shaped bones that float just above the ribs and run lengthwise along the fillet,
ending above the vent. They can be cut out by guiding the knife blade along the bones and scraping lightly. Some flesh is lost when Y-bones are
cut out but may make for more pleasurable dining. They can be left intact and removed after cooking. Creative Publishing international

The quality of a fish begins to decline as soon as it is caught. Like other species, fish should be
handled with care to avoid bruising and kept out of sunlight to prevent further deterioration. They should
be cleaned, dressed, and washed before being refrigerated or frozen.
Sharp fillet knives work best for cutting fish. You should use a chain mail glove to protect your free
hand from knife slips while filleting them.
 If you are going to skin the fish, you will not need to remove the scales. However, to remove the
scales, use a fish scaler or a dull knife to scrape from tail to head, or in the opposite direction that the
scales lay.
There are several ways to cut up fish. Four methods are described here, but you may use others. Fish
can be left whole, dressed, steaked, or filleted, depending on your use and preference.
To keep the fish whole, you will only need to remove the viscera and wash the inner body cavity and
outside with clean water. Your decision to remove the scales may depend on whether you will use your
fish at the earliest opportunity or freeze it.
Dressing a fish involves the removal of the viscera, head, tail, and dorsal, pectoral, pelvic, and anal
fins. You can make fish steaks by using the dressing procedures. Then cut the body crosswise into portions
about 1-inch thick. Generally, steaking is only done with large fish, such as northern pike and salmon.
It is easier to fillet fish by first removing the viscera and retaining the head (especially on most large
fish, such as walleye, northern pike, or bass, so you have something to hold on to the fish while cutting it).
Fish are also easier to cut if the viscous covering is thoroughly washed off the scales.
Make your first cut just behind the gill behind the head. Turn your knife at an angle and slice down the
backbone using the heel to guide your cut. As the knife slides along the backbone, it will cut through the
ribs until you reach the tail. If you skin the fillet, you can stop your cut at the tail, leaving a portion of skin
attached to the fish. Then turn the fillet over skin-side down and flatten the knife on the skin and run the
knife forward to separate the flesh and skin. Then do the same for the other side. If done properly, the end
result will be an entire carcass left without the meat fillets. Finally, pack the fillets in ice or refrigerate
them until cooked or preserved.

Final Considerations
While small furred animals can provide meat for exotic or adventurous tastes, you should give thought to
the effect that harvesting these animals has on local wildlife populations. The diversity of species in the
wild is often dependent upon their ability to sustain their populations. Overhunting or trapping can
decimate populations to the point they become unsustainable. If you decide to pursue these game animals,
use as much of the carcass as possible so their contribution to your table is not wasted.
In many states, it is lawful to capture and possess no more than a few wild native animals or
amphibians for private use. It is not lawful to sell, barter, or trade any that you hunt or trap. Permits or
licenses for hunting or trapping wild game are required in most, if not all, states, and you are responsible
for knowing, understanding, and abiding by any regulations or statutes.

Small Game Cooking Considerations

Simplicity is the greatest asset in obtaining good taste from cooking small game. Following several basic principles will help determine how
your game tastes and how it should be prepared to maximize flavor.
The chronological age of the game animal will have a great influence on the flavor and cooking method used. Young animals born of that
year, or yearlings, can be cooked by roasting, broiling, or frying. Older animals, large adults, or animals that have been subjected to a chase
will require slow cooking either by stewing, pot roasts, or fricassees.
Secondly, fat typically needs to be added during cooking to compensate for the leanness of most game meat and to bring out the flavor.
Very active small game animals, such as squirrels and rabbits, typically have fat reserves that only accumulate during certain seasons. The
result is a lean-muscled animal that will make tough chewing at certain times of the year unless some fat is added. Some animals such as
opossum possess a natural oiliness that helps the cooking process.
Adding fat to small game cooking is referred to as oiling and is most generally done by rubbing the individual cuts with pork fat. Bacon can
be used when it is cut into slabs or small pieces and laid over the small game cuts.
The taste of game meat is also influenced by the food habits of the animal. Most are favorable and become characteristic of regions and
times of year. This may influence the method of cooking used for a specific species at a particular time of year. Roasting may be more
favorable at one time and stewing at another time.
 Roast Rabbit
1 rabbit
Salt and pepper
Sausage st uf f ing
Poult ry f at or oil
Currant jelly

Wash the dressed rabbit under running water and dry. Season with salt and pepper, stuff, and sew shut. Roast uncovered at 325ºF for 11/2
to 13/4 hours or until tender. Baste with fat. Serve on hot platter with brown gravy and currant jelly. Garnish with parsley or watercress.
Serves 4 to 6.

Hasenpfeffer
1 rabbit
1 quart vinegar
2 t bsp. salt
1 t bsp. pickling spices
1 t bsp. peppercorns
2 large onions, sliced
2 t bsp. f at (bacon grease)
1 c. cold wat er
2 t bsp. f lour
1 t sp. cinnamon
1/2 t sp. allspice

Cut rabbit into serving portions. Place in crock and cover with vinegar, combined with salt, spices, peppercorns, and 1 onion. Let stand in a
cool place 24 hours. Drain, cover with boiling water, and simmer until tender, about 11/2 hours. Remove meat and strain broth. Melt fat or
bacon grease in frying pan. Blend in flour and add water, stirring constantly. Cook until thickened. Add rabbit, strained broth, cinnamon,
allspice, and remaining onion; simmer for about 1 hour.

Squirrel
3 small squirrels
3/4 c. salad oil

1/4 c. lemon juice

2 c. bread crumbs
1/2 c. milk or cream

1/2 c. mushrooms, diced and saut éed

1/2 t sp. salt

1/8 t sp. pepper

1/2 t sp. onion juice

4 t bsp. olive oil or bacon f at
1 t sp. Worcest ershire sauce
Paprika

Wash and clean squirrels in several cups of water and dry. Cover with salad oil mixed with lemon juice and let stand for 1 hour. Combine
bread crumbs with just enough milk or cream to moisten, mushrooms, salt, pepper, and onion juice. Stuff the squirrel with this mixture,
skewer, and truss. Brush with olive oil or bacon fat and roast uncovered at 325ºF for 11/2 to 13/4 hours or until tender. Baste every 15
minutes with fat from bottom of pan. When tender, make gravy with remaining broth, adding Worcestershire sauce and paprika to taste.
Serve gravy in separate dish. Serves 6.

Brunswick Stew
2 squirrels
1 t bsp. salt
1 minced onion
2 c. f resh lima beans
6 ears corn
1/2 pound salt pork

6 pot at oes
1 t sp. pepper
2 t sp. sugar
4 c. sliced t omat oes
1/2 pound but t er

Cut squirrel into serving pieces. Add salt to 4 quarts of water, and when boiling, add onion, lima beans, corn cut from the cob, pork, potato,
pepper, and squirrels. Cover and simmer 2 hours, add sugar and tomato, and simmer 1 hour more. Ten minutes before removing from heat,
add butter cut into pieces the size of a walnut and rolled in flour. Bring to a boil. Serve in soup plates for 6. The characteristic Brunswick
stew is made with squirrels. Chickens and rabbits can be used in place of squirrels.

Opossum
1 opossum

The opossum is a very fat animal with a peculiarly flavored meat. Wash thoroughly inside and out with hot water after dressing and
skinning. Cover with cold water to which 1 cup of salt has been added and let stand overnight. Drain off the salted water and rinse with
clean, boiling water.

Dressing
1 large onion, minced
1 t bsp. f at
Opossum liver, chopped
1 c. bread crumbs
1 sweet red pepper, chopped
Dash Worcest ershire sauce
1 hard cooked egg, chopped
Salt
Brown the onion in fat. Add liver and cook until liver is tender. Add bread crumbs, pepper, Worcestershire sauce, egg, salt, and water to
moisten.

Stuff opossum and place in roaster; add 2 tablespoons water and roast at 350ºF. Baste every 15 minutes with drippings. Skim fat from pan
gravy; serve gravy separately with baked yams or sweet potatoes. Serves 10.

Raccoon
1 raccoon

Dressing
8 t o 10 slices dry bread
St ock f rom raccoon
2 eggs
1/2 t sp. ground cloves

1 t bsp. salt
2 t bsp. sage

Cut raccoon into small pieces and salt to taste. Cook in inset pan of pressure cooker for 1 hour at 15-pounds pressure. Cook longer if the
meat is tough. When tender, arrange pieces in baking dish and cover with dressing. Mix ingredients and put on top of cooked raccoon
meat. Bake at 350ºF until dressing is browned. This can also be used for opossum.

Cranberry Braised Raccoon

21/2 t o 3 lbs. raccoon pieces, f at and glands removed
1 c. cranberries, f inely chopped
1 c. apple cider
1/4 c. honey

1 t sp. grat ed orange peel

3/4 t sp. salt

1/8 t sp. ground cloves

1/8 t sp. ground nut meg

Place raccoon pieces in large saucepan. In small mixing bowl, combine remaining ingredients; mix well. Pour over raccoon pieces. Heat to
boiling. Reduce heat; cover. Simmer until raccoon is tender, about 2 to 3 hours; stirring occasionally. Serves 3 to 4.

Fried Frog Legs

6 f rog legs
Salt and pepper
Lemon juice
1 egg
Fine bread crumbs
Skin the legs and wash them in cold water; dry well on a towel or napkin. Season with salt, pepper, and lemon juice. Beat the egg and
season it with salt and pepper; dip the legs into egg, then into dried bread crumbs or fine cracker crumbs. Fry in hot, deep fat at 390ºF for
2 to 3 minutes. Serve with tartar sauce. Serves 2.

Turtle Ragout
2 lbs. t urt le meat , diced
1 onion, chopped
2 t bsp. but t er
1 t bsp. f lour
1 bay leaf
1 clove garlic
1 c. wat er
1/4 c. sherry

Cook onion in butter; blend in flour. Add remaining ingredients and simmer 30 minutes. Serves 6.

Turtle Soup
2 c. t urt le meat or t ail
1 medium chopped onion
1 crushed garlic clove
1 bay leaf
Salt and pepper
1 c. carrot s, cubed
1 c. celery, chopped
1 medium rut abaga, cubed
1 c. pot at oes, diced
1 c. green beans
1/2 c. whole corn

1/2 c. parsnips, cubed

Boil turtle meat, onion, garlic clove, bay leaf, salt, and pepper until meat separates from bone; remove from kettle. Remove meat from
bone. Put meat back in kettle. Return to heat and add remaining ingredients. Simmer about 11/2 hours. Add salt and pepper to taste.

Salmon Quiche
Crust
3 c. f lour
1 t sp. salt
2/3 c. veget able oil

1/4 c. plus 2 t bsp. milk

 Filling
1 t o 11/2 c. salmon, cooked and f laked
5 eggs
1 c. Mont erey Jack cheese, shredded
2 c. half -and-half
3/4 t sp. salt

1/8 t sp. pepper

Dash ground nut meg

2 t bsp. parsley f lakes

Heat oven to 350ºF. In medium mixing bowl, mix flour, salt, oil, and milk lightly with fork until blended. Pat into 13×9-inch baking pan,
patting dough 1 inch up side of pan; bake for 8 minutes.

Sprinkle cheese over hot crust, then sprinkle with fish. In small mixing bowl, blend eggs, half-and-half, salt, pepper, and nutmeg. Pour over
fish. Sprinkle with parsley. Bake until knife inserted in center comes out clean, 30 to 35 minutes. Cool for 10 minutes. Cut into 2 to 11/2-
inch pieces. Serves 36 appetizers.

Salmon Salad
2 c. salmon, cooked and f laked
1 c. small shell macaroni, uncooked
1/3 c. black olives, sliced

1/4 c. green pepper, f inely chopped

1 t bsp. grat ed onion

1/4 c. veget able oil

2 t bsp. red wine vinegar

1/4 t sp. dried oregano leaves

1/4 t sp. salt

1/8 t sp. pepper

Prepare macaroni as directed on package. Rinse under cold water; drain. In medium bowl, combine macaroni, salmon, olives, green
pepper, and onion. In small bowl, blend oil, vinegar, oregano, salt, and pepper. Pour dressing over salad, tossing to coat. Refrigerate at least
1 hour before serving. Serves 4 to 6.

Baked Walleye and Ratatouille

2 t o 3 lbs. walleye
1 medium onion
2 cloves garlic, minced
1/4 c. olive or veget able oil

1 eggplant (about 1lb.)

3 medium zucchini (about 1 lb.)
1 medium green pepper
2 c. sliced mushrooms
1 16-oz. can whole t omat oes, drained, cut up
1 t sp. salt
3/4 t sp. dried basil leaves

1/2 t sp. dried oregano leaves

1/4 t sp. pepper

Heat oven to 350ºF. Cut onion into thin slices and separate into rings. In saucepan, cook and stir onion and garlic in olive oil over medium
heat until onion is tender, about 5 minutes. Peel eggplant and cut into 3/4-inch cubes. Cut zucchini into 1/4-inch slices. Core and seed green
pepper; cut into 1/2-inch strips. Stir eggplant, zucchini, green pepper, mushrooms, tomatoes, salt, basil, oregano, and pepper into onions.
Cook over medium heat, stirring occasionally, for 10 minutes. Set aside.

Place fish on large sheet of heavy-duty aluminum foil. Spoon vegetables over and around fish. Wrap tightly. Place on baking sheet. Bake
until fish flakes easily at the backbone, about 35 minutes. Serves 2 to 4.

Tomato-Baked Walleye Fillets

11/2 lbs. walleye or ot her lean f ish f illet s
1 medium onion
2 t bsp. olive or veget able oil
11/2 c. f resh mushrooms, sliced
71/2 oz. whole t omat oes, drained, cut up
1/3 c. whit e wine

1/2 t sp. salt

1/8 t sp. pepper

1/8 t sp. garlic powder

1 medium t omat o, t hinly sliced

1/2 t sp. dried oregano leaves

2 t bsp. parsley

Cut onion into thin slices and into rings. In 9-inch skillet, cook and stir onion in olive oil over medium heat until tender-crisp, about 5
minutes. Set aside.

Heat oven to 350ºF. Place fish in 13×9-inch baking pan. Top with onion rings. Sprinkle mushrooms over onions. Set aside.

In small bowl, combine canned tomatoes, wine, salt, pepper, and garlic powder. Spoon evenly over fish and vegetables. Top with tomato
slices. Sprinkle oregano and parsley over tomato. Bake until fish flakes easily at thickest part, 25 to 30 minutes. Serves 4 to 6.

Creamy Northern Pike Casserole

2 c. nort hern pike or ot her lean f ish, cooked and f laked
1 103/4-oz. can condensed cream of shrimp soup
1 c. celery, t hinly sliced
1 t bsp. but t er or margarine
1 c. f rozen green beans, f resh if available
1 5.3-ounce can evaporat ed milk
1 4-oz. can sliced mushrooms, drained, or f resh if available
1 3-oz. can French-f ried onion rings, crushed
1/8 t sp. pepper

Heat oven to 350ºF. In small skillet, cook and stir celery in butter over medium heat until tender, about 6 minutes. Set aside.

In 2-quart casserole, mix fish, cream of shrimp soup, green beans, milk, mushrooms, 1/2 cup of crushed onion rings, and pepper. Stir in
celery.

Bake for 30 minutes. Top with remaining onion rings. Bake until hot and bubbly, 15 to 20 minutes. Serves 4 to 6.
 Chapter 9

MEAT BYPRODUCTS AND FOOD PRESERVATION

E arly peoples used as much of the animal’s carcass as possible for food, clothing, tools, weapons or
bindings, and ornaments, among other things. Stomachs, bladders, and skins were fashioned into
containers. Nothing was wasted following a successful hunt for meat. Today’s commercial meat
processors make a similar use of the entire carcass. Modern society still utilizes the nonmuscle portions
and transforms them into many products, including pharmaceutical uses.
All parts of the animal that are not included in the carcass are called byproducts. These include such
parts as skin, bones, hair, teeth, feathers, claws, fat, brains, and nonconnective tissues and tendons. Your
use of byproducts may depend on whether you have a need for them. Skins may be sold or tanned for
leather, feathers can be used for ornaments, and fats can be used in sausage making or rendered into lard.
Edible byproducts, such as livers, hearts, tongues, testicles, kidneys, oxtails, stomachs (tripe), and
intestines, may find uses in your meals in one form or another. These are sometimes referred to as variety
meats. You may develop a taste for a particular byproduct part, as most can be included in specialized
dishes or can be ground into meat for making sausage.
The liver is a brown-colored organ t hat met abolizes sugars int o glucose, providing energy t o t he body syst ems. The gallbladder is
greenish-colored and is at t ached near t he liver. It must be removed and discarded. The liver should have a bright , healt hy look,
f ree of abscesses. It can be sliced and f ried or used in sausage making.

Several, such as liver, kidney, and heart, are high in protein content and highly nutritious. These variety
meats are generally more perishable than other meats and should be frozen or cooked soon after harvest
or purchase.
The paragraphs below detail these byproducts, how they can be cooked, and for what purpose.
Liver: After removing all connective tissue surrounding the liver, it can be thinly sliced and cooked in
a variety of methods. These include frying, broiling, sautéing, and braising. You can grind or chop liver
and use it as an additive to sausages, loaves, spreads, and other dishes.
Heart: The heart from different animals can be used. For fowl and small animals, such as squirrels or
rabbits, they can be cooked with moist heat or ground and used in sausages. The heart is generally less
tender than liver, although it has an excellent flavor. Large animal hearts can be sliced open for inspection
and then may be filled with a dressing, stitched shut with cooking thread, and then roasted with moist heat,
like a turkey.

The heart is less tender than the liver, but it has excellent flavor. Small animal hearts can be ground as an additive for sausages. After the
heart is removed from the body, you should slice it open and wash out any remaining blood.
Tongues can be thinly sliced after braising for cold sandwich meats. You can remove the tough outer membrane by blanching (short exposure
to boiling water) prior to long-term, moist-heat cooking. Sweetbreads include the beef and veal thymus and pork pancreas glands and are
similar to tongues in that they need to be precooked to remove the outer membranes and sliced thinly before dipping in batter or flour and
deep fried.

The kidneys can be used in casseroles and stews, or they may be broiled and skewered. While in the carcass, they are often surrounded by fat,
which should be peeled away before use. Lamb and veal kidneys are more tender than beef kidneys.
The oxtail is often used in soup stock. It is the top portion of the tail that attaches to the posterior end of the spine. It can contribute a rich,
meaty flavor.

Tongue: Tongues from large animals, such as cattle or pigs, can make cold sandwich meats after being
braised and thinly sliced. You can remove the tough outer membrane of the tongue by blanching, followed
by moist heat cooking for an extended period. Once this membrane is trimmed, the rest can be cooled and
sliced.
Kidneys: Lamb and veal kidneys may be broiled and skewered and are more tender than beef kidneys.
They can be included in meat casseroles, stews, and other dishes.
Oxtail: The oxtail is the upper portion of the tail that attaches near the lateral end of the spine. It is
often used as soup stock. The tail sections can be browned first, if desired, then simmer until the meat is
tender and separates from the bone. Remove the bone parts and use the meat as soup ingredients. Oxtail
has a rich, meaty flavor and texture, and it can also be used in stews.
Tripe: The edible portion of stomach tissues is called tripe. Tripe comes from the first and second
stomachs of cattle and the stomach of pigs. To use tripe, you must cut open the stomach to remove all
contents. Then it must be thoroughly washed before quickly chilling it. Remove the inner surface
membrane. It will have a firmer texture than other variety meats and is less tender. You can use it in
various meat dishes, such as kidneys, or added to soups. It is best cooked with moist heat and may be
served with sauces and dressings.
The honeycomb edible portion of a beef animal’s stomach is called tripe. Before use, it must be opened, the contents thoroughly cleaned out,
and then cooled. After the inner surface membrane is removed, it can be sliced and cooked with moist heat, or used in soups.

Intestines: If the intestines are not used as casings for sausage making, they can be utilized for
specialty dishes. The intestines, especially those from pigs, can be cleaned and thoroughly washed and
cooked with sauces. These are sometimes referred to as chitterlings. They can also be cut into small
pieces, breaded with raw eggs and bread crumbs, and deep fried.
The intestines can be used for casing in sausage making. Pig intestines are the most commonly used after being thoroughly washed and brined.
They can also be cooked and cut into small pieces, breaded with raw egg and crumbs, and then deep fried.
Blood contains about 17 percent protein and can be used for making blood sausage. Pork or beef blood is most often used. It is added with
fillers such as meat, fat, barley, oatmeal, and bread until it is thick enough to congeal when cooked. Any blood that comes in contact with the
surface of the carcass or is otherwise contaminated should not be used.

