PSO Manual PRINT FINAL 20161109 One Page PDF

MANUAL FOR
INDUSTRIAL PUMP SYSTEMS

ASSESSMENT AND OPTIMIZATION
UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION

Manual for Industrial Pump Systems Assessment and Optimization
Copyright © United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2016
This publication and any part thereof may be freely quoted and reprinted in any form for educational or non‑profit
purposes, without special permission from the copyright holder, but acknowledgement of the source is requested.
UNIDO would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication containing a quotation or reprint.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior
permission in writing from the United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information within this Manual, neither UNIDO
nor the authors or contributors assume any legal liability or responsibility for consequences that may arise from
the use of the Manual.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer,
or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement or recommendation by UNIDO. The views
and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of UNIDO.
2
Foreword
Energy is a fundamental prerequisite for development and economic

activity. It is evident, however, that current energy supply and con‑
sumption patterns are environmentally unsustainable and must be
improved. UNIDO’s mandate to promote Inclusive and Sustainable
Industrial Development (ISID) aims, inter alia, at decoupling indus‑
trial development from unsustainable resource usage and negative
environmental impacts. Through ISID, UNIDO is also aligned with the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – including SDG 9 (“Build
resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrial‑
ization, and foster innovation”) and SDG 7 (“Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustaina‑
ble and modern energy for all”).
As the developing world gradually embarks on industrial growth and participation in global
trade, rising energy costs and the foreseen sizeable increase in energy demand make energy
efficiency a definite priority. On the one hand, energy efficiency makes good business sense,
as it entails cost savings and improvements by optimizing the use of resources and reducing
waste. On the other hand, energy efficiency contributes to mitigating the negative impact
of energy use and consumption on the environment, both at local and global level; a more
resource-conscious approach allows more to be done with less. Among further benefits,
energy efficiency leads to improved energy performance, increased operational reliability,
strengthened security of supply, and reduced energy price volatility.
Industry is responsible for about a third of global CO2 emissions. If the world is to meet
the climate change mitigation goals set by the international community, industry needs
to substantially increase its energy efficiency, and progressively switch to low-carbon and
low‑emission technologies, including renewable sources of energy.
UNIDO provides a variety of tools to address the immediate challenge of implementing the
best available policies, technologies and practices for industrial energy efficiency through
knowledge sharing, capacity building, demonstrations, investments and partnerships.
UNIDO helps raise the business potential of industry by introducing and enhancing energy
management practices and accounting methods. The present Manual for Industrial Pump
Systems Assessment and Optimization seeks to provide direction and support to companies
seeking to optimize their existing pump systems and an additional knowledge resource for
industrial energy efficiency service providers.
LI Yong
Director General
3
Acknowledgments
This publication was prepared by the UNIDO Industrial Energy Efficiency Division with the
financial contribution of the State Secretariat for Economic Affairs of the Swiss Confederation
(SECO), the Department for International Development (DFID) of the Government of the
United Kingdom, the Department of Energy and the Department of Trade and Industry of the
Republic of South Africa and the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
Marco Matteini was the project lead and had the overall responsibility for the design and
development of this publication. Pradeep Monga, Director of UNIDO Energy Department,
provided essential leadership and inspiration during the whole project.
This Manual for Industrial Pump Systems Assessment and Optimization was authored by
Gunnar Hovstadius (Gunnar Hovstadius Consulting) and Steven Bolles (Process Energy
Services). Many individuals, organizations, industrial plants and programs contributed
significantly and shared valuable resources, time and effort in developing this Manual.
UNIDO and the authors express their sincere gratitude to all of them and in particular to
Aimee McKane (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) and Vestal Tutterow (Alliance to
Save Energy). Special gratitude is expressed to the following organizations, which provided
material used in this manual: U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Hydraulic Institute, Pumps and Pumping by Skeet Arasmith, ACR Publications and Centrifugal
Pumps, Karassik & McGuire, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Special thanks must also go to Don
Casada (Diagnostic Solutions) who developed the PSAT software referred to and presented
in this manual.
The manual has been peer reviewed by Stephen Schofield (British Pump Manufacturers
Association) and Anibal De Almeida (ISR University of Coimbra).
Khac Tiep Nguyen, James New, Bettina Schreck, Sanjaya Shrestha and Rana Ghoneim from
the UNIDO Industrial Energy Efficiency Division provided valuable support during the entire
development process. The authors and project lead would finally like to thank Oksana
Pavliska and Egbert Mentzingen for editing the manuscript and providing constant support
during its preparation.
4
About UNIDO
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) is a specialized agency of

the United Nations. Its mandate is to promote and accelerate sustainable industrial develop‑
ment in developing countries and economies in transition and work towards improving living
conditions in the world’s poorest countries by drawing on its combined global resources and
expertise. Since the 2013 Lima Declaration, UNIDO has embarked on a new vision towards
Inclusive and Sustainable Industrial Development (ISID) with the purpose of creating shared
prosperity for all as well as safeguarding the environment. Furthermore, through ISID, UNIDO
addresses all three dimensions of sustainable development: social equality, economic
growth and environmental protection. As a result, UNIDO has assumed an enhanced role in
the global development agenda by focusing its activities on poverty reduction, inclusive glo‑
balization and environmental sustainability.
UNIDO services are based on two core fonctions: as a global forum, it generates and dissem‑
inates industry-related knowledge; as a technical co-operation agency, it provides technical
support and implements projects.
UNIDO focuses on three main programmatic areas in which it seeks to achieve long-term impact:
• Advancing economic competitiveness