Blood: Blood contains approximately 17 percent protein and can be used in sausage making; blood
sausage makes the best use. The U.S. Department of Agriculture regulations do not allow any blood that
comes in contact with the surface of the body of an animal or is contaminated in any other manner to be
used for food purposes. Only blood from inspected animals can legally be used for meat food products
that are sold to the public. Some societies, such as the Masai tribes, will mix blood with milk as part of
their diet, but blood is generally discarded in home butchering. Cattle have the largest amount of blood,
and a 1,200-pound animal will typically yield about 46 pounds of blood; a pig will yield about 7 percent
of its live body weight, and sheep will yield about 3 percent of its live body weight.
 Fats: Animal fats have had many uses over the course of human history. They have served as a food
energy source, been rubbed into animal hides to make tepee leather supple and waterproof, and, in the
case of bear grease during the nineteenth century, provided a sheen and unique aroma to human hair. Fats
also have been used for making soaps and providing fuel for oil lamps in the days prior to kerosene or
gasoline.
Animal and plant fats differ mainly in melting point and saturation. Fats and oils contain both saturated
and unsaturated components. Saturated fats are firmer and have a higher melting point than the softer,
unsaturated fats.
Cooking and table fats available for use range from liquid oils, derived mainly from plants, to solid
fats, which come from animals and other sources.
Lard is the fat most often used in home cooking and is rendered from the clear and edible tissues of
pigs. Recent decades have witnessed a decreased in use of lard production due to health concerns and
competition from vegetable fats. However, lard provides a source of energy, and linoleic fatty acid is an
essential component of the human diet.
Lard has a melting point that is near body temperature, making it easily digested. This low point
allows a cook or baker to use it in a variety of ways, such as cooking fat, shortening, a flavor ingredient,
and a source of nutrition.
Rendering is the process of extracting fat from the tissues using heat. The raw fat and meat is either
cooked or heated to turn the fat into a liquid. The melted fat is then drawn off. This process increases the
shelf life of the fat by killing the microorganisms that were present and removing most of the moisture.
You can render pork fat at home whether it comes from butchering a pig or is purchased at a local
market. If you are using one of your pigs, remove the raw fat from the skin to obtain better quality.
Begin by chopping the fat into fine pieces. For each pound of fat, allow 1/2 cup of water. Place the fat
and water in a cooking vessel and heat to boiling, but do not exceed 240 degrees Fahrenheit. Stir as it
warms to avoid scorching. As it boils, the steam will remove extraneous odors. Boiling will not occur
until the fat liquefies. Allow the fat to cook until the solid material reaches a golden or amber color, then
drain into storage containers.
Use several thicknesses of cheesecloth or similar material that can be placed over clean, dry,
nonmetallic storage containers suitable for use with hot liquids. Slowly pour the hot fat into the cloths
until the containers are fitted to a desired level. Cool the lard rapidly to produce a firm, smooth-textured
product. As the lard cools, stir it occasionally when it reaches the creamy stage to reduce the oils
separating out and avoid developing a grainy texture. Store at temperatures of 40 degrees Fahrenheit or
lower. Lard may be frozen but should be packaged in airtight containers and used within six months. This
will reduce changes in flavor or aroma due to oxidation.
If you choose to render fat in your home, you need to use caution during the entire process. You also
need to avoid spills because hot grease can cause severe burns to exposed skin. If the fat is spilled on
clothing, it will cling to it and can also cause deep, severe burns. Never allow children anywhere near
your processing area or as the containers are cooling.

Food Preservation Options

Whether butchering domestic animals or hunting wild game for meat, it is likely you will have more meat
available than you can eat at one meal. The rest will have to be preserved to keep it usable for later.
Different preservation methods serve different purposes. You should decide on a plan of distribution of
the meat into one or several of these methods before you proceed with processing. Do you want to freeze
all or part of the carcass that is not used immediately? Do you want to make some into sausages? Develop
a plan before you begin and you will eliminate waste.
 Food preservation, in relation to meat products, is the process of handling it in a way that stops or
retards the growth of microorganisms, making it safe for long-term consumption. There are many forms of
food preservation, including freezing, canning, drying, salting, and pickling to name the major processes
used in homes. Large commercial applications employ methods such as vacuum packaging, irradiation,
sugaring, and using lye, modified atmosphere, and high pressure, but those will not be discussed here.
Freezing is one of the most commonly used preservative methods and has several advantages. It is a
fast and simple way to stop microbial growth. The nutritional value of the meat does not deteriorate
through freezing, although some texture and quality can be affected by long-term storage, resulting in
freezer burn.
Canning involves cooking food to a boiling point for a specified time as a form of sterilization. This is
done while sealed cans or jars are submerged in boiling water or placed in a pressure cooker. The
advantages of canning include a ready-to-heat meal after the can or jar is opened, it can serve as a backup
in case of freezer malfunction, and it allows useful preservation when insufficient freezer space is
available.
A moisture- or vapor-proof freezer wrap that seals out air and locks in moisture will make material to use for meat to be stored in a freezer.
Choose heavy-duty, pliable wraps, such as freezer paper, aluminium foil, and freezer bags that can be used with bulky or irregular-shaped cuts
of meat.

Begin by placing the meat near the center of the wrap and then bring the edges together at the top.
Make a short fold at the top and repeat folds until last fold is tight against the meat.

Even out the fold wraps and smooth the ends as you make triangle folds.
Fold the ends under the package and seal with freezer tape. Label with date, type of meat and cut, and weight.

Drying is perhaps the oldest method of food preservation and involves dehydration of the meat. The
removal of water from the meat significantly reduces the water activity to prevent, inhibit, or delay
bacterial growth. Reducing the amount of water in meat also reduces the total weight, making it easier to
transport.
Salting is used to cure meats by drawing moisture out of the tissue through a process of osmosis. Salt
or sugar can be used separately or in a combination. Salted fish or meat was a staple in the diets of many
early settlers who were on the move or lacked other methods to preserve food.
Pickling is the use of a brine, vinegar, or any spicy edible solution that is used to inhibit microbial
action. Pickling can involve two different forms: chemical pickling, which uses a brine solution, or
fermentation pickling, such as making sauerkraut. The edible liquid used in chemical pickling typically
includes agents such as a high salt brine, vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oils, particularly olive oil. The
purpose is to saturate the food being preserved with the agent. This may be enhanced in some cases with
heating or boiling. Common foods that are chemically pickled include corned beef, peppers, herring, eggs,
and cucumbers. Fermentation pickling is generally not used with meat but can be used with foods that
offer a good compliment to meat during a meal, such as sauerkraut. Fermentation pickling is assisted by
the food being preserved as it produces lactic acid.
Until the middle of the last century, jugging was a popular method of preserving meat. This method
involves the process of stewing meat in an earthenware jug or casserole. The meat is cut into pieces,
placed in a tightly sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Sometimes red wine is added to the
cooking liquid.

Pickling involves the use of brines or vinegars to preserve meat products through fermentation. It is mostly used for fruits and vegetables, but
it can be used for animal and fish products, such as pig’s feet, pork hocks, corned beef, herring, northern pike, or other large game fish.

Freezer Effects on Meat

Freezing has a physical effect on meat, but it remains one of the best preservation methods available for
long-term storage while not destroying vitamins or the meat’s nutritional value. Freezing meat almost
completely inactivates the enzymes and inhibits the growth of spoilage organisms.
When processing a carcass, it is important to remember that meat temperatures must be brought down
to 40 degrees Fahrenheit within 16 hours to prevent growth of spoilage microorganisms that lie deep
within the carcass tissues or in the centers of containers of warm meat. If the meat has not been cooled but
is going directly to a freezer, it must reach a temperature of 0 degrees Fahrenheit within 72 hours to
prevent the growth of putrifying bacteria.
You should make cuts to be frozen into smaller, individual sizes that are ready for cooking rather than
to freeze them as large portions that need to be further deconstructed once they are thawed. Smaller cuts
freeze more quickly and evenly than very large pieces or chunks. It is better to minimize the number of
times the meat needs to be handled and exposed to surfaces after it is thawed and used.

Canning
Canning is the second most commonly used preservation method for long-term storage of meat. Canned
meats are generally of two types: sterilized and pasteurized. Sterilized meat products do not need
refrigeration and can sit on shelves for extended periods as long as the container remains intact.
Pasteurized products require refrigeration to inhibit spoilage.
When canning meat for home use, you should use the appropriate procedures to ensure quality and safe
storage. Canned meats are preserved by hermetically sealing the container, which prevents air from
escaping or entering it. By applying heat to the sealed meats, you destroy the microorganisms that are
capable of producing spoilage. Using proper sanitation during the breakdown of the carcass will help
minimize the number of organisms originally present at canning time.
Canning involves a time-temperature relationship in destroying most microorganisms. A specific
internal temperature must be reached and held for a minimum amount of time to destroy the
microorganisms present. This method is most often applied to destroy the spores that can lead to botulism.
These times and temperatures are at the high end of any other methods. A safe cook, which is considered
to be one that destroys the botulism organisms, requires a minimum of three minutes at 250 degrees
Fahrenheit. Achieving this sterilizing temperature will require the use of a pressure cooker. These
typically operate under pressure of 12 to 15 pounds per square inch. Pressure changes the boiling point of
water and allows it to rise above the normal boiling point of 212 degrees Fahrenheit.
Glass jars are used for canning meats and vegetables. Inspect all jars for rim cracks or chips, and discard any jar when they are found because
they will not create a good, safe seal. Also, inspect each rubber ring or metal lid with gaskets to be used and discard any that are defective.

There are many advantages to using the sterilization method of canning meat products. The best is a
long storage life over a wide temperature range. Canned meats that are properly done can last several
years and still be edible, although some flavor deterioration may occur. Providing the container has
remained intact and the seal or exterior has not been damaged, canning can provide an effective
preservation method when refrigeration storage or electrical power disruption occurs. Some popular
products that can be canned include roast beef, beef stews, canned beef, potted-meat products, and
pickled pig’s feet.
The two most important aspects of canning are providing sufficient heat and creating a perfect seal of
the container. Only the best and freshest meats should be used because canning only preserves the meat; it
does not improve the quality of the meat used.
Glass jars are typically used in a method called the hot pack. This involves packing the meat into the
jars and processing the jars in boiling water or steam. The advantages of this method are that the jars are
completely sealed and the meat has no further exposure to outside influences or organisms.
Glass canning jars come in several sizes but are most generally found in pints or quarts. Covers or lids
that can be firmly tightened before being placed in water are needed. Rubber rings and metal lids with a
sealing gasket attached to it are two popular options. New rings and seal lids must be used each year;
discard used lids or rings.
Many models of pressure cookers are commercially available, such as stovetop and electric models,
and they are usually made of aluminum or enameled steel. Whichever model you choose, the same
principles apply. It should be substantially constructed and should have a pressure indicator, a safety
valve, and a petcock or vent.
Begin by thoroughly washing each jar in hot soapy water and rinse it in clear, hot water. The jars can
air dry by placing them on clean towels. Inspect the jars and test the cooker before you begin. Examine the
jars and lids for nicks or cracks. If they appear intact, fit a new ring to each jar, partly fill with hot water,
and adjust the lid and seal. Invert each jar and watch for leakage or small bubbles rising through the water
as it cools. An imperfect seal means you should discard the jar or the lid, depending from where the
bubbles originate. You can also test the rubber rings by doubling them over. If any crack, discard them.
Pressure cookers are used to create a higher cooking temperature than is possible under normal cooking conditions. Water heated under
pressure increases the temperature quickly. Be sure the gauge is accurate, the handles are securely fastened before heating the water, and the
petcock functions appropriately to ensure safe use of a pressure cooker.

Fill the jar half to three-quarter full with small raw cubed-sized pieces of meat. Do not tightly pack
down the meat into the jar. Fill each jar with clean water to within 1 inch of the rim. Place the jars on the
rack inside the cooker. The water level should reach the bottom of the rack, which keeps the glass off the
chamber base and allows the water and steam to completely surround the jars. Place the jars so they do
not touch one another. The lid or cover should be adjusted carefully and fastened tightly so that no stem
can escape through the petcock. The petcock should stay open until steam has poured out steadily for 10
minutes or more. Then close it to allow the pressure to rise to the level directed in the owner’s manual,
usually 10 pounds.
To begin the processing, place a small amount of water in the bottom of the cooker. Add the meat-filled
jars to the cooker and clamp on the air-tight lid. The cooker is then set over heat or heat is applied
electrically.
The pressure raises the temperature higher than that used in ordinary cooking, and the food cooks more
quickly. A gauge on the lid shows the number of pounds of pressure, indicating the temperature. A safety
valve releases pressure after cooking is completed. It will also release excess pressure. The petcock
provides an outlet for steam and air.
 When the appropriate pressure is reached, you should adjust the heat to keep the same pressure without
variation. For meats, process for three minutes at 250 degrees Fahrenheit.
When the processing time is completed, the cooker should be taken off the heat and left alone until the
pressure goes down to zero. Then open the petcock to release the remaining steam. Liquid may be lost
from the jars if the pressure varies during processing or if the steam is released too quickly. Jars should
not be reopened and refilled under any circumstances unless being immediately used. Do not let the
cooker sit unopened for any length of time after the steam is down. This may create a vacuum, which will
make it difficult to open the lid. If this happens, reheat the cooker for a few minutes until it is loose.
Take the jars out of the cooker and hand-tighten their lids if necessary. Place the jars on a rack or towel
to cool, but keep them away from drafts. Some canners turn the jars upside down as they cool to check for
any leaks or bubbles, which indicate a poor seal.
After drying, label the jars with the canning date. After ten days, recheck the jars. Immediately discard
any that exhibit cloudiness or signs of spoilage. Do not eat their contents under any circumstances.

Meat Cooking Methods

The cooking method you use depends on the kind and quality of the meat to be cooked. Only tender cuts of
meat can be cooked by dry heat. Less tender cuts require moist heat and long, slow cooking. The kind of
cooking methods include the following:
Baking: To cook in an oven or oven-type appliance. Covered or uncovered containers may be used.
Barbequing: To roast slowly on a spit or rack over coals or under a gas broiler flame or electric
broiler unit, usually basting with a highly seasoned sauce. The term also is commonly applied to foods
cooked in or served with barbeque sauce.
Boiling: To cook in water or mostly water, at boiling temperature (212 degrees Fahrenheit at sea
level). Bubbles rise continually and break on the surface.
Braising: Braising is cooking by moist heat. It is used for the less tender cuts, which require long,
slow cooking in the presence of moisture to bring out the full flavor and make them tender. Many pork cuts
are cooked by braising rather than broiling or pan-broiling because pork requires thorough cooking.
Brown the meat in a small amount of fat, then cover tightly and cook slowly in juices from the meat or in
added liquid, such as water, milk, or cream. Add only a small amount of liquid occasionally and do not
let boil but keep at a simmering temperature. Pork chops and pot roasts can be cooked by braising.
Broiling: Broiling is cooking by direct heat and may be done over hot coals or under a flame or an
electric unit. This method may be used for tender cuts that have adequate amounts of fat. Veal and pork
should not be broiled since they are too low in fat.
Caramelizing: To heat sugar or food containing sugar until a brown color and characteristic flavor
develop.
Creaming: To work a food or a combination of foods until soft and creamy, using a spoon, wooden
paddle, or other utensil.
Fricasseeing: To braise individual serving pieces of meat, poultry, or game in a little liquid such as
water, broth, or sauce.
Frying and sautéing: Some meats such as chops and cutlets may be crumbed and fried in deep fat or
oil. Ham, liver, and some other meats can be sautéed in a small amount of oil or fat at low temperatures
after the first searing.
Marinating: To let foods stand in a liquid (usually a mixture of oil with vinegar or lemon juice) to add
flavor or to make them more tender.
 Pan-broiling: To pan-broil, place the meat in a sizzling skillet or pan, and brown on both sides.
Reduce heat, pour off fat as it accumulates, and cook until done, while occasionally turning it. Pork is
generally not pan-broiled.
Parboil: To boil until partly cooked.
Pot roasting: To cook large pieces of meat by braising.
Roasting: To roast meat, place it on the rack in a roasting pan, fat side up, and cook in a slow oven,
uncovered and without water, until cooked as desired. The large tender cuts of meat are cooked by this
method.
Scalding: To heat liquid to just below the boiling point.
Simmering: To cook in liquid just below the boiling point, at temperatures of 185 to 210 degrees
Fahrenheit. Bubbles form slowly and break below the surface.
Stewing: To boil or simmer in a small amount of liquid. Cut the meat into cubes and brown on all sides
in hot fat, if desired. Cover with boiling water and cook at simmering temperatures in a covered kettle
until meat is tender. Less tender cuts containing much connective tissue are best cooked by stewing, which
softens both tissue and fiber. The best cuts for stews are those containing both fats and lean and some
bone. The shank is the most economical of all cuts for this purpose. Other cuts used are the neck, plate,
flank, heel of the round, and short ribs. The brisket and rump are sometimes used.
Instant-read thermometers have stems that are inserted into large pieces of meat, such as hams or roasts, to monitor internal temperatures.
They are essential for accurate cooking and smoking processes.

Wrapping
Rancidity is the bad taste or smell derived from fats or oils that have spoiled. It develops differently in
animal carcasses, depending on their fats’ ability to absorb oxygen from the air. Rancidity can affect the
taste, odor, and palatability of the fat and adjoining tissue. Different animal species produce different fats.
Pork fat is high in unsaturated fatty acids, which have the ability to absorb oxygen resulting in a shorter
storage life. Beef and lamb have a higher proportion of saturated fatty acids and are less susceptible to
oxygen absorption and generally have a longer storage life.
You can reduce oxidation effects by eliminating air exposure to the meat. One good way for home use
is to properly apply a wrapping material that is airtight and moisture proof.
Loss of meat moisture is referred to as shrinkage or dehydration. The loss of moisture from the frozen
surface of the meat is called freezer burn. Freezer burn results from surface moisture loss due to using an
unsuitable grade of wrapping paper, holes in the paper, or improper wrapping. Severe dehydration results
in lower quality cuts, and the increase in oxygen exposure to fats can make them rancid.
To avoid freezer burn and reduce oxygen effects, you should use a good grade of meat wrapping paper
that is moisture proof and use proper wrapping and handling procedures that eliminate tears or cuts in the
paper. There are many American companies that supply meat wrapping paper, often referred to as butcher
paper.
 Chapter 10

MEAT CURING AND SMOKING

C uring and smoking are two of the most prevalent meat-preservation methods used today, both
commercially and at home. Both techniques involve drying, which helps inhibit bacterial growth. Since
moisture is required for bacteria to function and multiply, removing it retards that growth and makes
preserved meat safe to consume for a longer period of time.
If you’re only smoking meat, you may well be smoking it with the intent to consume it immediately—or
smoking it with the intent of finishing it on the grill or in the oven. If this is the case, there are fewer safety
concerns. Still, you’ll find curing and smoking often go hand in hand. Both can help extend the shelf life
and long-term use of your meat products. Besides creating a more varied product, smoking and curing
together provide unique flavors and colors for various cuts of meat. Sausages, patties, roasts, loin cuts,
rib cuts, bacon, and other cuts can be infused with layers of flavor by smoking and curing.
Using a smoking or curing process may depend on your tastes and preferences, the space you have
available, and perhaps your expertise. Taste does need not be sacrificed when using safe procedures.
This chapter will guide you through the processes needed to make preserved meat products that are both
safe to consume and tasty.
Curing and smoking are not only good ways t o ext end t he shelf lif e of meat , t hey creat e delicious, unique f lavors.

The Basics of Curing

Curing is one of the oldest food preservation methods, and it is still one of the most useful preservation
methods today. Through much of human civilization, salt has been the primary preservative used to avoid
spoilage and create a longer shelf life for meat and today’s meat preservation methods still routinely use
salt along with nitrite—both of which help prevent the growth of microorganisms that cause botulism, a
lethal form of food poisoning.
 Note: The days when meat for eating was cured by drying it in the sunshine and open air are a thing
of the past. While a traditional method, it is no longer recommended as a viable option for meat
preservation. Outdoor drying creates unstable temperature and moisture variations (and can lead to
insect infestations), all of which can lead to the growth of spores causing botulism.
Salt is the essential ingredient in any successful curing process. Curing is generally done using either a
liquid marinade into which the meat is submerged or a dry rub that is used to coat the meat’s exterior.
Typically, the meat must sit for a certain length of time before drying for the cure to work through the
exterior surface and into the interior, drawing moisture and blood from the muscle cells while entering the
cells by osmosis. The salt slowly moves through the cell membranes, replacing moisture and inducing
partial drying. Salt is central to all curing mixtures because it is hygroscopic, which means it absorbs
moisture from its surrounding environment, thus providing its preservative action.

A quality meat cut makes the best end product. A pork belly, whether whole or in part, can be smoked and cured before it is cut into strips for
frying or broiling.

Generally speaking, the larger the piece of meat being cured, the longer it will take to complete the
curing process. The amount of salt used can be too little or too much, which means it’s important to
follow the instructions closely. If too little salt is applied, bacteria can grow and spoilage can follow. If
too much salt is used, the meat can become hard, dry, and taste overly salty.
The term cure can be used to describe either the actual process of turning raw meat into a preserved,
safe, and edible meat or the commercial product pack containing the essential ingredients, such as salt and
sodium nitrite, that cause meat’s transformation from raw to preserved.
Cure is sometimes interpreted to mean both curing and the subsequent smoking of meat. However,
curing does not actually imply smoking, although the two processes work well together. Strictly speaking,
curing applies only to dry salt curing, brine submersion, or pickling with a vinegar base. In a wider sense,
curing applies to any saline or alkaline preservation solution, perhaps with some modifications.
If you plan to make smoked, cooked, or dry sausages, you will need a cure product. Today’s
alternatives are much better and more stable than the saltpeter (a strong form of nitrate—sodium or
potassium) typically used by earlier generations of meat preservers. Why use a cure?
It’s because of the bacteria that can be produced by decomposing muscle. Clostridium botulinum is
the bacteria that causes botulism, a potent and deadly form of food poisoning. The spores thrive in meat
environments with temperatures between 40 and 140 degrees Fahrenheit in moist, low-oxygen conditions.
This is exactly the environment we provide in sausage smokers, dry sausages, and fresh pork or other
meats held at room temperature.
At this time, there is no known substitute for nitrite in curing meat and sausages. The benefits of using it
far outweigh any health risks that may be associated with it. You can go without using nitrites if cooking
fresh ground beef, pork, lamb, venison, or other meats, but sooner or later, you will need to consider how
best to preserve the rest of the fresh meat you can’t use right away.
The botulism-causing bacteria are present in many soil conditions, vegetables, and other foods we
consume. So, how real is the danger of it? If you consume the bacteria, it is a very real danger, and it
comes with a high risk of dying or severe nerve damage. Yet it is not likely you will ever experience its
effects because commercially available food products are strictly regulated and monitored. Most botulism
cases occurring in the United States are the result of improper home canning. Botulinum spores are hard to
kill but aren’t harmful except, potentially, to infants. The spores in the soil and vegetables typically are
not found in sufficient amounts to be deadly to humans. However, when these bacteria are allowed to
grow in an oxygen-free (anaerobic), non-acidic environment between 40 and 140 degrees Fahrenheit, they
will multiply rapidly and start producing the deadly toxin.
Curing salts are required if making sausages or jerky. They help prevent the growth of unwanted bacteria in the 40 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit
window, where bacteria can grow rapidly. Commercial cures are readily available, and you should follow the exact instructions for their use.

Curing Salts
To inhibit botulinum spores and their growth, a curing salt of some form must be used in any dry-cured
sausages. There are no exceptions.
Sodium nitrite, often referred to as pink salt because of its color, prevents these bacteria from growing.
Sodium nitrate will act as a sort of time-release capsule form of sodium nitrite and must be used in all
dry-cured sausages cured for long periods, such as salami, which may be cold-smoked and then dried for
weeks.
Be aware that these cures themselves can be dangerous if ingested, such as if you accidentally lick a
finger covered with these salts. There is a reason for curing salts to appear in recipes, but you should
always use them in the proportions stated in the recipe. Don’t alter recipes with curing salts, don’t try any
of the salts to see what they taste like, and keep them out of the reach of children!
While you need to take precautions when using curing salts, they are beneficial and have three main
functions: killing a range of bacteria, especially those responsible for botulism; preserving the pink color
we associate with meats; and adding a tangy flavor to the meat.
Nitrates do nothing beneficial to food until they convert to nitrite. Potassium nitrate (saltpeter) was
used in curing until the 1970s, after which it was largely discontinued because it was too inconsistent to
be safe. Sodium nitrate is now manufactured and sold under the commercial brand names of InstaCure #2
and DQ Curing Salt #2.
 For purposes of discussion rather than recommendation, three commercially available brand-name
cures are frequently used: Prague Powder #1 and #2, Morton Tender Quick, and InstaCure #1 and #2.
Another cure is tinted curing mix (TCM), which is also referred to as Prague powder or pink salt.
Regardless of the name, the composition is generally the same: 93.75 percent salt and 6.25 percent
nitrite. However, always use them based on the directions given by the supplier, as one brand may have a
higher concentration of sodium nitrite than another.
As an example, Prague Powder #1 and #2 are used for different products: #1 is for most cured meats
and sausages, except for cured meats such as salami, and #2 is used for dried meat and sausages. Both are
used in very small quantities, but, again, you must follow the supplier’s directions exactly. Morton Tender
Quick contains both sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate. It has a lower nitrite-to-nitrate concentration (0.5
percent of each) and much more salt than the other cures.
This makes the Morton product good as a rub or in a brine, but it has a more limited use in sausage
making because, with the extra salt, it can get very salty before the correct amount of cure is reached.
InstaCure #1 and #2 are similar to the Prague Powder and can work very well for any sausage making or
meat curing. You should do your own research before sausage making to make the decisions that will
affect your resulting products.
The bottom line is that you need to use a cure if you want safe smoked, cooked, or dried sausage
or other meats. Sodium nitrate, and the sodium nitrite it produces, is a safe product for curing meats and
sausages.

Dry Rub Cures

A dry cure is one in which a salt mixture is rubbed over the meat or the meat is rolled in it to cover it
completely. Most salt referred to is sodium chloride and appears as such in the recipes in this book. When
a “commercial cure” is listed, it refers to salts that have nitrite in them and sometimes nitrates. A dry cure
may also contain sugar or other sweeteners, herbs, and spices.
If you are using a dry rub, it is best to allow twenty-four hours for it to work into the meat. This will
require that the meat be put in a pan, covered, and left in your refrigerator until ready for use. A basic
recipe for a dry rub cure for about 2 pounds of meat might look like the recipe below:

Classic Dry Rub

2 t easpoons salt
1 t easpoon ground black pepper
1 t easpoon garlic powder
1/2 t easpoon ground whit e pepper

1 t ablespoon light brown sugar

1 package commercial cure product (usually about 1/3 t easpoon)

Combine the ingredients in a bowl. Coat the meat slices with the rub on both sides. Cover and refrigerate for 24 hours before drying.

Sodium Nitrite and Nitrate Concerns

Concerns about consuming nitrates or nitrites center on the quantity eaten rather than their inclusion as
preservatives. A University of Minnesota report concluded that nitrite as it is used in meat such as
sausages is considered safe because the known benefits outweigh the potential risks. Fresh sausages are
the only type you can make if you are concerned about nitrites and nitrates in your diet.
 Sensitivities to nitrates and nitrites can cause migraine headaches or allergic reactions for some
people. At high enough levels, these compounds can be carcinogenic, and a large enough dose can be
lethal. The University of Minnesota published findings in 1992 that a fatal dose of potassium nitrate, or
saltpeter, is in the range of 30 to 35 grams (slightly more than 1 ounce) for adults, consumed in a single
dose. The fatal dose of sodium nitrite is in the range of 22 to 23 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.
To reach a lethal toxicity level, an adult weighing 150 pounds would have to consume about 20 pounds
of brine-cured meat containing 200 parts per million (ppm) nitrite in one meal. (Even if a person could
eat that amount of meat in one sitting, it is likely that the salt level, not the nitrite, would create the
toxicity.) Keep in mind that the normal American diet contains more nitrates from leafy vegetables such as
celery, spinach, radishes, cabbage, beets, and lettuce than from cured meats because these plants readily
absorb nitrogen fertilizers used in food production. In short, unless your daily diet consistently includes
high volumes of cured meats, this is not likely a topic you should lose sleep over.
Note: The USDA has designated the “safe” level of nitrates or nitrites to be 200 ppm. This figure
represents the grams of nitrate and nitrite times 1 million divided by the grams of cured meat that it
treats. For example, 200 ppm of nitrate for 50 grams of cured meat is equal to 0.01 grams of nitrate
(0.01 × 1 million ÷ 50 = 200 ppm). This level preserves the antimicrobial power of these compounds
while preventing the development of carcinogenic concentrations. Remember, it is difficult to remove
nitrates or nitrites from the meat-curing process without increasing the risk of harmful bacteria,
particularly botulinum.
Not specifically referred to as a cure, Fermento is a commercially available dairy-based product made
from cultured whey protein and skim milk that helps in the fermentation process. It is used to produce a
tangy taste in semidry sausages, such as some summer sausages and Thuringer sausage. The “tang” found
in fermented, dry-cured meat is due to a decrease in pH as the lactic acid builds up. This product mimics
that taste, as does citric acid. However, citric acid is not lactic acid and will not yield the same flavor.
The key to a tangy-flavored sausage is proper fermentation produced by specific bacteria that are added
to the meat as a starter culture. You will have more control over this flavor by adding the recommended
amounts.
The recommended level of use based on current formulations is 3 percent, or about 1 ounce per pound
of meat. It is possible to double this percentage to produce a more tangy taste, but if you exceed 6 percent,
the sausage likely will become mushy. Fermento does not need to be refrigerated and quickens the
fermentation process. Instead of the several days that is often required for starter cultures to start
fermentation, once this product is added, the fermentation will take only hours before you can begin
smoking the meat.
A small barrel smoker has two compartments. One holds the wood (left), and the other is a chamber for placing the meat to be smoked. The
small unit shown can be easily used and moved around your yard.

The Basics of Smoking

The purpose of smoking meat when preserving is to lower the moisture, which reduces the opportunity for
bacterial growth. Smoking is not the same as grilling; it gives meat a unique smoke flavor and often
provides a more attractive external color than only curing. Country-cured hams and similar cured and
smoked meats that do not require refrigerated storage owe their stability to a combination of low
moisture, high concentrations of curing agents, and heavily smoked surfaces. Three factors affect the
amount of time a meat product needs to be smoked: the type of meat product, the density of smoke
generated within the smoking unit, and the ability of the meat surface to absorb the smoke properties.
Hot smoking and cold smoking are the two methods for smoking meat, and they are identified by the
temperatures used with them. These temperatures will be applied to different meats in several ways,
though in all cases, the meat still must reach its critical internal temperature to be safe to eat. These
internal temperatures will vary slightly between animal and fowl species. Pork, for example, needs to
reach an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit to be considered safe, while poultry requires 165
degrees Fahrenheit.
When smoking meat, you need to keep in mind at all times what is referred to as the “temperature
danger zone.” This zone, between 40 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, is the range that provides an environment
for rapid microbial growth. You will need to ensure that proper steps are taken to eliminate all risks
involved.
Hot smoking uses heat and smoke together to make a product that is tasty and safe to eat. You are
cooking and flavoring the meat at the same time. Hot smoking is the most common method used for
smoking meats and is the recommended process for those starting out. It creates temperatures above 145
degrees Fahrenheit, past the danger zone. Typically, hot-smoking temperatures range between 165 to 185
degrees Fahrenheit and may increase to 200 to 300 degrees Fahrenheit if needed (for specifics, see the
chart).
Hot-smoked meats are usually smoked in the same chamber as the burning wood. During this process,
the meat is cooked with heat created by the gases of the fire, and the smoke provides the flavor. A slow
smoking process better allows the smoke to penetrate the meat and helps tenderize the meat as well.
No matter your level of familiarity with your smoker, it will require attention and patience to control
several variables when hot smoking. For example, to provide a good ventilation of the smoke while still
maintaining the proper heat, you need to make sure the smoker has proper airflow. Also, while it might
seem like a contradiction, it may be necessary to maintain a degree of humidity inside the smoker through
the dehydrating process to prevent the meat from getting too dry or too smoky.
Cold smoking smokes meat without exposing it to high heat. This process, when done correctly, can
take many hours or even days. Because of this lengthy process, the end result typically is a drier meat and
likely saltier due to the intensity of the brine, cure, or salts used. On the plus side, for those who are
skilled at using this process, it can yield complex flavors.
As indicated by its name, cold smoking requires a lower temperature, usually below 90 degrees
Fahrenheit. With this temperature, the meat will take on a smoke flavor while remaining fairly moist.
You should be aware, however, that cold smoking does not cook the meat. Whatever meat you are cold
smoking must be fully cooked before you begin this process. The reason for this is that you are holding
the meat in the temperature danger zone for an extended period of time. Failure to properly process meats
with cold smoking can cause severe health problems or even death.
The main pathogens that can be created are Clostridium botulinum, which creates toxins that can kill
people or severely damage or disable the immune and nervous systems. Listeria monocytogenes is
another pathogen that is lethal and can grow in underprocessed meats and fish.
The cold-smoking process is not recommended for newcomers to smoking meat and is not covered in
this book. Use the hot-smoking method instead.

After the Smoke Cycle

After the smoke cycle is complete, you can gradually increase the temperature inside the chamber to cook
the meat. Avoid a rapid increase in temperature, as this will dry and overcook the surface before the
desired internal temperature is reached. Increasing the temperature in increments will conduct the heat
through the meat to minimize the difference between the surface and internal temperatures. A long, slow
cook of the meat at this point will tenderize it to maximum effect.
If possible, try to cook meat pieces that are a similar size, as this will allow you to cook them at a
specific temperature for an equal time and have a uniform result. Unevenly matched pieces either may be
overdone and too dry or undercooked, depending on temperature and time. You may be able to circumvent
these problems by using individual temperature probes to determine when target internal temperatures
have been reached and the cooking cycle should be stopped. If this proves impractical for you, several
cooking sessions may be needed. As a rule, high smoke-unit temperatures (110 degrees Fahrenheit and
above) with a light smoke will speed up the drying process while lower temperatures (80 to 110 degrees
Fahrenheit) with a dense smoke will intensify the smoky flavor in meat.
 The type of cured and smoked meat products you want to produce will determine the level of the
smoking-unit temperature. If you are storing meat at air temperature, it should be smoked at a temperature
of 135 degrees Fahrenheit until the inside of the meat reaches 110 degrees Fahrenheit. You can then lower
the unit’s temperature to 110 degrees Fahrenheit and maintain temperature until the desired color is
reached.
Remove the meat after it has been smoked and wash it to remove salt and fat streaks from the surface.
Cooked meat products should be cooled quickly to 40 degrees Fahrenheit or below. At this point, it is
important to maintain sanitary conditions and avoid contact with uncooked meat or surfaces that have
come in contact with uncooked meat. This will minimize recontamination of the cooked products with
organisms that may cause spoilage.

Smoking Frozen Meat

You can smoke meat that has been previously frozen, but you must first thaw it out completely before
smoking it. Because smoking uses low temperatures to cook food, the meat will take too long to thaw in
the smoker, allowing it to linger in the danger zone between 40 and 140 degrees Fahrenheit, where
harmful bacteria can multiply.
Never thaw meat at room temperature. Keep it cold in your refrigerator while it is thawing. This is
essential to keep harmful bacteria from growing while it is thawing. You can microwave the meat to thaw
it more rapidly, but you then must smoke it immediately because parts of the meat may begin to cook
during the microwave thawing process.
You can also thaw the meat by wrapping it in an airtight package and submerging it in cold water.
Change the water every thirty minutes to maintain a temperature below 40 degrees Fahrenheit. When
thawed, it must be cooked immediately.
Frozen meat needs to be thawed completely before smoking. Always thaw frozen meat in your refrigerator and never at room temperature.
Also, never refreeze meat that has been thawed, unless it has been cooked.

Thermometers
You will need two types of thermometers to make sure the meat is smoked safely. You’ll want one
thermometer to monitor the air temperature in the smoker to be sure the heat stays between 225 and 300
degrees Fahrenheit throughout the cooking process. Many new smokers have built-in thermometers to help
with this.
The second thermometer is to determine the internal temperature of the meat. Oven-safe thermometers
can be inserted in the meat and remain there during smoking. Once the meat is removed from the smoker,
you can also use an instant-read thermometer to double check the temperature.
Accurate temperature measurements are critical for cooking and/or smoking any kind of meat. Many varieties of thermometers are available,
including instant-read and digital, that can be inserted into the meat. Some types available can be read outside the smoker.

Calibrating Your Thermometers

Before you move on, calibrate your thermometers. This may seem tedious, but it is important. Without an
accurate thermometer, any readings you take will lead to wrong assessments of temperature. You should
calibrate thermometers before every use and whenever they are dropped. They are sensitive and can lose
accuracy from extensive use or when going from one temperature extreme to another. Remember that you
are using them with meat, and incorrect cooking temperatures can lead to undercooked meat, which can
pose a health risk.

Be sure any meat thermometer you use is correctly calibrated for safe results. There are several calibration methods you can use, and using
the ice-water method can give you confidence that yours is measuring temperatures properly.

Thermometers can be calibrated by the use of ice water or boiling water. In the ice-water method, use
these steps:
• Fill a 2-cup measuring cup with crushed ice and water and stir well.
• Let sit four to five minutes.
• Completely submerge the sensing area of the thermometer’s stem or probe in the ice water, but keep it
from touching the sides or bottom of the container.
• Hold for thirty seconds, or until the displayed temperature stabilizes.
• If the thermometer is not within plus or minus 2 degrees of 32 degrees Fahrenheit, adjust the
thermometer accordingly. The ice-water method permits calibration within 0.1 degree Fahrenheit.
(Some digital stemmed thermometers have a reset button, which makes calibration especially easy.)
• Repeat the process with each thermometer.

For the boiling-point method, follow these steps:

• Fill a saucepan with purified or distilled water and bring to a rolling boil.
• Completely submerge the thermometer’s stem or probe in the boiling water without touching the sides or
bottom of the pan. Wear an oven mitt if your hand will be close to the surface of the boiling water.
• Hold for thirty seconds, or until the displayed temperature stabilizes.
• If the thermometer is not within plus or minus 2 degrees of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, adjust until it is. The
boiling point method permits calibration to within 1 degree Fahrenheit. Repeat the process with each
thermometer.

Note that the boiling point will be affected by altitude. The boiling point of water is about 1 degree
Fahrenheit lower for every 550 feet above sea level. If you are in high-altitude areas, adjust the
temperature by calibration. For example, if you are at 550 feet above sea level, the boiling point of water
would be 211 degrees Fahrenheit.
Any food thermometer that cannot be calibrated can still be used by checking it for accuracy using
either method described. You can take into consideration any inaccuracies and make adjustments by
adding or subtracting the differences, or consider replacing the thermometer.

Cured and Smoked Products

A vast variety of flavors and textures can be produced from smoking and curing different meat cuts. Pork,
beef, poultry, and wild game can be smoked and cured. The list includes but is not limited to the products
below:
Bacon: Pork bellies are usually trimmed into a rectangular shape and smoked and cured before being
sliced into strips. Although it has been smoked and heated, bacon still must be cooked before it is
consumed. Cooking methods include frying, grilling, broiling, or microwaving.
Dried beef: The beef round, sirloin tip, and larger muscles of the chuck may be used to make dried
beef. Dried beef has a lower moisture content than many other beef products. It is smoked to varying
degrees but is fully cooked and ready to eat after curing.
Jerky: These are dried meat strips that may be produced using a combination of curing, smoking, and
drying. After drying, jerky does not need refrigeration if it is packaged to prevent it from absorbing
moisture and contamination from its surroundings during storage.
Jerky can be made from many different kinds of meat, whether domestically raised or taken from the wild. Using thin strips provides the best
result after the curing, cooking, smoking, and drying processes have been completed.

Ham: Hams are a popular smoked meat product that may be boneless or boned. Because they are
larger than other meat cuts, hams will take longer to cook, cure, and smoke.
Poultry: You can cure and smoke whole birds by controlling the smoke intensity and duration, both of
which will affect the final smoke flavor. Hollow birds will cook more rapidly than solid pork hams or
other dense cuts. Ducks and geese have larger amounts of carcass fat than other birds, so you should trim
as much fat as possible to reduce the amount of grease that will drip away. Fat from these birds has a low
melting point, and it may streak the smoked surface during the cooking phase.
Wild game: Most wild game animal and fowl meats can be cured and smoked. Apply salt, spices,
seasonings, and other ingredients to suit your tastes.
Hot Smoking: Cooking Times and Temperatures
Finished Internal
T ype of Meat Weight (lbs.) Smoker T emp. (ºF) Cooking T ime (hours)*
T emp. (ºF )**
Beef Brisket (Pulled) 10–12 225–240 1.5 hrs./lb. 12–20 hours 190
Beef Brisket (Sliced) 10–12 225–240 1.5 hrs./lb. 12–20 200
Beef Chuck Roast 3–5 225–240 8–12 200–210
Pork Butt (sliced) 6–8 225–230 1.5 hrs./lb. 14–16 hrs. 200–205
Pork Ham 12–16 170–180 6–8 145
Pork Shoulder 6–8 225–230 12–14 200–205
Bacon 2 175–180 2–3 150
Spare Ribs 2–3 225–240 6 180
Bratwurst 2–3 225–240 2 165
Chicken (Whole) 4–5 250–275 3–4 165
Turkey (Whole) 12–14 240 6 165
Chicken/Turkey Breasts 1–2 225 3 165
Quail/Pheasant 1–2 225 2 165
Salmon Fillets 2–3 160 4 130
Whole Trout 1 225 1 145
Meatloaf 2–3 225–240 3–4 160
Venison Steaks 1–2 210–220 3–4 160
Elk Steaks 1–2 210–220 3–4 160
*Cooking times are approximate depending on thickness of cut. Use an estimate f or wild game and other cuts f rom other species
that use 1.5 hour/pound of meat.
**Always use an accurate thermometer to check the internal temperature. Time is an estimate of doneness and not an indicator.

Smoking Pork
Any cut from the carcass can be smoked, and this section will guide you through the smoking processes. If
you choose to smoke pork cuts, you should be aware of the possible presence of trichinae, a small slender
worm that may be present in the muscle. It is a parasite when in a larval stage in the voluntary muscles of
humans and hogs. An infection occurs after the pig ingests the parasites. They burrow into the muscles and
can cause muscle pain, fever, and other physical effects.
Not all pork will be infected by these parasites, whether you purchase your pork at a market or raise
the animal yourself. However, because these parasites are too small to be seen without using a
microscope, you need to be cautious and take several steps to eliminate any potential problems.
First, cook all fresh pork to a minimum internal temperature of 145 degrees Fahrenheit and allow a
three-minute rest after cooking. During this rest time, the temperature remains constant or continues to
rise, ensuring the destruction of any harmful germs. The internal tissue does not stop cooking at the exact
moment you remove the meat from the heat source. The internal heat will continue to penetrate into the
tissue until the heat source is removed. Once it is removed, there is no longer a heat penetration into the
tissue, and the internal temperature will start to drop after about three minutes.
Previous cooking guidelines for pork called for a minimum internal temperature that was higher than
145 degrees Fahrenheit. The new recommendation reflects advances in food safety and the nutritional
content of pork. Research shows that most common cuts of pork are 16 percent leaner than twenty years
ago, and the saturated fat has dropped 27 percent. This drop in pork muscle fat content allows for a lower
cooking temperature to reach the safe degree of doneness.

Smoking whole hams is possible, but it requires more time and attention than if the meat is cut into smaller pieces.

Almost every part of the pig can be smoked. Some cuts are larger than others and will take more time
to smoke, but all can be used. Bacon, hams, and shoulders are the cuts most often smoked. Jowls, ribs,
and loins can be smoked too. Even pork sausages can benefit from some time in the smoker.
Bacon, one of the most popular smoked products, comes from the belly section of the carcass. If meat
from other portions of the carcass is used, it may carry the name of where it came from, such as pork
shoulder bacon. Pork bacon must be cooked before eating. Most bacon made from your pig carcass will
be streaky bacon—the long narrow slices cut crosswise from the belly that contain veins of pink muscle
layered within the white fat. These muscles and surrounding fat hold a pig’s internal organs intact and
protect it from outside injury. You will have trimmed the belly into rectangular or square shapes before
slicing into strips. Although you may smoke and heat the bacon, it must be cooked before it is eaten.
Hams are popular for smoking, either boneless or with the bone. A ham that has the center bone
removed will take less time to heat and smoke than one in which the leg bone is still present. It will take
the heat longer to penetrate completely through to the bone and reach the critical 145 degrees Fahrenheit
next to the bone. When smoking a ham, it is best to remove the skin and fat, as the smoke will not
penetrate into the meat if it is still on. And when that outer layer of skin and fat is removed, all smoke
flavor will be removed too.
 Pork shoulders can be smoked, and as the name implies, they are located in the front part of the
carcass. These are large cuts and, like hams, will take longer to smoke and heat unless they are cut into
smaller pieces. Ribs, jowls, and loins are smaller cuts that can be smoked and will take less time to
finish. The term Canadian bacon refers to round slices of pink meat from the loin.
Try to cook pieces that are similar in size, as this will allow you to cook them at a specific temperature
for an equal time and have a uniform result. Unevenly matched pieces may become overdone and too dry
or undercooked and unsafe.

Smoking Beef
Beef shoulders, briskets, roasts, loins, ribs, and rounds are some of the more popular parts of a cow to
smoke. However, pretty much any part of the animal can be smoked if desired.
The largest parts include the shoulders and rounds, or the hindquarters, and the brisket, which is that
portion located in the lower front of the chest and between the front legs. These are the most-used muscles
of the cow’s body because they propel the animal’s movements. The high use of these muscles creates a
leaner and more fibrous texture when cooked. Their location also means there is a different fiber
configuration within the muscle, and they contain ligaments, which attach the muscles to the bones.
A beef round can be smoked and dried with great results. When the process is correctly completed, the round can be cut into slices for
sandwiches, hors d’oeuvres, or party plates.

As with other cooking processes, the larger the cut of meat, the longer it will take to smoke completely.
For example, a beef brisket should generally be smoked for about 1.5 hours per pound of meat. Depending
on the size of the cut, this may require anywhere from twelve to twenty hours of smoking time. For these
larger cuts, you may want to divide the meat into several smaller, equal-size pieces. (If you mix larger and
smaller pieces in the smoker, you will either overcook the small pieces or undercook the large pieces.)
Although time is a good guide, the internal temperature of the meat is the most important indicator of
doneness. Having an accurate meat thermometer will help you monitor internal temperatures.
For most purposes, an internal temperature of 200 degrees Fahrenheit will be your goal. This will kill
any organisms that may be present in the muscle and allow for safe eating and storage.
Just as you do with other cuts and other species, such as pork, be sure to remove as much of the outside
fat as possible before you begin the smoking process. The rounds, shoulders, and roasts should be
handled in the same manner.
Beef ribs are typically larger than pork ribs. Low and slow is the key to smoking beef ribs in order to
make them tender enough to pull easily off the bone. Again, depending on the size of the ribs, the average
cooking time will generally be about four to six hours. There will be other factors affecting this time,
including the type of smoker you use. Monitoring the progress of the smoking process and taking good
notes will help you achieve a satisfying end result in future smoking sessions.

Smoking Wild Game

Smoking wild game is similar to smoking meat from a domestically raised animal. You must reach the
target temperatures with cooking and/or smoking to kill any bacteria or parasites that may inhabit the
meat. However, there are a few important differences that you should keep in mind.
First, the animal is, in fact, wild. Any animal or fowl you take from the outdoors will not have had the
advantages of being fed a steady or controlled diet. It will also not have received any attention relating to
health protocols, including vaccinations, parasite control, and government inspection. This means you
will be determining whether the animal or bird in question is a healthy one to use for your table.
Smoking venison is an option for the rounds, loins, or shoulders of the animal. Be sure to reach a minimum internal temperature of at least
160 degrees Fahrenheit for any large wild game you want to smoke.

Generally, animals caught in the wild are much leaner than those bought in stores. The lean diet from
foraging, plus the exercise these creatures get while on the move looking for food, creates a body that has
less fat. Because there is less fat, wild game meat will more readily absorb more of the smoke flavor than
a domestic animal’s meat. This can result in an “overdone” smoke character that leaves a bitter flavor.
You may want to adjust wood choice and the amount of airflow to counteract this.
Because wild game meat is leaner, it also may be described as “tougher” and not as pliable. Smoking
will loosen the muscle fibers and help tenderize the meat somewhat, but you will need to monitor your
smoking process for the best results. Wild game will have a different flavor than commercial meat no
matter how you cook it. It typically has a stronger taste and while some like this dynamic, others don’t. Be
aware of this difference and know that a good or bad flavor might not necessarily come from the smoking
process.
In order to properly smoke your wild game or fowl, you will need to weigh the pieces you want to
smoke. First, trim away as much of the fat as you can and then weigh the meat. This will help you
determine the amount of seasoning and cure you will need. Quality recipes usually have their seasonings
stated by the pound.
The key to smoking wild game is to do it low and slow. While a higher temperature results in a shorter
smoke time, it affects the end quality and shelf life. The longer a piece spends in the smoker, the more
moisture it loses and the saltier it becomes. Both of these factors help preserve it better. If you plan to eat
the meat right after smoking, a higher temperature can be used. Whatever you do, always reach the
temperatures required to kill all bacteria and parasites.

Smokers
Smokers are available in a tremendous variety of prices, sizes, and functions. They range from home
grills with covers to substantial upright units that are a large fixture in a backyard. They can be electric or
fully powered by wood. If you want only to add a smoky flavor to your meat, you can use just about any
model—even a home grill with a smoke box or smoking attachment will work just fine. However, if you
are smoking to preserve meat in conjunction with curing, you will want more precise temperature control.
Smokers specifically designed for meat do two things at once: they provide a proper temperature to
kill harmful pathogens and a pleasing smoky flavor. The heat provided can originate from several sources
including electricity, wood chips or pellets, gas, or charcoal briquettes. If you’re using wood, different
varieties can be used to infuse a unique smoke flavor or finished color (see here).

Electric smokers can provide a uniform and consistent temperature for a specified period of time. They are popular because they are easy to
operate, take up little space, and are reliable when properly used.

The amount of meat and the size of the cuts will largely determine the type of smoking unit you’ll find
most useful, although your budget and the amount of space you can dedicate to a smoker will also need to
be taken into consideration.
 The most commonly available home smokers are vertical electric water smokers, insulated variable-
temperature smokers, elec- tric smokers, and stovetop smokers. Under-standing their advantages and
limitations may help you decide which is best for your situation. While these are brief descriptions,
containing the unendorsed mention of only a few models to help illustrate the smoker types, you are
encouraged to research all the models that are commercially available to determine which one may work
best for you. Prices range from modest to expensive, and this may give some indication of their ability for
extensive use. Some are stationary, while others may be set on rollers for easier movement. They may be
rectangular or round, and the number of trays will increase as the unit expands in size. Many different
types of digitally controlled smoker models are available and popular because they can be used to easily
monitor the temperature and time.
Note: One key concern when evaluating the design of a smoker is the potential loss of heat caused
by opening a door to add water to a pan or to replenish wood chips, pellets, or logs. Models are
available that have external wood chip or pellet loaders so the unit doesn’t need to be opened. Some
smokers have a tray that can be pulled out, have fresh chips or pellets added to it, and be pushed back
into the unit without opening the door.

Smoker Types
Vertical water smokers are popular because they are generally the least-expensive smokers on the
market. However, the less-costly models may not reach the high temperatures you need. The more
expensive units, such as the Weber Smokey Mountain, have better temperature control. These units have
either a gas or electric heat source and typically have three components: a bottom heat source, a water
pan that stores heat and regulates the internal temperature, and a smoking chamber. The biggest
disadvantage is the loss of heat when the lid is opened. You can mitigate this by having a thermometer that
can signal the temperature to an outside receiver.
A closed grill can be used to smoke small amounts of meats and sausages. Be sure to use an oven-safe thermometer to monitor the internal
temperature of the meat as it cooks.
Large barrel smokers can hold more meat and more wood for the smoking process. Like any other smoking unit, the heat level needs to be
monitored the entire time to produce the best results.
A simple smoking chamber can be made by digging a firebox pit, using heat-resistant piping, and setting a metal chamber above the entrance
of the smoke pipe. One reason to bury the pipe is to keep it from creating a fire hazard that might ignite leaves, dry grass, or other refuse
surrounding it.

Insulated variable-temperature smokers have good temperature control. This variety is becoming
more popular with those who want to do home smoking. They are typically more expensive than other
models but are easy to use and generally similar to a vertical electric water smoker.
Electric smokers are another popular type because they are easy to use and don’t take up a lot of
space. The more expensive models typically have a rheostat that turns down the electricity flow to the
coil, much like those found on an electric stove or hot plate, and they may have multiple settings ranging
from low to high. Some of the more expensive electric smokers have thermostats with a temperature
probe inside the cooking chamber. The thermostat monitors the temperature and will raise it if it’s too low
or lower it if it’s too high. This makes a unit with a thermostat better than one with a rheostat, but it also
makes the unit more expensive. One drawback to this type of unit is that it doesn’t work well outdoors in
cold weather.
Stovetop smokers, such as the Cameron stovetop models, have become available in recent years.
Stovetop smokers work well in apartments or places where other smoking units can’t be used. They are
inexpensive, easy to use and clean, and will work with a variety of meat including beef, fish, poultry,
wild game, and waterfowl. However, since most of these models range between 7 and 11 inches wide and
11 and 15 inches long, they are limited in the amount of meat they can hold at one time. As for design, the
stainless-steel unit is an enclosed system that uses your stovetop for heat to activate the flavored wood
chips sprinkled across the inside bottom of the pan. A grill rack is set above the base, on which the meat
is placed. The cover tightly seals in the heat and smoke.
 A covered grill and charcoal-fired smokers can be used to smoke meat, although it is more difficult
to maintain an even temperature and smoke with them than with enclosed units. You will need to monitor
the internal temperature and add wood chips or charcoal briquettes to maintain a proper temperature. For
best use, fill the bottom of the grill with briquettes and burn them until gray ash appears. Separate the
coals onto two sides of the grill and place a pan of water between them. Place the grate over the top and
place the meat above the water. As the meat heats and cooks, the fat will drip into the heated water and
create steam that will help destroy harmful bacteria. Keep the vents open on the cover. You will need to
maintain an air temperature between 225 to 300 degrees Fahrenheit throughout the process.
A barrel smoker can be fashioned from a clean, uncontaminated 50-gallon metal barrel with both ends
removed. Set the open-ended barrel on the upper end of a shallow, sloping, covered trench or 10- to 12-
foot stovepipe. Dig a pit at the lower end for the fire. Smoke rises naturally, so having the fire lower than
the barrel will aid its movement toward the meat. Mound the dirt around the edges of the barrel and fire
pit to eliminate leaks. You can control the heat by covering it with a piece of sheet metal.
Use metal or wood tubes as racks for suspending hanging items, such as sausages, in the barrel. Metal
strips can be attached to the cover to help hold it in place, trapping the smoke near the meat. You can
monitor the inside temperature by suspending a thermometer from one of the racks. At the beginning of the
smoking process, you’ll want a rapid flow of air past the meat to drive off excess moisture. Less-rapid air
movement near the end of the smoking period prevents excessive shrinkage of the meat. Once your fire is
going, you can add green sawdust or green hardwood to cool the fire and make more smoke. Never use
gasoline or other accelerants to start your fire. Besides their explosive potential, which can cause serious
injury, the fumes and residues will contaminate your meat.
The principle for a homemade smoker is to allow the smoke from the wood to rise to a separate chamber where the meat is suspended. You
can build your own unit, but be aware of any local ordinances before building a permanent structure.

Note: Be safe! Depending on where you place your smoking unit, make sure there is adequate
ventilation so that any escaping heat and smoke does not create air-quality problems, such as carbon
monoxide in your home, shed, or apartment. Carbon monoxide is an invisible, odorless gas that can be
produced by malfunctioning appliances, such as gas- or wood-burning stoves, fireplaces, and smokers.
Carbon monoxide alarms are available, and you should have one installed inside your home if you use
a smoker indoors.
 Liquid Smoke
If you’re after a smoky flavor and not concerned about changing the texture or moisture level of your meat, you can try using liquid
smoke. It can be added to a marinade or dry rub and will adhere to the surface of the meat before it’s cooked. This coating will provide a
smoky flavor. It should be used in moderation and in keeping with recipe recommendations to avoid off flavors.
Liquid smoke is produced by burning hardwood chips or sawdust such as hickory, apple, or mesquite at high temperatures. As the
smoke passes through a condenser, it cools. When aided by water, this cool smoke will form a liquid. This liquid is then concentrated to
create a stronger flavor. Liquid smoke is commercially available, and many supermarkets sell it as a flavoring and food preservative. It is
widely used in foods in which a smoky flavor is expected, such as in bacon, smoked cheeses, tofu, and jerky.
Be aware that liquid smoke may contain some residual carcinogens because it is made from real smoke, although commercial
production attempts to remove all smoke condensates such as tar and ash during processing. Some concern has been expressed relating to
the different concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are found in different liquid smoke flavorings. These
concentrations appear to relate to different types of trees used for the wood or sawdust, but they have been found to be below acceptable
health levels. Manufacturers filter the liquid smoke in their production process and it’s generally considered safe to use if used in
moderation.

Powering Your Smoker

A vertical water smoker is built with a bottom fire pan that holds wood chips or small briquettes and
generally has two cooking racks near the top. The water pan positioned above the coals supplies moisture
and helps regulate the internal temperature. An electric smoker is similarly constructed, except the smoke
is controlled by pre-moistened wood chips rather than charcoal. This provides a more constant
temperature and may require less attention during smoking. The sizes of electric smokers vary, with some
accommodating several pounds of meat at one time.
A vertical smoker will have three sections. The meat to be smoked is placed at the top along with a thermometer to monitor the chamber
temperature. The center has a pan with water to slow the smoking process and keep the meat from drying too quickly. The bottom is for
coals, wood chips, or wood pieces. The smoke and heat rises to the top to cook the meat.

Electric smokers are less likely to overheat and thus simply cook the meat because they can be more
precisely controlled than any other type of smoker. If you’re purchasing an electric smoker, make sure it
has adjustable temperature controls that can reach 160 degrees Fahrenheit or higher.
While wood or charcoal can be used for powering more traditional smokers, charcoal briquettes are
difficult to use because they need to be kept at a constant and consistent burning rate for the ten hours
required.
 Note that when smoking, the smoke particles attach to the outer surface of the meat as the particles
move or migrate from a warm surface (chamber) to a cold surface (meat). Even if you like a smoky flavor
to your food, it is best not to overdo it. Too much smoke can make the meat taste bitter or like ash. Each
smoker is different, and you may have to test several batches until you reach a flavor that suits you. Start
lightly and work your way up incrementally if you don’t want to ruin any meat. Keep records of your
experimentation in a cooking log.

Wood Types for Smoking

Selecting the type of wood to use for smoking meat is more a matter of personal preference than anything.
Your choice will have an impact on the flavor and, often, the color. Combustion is created by heat
produced by gas, electric, or pellets. When the heat is mixed with wood, it produces gases that create
distinct flavors.
Different woods will create subtle, but different, flavors. Natural wood smoke is generally produced
from hardwood sawdust, wood chips, or small logs. Woods can be divided into two basic groups that are
based on whether they yield a mild or strong flavor, rather than tree species. For mild smoke flavors, use
alder, apple, cherry, maple, orange, or peach woods. For stronger flavors, use hickory, oak, mesquite,
pecan, and walnut.
One standard rule applies: the best woods for smoking are dried (cured) hardwoods with a low sap
flow. Avoid using pine or other coniferous trees because of their high tar content, which will cause a
bitter flavor.
Most small home smoking units use wood chips to create the smoke while larger smoke houses can use split wood chunks to feed a fire.
Chips are commercially available and can add different flavors depending on the wood type used.

Wood Considerations
Natural wood smoke contains three major components: solids, such as ash and tar; air and combustion
gases; and acids, carbonyls, phenolics, and polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
Research has shown that the ash, tar, and gases do not contribute very much to the flavor, aroma, or
preservative properties of smoked products. The phenolics have been identified as the primary source for
flavor and aroma and the carbonyls are the source of color, typically the amber brown, generated from the
smoking process.
If you use natural wood for smoking, it is important to use only air-dried woods and never use moldy
woods that may contain toxins, woods that have paint on them, or woods that have been treated. Many of
the woods you should use can be purchased at specialty stores, outdoor outlets, or even cut and dried
yourself.
The dry wood used for smoking usually needs to be soaked in water first for about five minutes. This
is because completely dry burning wood will create some smoke but not enough for your purposes. Moist
wood, on the other hand, will smolder and create more smoke than dry wood. You want to create smoke,
not a flame, to add as much flavor as possible. If using wood chips, you can soak them in water for at
least an hour prior to using them. Small chips or sawdust can be sprayed with a mister bottle to dampen
them instead of submerging them in water.

Smokehouses
If you are considering an annual butchering schedule, you may want to consider constructing a stationary
smokehouse for long-term use. While these are more elaborate structures than the smoking units
previously discussed, they will accommodate larger quantities of meat at one time and will last for many
years. They have the advantage of making temperature control easier, and their tight construction and
well-fitted ventilators can precisely control airflow past the meat. Meat can be crowded into a
smokehouse to some degree, but the rule is that no piece of meat touches another or the wall.

Always separate meat when smoking so pieces do not touch. Use equal-size pieces when cooking for the same length of time, as this will
provide more uniform smoking results.

The purpose of a smokehouse is to enclose heat and smoke and reduce, but not entirely eliminate,
airflow. Depending on how much smoking you want to accomplish, you can construct your own
smokehouse or purchase a commercial unit. Because smokehouses are generally located outdoors, you
should check if any local ordinances or fire codes apply before you begin construction of any new
structure.
A home smokehouse is a simple version of a heat processing unit used by today’s meat industry. The
size may be vastly different, but the principles are the same: it is an enclosed area where the temperature
and smoke level may be controlled with acceptable accuracy for meats, fowl, and fish. Smokehouses can
be built out of cement or concrete blocks, and if you decide to build a smokehouse, it does not need to be
elaborate to do an effective job. However, it must be adequately built and have the ability to be monitored
so that the meat is properly cooked to minimize health risks. A sound smokehouse can last for years.
Other, perhaps unexpected, advantages of a smokehouse include a reduction in potential fire hazards
(since the entire building will be built for smoking) as well as whole-building temperature control that
can be dialed in even better than many smokers.
A larger-size building will provide space for several tiers of racks, allowing you to adjust the hangers
to the size of the pieces of meat being smoked.
Any smokehouse you construct should have four features: a source of smoke, a place to hold smoke, a
way to hold the meat in the smoke, and a draft regulator near the top or bottom. Think of the smokehouse
as a very slow oven in which the temperature does not exceed 200 degrees Fahrenheit. Even though you
will use and maintain low temperatures, build your smokehouse in a safe location away from other
buildings, particularly your home, and away from combustible materials. You can get construction
diagrams from many contractors or your county extension service.

Smoking units do not need to be elaborate, but they must be safe to use. They should have the ability to regulate the fire, heat, and
ventilation. Above all, make sure that no fire can escape.
Any smokehouse you construct or purchase will need three basic components: a firebox for wood, a pipe to transfer the smoke from the fire
to the meat, and a series of wood or metal tiers from which to suspend the meat.

The size of your smokehouse can be calculated based on the amount and weights of meat to be smoked.
These requirements vary with the weight of the cuts. To estimate the capacity of your smokehouse, use an
accepted measure of 12 inches in width, front and back, and 2 feet in height for each row that you plan to
make use of.
Tiers used for hanging meat should start at least 18 inches above the floor, with each succeeding row
14 inches above the one just below it.
In order for the unit to work properly, air must be able to draft in from below and exit out the top. The
degree to which this is controlled will determine the heat buildup and degree of smoke that remains in the
unit. To create this air flow, make sure any unit you build has several holes near the top of each side,
perhaps 2 inches in diameter. If the base of your smokehouse is tight to a foundation of cement, stone, or
brick, drill two holes of the same diameter near the base of each side. You can further control draft by
placing galvanized steel covers over the ventilation holes to be used as dampers. Small screens can be
fastened to the holes on the inside of your smokehouse to keep pests and insects from entering it. Likely
they will not approach while smoking is in progress, but there will be times when the unit is not in
operation. You can also use small holes drilled into the sides of the smokehouse to insert thermometers to
monitor the internal temperatures.
Note: While smokehouses are excellent for processing meats, they do not make a good storage area
for smoke-finished meats. After your smoking process is complete, flies will eventually get in.

Materials used to build a smokehouse need to be able to withstand at least 160 degrees Fahrenheit. They can be made of wood, concrete
blocks, metal, or other sturdy, heat-tolerable materials.
Smoking fresh sausages can be done safely when they are held at an appropriate internal temperature. Monitoring them throughout the
process will help prevent them becoming overdone.
 Chapter 11

SAUSAGES
S ausage has been a highly prized meat product throughout much of mankind’s history and is one of the
oldest known forms of processed food. The history of sausage production extends back to the ancient
Babylonians, who produced and consumed sausages 3,500 years ago. Even Homer’s Odyssey, written in
the eighth century, BC, referred to sausage.
Europe saw the production of a variety of sausages by the Middle Ages. The cooler climates of
Germany, Austria, and Denmark produced more fresh and cooked sausages because preservation was less
of a problem. More temperate and warmer climates, such as in Italy, Spain, and southern France,
developed dry or semidry sausages, which remain today.
The discovery of and subsequent demand for spices in Europe made them very important and valuable
commodities and eventually allowed European sausage makers to become skilled at creating new and
distinctive products bearing their influences. Some of these included types that are still well known today,
such as bologna from Bologna, Italy, and braunschweiger from Brunswick (Braunschweig), Germany.
Cooked summer sausage should f irst be put t hrough a f erment at ion cycle at 95 t o 100 degrees Fahrenheit if a lact ic acid st art er
cult ure is used. Then t he t emperat ure should be slowly raised unt il an int ernal t emperat ure of 158 degrees Fahrenheit is reached
during t he next t hree t o f our hours t o f inish cooking. Smoking t akes place during cooking, and t he amount can vary depending
on your pref erence. Once cooking is f inished, t he sausage should be cooled t o complet e t he process.
Many sausages consist of less valuable parts of animal carcasses, such as meat trimmings and fats that are less edible or might otherwise be
discarded, which have accumulated from carcass fabrication. Fats add juiciness and flavor to sausages but add little nutritional value to the
final product.

Sausage making did not develop in the United States on an industrial scale until after the Civil War,
although early Native Americans produced a type of sausage called pemmican. This was made by
combining meat with dried berries and pressing it into a cake or a skin that was smoked or sundried.
The influx of European immigrants after the end of the Civil War brought many German, Polish, Italian,
Dutch, Danish, and other nationalities with sausage-making skills to the United States. As these groups
settled throughout the country, they brought their recipes with them, extending their influence and tastes
wherever they went.
Today’s sausage industry is diverse in size and type of production. Most major sausage processing
plants in the United States are highly mechanized and automated to handle large volumes of products with
speed and efficiency.
A niche production venue has been slowly developing with home sausage making. This chapter will
provide information about basic types of sausages that can be produced at home and their characteristics;
the safety and sanitation issues involved; spices, additives, and casings used; and the stuffings used in the
process.
Homemade sausages are popular among hunters, who prefer to use all parts of the wild game they
bring home. While home sausage making typically has been associated with rural areas, urban residents
can shop in a market and make delicious and distinctive sausages with enough expertise.
Sausage Varieties
Of all the varieties of sausage produced in this country, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) only
classifies them as two types: uncooked, which includes fresh bulk sausage, patties, links, and some
smoked sausages; and ready-to-eat, such as dry, semidry, and cooked sausages.
Like other fresh meat, fresh sausages are highly perishable and must be refrigerated or frozen until
ready to be cooked. Fresh sausages must be cooked prior to consumption to avoid health risks. Ready-to-
eat sausages have been processed and preserved with salt and spices and may be dried or smoked. These
types of sausages, such as jerky or sticks, can be eaten out of hand or cooked and heated, like hot dogs.

Fresh Sausages
Fresh sausages are made from uncooked and uncured cuts of meat. These sausages include those seasoned
and stuffed into casings, or those in bulk form that will be pressed into patties. However, they are not
cured or smoked. Fresh sausages should be eaten within three days of processing or purchase (or frozen),
and they should be thoroughly cooked before being served. Examples include the following:
Thin, light-colored casings manufactured from beef collagen are often used for fresh sausages. Certain types cannot be used for smoking
because they can dissolve during the cooking phase and the sausage will fall out.

Bockwurst: A German-style sausage made from ground veal or veal and pork combined. It is typically
flavored with onions, parsley, white pepper, paprika, or cloves and often sold fresh. Cooked bockwurst
has an increased shelf life and is usually cooked by simmering, although it can be grilled.
Bratwurst: A German-style sausage made from pork, beef, and veal. It looks like a big hot dog and is
flavored with allspice, caraway, and marjoram, although recipes can vary between regions and countries.
It can be produced as fresh or cooked.
Chorizo: Originating in Spain, the term encompasses several types of pork sausage. It can be fresh or
cured. Fresh chorizo is similar to Sicilian sausage but is much spicier. Cured or dried chorizo can
resemble pepperoni in size and shape but has a sharper taste and smell. Different countries have different
recipes for making chorizo, and some have a sweet or spicy flavor.

Natural casings are made from animal intestines, particularly sheep, pork, and beef. When using intestines for casings, they must be thoroughly
cleaned and washed. The intestinal membranes are strong, flexible, and resilient, but they tend to lack the uniformity of manufactured casings.
Cut the intestines into 2- or 3-foot sections and strip the fecal content from them. Flush with clean water and then soak in a salt brine to
neutralize the remaining contaminants. Keep immersed until used because if they dry out, they will crack and break when stuffed with sausage.
Natural sausage casings should be packed in salt for storage.

Country-style or breakfast sausage: One of the most common kinds of sausage found in the United
States. It is known by several names, can be made into patties or small links, and is flavored with sage,
savory, and thyme.
Pork sausage: A fresh, uncooked sausage made entirely from pork and seasoned with salt, pepper, and
sage. It is often sold in bulk, in a chub or link form, or as patties.
 Kielbasa: Similar to Italian sausage in that its name is more of a generic term than a reference to a
specific sausage. In the United States, it refers to a Polish or Polish-style sausage. It is typically made
from coarsely ground lean pork and is sometimes combined with beef or veal, or both. Commercial
kielbasa is usually an uncooked, smoked sausage with a medium red color.
Italian-style sausage: A fresh sausage that must be fully cooked before eating and can have either a
hot or sweet taste. It is traditionally a pure pork sausage with pepper, fennel, and other spices as the
added ingredients for flavoring.
Liverwurst: A popular German-style sausage. It is made from finely ground pork and pork liver. It can
be stuffed into a non-edible casing but must be thoroughly cooked before being served. Spices such as
ground black pepper, marjoram, allspice, thyme, ground mustard seed, and nutmeg are used to provide
distinctive flavors. The term is sometimes interchanged with braunschweiger because of the similarities
between the two in production, taste, and texture.
Thuringer sausage: A lightly smoked, German-style sausage similar to summer sausage. It is often
semidry and is more perishable than other cured sausages, even though, technically, it is cured. Some are
not fermented and are sold fresh. It is mostly made from pork, but beef and sometimes veal can be used.
Flavorings that are used to make Thuringer sausage are used in fresh pork breakfast sausages but without
the sage.
Haggis: A Scottish traditional food made from the heart, lungs, and livers of sheep or calves. It is
highly seasoned, mixed with oatmeal, onions, suet, spices and salt, and then stuffed into a sheep’s or pig’s
stomach. It is then boiled for about three hours. Haggis is perhaps the only sausage that is involved with
the sport of hurling it for distance, called haggis hurling.

Cooked and Smoked Sausages

Cooked sausages are usually made from fresh meats that are cured during processing, fully cooked, and/or
smoked. Cooked sausages should be refrigerated until eaten. They will generally keep seven days after
being opened. Because they are fully cooked, they are ready to eat once opened, although you may prefer
to serve them warm or hot. Examples include the following:
Frankfurters: Also known as the common hot dog, these are touted as the most consumed sausage in
the world. Processed hot dogs contain mostly water and fat and have a soft, even texture and flavor.
Homemade frankfurters can be made with a blend of beef, pork, and/or poultry meat. In the United States,
if fillers are used, such as cereal or soy, the name must be changed to “links” or their addition must be
identified on any sales label.
Bologna: A generic term for a fully cooked, mildly seasoned sausage made from low-value pieces of
beef, pork, or both. It can be eaten cold or reheated. Bologna is usually produced in large-diameter rings
or chubs, which give it several distinctive styles and shapes although they are constitutionally much the
same as hot dogs. Beef bologna is an all-beef version and will appear a more red color because it does
not have a mixed meat composition. It can also be made from pork, turkey, or chicken.
Vienna sausage: Sometimes called garlic sausage, it is made in the general shape of a hot dog,
although it can be longer and somewhat thinner. It is a sausage with a creamy meat texture and is made
primarily from pork and beef, although chicken and turkey can be used. Veal is sometimes added to create
a milder flavor. The predominant flavors include onions, mace, and coriander. Sometimes pistachio nuts
are added for seasoning.
Beerwurst or bierwurst: A large sausage, usually 2 to 3 inches in diameter or larger, of a dark red
color. It is stuffed into veined natural casings or vein-decorated artificial casings. It is made from coarse-
ground beef and pork and spiced with garlic, black peppercorns, paprika, and mustard seeds. Contrary to
its name, it does not contain any beer. It is usually sold as sandwich meat.
 New England sausage: Also known as Berliner, this sausage is made from coarse-ground pork with
pieces of ham or chopped beef interspersed within it. Generally, it is stuffed into large casings, similar to
beerwurst.
Braunschweiger: A creamy-textured, German-style liver sausage of pure pork origins. It has a mild
flavor that includes onions, mustard seed, and marjoram. It is nearly always smoked and generally served
cold as a spread for toast or used as a filling for sandwiches.
Mettwurst: A strongly flavored German-style sausage made from raw minced pork and preserved by
smoking and curing. It contains ginger, celery seed, and allspice. Although it is smoked, it needs to be
cooked thoroughly before being served. Mettwurst can have either a soft or hard texture, depending on the
length of smoking time used.

Artificial or manufactured casings come in several sizes, thicknesses, and color for different types of sausages. Most manufactured casings
must be soaked in clean water before use to make them pliable.

Dry and Semidry Sausages

Dry and semidry sausages are made from fresh meats that are ground, seasoned, and cured during
processing. They are stuffed into either natural or synthetic casings, fermented, often smoked, and
carefully air-dried. True dry sausages are generally not cooked and may require long drying periods of
between twenty-one to ninety days, depending on their diameter.
 The distinctive flavor of these sausages is due to the lactic acid produced by fermentation. This
fermentation occurs after the meat is stuffed into casing and the bacteria metabolize the sugars, producing
acids and other compounds as byproducts and the resulting tangy flavor.
Semidry sausages, such as summer sausage, are often fermented and cooked in a smokehouse. Both dry
and semidry sausages are ready to eat and do not require heating before serving, although a cool
temperature or refrigeration is recommended for storage. Dry and semidry sausages include summer
sausage, pepperoni, salami, and Landjäger, among others. These are detailed in the paragraphs below.
Summer sausage: A general term for any sausage that can be kept without the need of refrigeration. It
is typically a fermented sausage with a low pH to slow bacterial growth and provide a longer shelf life. It
is usually made from a mixture of beef or beef and pork. Venison can also be used to make summer
sausage. It resembles some of the drier salamis but is milder and sweeter in flavor. Summer sausage can
be either dried or smoked, and although curing agents can vary considerably, some sort of curing salt is
almost always used.
Pepperoni: A hotly spiced Italian-style sausage made from coarse-ground, fermented pork with ground
red pepper as the main flavor ingredient. It is a dry sausage and increases in flavor as it progresses
through the drying process.
Salami: Not necessarily a specific sausage but most often refers to those products that have similar
characteristics and is made from beef, pork, or both. Salamis can be found in many sizes and shapes, and
they may be dry and quite hard. Most are made with garlic, salt, various herbs and spices, and some
minced fat. Salamis are made by allowing the raw meat mixture to ferment for twenty-four hours before it
is stuffed into either a natural or synthetic casing and then hung to dry. Most are treated with an edible
mold culture that is spread over the outside, which prevents spoilage during curing. Pepperoni is one type
of salami, and others include Genoa, kosher, Milano, Sicilian, Novaro, and Sorrento.
Landjäger: A traditional Swiss-German dried sausage that is a popular snack food. Its taste is similar
to dried salami, and it can be boiled and served with vegetables. It is made from equal portions of beef
and pork, with fat or lard and sugar and spices added. The meat is pressed into small casings for making
links, usually 6 to 8 inch lengths. They are then pressed into a mold before drying. This gives the strips
their characteristic rectangular shape. After drying, they can keep without refrigeration if needed.

Specialty Sausages
This group of sausages may include cured, uncured, smoked, and nonsmoked meats that do not readily fit
into other groups. These include luncheon meats that may be cooked in loaf pans or casings, or water
cooked in stainless-steel molds. Some specialty sausages include headcheese, olive loaf, scrapple, and
souse.
Headcheese: Actually not made from cheese but, rather, from meat pieces from the head of a calf, pig,
sheep, or cow set in a gelatin base. It may also include meat from the feet, tongue, and heart. It originated
in Europe and is usually eaten cold or at room temperature as a luncheon meat. In the United States,
headcheese is available in two styles: French and German. French headcheese is made from cured pork
pieces suspended in a vinegar-flavored gelatin with small bits of pickles and pimentos added for flavor.
There is no casing. The German style, also composed of cured pork and beef pieces, differs in that the
gelatin is produced by heating to resemble an emulsion and, because of this, requires a casing.
Olive loaf: In reference to meat, olive loaf refers to a type of bologna that is composed of cured pork
and beef, seasonings, sweet pickles, diced pimentos, and green olives. It is served as a luncheon meat and
can also contain garlic, basil, and sweet peppers.
Scrapple: Not a sausage per se, but rather a cornmeal-based mixture or mush of head meat, pork
sausage, or both. It can also contain pork scraps and trimmings that can’t be used elsewhere. Meat scraps
that come from the head, heart, liver, or attached to bones are boiled to make a broth. When they are
finished cooking, the bones and fat are discarded, and the meat is then mixed with dry cornmeal and
added to the broth, which is then boiled. Seasonings such as sage, thyme, savory, and black pepper are
added. This mush is formed into a semisolid congealed loaf and allowed to cool until thoroughly set.
Then slices are pan fried before serving. It has a Pennsylvania Dutch origin with strong regional
recognition, although it can be found throughout the country.
Souse: A loaf product similar to headcheese. It typically contains cured or cooked meat from the
heads, tongues, lips, and snouts of pigs, which are added to gelatin. Pickles and pimentos are added for
color and flavor.

Venison Sausage
Venison sausage can come from deer, elk, bison, moose, or other large game animals. Because of these
animals’ feeding habitat, their meat tends to be very dry. Pork and pork fat are typically added to enhance
venison’s flavor and palatability. It may be prepared as fresh, dried, or smoked sausage in ways similar to
domestic animal-based sausages.

Other Sausages
It is estimated that there are more than two hundred types of sausage and related products produced today,
with many variations of each. While you may start with producing only one or two types of sausage, in
time you may venture to others. The list may include the following:
Alesandri: An Italian-style member of the salami family made with highly seasoned cured pork.
Arles: A French-style salami that contains coarsely chopped pork and beef seasoned with garlic.
Berliner: A pork and beef sausage mildly flavored with salt and sugar.
Blood and tongue sausage: Contains cooked lamb and pork tongues and hog blood.
Bloodwurst or blood sausage: Sausage made of pig blood, pork meat, ham fat, gelatin-based meats,
salt, pepper, clover, allspice, and onions.
Boterhamwurst: A Dutch-style veal and pork sausage.
Corned beef: Made from cured and spiced beef brisket.
Cotto salami: Cooked salami enhanced by whole peppercorns.
Easter nola: An Italian-style mildly seasoned, salami-type dry sausage.
Garlic sausage: Similar to the frankfurter in taste and texture but with a more pronounced garlic
flavor.
Farmer sausage: Originated with farmers of northern Europe and is a mildly seasoned dry or semidry
sausage made of 65 percent beef and 35 percent pork. Chopped medium fine, seasoned, stuffed into beef
middles casings, and heavily smoked.
German salami: Similar to the Italian-type salamis but more heavily smoked.
Goteborg: A Swedish-style cervelat that is heavily smoked and made from coarsely chopped pork and
beef that is flavored with cardamom.
Ham and cheese loaf: A specialty product containing pieces of cheese imbedded within finely ground
ham.
Holsteiner: Similar to farmer sausage, except that the ends are tied together like a horseshoe. Dried
and smoked.
Honey loaf: A mixture of pork, beef, honey, and spices but can also contain pickles or pimentos, or
both.
Hungarian salami: A mild, dry salami made of lean pork and backfat.
 Knackwurst: Similar to the frankfurter in texture and mixture and is fully cooked but with more garlic
added.
Linguisa: A Portuguese pork sausage cured in brine, seasoned with garlic, and spiced with cinnamon
and cumin.
Liver loaf: A sandwich-shaped liver sausage that is similar in flavor to liverwurst.
Longaniza: A dry Portuguese sausage flavored similarly like chorizo.
Macaroni and cheese loaf: Contains chunks of cheddar cheese and pieces of macaroni mixed with
ground beef and pork.
Mortadella: A dry sausage containing pork, beef, and cubes of pork fat, seasoned with anise.
Pastrami: The cured, smoked plate of beef that is usually thinly sliced for sandwiches.
Pinkel: A sausage made of beef, oats, and pork fat.
Salsiccia: A fresh Italian sausage made of finely ground pork.
Smoky links: Smoked, cooked links made from pork and beef spiced with pepper.
Straussburg: A liver and veal sausage that contains pistachio nuts.
Vienna sausages: The small hors d’oeuvre or cocktail-style frankfurters or hot dogs.
Weiswurst: A fresh German-style sausage that is mildly spicy and made of pork and veal.

Selecting Ingredients, Additives, and Spices

The ingredients, additives, and spices you add, and their quality, will greatly affect the taste and texture of
your final sausage products. For sausage making, ingredients you add may be raw meat and nonmeat
materials. The interaction between the ingredients and meat materials used will determine the different
flavors and textures between sausages.
You control the ingredients and spices you add to your sausage. By understanding the properties of
each, you will be able to create products that meet your requirements and tastes, whether it is to limit the
preservatives you eat or to avoid high fat products routinely available at retail markets.
You should keep one simple rule in mind when creating your sausages, regardless of which kind they
are: your finished product is only as good as the ingredients it contains. The meat you start with should be
fresh, have a proper lean-to-fat ratio, and exhibit good binding qualities. Clean meat that has been cut in
sanitary conditions is a prime requirement. The meat used should not have been contaminated with
bacteria or other microorganisms at any stage of processing or cutting.

Ingredients
Most of the ingredients you will use are readily available for purchase at local supermarkets or meat
markets, or from other specialized commercial businesses. Licensed retail outlets that specialize in such
products are another source. Internet businesses that sell ingredients for meat processing can provide them
for sausage making. If buying ingredients from businesses outside your area, be sure to check their
licenses and ask about the sources they access for their products. Always check their labels to be sure you
know what you are adding to your meat.
The main ingredients for your sausage making are likely to be based on meat derived from pork, beef,
and perhaps veal, either separately or in a combination. Other ingredients may include hearts, tongues,
livers, kidneys, and stomachs. If you don’t raise your own livestock for home use, be sure the meat you
buy comes from a reputable source or that it has been USDA inspected. If using your own animals for
processing, be certain they are healthy and disease free. Cuts with the lowest economic value are
generally used for sausage making.
 Several nonmeat ingredients are used to provide flavor, inhibit bacterial growth, and increase the
amount of sausage produced. These may include water, salt, sugar, nonfat dry milk, soy products,
extenders and binders, and spices.

Binders and Extenders

Several ingredients are often added during commercial sausage production that are referred to as binders
and extenders. Some of these products are used for both purposes. Binders are used to help the meat
particles adhere to each other or to prevent them from separating during the production process. Extenders
are used to increase the moisture content and texture of the product, as well as stretch the amount of
product derived from a certain volume of meat.
Extenders often include non-fat dry milk and similar dried products of milk origin including dried
whey. Binders can include many derivatives of milk plus cereal flours, wheat gluten, and soy flours.
Other components of sausage production that are often added are:
Water and ice: Added sometimes to add moisture and keep the sausage cold during processing. Cold
temperatures delay bacteria growth and add to the final product quality. Water also helps dissolve salts
for better distribution within the meat.
Salt: Serves three functions in the meat: preservation, flavor enhancement, and draws out protein to
help bind the mixture. Sodium nitrate and nitrite are used for curing meat as they inhibit growth of a
number of pathogens and bacteria that cause spoilage, including those that cause botulism. Nitrate and
nitrite are the most regulated and controversial of all the sausage ingredients. It is strongly recommended
that a commercial premixed cure be used when nitrate and/or nitrite is called for in the mixture.
Sugar: Used for flavor and to counter the bitter taste of salt. It helps reduce the pH in meat because of
the fermentation of the lactic acid.
Ascorbates and erythorbates: Vitamin C derivatives that speed the curing reaction. They can be used
interchangeably in cured sausages to which nitrite has been added.

Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings

Many different spices, seasonings, and flavorings are used in sausage production to increase taste. For
home sausage making, they are generally added by personal preference and taste or to follow general
guidelines for a particular product recipe. By combining different levels of various spices, you can create
unique and distinctive sausages.
Spices, seasonings, and flavorings are not usually included to add to the nutritional value of the
sausage, although some minute traces of nutrition are provided by them. Spices vary greatly in
composition and may be added as whole seeds, coarsely ground, or in powdered form. Some of the major
spices used include:
Allspice: A reddish brown pimento berry sold whole or ground. Pungent, clove-like odor and taste.
Used in bologna, pork sausage, frankfurters, hamburgers, potato sausage, headcheese, and other products.
Basil: Marketed as small bits of green leaves, whole or ground. Aromatic, mildly pungent odor and
used in dry sausage such as pepperoni.
Bay leaves: Elliptical leaves marketed whole or ground. Fragrant, sweetly aromatic with slightly bitter
taste. Used in pickling spice for corned beef, beef, lamb, pork tongues, and pigs’ feet.
Caraway seed: Curved, tapered, brown seeds sold whole. Slightly sharp taste and used in Polish
sausage.
Cardamom seed: Small, reddish brown seeds sold whole or ground. Pleasant, fragrant odor; used in
bologna, frankfurters, and similar meats.
 Cloves: Reddish brown, sold whole or ground. Strong, pungent, sweet odor and taste. Used in bologna,
frankfurters, headcheese, liver sausage, corned beef, and pastrami. Whole cloves can be inserted into
hams and other meats during cooking.
Coriander seed: Yellowish brown, nearly globular seeds sold whole or ground. Lemon-like taste.
Used in frankfurters, bologna, knackwurst, Polish sausage, and other cooked sausages.
Cumin seed: Yellowish brown oval seeds sold whole or ground. Strong, bitter taste; used in chorizo
and other Mexican and Italian sausages; used in making curry powder.
Dill seed: Light brown oval seeds sold whole or ground. Warm, clean, aromatic odor used in
headcheese, souse, jellied tongue loaf, and similar products.
Garlic, dried: White color ranging in forms of powdered, granulated, ground, minced, chopped, and
sliced. Strong, characteristic odor with pungent taste. Used in most beef sausages and salamis.
Ginger: Irregularly shaped pieces brownish to buff-colored; sold whole, ground, or cracked. Pungent,
spicy-sweet odor; clean, hot taste. Used in pork sausage, frankfurters, knackwurst, and other cooked
sausages.
Mace: Flat, brittle pieces of lacy, yellow to brownish orange material sold whole or ground.
Somewhat stronger than nutmeg in odor and flavor. Used in bologna, mortadella, bratwurst, bockwurst,
and other fresh and cooked sausages.
Marjoram: Marketed as small pieces of grayish green leaves either whole or ground. Warm, aromatic,
slightly bitter and used in braunschweiger, liverwurst, headcheese, and Polish sausage.
Mustard: Tiny, smooth, yellowish or reddish brown seeds sold whole or ground. Used in bologna,
frankfurters, salamis, summer sausage, and similar meat products.
Nutmeg: Large, brown, ovular seeds sold whole or ground. Sweet taste and odor. Used in frankfurters,
knackwurst, minced ham sausages, liver sausage, and headcheese.
Onion, dried: Similar to garlic. Used in luncheon loaves, braunschweiger, liver sausage, headcheese,
and other meat products.
Oregano: Marketed as small pieces of green leaves, whole or ground. Strong, pleasant odor and taste.
Used in most Mexican and Spanish sausages, fresh Italian sausage, and sometimes in frankfurters and
bologna.
Paprika: Powder form ranging in color from bright red to brick red. Slightly sweet odor and taste.
Used in frankfurters, fresh Italian sausage, bologna, and many other cooked and smoked sausage products.
Pepper: Black, red, white in color and sold whole or ground. Penetrating odor and taste, ranging from
mild to intensely pungent. Black pepper is the most used of all spices, but white is substituted when black
specks are not wanted, such as in pork sausage and deviled ham. Red pepper is used in chorizo, smoked
country sausage, Italian sausage, pepperoni, fresh pork sausage, and many other meat products.
Rosemary: Needle-like green leaves available whole or ground. Fresh, aromatic odor, somewhat like
sage in taste. Used in chicken stews and other poultry products.
Saffron: Orange and yellowish in color, sold whole or ground. Strong odor and bitter taste. Most
expensive of all spices and used primarily for color in a few sausages.
Sage: Grayish-green leaves sold whole, ground, or cut. Highly aromatic with strong, slightly bitter
taste. Used in pork, pizza, and breakfast sausages.
Savory: Sold as dried bits of greenish brown leaves. Fragrant, aromatic odor and used primarily in
pork sausage but also in other sausages.
Thyme: Marketed as gray to greenish brown leaves, whole or ground. Fragrant, odor with pungent
taste. Used in pork sausage, liver sausage, headcheese, and bockwurst.
 Whether they are added by volume or weight, herbs and spices are a very small percentage of any
sausage but have an enormous influence on character and flavor of the end product. In either case, the best
herbs and spices are those that are purchased fresh or homegrown and those used soon after harvesting. If
you purchase either or both, try to buy new products rather than older ones because new vintages will
have retained their potency more than older ones. Store herbs and spices in a cool, dry area away from
heat and light. Freshly dried herbs and spices rarely retain their optimum flavors longer than six months.

Salt and Pepper

Salt and pepper add flavor and aroma to sausages. Many different types of salt are available, but those
without additives, such as iodine, provide maximum flavor. Pepper can be purchased as whole
peppercorn and ground when needed. Recipes may make distinctions between three forms of pepper:
finely ground, medium grind, and coarse grind. Finely ground is a fine powder with no large pieces in it.
Medium grind refers to flakes that will pass through a typically shaker. Coarse grind has small bits that
may be ground in either a pepper grinder with a coarse setting or with a mortar and pestle.

Sodium Nitrite and Potassium Nitrate Concerns

Curing meat with products containing nitrates and nitrites was previously discussed shown here. Please
read those pages and make sure you have a thorough understanding of cures containing nitrates and nitrites
as well as how they work before moving forward.
In short, you must learn about these ingredients before you use them as they can cause illness or even
death if used improperly. Accidentally licking a finger covered with curing salt or leaving these
ingredients within the reach of children could have dire consequences! That said, when used properly,
you do not need to be scared of nitrates/nitrites in much smaller concentrations. They have an important
function when making some types of sausages.
As previously discussed, concerns about consuming nitrates or nitrites in meat center on the quantity
eaten rather than their inclusion as preservatives. (To reach a lethal toxicity level, an adult weighing 150
pounds would have to consume about 20 pounds of brine-cured meat containing 200 parts per million
[ppm] nitrite in one meal.) Still, you can certainly focus on only fresh sausages if you are concerned about
using nitrites and nitrates.

Casings
It is not necessary to stuff fresh sausage meat into a casing. It can be left in bulk form or made into patties.
But if ground into bulk form, it will have to be used within one or two days to retain its freshness and
quality. Most sausages are made by inserting the ground ingredients into some forming material that gives
them shape and size and holds the meat together for cooking and smoking, or both. This material is called
a casing.
There are two types of casings used in sausage making: natural and manufactured. Although their
purposes are the same, their origin is very different.
Natural sausage casings are made from parts of the alimentary canal of various animals that can
include the intestinal tracts from pigs, cows, or sheep. One advantage for using them is that they are made
up largely of collagen, a fibrous protein, whose unique characteristic is variable permeability. This
allows smoke and heat to penetrate during the curing process but without contributing undesirable flavors
to the meat. Natural casings can be purchased from companies that offer sausage-making products or they
can come from an animal that you are butchering. Packing houses that save casings will flush them with
water and pack them in salt before selling them to casing processors. The casing processor does the final
cleaning, scraping, sorting, grading, and salting before you purchase them. If using your own animal
casings, it is important they are thoroughly flushed and cleaned and are placed in a salt brine prior to use.

Cleaning Casings for Home Use

You can clean your own hog and sheep casings for sausage production after they are removed from the
body cavity. Because they are unlikely to be the first parts you work with from the carcass, they need to be
set in cold water to reduce their temperature to prevent spoilage. If working alone, you should set up the
cold water tub prior to beginning the butchering process. If working with others, you can designate
another to handle this part.
There are several things to consider if using the intestines for meat casings. The first is sanitation. The
intestines will likely be filled with excrement that contains E. coli bacteria and needs to be kept away
from any organs that you plan to use later. If you plan to use several or all of the organs attached within
the viscera, you will need to cut them away from the mass of intestines and stomach prior to placing them
into the cold water to reduce the chances of contamination. Cut the heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, or any
other organs away from the intestines and stomach and place them aside in a clean container. The stomach
and intestines should then be separated by making a cut at the point where the stomach and large intestines
meet. If you have used a cord or string to tie off the end of the intestine at the anus when you made your
cuts to remove it, then one end should still be tied. After making your cut at the stomach and intestine
junction, place that end in an empty pail or other container and allow the intestinal materials to drop into
it. Depending on the species and size of the animal you butchered, there may be much intestine to work
with or relatively little. You may have to use your hand to strip as much of the excreta out of the intestine
as possible. When finished, you can place the intestine in a cold water bath primed with salt and work
with it later after you deal with the more valuable meat cuts of the carcass.
Intestines make very good natural casings for your sausages because they are largely collagen and will
easily break down during the curing process, yet they still are strong enough to hold the meat during the
stuffing process. Their flexibility makes them an attractive alternative to synthetic casings. But good
casings are also clean casings and you will need to prep them for use by removing all of the excrement
and intestinal linings before using them.
To begin properly cleaning your casings, you will need to invert the intestine by turning it inside out.
After removing any cord or string that has closed one end, start by turning one end of the intestine inside
out to create a lip much as you would roll down your socks, except that you are not making a rolled up
mass. You want to pass the rest of the intestine through this roll as if you were peeling a banana without
breaking it. When the inside of the intestine has completely become the outside, you can thoroughly wash
it in a cold 0.5 percent chlorine solution. Use a soft-bristle brush to very gently scrub the excess fat,
connective tissue, and any residual foreign or fecal materials off the intestine. Although the intestine can
withstand some good scrubbing, you need to be careful not to overdo it or you may leave little tears in the
membrane that can rupture and break during the stuffing process.
After thoroughly cleaning the intestine, rinse it with clean, cold water and invert it back to its original
form. Use a saturated salt solution (1 gram salt/2.8 ml water) for storage overnight. If you are not using
the casings for several days, they can be kept in this solution with cold temperatures. If not using them for
two weeks or longer, you can freeze them in this salt-saturated solution. This solution will also inhibit the
growth of bacteria that thrive on salt, as well as other bacteria that may have survived the chlorine
solution bath. Before using your stored casings, gently flush them in lukewarm water to remove any
clinging salt. They are then ready for use.
Generally, the larger the animal butchered, the larger the size of the intestinal tract you will have. The
kind of sausage you want to make may have some bearing on the size of casings you use. Typically lambs
and sheep are the smallest, followed by pigs, and then cows. Sheep casings are more delicate and can be
used for hot dogs, frankfurters, and pork breakfast sausages.
Hog casings have a wide variety of use and are considered to be an all-purpose casing. They have five
classes: bungs, middles, smalls, stomachs, and bladders. Bungs and middles are best used for dry
sausage; smalls for fresh sausage, such as chorizos, bratwurst, bockwurst, and Polish; stomachs for
headcheese; and bladders for minced luncheon meats. Small hog casings, from the small intestine, are
probably the most widely used and easiest to find at a local meat shop.
Beef casings are larger and are classed as bungs, rounds, and middles. Rounds are the most common of
all beef casings and come from the small intestine. They are used for ring bologna, Holsteiner, and
mettwurst. Beef bungs are large casings that come from the cecum or appendix and may have diameters of
3 to 5 inches, making them good for stuffing bologna. They can contain from 12 to 20 pounds of sausage.

Manufactured and Artificial Casings

The alternative to natural casings is a group of manufactured or artificial casings that are made from
edible or inedible materials. Fibrous casings are popular because they are uniform in size and easy to use.
They are made from a special paper pulp mixed with cellulose, are inedible, and must be peeled away
before eating. However, they provide the most strength of any casing available. Three of the most common
types of manufactured casings include collagen, cellulose, and artificial.
Collagen casings are made from the gelatinous substances found in animal connective tissue, bones,
and cartilage and mechanically formed into casings. Because of their lower structural strength, these
casings generally are made into small diameter products and are ideal for breakfast links or fresh,
smoked, and dried sausages. Unlike large cellulose and fibrous casings, collagen casings should not be
soaked in water before use. They are easier to work with when dry.
Cellulose casings are made from cotton linters, the fuzz from cotton seeds, which are dissolved and
reformed into casings. Cellulose casings are crimped into short strands, and an 8-inch length may stuff as
much as 100 feet of sausage. Small cellulose casings work well for skinless wieners and other small-
diameter skinless products.
Artificial casings are frequently made from plastic and are inedible. They can be used for sausages
cooked in water or steam, such as bologna and braunschweiger.
If you are not using your own casings, you can purchase any of the manufactured or artificial casings
from meat-packing companies, sausage supply businesses, local butcher shops, or through ethnic markets.

Essential Equipment
You only need a few pieces of equipment to make sausage in your home whether or not you butcher your
own animal. The three most important pieces of equipment you will need include a meat grinder (but not
if you only purchase bulk sausage meat), a sausage stuffer, and a thermometer. Other pieces that you may
find useful include a mixing tub, a scale, and a smoker if you want to do your own meat smoking and
preservation. Sausage-making equipment is usually available from meat equipment supply companies.
Meat grinders reduce large pieces into a soft, pliable mass into which spices, fats, or other additives can more easily be mixed. Grinders can be
hand- or electric-driven and come in many different designs and shapes.
An old-style sausage stuffer was made of cast iron and operated by using a hand crank that pressed the plate, forcing the meat through the
funnel opening at the bottom and into the casing.

Meat grinders
A meat grinder is used to reduce the size of the meat pieces into a pliable mixture. They can be operated
by hand or by electricity. Some food processors can do a good job of chopping meat, and some heavy-
duty mixers may have a grinding attachment that will work.
Hand grinders have been used for generations and usually have several different-sized grinding plates
or chopping disks, ranging from fine, with holes 1/8-inch in diameter, to coarse, with holes 3/8-inch in
diameter. All hand grinders will have a screw augur that is attached to the outside handle. A disk cap
screws over the top of the grinding plate to hold it in place while the meat is forced through the holes by
the auger. It is a simple process once you have it set up. Hand grinders typically have a tightening screw
at their base so that they can be mounted to a table or sturdy support frame.
If you are making small amounts of sausage, a hand grinder should be sufficient. Some large grinders
make use of a small motor with belt attached. This is a fast, efficient way to grind a very large amount of
meat in a very short amount of time. Food processors can be useful in producing finely ground or
emulsified sausages, such as frankfurters, bologna, and some loaf products.
A modern sausage stuffer relies on the same principle as the old style, but it is made of aluminum or stainless steel. It is lighter in weight than
its predecessor and has multiple funnels for different-sized casings. Be sure to thoroughly wash, sanitize, and rinse the stuffer and funnels or
horns prior to and following each use and between different sausage-making sessions.
Begin by placing the casing over the stuffer funnel or horn and tying the end. Use whatever function your stuffer has, hand crank or electric,
and push the sausage into the casing.
Push until the desired amount is added; stop and give the casing a twist to separate it into links or small sections. Continue until the end of
the casing and tie the end.
For larger casings such as summer sausage, use the same procedure by twisting each section after the desired amount has been added.

Sausage Stuffers
You should consider buying a sausage stuffer if you plan on making your own sausages. There are several
types available, including hand, push, crank, and hydraulic-operated by air or water. They can be made of
plastic, stainless steel, or cast iron. Many small meat grinders are capable of supporting a small stuffing
horn.
The piston-type stuffer is one of the most common for home use. It is operated by air or water pressure
and will press the sausage quickly into the casing, producing fewer air pockets than hand-operated,
screw-style stuffers.
A push stuffer is quick to reload but has a small capacity. With this type of stuffer, you manually push
down on a handle to force the meat into the casing. A crank stuffer has more capacity than a push stuffer
and takes less effort to press the sausage into the casing because of the pressure created by your combined
arm and screw action.

Sausage Funnels or Horns

The sausage funnel or horn constricts the movement of the sausage from the meat tub into the casing. As
the casing fills, it pushes itself away from the funnel as it elongates. The size of the funnel is directly
related to the size of the casing. Funnels are straight tubes, not tapered, and may range from 4 to 6 inches
in length. To decrease the possibility of tearing the casing, coat the funnel with water or grease to help
slip the casing over it.

Other Equipment
There may be other items you’d like to keep on hand during your sausage processing, including measuring
instruments such as a scale, measuring cups, and thermometers.

Scales
For weighing meats and other ingredients, a reliable scale is essential. A scale that measures both in
pounds and ounces should be sufficient for most of your needs. For recipes or curing chemicals where
weights are measured in grams or ounces, a smaller scale may be necessary. If curing ingredients are
being used, particularly sodium nitrite, it is very important to use a scale that can measure to the nearest
tenth of a gram.

Measuring Cups and Spoons

Measuring cups and spoons, ranging from 1/4 teaspoon up to 1 tablespoon and 1/4 cup to 1 cup for liquids
or dry measure, will be useful for adhering to specific recipes. One simple rule of thumb is that smaller
amounts are always easier to measure with spoons while larger amounts should be measured using cups
for greater accuracy. Always measure the exact amounts called for, especially when processing sausages
or other meat products.

Instant-Read Thermometers
An instant-read thermometer is a probe containing two different metal coils bonded together. The coil is connected to the temperature
indicator that expands when heated, moving the dial. Insert the probe about 2 inches into the center of the meat to insure a safe, accurate
reading. Instant-read thermometers are used to assess when a specific temperature has been reached to assure safe eating and in making
smoked sausage. They are good for use in sausage making because they can measure the temperature of a food within fifteen to twenty
seconds. Although they are not used during the cooking process, they can be used at or near the end of it to check the final temperature.
This will allow you to monitor the cooking progress without overcooking the product.
An oven thermometer can be set on one of the racks to monitor the temperature within the oven during the cooking time. One
disadvantage may be if you do not have a window to check the thermometer, you may have to open the door to check the temperature,
allowing heat to escape and prolonging the estimated cooking time.
Always sanitize thermometers before each use and when moving from one meat to another to avoid cross contamination. The
thermometers can be washed in hot, soapy water, then rinsed and dried.

Thermometers
Accurate thermometers are essential to help monitor and maintain appropriate temperatures during the
processing and cooking of sausages. Handle all thermometers carefully and store safely. See here for a
complete discussion of thermometers and instructions on calibration.
Making sausage requires an investment of time, but the end result is delicious and worth the work.

Sanitation and the Three Cs

Strict sanitation is critically important in sausage making and must be maintained to prevent bacterial
contamination and food-borne illnesses. It is essential to handle raw meat in a safe manner that reduces
the risk of bacterial growth. No meat product is completely sterile, but using proper procedures will
minimize your risks. The most basic sanitation procedure involves using and maintaining clean surfaces
before and after processing sausages. It is easy to remember the three C’s of sanitation: keep it clean,
cold, and covered.
Once all the sausages are finished, they can be placed on racks for smoking. Regardless of the number of sausages, their size, or the type of
smoker used, keep the individual pieces spaced so that they do not touch one another or any part of the smoking unit.

Keep It Clean
Wash all surfaces that you use with a diluted chlorine bleach solution of 10 parts water and one part
bleach, as well as antibacterial soap. Nothing will replace vigorous scrubbing of the surface area with
these products. This removes any grease or unwanted contaminants from the preparation area. Keep the
area free of materials that do not relate to meat preparation or that will be used later but may accidentally
come in contact with the meat. Utensils to be used and your hands should be thoroughly washed before
beginning. Be sure to remove any rings, jewelry, or other metal objects from your hands, ears, or other
exposed body parts.

Keep It Cold
Bacteria grow best in temperatures between 40 degrees and 140 degrees Fahrenheit. If you are cooking or
cooling meat for cooked sausages, be sure your product passes through this range quickly because meat
can be kept safe when it is cold or hot, but not in between. The meat you process should pass through this
temperature range, whether being cooked or cooled, within four hours, but preferably less. This includes
any butchering time involved. Cooling the fresh carcass is essential to a good meat product and is
discussed elsewhere in this book.
During processing, cooked sausages should have an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit, as
this effectively kills pathogenic bacteria. Poultry meat should be cooked to 180 degrees Fahrenheit
because of a more alkaline final pH. Ground meats are more likely to become contaminated than whole
pieces because they have increased surface area exposure and go through more processing steps.
After cooking, you will need to cool the sausages quickly. This will prevent bacteria from attaching
themselves and having an opportunity to grow while handling them.
The shelf life of any sausage has a limit. To minimize bacterial growth, you should store your sausage
in a refrigerated or frozen state. Fresh or uncooked sausage can be kept safely refrigerated for several
days while cooked sausages should be used within one week, unless frozen. Always remember that
sausages are highly perishable products that don’t get better with age. Never eat or serve sausage that has
developed a slimy texture or an off smell. There is a good biological reason that your nose is placed near
your mouth. If it doesn’t smell right, it is better to discard it than risk eating it.

Food Safety Tips

• Always wash your hands with soap and water before handling meat or beginning work. Rewash between tasks and after sneezing, using
toilet facilities, or handling materials not part of your processing work.
• Before and after use, thoroughly clean all equipment, knives, utensils, thermometers, bowls, and anything else used to cut or store meat.
Clean and sanitize all surfaces that will be used.
• Keep raw meat separate from other foods. Avoid cross contamination between pieces of raw and processed meats. Avoid mixing of
fluids and juices from other cuts or vegetables to be used.
• Keep meat below 40 degrees Fahrenheit during processing.
• Monitor temperatures at all stages of your processing.

Keep It Covered
Meats, carcasses, and wholesale or retail cuts should be covered during any time you are not working on
them. Your processing equipment should be properly stored in between use, as well as in any area used
where butchering is done. Maintain screens, barriers, or traps to keep out vermin and reduce access for
flies and insects.

Game Meat Sausage

While the majority of sausages made use pork or beef separately or in combination, game meat can be
used and substituted instead to create unique and original flavors. Most any meat from wild animals can
be used, but, like meat from domesticated animals, it is important that it is handled properly after the
animal is killed. The same awareness of temperatures is required, and dressing the animal as soon as
possible while keeping the meat under 40 degrees Fahrenheit will help limit bacteria growth, reducing the
chance of a food-borne illness.
Game meat is typically aged after it is dressed to increase tenderness. This is not a necessary step if
the meat is to be used for sausage because it will be tenderized and broken down through the grinding
process. Using the less tender cuts and trim pieces from wild game in sausage increases the volume
available.
 Game meat contains a distinct flavor that comes from the fat and not necessarily the meat itself.
Removing all external fat prior to grinding will allow you to process game meat in the same way as beef
or pork. However, game meat is leaner and contains less fat in the muscle. This will make a dry and
unpalatable sausage unless you add unsalted pork fat when grinding. The pork shoulder butt is often used
as a fat for game sausages. Generally, you will need to mix in a fat content of 15 to 20 percent to have a
desirable flavor and texture. Blending different meat and fat percentages will affect your final product.
Experimentation will be the best way to discover what you like best.

Making Jerky Safely

Temperature is very important when making jerky. The USDA Meat and Poultry’s current recommendation for making jerky safely is to
heat the meat to 160 degrees Fahrenheit before the dehydrating process to assure that any bacteria present will be destroyed by wet heat.
Recent research at the University of Wisconsin demonstrated that the time-temperature combinations below are effective at killing E. coli
0157:H7 in jerky products. Although the lower temperatures are considered effective at killing bacteria, it is recommended that dehydrator
temperatures of 145 degrees Fahrenheit or higher be used. Monitor the temperature of the dehydrator by placing the metal stem of a dial
thermometer between the dehydrator trays or create an opening for the stem by drilling a hole through the side of the tray.

Drying T emperature (Fahrenheit) Minimum Drying T ime

125º 10 hours
135º 8 hours
145º 7 hours
155º 4 hours
Source: Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service Meat and Animal Science Department, University of Wisconsin–Madison

Beef Jerky
5 lbs. lean beef
11/2 t bsp. salt
1 t bsp. black pepper
11/2 t sp. cardamom
2 t sp. marjoram
11/2 t sp. cure (pink color)
2 t sp. cayenne pepper
1 t bsp. garlic powder
1/2 c. liquid smoke

1/2 c. wat er

Mix all spices together with meat until meat is tacky. Grind and press into a loaf pan lined with foil. Put in cooler or freezer to firm product
for slicing. Slice as thin as desirable and lay on oven racks. Spray oven racks with oil and place the slices on a rack. Spray with liquid
smoke and garlic mixture. Bake in an oven at 170ºF for 2 to 3 hours.

Sweet Italian Sausage

90 lbs. pork t rim (70 percent lean)
3 quart s wat er
3 c. salt
1 c. sugar
6 t bsp. cure
7 t bsp. plus 3 t sp. cracked f ennel seed
3 oz. paprika
1/3 c. black pepper

1/3 c. cayenne pepper

1/3 c. garlic powder

2 t bsp. oregano
1 t bsp. sweet basil

Coarse-grind the meat trimmings. Add salt, water, sugar, cure, and spices. Regrind through 1/4-inch diameter plate and stuff into pork
casings. No smoking is necessary, as this is a fresh sausage. Cook before serving.

Dried Beef
50 lbs. lean beef
41/2 c. salt
61/3 c. sugar
13/4 t bsp. cure

Using 1/3 to 3/4 ounces per pound of meat, rub the salt, sugar, and nitrate mixture onto the beef, making sure all areas are well covered.
Rub the beef twice at 3- to 5-day intervals. Allow 2 days per pound of meat for the cure to complete. After the beef is cured, rinse it with
cold water several times and allow to dry for 24 hours. Apply a light or heavy smoke as desired. Hang in a dry, well-ventilated room for
further drying. Lamb or venison can be substituted for beef. Use large lean pieces, such as the round or legs, and separate into top,
bottom, and tip. If you prefer to have a cooked product, smoke and cook to an internal temperature of at least 160ºF.

Source: North Dakota University Meats Laboratory

Braunschweiger
10 lbs. 50/50 pork t rim
10 lbs. pork liver
1 lb. f at bacon
7 oz. (2/3 c.) salt
4 t bsp. whit e pepper
3 oz. soy prot ein (opt ional)
1 medium size onion
1 t sp. nut meg
11/2 t sp. ginger
1 t bsp. cure (6 percent )

Grind pork trimmings, liver, and other ingredients to a very fine consistency. Mix in spices, salt, onion, and cure. Stuff in moisture-proof
fibrous casing and cook in 165ºF water bath for 11/2 hours or until internal temperature of sausage reaches 155ºF. Chill rapidly in water.

Source: North Dakota University Meats Laboratory

 Haggis
5 lbs. pork heart s
3 lbs. pork liver
2 lbs. beef suet
21 c. oat meal (31/2 lbs.)
2 t o 3 medium onions
1/3 c. salt

21/2 t bsp. whit e pepper

1 t bsp. nut meg

Cook hearts and liver in 180º–190ºF water until tender; do not boil. Remove cooked pieces. Reserve broth. Grind hearts and liver with
beef suet through an 1/4-inch plate. Chop onions finely. Bring the broth to a boil and sprinkle in oatmeal. Stir vigorously. To the hot mass,
add the cooked meats, onions, salt, and spices. Stuff in moisture-proof casing and cook for about 3 hours in 170ºF. water, or until internal
temperature reaches 160ºF. Chill in ice water and keep at 30º–34ºF. Haggis is quite perishable. You may reduce amount of oatmeal if
desired.

Blood Sausage
1 pint blood
1 pint milk or wat er
1/2 t sp. pepper

1/4 t sp. nut meg

11/2 t sp. ground cloves

11/2 t sp. ground allspice
1 t bsp. salt
1 c. quick-cooking rolled oat s
5 t o 6 c. f lour

Mix above ingredients together. Drop large spoonfuls into a large kettle of salted boiling water. Cook until brown throughout. Remove from
water. It may be eaten hot with butter and syrup.

Italian Hot Sausage

5 lbs. pork t rim
5 lbs. lean beef t rim
20 cloves garlic, crushed
4 t sp. red pepper
4 t sp. f ennel seeds, crushed
2 t sp. t hyme
8 bay leaves
3 t bsp. salt
1 t bsp. black pepper
1/2 t sp. nut meg

Grind meat through a coarse plate, then add spices and mix thoroughly. Grind again through a medium plate. Stuff into hog casing. Smoke
at 140ºF for proper color development and raise temperature to 170ºF until internal temperature reaches 155ºF. Excellent on pizza.

Potato Sausage
10 lbs. pot at oes, peeled and grat ed
3 lbs. meat (pork head)
2 onions, ground
Pepper, salt , sweet marjoram t o t ast e

Cook meat by boiling it until it reaches an internal temperature of 160ºF. Cool and then grind the meat, reserving some broth. Mix the meat
together with the other ingredients. Add some of the broth until the mixture looks like cooked oatmeal. Stuff in casings. Heat in boiling
water until hot and ready to serve.

Fresh Pork Sausage

45 lbs. f resh pork t rimmings (70 percent lean)
21/2 quart s wat er
11/3 c. salt
151/2 t bsp. whit e pepper
1/4 c. rubbed sage

1/2 c. sugar

Coarse-grind pork; mix in seasonings and grind product to desired size. Stuff into sheep casing. Smoke for 2 hours at 120ºF for smoky
flavor. This must be cooked before serving.

Polish Sausage
40 lbs. lean pork t rimmings (80 percent lean)
3 lbs. lean beef t rimmings (80 percent lean)
1 quart wat er
3 t bsp. cure
11/3 c. salt
1/2 c. black pepper

4 t bsp. must ard seed

4 t sp. marjoram
3 cloves garlic or 3/4 t sp. garlic powder

Coarse-grind meat trimmings. Add salt, water, cure, and spices; mix thoroughly. Regrind through 1/4-inch plate and stuff into pork casings.
Smoke to desired color and heat to an internal temperature of 141ºF. This must be cooked before serving.
 Beef Summer Sausage
15 lbs. beef
10 lbs. pork t rimmings
2/3 c. salt

11/2 t bsp. cure

21/2 t bsp. must ard seed
1/2 c. black pepper

1/2 c. sugar

1 t bsp. marjoram
3 t bsp. garlic powder

Mix salt and cure with coarse-ground meat. Pack in shallow pan and place in cooler for 3 to 5 days. Mix in remainder of spices, regrind,
and stuff in 3-inch fibrous casings. Smoke to 140ºF for 2 hours; raise temperature to 160ºF for 2 hours, and finish at 170ºF until internal
temperature reaches 155ºF. Lamb or venison can be substituted for the beef.

Smoked Bratwurst
30 lbs. pork t rim (70 percent lean)
1 quart wat er
1 c. salt
1/2 c. sugar

2 t bsp. cure
1/4 c. whit e pepper

11/3 t bsp. cayenne

2/3 t bsp. nut meg

2/3 t bsp. t hyme

2/3 t bsp. ginger

1/3 t bsp. rosemary

1/3 t bsp. mace

Coarse-grind meat trimmings. Add water, salt, sugar, cure, and spices. Mix thoroughly. Regrind through 1/4-inch plate. Stuff into pork
casings. Smoke product to desired color and heat to an internal temperature of 145ºF. This must be cooked before serving.
Bratwurst is a German-style sausage with many regional variations. Serve it with sauerkraut for a traditional pairing.
 Chapter 12

BUILDING A BUTCHERY BUSINESS

T he past decade has witnessed a resurgence in consumer interest for locally grown foods. This interest
also includes knowing where food originates, the conditions under which the animals are grown, how
meat products are processed, and what, if any, additives are used. Part of this concern relates directly to
health issues, personal preference, and a growing awareness and desire to support local producers rather
than large industrial-size commercial businesses.
These concerns open opportunities for those who want to develop a butchering and slaughtering
business. There are challenges to developing one that can be successful, but for those with enough
determination, there can be personal and financial rewards.
A professional slaughtering and butchering business may be a welcome addition to a local community
that doesn’t have one or is located a significant distance from one. A slaughtering and butchering service
has certain requirements in order to be established, including having equipment, licenses, and expertise in
handling and deconstructing carcasses of many different sizes and weights. There are other basic issues
involved in getting a meat service business started, and being aware of them will help you gauge your
interest in pursuing this path.
A st ainless-st eel drop pan on wheels can be used f or cat ching viscera and ot her int ernal organs in a home-but chering business.
They are easy t o clean, move around, and provide an easy viewing area t o check t he healt h of any organ.

Like any business venture, you will need to establish the entire concept and develop the initial plans
for your business before anything else can happen. You will be responsible for developing your own
clients, setting your prices, and having facilities that ensure a quality finished product for your customers.
You will need to acquire expertise in many areas, such as killing large and small animals; handling
carcasses efficiently while reducing any potential bruising; fabricating the carcass; breaking it down into
market-ready cuts; having environmentally acceptable access for the disposal of unwanted or unused
viscera, hides, fat, and bones; relating with customers; and setting prices. Other considerations may
include billing for work completed, which will require some accounting; hiring additional help, which
may involve understanding and following safety protocols involving employees; and perhaps buying a
mobile slaughter unit.

Two Types of Businesses

A farm slaughtering business can take two forms: home and mobile. Home slaughtering is where you
process your own animals or have local producers bring their animals to your facility. A mobile business
is where you go to farms at their request to process their animal. Neither of these necessarily requires that
you do anything more than kill, skin, eviscerate, and cool the carcass, unless contracted to fabricate them
further. Once the carcasses have been sufficiently cooled, they may be picked up by the owners, who may
take it to their home and cut it up themselves.
You will need a cooler to hang carcasses for proper cooling and aging. It requires sufficient space and height to keep them from coming in
contact with each other as well as touching the floor. A solid roof and beam construction is required to hold the anticipated number of
carcasses stored at one time. You should plan a ceiling rail system that is sturdy, safe, and easy to move carcasses from the cooler to the
workspace. If animals are quartered, the ceiling will not need to be as high.

Creating a Business Plan

Before purchasing any equipment to start your business, take time to develop a business plan to provide
you with a reasonable indication of whether it is economically feasible to pursue it or not. Developing
this plan helps you define your business, provides you with direction to make sound decisions, helps you
set target goals, and provides a means to measure progress. It also increases your chance for success.
Business plans do not need to be extensive, but they must answer several questions that enable you to
focus your efforts. Developing and writing your plan forces you to examine the resources you have
available and the ones you need to acquire. You can also evaluate the capital investment and additional
materials required.
Having a sound business plan with cost and income projections supports a knowledgeable case for a
loan, should you need to raise startup funds.
Your business plan should have a realistic view of your expectations and long-term objectives.
Developing a plan forces you to clearly understand what you want to achieve and how you can do it.
A local financial advisor, bank service department, or county or state agricultural extension personnel
can be sources for helping you develop a business plan that fits your needs. While Internet resources can
be helpful in developing a basic plan, it is always good business to discuss it with another person who
has expertise in this area.

Experience
Experience is second only to a business plan in developing a successful slaughtering business. Being
knowledgeable about different animal species and their physical conformation and parts, including the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, and digestive systems, is essential to success. Not knowing how to
accurately process a killed animal or breakdown a carcass into different cuts, is a recipe for disaster and
short-lived busin-ess prospects.
Where can you gain experience? There are several approaches you can take. The first is to work for or
with an established slaughtering business. This may be located in a town or village near where you live.
Be aware that in this type of situation they may perceive your interest as competition to theirs. But often
there is enough business to go around so that may not become an issue.
Experience often equates with reputation. The better you are at your job, the more likely others will
want to use your service. This builds your reputation, which, once established, you should endeavor to
protect by maintaining customer satisfaction.
A second option is to enroll in courses that may be offered at universities, technical schools, culinary
schools, or other educational programs that provide instruction on meat processing. Charts and photos are
often available for many species to provide rudimentary lessons of where cuts are derived.
A third way of gaining experience is to slaughter and butcher your own animals. Although the number
of animals you need to acquire a comfortable level of expertise may exceed your family’s requirements
for food, you may consider marketing your meat products as a supplement to developing your business. Or
you could work cooperatively with several neighbors to develop a better understanding of what is
involved. Starting with small animals, such as poultry, will give you an initial orientation on which you
can build your experience.
Reading and studying as much as possible about the slaughtering and butchering industry will help
familiarize you with all aspects of your potential business. You may even consider consulting older
residents with expertise in home butchering who may be willing to pass on their knowledge.
A lack of experience does not preclude you from developing a slaughter and butchering business, but it
is essential to find a way to gain some before you venture into one. How long it takes to become
competent will often depend on your commitment and dedication to succeed.

Licences
In most states, some form of licensing is required if you are developing a business for the sale of meat
products off your premises. Slaughtering and butchering animals for home use does not require licensing.
Before you begin, check with your county agriculture extension office or state department of agriculture
for licensing regulations that may apply to your planned business.

Equipment
To establish a successful business, you will need equipment that is durable and appropriate for your job.
Nothing can be more frustrating or detrimental to your business reputation than to have carcasses fall to
the ground.
For a mobile business, you will need such items as an open-end truck to which you can attach a boom
arm, winch cable, gambrel, and slaughtering tools. Chains or cables wrap around hind legs to lift the
carcass once it’s killed to begin the bleeding and evisceration processes. Proper heavy-duty equipment
provides for a safe, neat, fast, and efficient operation.
A metal catch chute is one useful restraining method for holding large animals just before harvest. The animal enters from the rear, and the
lock gate in front restrains it for stunning. Many of these units are portable and can be moved from one location to another. A sturdy pen
should be built to hold animals brought to your facility before directing them into the catch chute.

The greatest challenge you may face with home or mobile slaughtering is your willingness to kill
animals. Unless you are able to put aside your emotions and feelings for the animal standing before you as
you are about to kill it, then perhaps this type of business is not for you. That does not exclude you from
the rest of the process, however. You still may be able to offer the rest of the service for your customers.
One important aspect to consider for the slaughter and butchering of large animals, such as a beef or
pig, if you are on a farm or ranch is to have an area where it can be securely restrained so that it cannot
injure itself, you, or anyone helping you. Missing the opportunity for a clean kill, which is discussed
elsewhere, will likely provoke the animal into trying to escape from the threat. Yet this confinement area
needs to be quickly accessible once the animal is dead so that little time is lost in proceeding with the
butchering process. If working on someone else’s property, examine the logistics beforehand and decide
on a course of action that is safe and will meet your needs.
If you have created facilities at your home for slaughtering and animals are brought to you, you can
design holding pens and restraining areas to fit your needs. Plans for these can usually be obtained with
the help of county agriculture extension offices or university agriculture departments.

A handheld stun gun is a humane way to kill animals for butchering. This model uses a .22-caliber rim firepower blank load. The operator’s
trigger fires the shell that drives the steel rod into the skull.
An electric stunner is useful for hogs and can be wall-mounted, which limits its range and mobility but will provide reliable service. Have the
electrical circuit installed by a qualified and licensed electrician, and read and fully understand the operator’s manual instructions for safe use.

Fees
The success of your slaughtering business will depend largely on two factors: the number of animals
processed and the charges you make for your work. At the beginning, it may be difficult to calculate or
anticipate the number of animals you will process for customers. However, the price you charge will need
to be realistic for the amount of work you do and competitive with any local meat market offering a
slaughtering service.
Customer Relations
Understanding your customer’s wants and needs is one important aspect of good customer relations.
Discussing the customer’s expectations and requirements beforehand will eliminate misunderstandings as
you develop your business.
Identifying the animal to be slaughtered seems simple enough, but at times you may be responsible for
sorting out the animal to be killed. An owner may leave at the time of the kill, so the correct animal should
be separated from the rest of the group before proceeding or before the owners dismiss themselves from
the scene. Many do not like to stay to watch what happens next but will return when the killing is over.
The more animals you slaughter, the better you will become at it. One reason you may do more animals
is that small-scale farmers tend to have limited experience with the whole process. Also, as more urban
residents move into the countryside and raise animals, their level of expertise at slaughtering and
butchering animals is likely to be limited. Providing a good service will increase your business.

Home Meat Business

If you enjoy cutting up your own animals, you likely have the talent and knowledge to start a business at
your home. Your biggest costs likely will be for equipment that will make your work easier and more
uniform, a cooling appliance, and a work area where you can process the carcass safely, quickly, and
under sanitary conditions.
You should have a work area that is separate from your home or kitchen. Professional quarters will
assure potential customers that you are committed to providing a quality service. A spacious environment
that has been designed to include room for handling large carcasses, as well as refrigeration appliances,
will make cutting and cooling meat easy, where it would likely be more difficult if it was attempted in
your kitchen.
Your business plan may include constructing a structure that includes cold storage, a freezer, a meat
cutting room, a smoking room, and washing and toilet facilities. Plans for such structures may be
available through county agriculture extension offices or university animal science departments. You will
also need lighting, heat, water, counter space, cabinets, cutting tables, chairs, stools, a wrapping table,
and a ceiling rail for hanging and moving carcasses. Before beginning any construction, check local or
county ordinances and regulations that may apply to your situation. It is easier to obtain permits and make
changes while your plans are on paper rather than later when partial or full construction has been
completed. It may be a good plan to construct a building that is larger than needed at the beginning,
especially if you are committed to a long-term business. It is easier and more cost-effective in the long
term to construct a larger structure at the beginning rather than remodeling and expanding later. A basic
rectangular structure measuring 24×26 feet will provide sufficient area for creating separate rooms for
specific purposes.
Your worktable should be sturdy, of an appropriate height for ease of cutting, and made from material that is easy to clean. It should be large
enough to hold a half carcass of beef at one time. A cutting-board top prevents your knives from becoming dull.
A sturdy bar trolley with a V-rack attachment can be adapted for use with different-sized animals. The V-rack can be removed and placed on
the floor for use with pigs, goats, sheep, veal, and deer. With rollers attached to the trolley, it can be easily moved.
Any home-butchering business should have an adjustable gambrel with hooks. Being width adjustable will give it flexibility to be used with
different-sized animals.
Stainless-steel gambrels can be used for lambs, goats, pigs, and deer. They are not adjustable, but they are sturdy for use with smaller-sized
animals.

The roof rafters and ceiling should be built strong enough to carry the weight of several carcasses,
particularly in the cooler. You should construct a rail system that allows you to easily move hanging
carcasses from the cooler to the cutting table. You will need to install hanging scales for weighing
carcasses. The floor should be concrete, and the walls and ceilings should be built from materials that are
easily cleaned. There must be a potable water supply of hot and cold running water.
It is a good idea to have a floor that slopes slightly to a drain to allow for easy floor washing. You will
have to address the final disposition of where the water drains after leaving the building. You may create
a separate septic pit that can be pumped out, but the water from this building should not be connected to
the septic system of your residence.

Space Requirements
The largest carcasses you will likely work with are beef or, perhaps in some cases, bison. Using a beef
carcass to determine the square footage of a structure will generally provide adequate space to move most
large animal carcasses. It will also allow you to determine the number of smaller carcasses you can
handle in the same space, such as deer, pigs, or lambs.
As a rule, you will need approximately 12 square feet of ceiling space per beef carcass. Ceiling space
is used for this calculation because you will be hanging the carcass from the ceiling, and each carcass half
will require a hook. You will also need to be able to space them apart to avoid possible contamination
between carcasses.
Cooler
The cooler is the most important room in your building and should be kept between 36 to 38 degrees
Fahrenheit when in use. The importance of quickly cooling a carcass after slaughter was discussed
elsewhere in this book. A cooler that measures 8×16 feet should allow enough room to hang up to ten beef
carcasses. The room should reach and be maintained at those temperatures before any carcasses are
brought in for cooling.

Freezer
A freezer will be needed to quick freeze wrapped packages of meat to a temperature of minus 20 degrees
Fahrenheit. The freezer size will depend on the amount of meat needing to be frozen at one time or stored
until customer pickup.
Generally, it requires about 50 cubic feet of freezer space for the meat cut from one beef carcass. Be
aware that as freezer units increase in size, so does their construction cost and subsequent maintenance
costs. A small unit is the most economical, and you should install only what you need.

Cutting Room
The cutting room is where you will cut up the carcasses, wrap the meat, grind hamburger, and make
sausage. It needs to be large enough to accommodate the floor equipment you’ll need, such as a band saw,
grinder, cutting and wrapping tables, and room to maneuver a hanging carcass from a ceiling rail to cutting
table. Cutting up meat in cramped quarters may not be an ideal situation for you. Also, having windows
that allow in natural light should eliminate or minimize any claustrophobic effects. However, avoid
southern light exposure to the cutting room, as this may increase the temperature through solar heating.
Stainless-steel trays can be used to place internal organs, such as kidneys, livers, hearts, and lungs, on for later work. With rollers attached to
its base, the tray can be easily moved from workspace to cooler.
Barrels or tubs can be used to collect unusable parts including hooves, legs, hides, heads, and other unwanted body parts. They should be
washed before and after use as should the floors and walls. Have a good supply of hot and cold water available.
An accurate scale is necessary for packaging your customer’s meat or weighing out spices or ingredients for sausage making. Some models
have printers embedded within them that can be programmed to print labels for different cuts.
A wrapping paper roll can be attached to the underside of the table where you package the meat cuts. It has an edge for tearing the required
amount of paper needed.

A wood table that measures 8×3 feet will allow enough room to lay out a carcass to begin the primal
cuts. It also allows room to lay out any knives and saws needed.
A separate wrapping table should be used for packaging the meat cuts. It can also provide space for a
meat scale to weigh packages, wrapping paper rolls, meat stamping pads to identify cuts within the
packages, wire baskets to place packages in, a tenderizer to score minute steaks, and a meat grinder or
sausage stuffing machine. Depending on their size, the grinder and sausage stuffer can be placed on
separate tables in another area of the room if needed. Be sure to buy only equipment with safety features
to avoid accidents. All tables should be sturdy, made of materials that are easy to wash and sanitize, and
have smooth surfaces to avoid depressions, which may harbor bacteria.
It is likely that your state will require an inspection of your facility before you can begin a business
processing meat not exclusively for home use. State inspectors can provide guidelines for their
requirements, and you should check with them about those and any licenses or permits that may be
required.
If you are only offering a home butchering service, your customers will bring their carcasses to your
facility. Carefully inspect the carcass before you accept it to determine if it has been bruised or damaged,
that it appears to have come from a healthy animal, and that the meat has not soured or appears spoiled
before it arrived. Discuss any concerns you may have with your customer before they leave. Once you
have accepted the carcass for processing, you will likely be held responsible for any quality issues that
may arise later, even if you were not at fault.

Seasonal Variation
The volume of your business may vary with the seasons. Traditionally, fall tended to be the time when
most home butchering was done. This was for several reasons, including the animals were fatter and
gained weight during the lush spring and summer growing periods, and the cooler temperatures made it
easier to keep the meat from spoiling. Refrigeration has helped alter that, and animals are usually
slaughtered when they reach target weights rather than at the end of the growing season. Butchering can be
a yearlong business.

Overwrap machines will offer flexibility in your packaging plans. They can be used for all kinds of cuts and seal the packages to minimize air
exposure and increase shelf life. Vacuum packaging will further increase shelf life.

Income Example
While a number of factors will influence your potential income, you can use some assumptions to
determine what that income level might be in developing your business plan. Below is only one example
that may or may not fit your particular situation. However, the formula still can be used for the different
variables and prices you decide to apply.
Let’s assume that you can cut up twenty-five beef, fifty hogs, and fifteen midsize animals, such as
lambs, goats, and deer. If you have a beef carcass to weigh 500 pounds, pigs at 150 pounds, and lambs at
50 pounds, you have 20,750 pounds of meat. Say you charge 30 cents per pound for cutting, wrapping, and
freezing. This amounts to $6,225.00 gross income. This will need to cover expenses including electricity
bills, which may be large because of the cooler and freezer.
You may be able to expand your business to include poultry and other fowl, as well as other animals
used for meat mentioned elsewhere. Developing a work schedule that keeps you busy will increase your
gross income. Days not butchering or slaughtering are days when income is not generated.
Butchering is a labor-intensive business, and you should be prepared for a lot of handling and lifting.
However, using good equipment, keeping good records, and communicating with your customers may lead
to a satisfying and rewarding business venture.
Heavy string has many uses, including tying boneless roasts and trussing dressed birds and small game. The string should be kept in a clean,
sealed container until used.
GLOSSARY
Aging: The time process involved that causes a maturing or ripening of meat enzymes that increase flavor and has a tenderizing effect.

Aitchbone: The rump bone

Anterior to: Toward the front of the carcass, or forward of.

Antioxidant: A substance that slows down the oxidation of oils and fats and helps check deterioration.

Backstrap: Connective tissue composed of elastin that is found in the neck. In most animals the backstrap is inedible.

Blade meat: An inedible, yellowish-colored connective tissue composed of elastin running from the neck through the rib region of beef, veal,
and lambs, and also the base of the ribs.

Bone-in cuts: Meat cuts that contain parts of bone.

Bruising: An injury that does not break the skin but causes discoloration in the muscle.

Butterfly: To split steaks, chops, cutlets, and roasts in half, leaving halves hinged on one side.

Carcass weight: The weight of the carcass after all the butchering procedures have been completed.

Collagen: A fibrous protein found in connective tissue, bone, and cartilage.

Creatine phosphates: Amino acid molecules that are an important energy store in skeletal muscles and the brain.

Cubed: Refers to the process of tenderization using a machine with two sets of sharp pointed disks that score or cut muscle fibers without
tearing.

Cure: Any process to preserve meats or fish by salting or smoking, which may be aided with preservative substances.

Cutting yield: The proportion of the weight that is a salable product after trimming and subdivision.

Dorsal to: Toward the back of the carcass, upper or top line.

Dressing percentage: The proportion of the live weight that remains in the carcass of an animal, sometimes referred to as yield. It is
calculated as: carcass weight ÷ live weight x 100 = dressing percentage.

Elastin: A yellow, fibrous protein that is the basic constituent of elastic connective tissue, as in a lung or artery.

Epimysium: The sheath of connective tissue surrounding a muscle.

Fabrication: The deconstruction of the whole carcass into smaller, more easily used cuts.

Fillet: To slice meat from bones or other cuts.

Forequarter: The anterior portion of a beef side, including ribs one through twelve.

Foresaddle: Unsplit forequarter of a veal or lamb carcass.

Freezer burn: Discoloration of meat due to loss of moisture and oxidation in freezer-stored meats.

Fright or flight response: A behavioral reaction by animals to a stressful or threatening situation that increases heart, lung, and muscle
activity.

Gambrel: A frame shaped like a horse’s hind leg, used by butchers for hanging carcasses.

Glycogen: A polysaccharide produced and stored in animal tissue, especially in the liver and muscle, and changed into glucose as the body
needs it.

Grade: A designation that indicates quality or yield of meat based on standards set by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Herbivores: An animal that feeds mainly on grass and plants.

Hindquarter: The posterior portion of the beef side that remains after the removal at the twelfth rib forequarter.
Hindsaddle: Unsplit hindquarter of a veal or lamb carcass.

Intoxication: When microbes produce a toxin that is subsequently eaten and sickness results in humans.

Lactic acid: An organic acid produced by the fermentation of lactose by certain microorganisms.

Leaf fat: Fat lining found along the abdominal wall in pork, commonly called kidney fat in beef and lambs.

Live weight: The weight of the live animal at the time of purchase or the time of harvest.

Marbling: The streaks and veins of fat interlacing meat cuts.

Muscle pH: The acidity or alkaline level in the muscle. It generally declines after harvest and the rate of decline is an important factor
affecting meat quality.

Mutton: Meat from mature sheep carcasses that are usually identified by the absence of break joints.

Oleic acids: An oily, unsaturated fatty acid present in most animal and vegetable fats and oils

Omega-3: A family of unsaturated fatty acids that appear to have healthy benefits in diets.

Omega-6: A family of unsaturated fatty acids that may increase the probability of a number of diseases and depression.

Omnivores: A person or animal that eats food from plant or animal sources.

Palmitic acid: A colorless, crystalline, saturated fatty acid found in animal fats and oils.

Parturition: The act of bringing forth a young offspring; birthing.

Perimysium: Connective tissue covering and holding together bundles of muscle fibers.

Petcock: A small faucet or valve for releasing gas or air or draining.

Porcine stress syndrome (PSS): A term that covers a group of conditions associated with a recessive gene in pigs that causes acute stress
and sudden death.

Posterior to: Toward the rear of the carcass; behind.

Primal or wholesale cuts: The large subdivisions of the carcass that are traded in volume by segments of the meat industry.

Render: To melt down the fat.

Retail cuts: The subdivisions of wholesale cuts or carcasses that are sold to consumers in ready-to-cook or ready-to-eat forms.

Rigor mortis: The progressive stiffening of muscles that occurs several hours after death as a result of the coagulation of the muscle
proteins.

Salt pork: Pork cured in salt, especially fatty pork from the back, side, or belly of a pig, often used as a cooking aid.

Side: One matched forequarter and hindquarter, or one-half of a meat animal carcass.

Shrinkage: The weight loss that may occur throughout the processing sequence. It may happen due to moisture or tissue loss from both the
fresh and the processed product.

Silver skin: The thin, white, opaque layer of connective tissue found on certain cuts of meats, usually inedible.

Subprimal cuts: The subdivisions of the wholesale or primal cuts that are made to make handling easier and reduce the variability within a
single cut.

Yield: The portion of the original weight that remains following any processing or handling procedure in the meat-selling sequence. It is usually
quoted in percentages and may be cited as shrinkage.
METRIC EQUIVALENTS AND CONVERSION
Conversions between US and metric measurements will be somewhat inexact. It’s important to convert the measurements for all of the
ingredients in a recipe to maintain the same proportions as the original.

General Formula for Metric Conversion

Ounces to grams
multiply ounces by 28.35
Grams to ounces
multiply grams by 0.035
Pounds to grams
multiply pounds by 453.5
Pounds to kilograms
multiply pounds by 0.45
Cups to liters
multiply cups by 0.24
Fahrenheit to Celsius
subtract 32 from Fahrenheit
temperature, multiply by 5, then
divide by 9
Celsius to Fahrenheit
multiply Celsius temperature by 9,
divide by 2, then add 32

Approximate Metric Equivalents by Volume

US Metric
1 teaspoon 5 milliliters
1 tablespoon 15 milliliters
1/4 cup 60 milliliters
1/2 cup 120 milliliters
1 cup 230 milliliters
11/2 cups 360 milliliters
2 cups 460 milliliters
4 cups (1 quart) 0.95 liters
1.06 quarts 1 liter
4 quarts (1 gallon) 3.8 liters

Approximate Metric Equivalents by Weight

US Metric
0.035 ounce 1 gram
1/4 ounce 7 grams
1/2 ounce 14 grams
1 ounce 28 grams
16 ounces (1 pound) 454 grams
1.1 pounds 500 grams
2.2 pounds 1 kilogram

Metric US
1 gram 0.035 ounce
50 grams 1.75 ounces
100 grams 3.5 ounces
500 grams 1.1 pounds
1 kilogram (1000 g.) 2.2 pounds

Weight Conversion of Common Ingredients

1 pound salt = 11/2 cups
1 ounce salt = 2 tablespoons
1 pound sugar = 21/4 cups
1 ounce cure = 11/2 tablespoons

Conversion from Ounces to Tablespoons

1/4 ounce = 11/4 tablespoons
1/2 ounce = 21/2 tablespoons
3/4 ounce = 33/4 tablespoons
1 ounce = 5 tablespoons
2 ounces = 10 tablespoons
3 ounces = 15 tablespoons
4 ounces = 20 tablespoons

Equivalent Measures and Weights

3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon
4 tablespoons = 1/4 cup
16 tablespoons = 1 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
4 cups = 1 quart
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
16 ounces = 1 pound
INDEX
antelope, 140, 141, 145, 154, 158, 159
aprons, 35

bacteria, 20
bar trolley and V-rack, 258
bear, 160, see also deer
beef cattle, 10, 14, 17, 36, 62
aging, 49
anatomy, 19, 50
beef jerky, 245
chilling, 49
choosing animal, 39
cuts, 50
brisket, 50, 53, 55, 67, 62
chuck, 50, 52, 65
flank, 56, 67
loin, 56, 59
plate, 50, 51, 55, 67
ribs, 50, 64
round, 56, 65, 201
rump, 59, 65
shank, 50
cutting the carcass, 50
dried beef, 202
eviscerating, 46
handling live, 38
killing, 39
lifting carcass, 44, 46
removing hide, 44
removing legs, 43
removing the head, 42
splitting, 48
sticking, 40
big game
hunting, 141, 142
safety, 142, 143
bighorn sheep, 140, 141, 154
bison, 61, 71, see also beef cattle
blood, 190
bone scraper, 82
bull meat, 235
business, starting your own, 253
business plan, 255
customer relations, 257
equipment, 256
experience, 255
fees, 257
home, 254, 258
space needed, 259
income example, 263
licenses, 256
mobile, 254, 256
seasonal variation, 262
canning, 191
catch barrel/pan, 35, 40, 41, 76
catch chute, 240
charcoal grill, 203
chest freezer, 49
chickens, 14, 17, 22, 93, 114, 131
before harvest, 119
bleeding, 120
butchering setup, 117
chilling and packaging, 125
choosing animal, 116
cooling, 124
cured and smoked, 203
cuts, 125
breasts, 126
legs, thighs, drumsticks, 126
tail, 126
wings, 126
eviscerating, 124
handling live, 119
killing, 119
laying hens vs. meat hens, 116
organs, 124
plucking feathers, 122
purchasing, 116
raising, 116
scalding, 121
skinning, 125
chopping block, 118, 119
collagen, 16
compression gun, 40
cooking methods, 196
cooler, 49, 261
cows, see beef cattle
cradle, 43, 76
curing (salting), 192, 199
cuts of meat
identification, 25
retail, 24
wholesale, 23
cutting room, 261
cutting surfaces, 34

debraining, 123
deer, 140, 155, 158, 159
anatomy, 142, 143
bleeding, 143
carcass disposition, 145
cuts, 151
cutting carcass, 149
field dressing, 143
head mounting, 148
meat volume, 154
moving carcass, 148
mutilated areas, 154
skinning, 146
drop pan on wheels, 252
drying, 192, 201
dry-plucking feathers, 123
ducks, 11, 17, 129, 132, 134, see also chickens
Dutch oven, 206

electric stunner, 257

elk, 140, 145, 150, 154, 155, 159, 161, see also deer
emus, 129, see also chickens

fats, 190
fish, 21, 163, 174, 182
cleaning 174
fisting, 77
freezer, 261
freezing, 191, 192, 193
frogs, 173, 181
fungi, 20

gallbladder, 186
gambrel, 101, 243
game birds, 130, see also chickens
geese, 11, 129, 132, 133, see also chickens
gloves, 35
chain-mail, 76
goats, 6, 73, 74, see also sheep
grass-fed vs. grain-fed, 14, 16
grinding knives, 31
guinea fowl, 129, see also chickens

hair scraper, 97, 101

hares, 162
heart, 188
heating coil, 118
hoist, 76, 98
honing knives, 32

intestines, 189

jugging, 192

kidney, 188, 189

knife steels, 33
knives, 26
blades, 30
boning, 29, 97, 118
breaking, 29
butcher, 30, 97, 118
care of, 34
choosing, 28
cleaver, 30
electric, 30
fillet, 29, 30, 176
folding, 30, 31, 118
hunting, 31, 164
sharpening, 31, 97
skinning, 26, 30, 75, 97
sticking, 29, 97
storing, 34
testing blade, 33
 trimming, 29

lamb, see sheep

liver, 186, 188

marbling, 14, 16
meat byproducts, 186
meat grinder, 97, 238
meat hook, 26, 97
meat needles, 97
meat quality, 18
animals to avoid slaughtering, 18
meat saw, 26, 30, 97
meat shears, 118
microbes, 22
microorganisms, 20
moose, 140, 141, 150, 154, 155, 159, 160, see also deer
muscle types, 15
muskrat, 172

opossum, 171, 179

ostriches, 129, see also chickens
overwrap machine, 247
oxidation, 15, 60
oxtail, 189

parasites, 21, 96
pH of meat, 17, 23
pheasants, 11, 129, 130, 138, see also chickens
pickling, 192, 193
pigeon, 138, 139
pigmentation of meat, 16
pigs (pork), 12, 14, 17, 18, 21, 92, 230
anatomy, 18, 107
bacon, 209
before harvest, 97
chilling, 105
choosing animal, 96
cooking recommendations, 96
cuts, 94, 105
belly or sides (bacon and spareribs), 94, 95, 109
Boston butt (shoulder butt), 94, 106
ham, 94, 95, 106, 111, 209, 212
loin (chops, roasts, baby back ribs, tenderloin), 94, 108
picnic shoulder, 94, 106
trimmings, 95
eating raw, 96
eviscerating, 103
hanging, 101
removing head, 102
scalding, 97, 100
scraping, 101
skinning, 97, 99
smoking, 211
splitting the backbone, 105
splitting the carcass, 102
sticking (killing), 97
 three eras of pork, 93
porcine distress syndrome, 18
potassium nitrite, 202, 235
preservation, 191
pressure cooker, 194, 195
propane tank, 118

rabbits, 162, 164, 177, 178

cutting carcass, 166
eviscerating, 165
skinning, 165
tips, 164
raccoons, 180, 163, 168
butchering, 168
pelts, 168

safety
grinding knives, 32
handling meat, 20
knives, 28
moisture, 21
temperature, 21
time, 21
tips, 228
sausage funnel/horn, 239, 241
sausage stuffer, 238
sausages, 225
binders/extenders, 233
casings, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 236, 238
cooked and smoked, 212
dry and semidry, 229
fresh, 226
game meat, 231
ingredients, 232
other types, 231
sanitation, 242
specialty, 230
spices/seasonings/flavorings, 233
venison, 231
scalding tank, 97, 100, 118, 119
scales, 241
sharpening steel, 118
sheep, 6, 14, 15, 17, 72
before harvest, 74
choosing animal, 74
cuts, 80
breast, 81, 82, 87
flank, 81, 83
foreshank, 80, 87
hindshank, 84, 85
leg, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86
loin, 80, 81, 83
rack (ribs), 80, 86, 87
shoulder, 80
eviscerating, 79
handling live, 75
killing, 75, 76
skinning, 76
small game
considerations, 176
hunting, 163
smokehouse, 220
frame or concrete, 221
smokers
barrel, 205, 217
electrical, 216
vertical water, 215
smoking meat, 198, 205, 211, 219
health considerations, 221
snakes, 172
sodium nitrite, 201, 233, 235, 241
squab, 138, 139
squirrels, 162, 168, 178, 179
butchering, 168
steeling knives, 31, 33
stomach (tripe), 189
stunning gun, 39, 40, 76, 257

thermometer, 207, 215, 216, 241

calibrating, 208
tongue, 188, 189
toxins, 20
tripe, 189
turkeys, 123, 125, 133, see also chickens
turtles, 172, 181
anatomy, 173

veal, 37, 61, 68, see also beef cattle

anatomy, 61
classifications, 61
venison, 156, 213, 230
viruses, 21

weasand rod, 46
wild game, 135
winch, 40, 41
wrapping, 197
Recipes
Baked Corned Beef Hash, 63
Baked Ham, 111
Baked Walleye and Ratatouille, 183
Barbecued Lamb, 90
Bear Stew, 160
Beef Jerky, 229
Beef Pot Roast, 65
Beef Stew with Dumplings, 67
Beef Summer Sausage, 250
Big Game Baked Round Steak, 159
Bison Meatloaf, 71
Blood Sausage, 248
Boiled Corned Beef, 63
Boiled Pigs’ Feet, 112
Braised Duck, 134
Braised Leg of Lamb or Mutton, 89
Braised Oxtail, 64
Braised Short Ribs, 64
Braunschweiger, 247
Bread Stuffing, 139
Brisket of Beef, 62
Broiled Birds (wild game), 135
Broiled Lamb Patties, 88
Broiled Squab, 139
Brunswick Stew, 179

Chicken and Dumplings, 131

Corned Beef, 62
Cranberry Braised Raccoon, 180
Creamy Northern Pike Casserole, 185

Doves or Quail in Cornbread Stuffing, 136

Dried Beef, 246

Elk Tenderloin Sauté, 161

Emulsified Products, 251

Fillet Mignon, 69
Fillet of Venison, Moose, Antelope, or Elk, 159
Fresh Pork Sausage, 249
Fried Chicken, 131
Fried Frog Legs, 181

Glazes (pork), 113

Haggis, 231
Hasenpfeffer, 178
Headcheese, 113

Italian Hot Sausage, 248

Lamb Stew, 90
Moose Roast, 160

Opossum, 179
Oxtail Soup, 65

Peppered Antelope Roast, 158

Pigeon and Mushroom Stew, 139
Pigs’ Knuckles and Sauerkraut, 112
Polish Sausage, 250
Pork Tenderloin, 112
Potato Sausage, 233

Raccoon, 180
Roast Beef with Yorkshire Pudding, 67
Roast Canadian Goose, 133
Roast Chicken, 131
Roast Duck, 132
Roast Goose, 132
Roast Leg of Lamb, 88
Roast Leg of Venison, 156
Roast Pheasant with Saukerkraut, 138
Roast Rabbit, 177
Roast Spareribs, 110
Roast Turkey, 133
Roast Wild Duck, 134
Roasted Birds (wild game), 135
Roasting Big Game, 155

Salamis of Goose, 132

Salmon Quiche, 182
Salmon Salad, 183
Sauerbraten, 66
Sautéed Partridge Breast with Figs, 136
Shepherd’s Pie, 89
Smoked Beef Tongue, 70
Smoked Bratwurst, 235
Spanish Sauce, 71
Squirrel, 178
Stewed Partridge with Sage Dumplings, 137
Stuffed Pork Chops, 111
Sweet Italian Sausage, 246
Swiss Steaks, 66

Tomato-Baked Walleye Fillets, 184

Turtle Ragout, 181
Turtle Soup, 181

using leftovers, 91

Veal Birds, 68
Veal Cutlets with Cream Gravy, 70
Venison and Beans, 157
Venison Breakfast Sausage, 157
Venison Steak, 156
Wiener Schnitzel, 69

Yorkshire Pudding, 68
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank my wife, Mary, for her constant support. Her comments and suggestions helped improve
this book from beginning to end.
Our son, Marcus, did the photography for this, his fourth book for Voyageur Press. He and our daughter,
Julia, were active 4-H and FFA members—a great satisfaction for their parents.
A sincere thank you to two men with whom I became friends over the course of the five months I
worked with them: Dr. Jeff Sindelar and Ronald Russell.
Dr. Jeff Sindelar is an assistant professor and extension meat specialist at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison. I appreciate his assistance, critiques, and interest in this project.
Ronald Russell, senior lecturer at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, is actively involved in
teaching and as coach for the UW–Madison Meat-Animal Evaluation Team.
Both gave freely of their time, expertise, and experience, and both provided a pleasant atmosphere in
which to observe their interaction with students. Without their help, this book would have a much different
appearance.
Jonathan Campbell, an extension program specialist at Iowa State University, conducted an excellent
seminar in carcass fabrication, which he allowed me to attend. His knowledge and easy explanations to
my questions were most appreciated.
Several other people deserve my thanks for their assistance to my request for help. They include Oris
Dilley, Bill and Tara Kindschi, and Tom and Virginia Kraft.
Jerry and Ruth Apps have been friends and mentors for many years and have always taken an interest
in my writing. Their initial encouragement and recommendation was the catalyst for me to write this
fourth book for Voyageur Press. A simple thank you does not adequately convey my gratitude.
A special thank you to my editor, Margret Aldrich, who stepped in to shepherd this book to completion
with the assistance of Kari Cornell. Also, a thank you to Leah Noel for her close attention to the
manuscript and identifying points to strengthen it.
 About the Author
Philip Hasheider is a fifth-generation farmer raising pasture-grazed livestock with his wife and two
children near Sauk City, Wisconsin. A former cheesemaker’s assistant, his interests in agriculture and
history have led him to write eleven books, including Voyageur Press’ The Hunter’s Guide to Butchering,
Smoking, and Curing Wild Game and Fish; The Complete Book of Jerky; and The Complete Book of
Pork Butchering, Smoking, Curing, Sausage Making, and Cooking. He has also penned how-to books
for raising livestock, which include How to Raise Pigs and How to Raise Cattle. Hasheider has written
numerous articles for national and international dairy breed publications, and his diverse work has
appeared in the Wisconsin Academy Review, the Capital Times, Wisconsin State Journal, Sickle &
Sheaf, and Old Sauk Trails.
 Dedication
This book is dedicated to my grandfather, Herbert Hasheider, who first exposed me to the
butchering process and taught me the basics at a very young age. He made the best dried beef
I’ve ever tasted.
© 2017 Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
Text © 2017 Philip Hasheider

Photography © 2017 Philip Hasheider except where noted

First published in 2010 by Voyageur Press, an imprint of The Quarto Group, 401 Second Avenue North, Suite 310, Minneapolis, MN 55401
USA. Telephone: (612) 344-8100 Fax: (612) 344-8692

QuartoKnows.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owners. All images in this
book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer,
publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to
ensure that credits accurately comply with information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve
inaccurate or missing information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.

Voyageur Press titles are also available at discount for retail, wholesale, promotional, and bulk purchase. For details, contact the Special Sales
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310, Minneapolis, MN 55401 USA.

Digital edition: 978-0-76036-466-6

Softcover edition: 978-0-76035-449-0

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hasheider, Philip, 1951-

The complete book of butchering, smoking, curing, and sausage making : how to harvest your livestock & wild game / Philip Hasheider. — 1st
ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-7603-3782-0 (flexibound)
1. Slaughtering and slaughter-houses. 2. Meat—Preservation. 3. Cookery
(Sausages) I. Title.
TS1960.H37 2010
664’.902—dc22

2010002969

Acquiring Editor: Thom O’Hearn

Project Manager: Leah Noel, Jordan Wiklund
Art Director: LeAnn Kuhlmann, Cindy Laun
Cover Designer: Matthew Simmons
Layout: Chris Fayers, Kazuko Collins