• Creating shared prosperity
• Safeguarding the environment
About UNIDO Industrial Energy Efficiency Programme

The UNIDO Industrial Energy Efficiency (IEE) Programme builds on more than three decades
of experience and unique expertise in the field of industrial development and technology
transfer. It represents a pillar of the Green Industry model that UNIDO promotes. Combining
the provision of policy and normative development support services and capacity building for
all market players, UNIDO aims at removing the key barriers to energy efficiency improvement
in industries and ultimately transforming the market for industrial energy efficiency.
The UNIDO IEE Programme is structured around the following thematic areas:
• Policies and standards – strengthening policy and regulatory frameworks for more
sustainable and efficient energy performance in industry.
• Energy management and efficient operation – integrating energy efficiency in day-to-day
operations to save energy and reduce GHG emissions.
• Energy efficiency design and manufacturing – accelerating the adoption of new technologies
and best practices.
5
About the UNIDO Pump Systems Optimization (PSO) Programme

The UNIDO Pump Systems Optimization (PSO) Capacity Building and Implementation Programme
consists of three elements: an EXPERT Training, USER Training and a VENDOR Workshop.
The PSO USER Training is targeted at facility engineers, operators and maintenance staff of
enterprises, equipment vendors and service providers. It is designed to teach how to assess
industrial pump systems, identify opportunities for performance improvements and achieve
energy/cost savings through proper operation and control, system maintenance, and the
appropriate use of pumps.
The PSO EXPERT Training is an intensive training delivered by leading international Pump
Systems Optimization experts to national energy efficiency experts, service providers, equip‑
ment vendors and industry engineers. This training provides more in-depth technical infor‑
mation on assessing performance, troubleshooting and making improvements to industrial
pump systems. This training also introduces basic principles for energy efficient design of
pump systems and how to successfully sell pump systems improvement projects to man‑
agement. National EE experts are trained through classroom, on-the-job and coaching by
international PSO experts and equipped with expertise, skills and tools (including measuring
equipment) required for providing the following services:
• Providing technical assistance to enterprises on pump systems energy assessment and

identification, development and implementation of optimization projects
• Conducting PSO USER training and coaching facility personnel for pump systems energy
assessment and optimization
The PSO VENDOR Workshop is targeted to local pumps and related equipment vendors,
suppliers and manufacturers. The workshop is designed to introduce these key market
players to PSO techniques and service offerings. The objectives are to:
• Prepare manufacturers, vendors and suppliers to participate in reinforcing the system opti‑
mization message of the UNIDO project with their industrial customers
• Assist manufacturers, vendors and suppliers in identifying what will be required to reshape
their market offerings to include or reflect a system services approach
The articulated process, built and managed by UNIDO within its PSO Capacity Building
and Implementation Programme, is a joint effort and partnership of international leading
specialists, national energy efficiency service providers and forward-looking industrial
enterprises coming together to deliver tangible energy, environmental and economic results,
while creating business and market opportunities for sustainable pump systems optimization
in industry and climate change mitigation. Figure A shows structure and standard schedule
of the UNIDO PSO EXPERT training programme.
The present manual is one of the knowledge and training resources used during the UNIDO
PSO programme and is made available to participants of the USER and EXPERT training.
6
Module 1 Module 2 Module 3
Day 5 Periodic communication

Day 2
Day 4
Day 1
Day 3
Day 6
between trainer and trainees EXAM
3-4 weeks 2-3 months 1-2 weeks Time
LEGEND EXPERT Trainees PSO Teams carry PSO TEAM

prepare out pump system
individual energy assessment National PSO
Classroom training taught by assessment in project partner
international PSO expert EXPERT trainees
report based on enterprises
measurements with remote
Pump System energy carried out technical support
assessment measurements and worked & supervision by
on-site (at one facility) taught done during International PSO
by international PSO expert the training. expert.
International PSO PSO Team = 1 Ent.
expert reviews + 1-2 Consultants
Periodic communication and provides
between trainer and trainees feedback Deliverable
through webinars, emails PSO assessment
and phone calls Deliverable report prepared Partner Enterprise
PSO assessment by enterprise PSO
report prepared teams and cleared
by each EXPERT by International
trainee PSO expert
© UNIDO 2016
Fig. A. Structure of the UNIDO Pump Systems Optimization EXPERT training programme
7
Table of contents
Foreword ..................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................4
About UNIDO................................................................................................................ 5
About UNIDO Industrial Energy Efficiency Programme....................................................5
About the UNIDO Pump Systems Optimization (PSO) Programme..................................6
Table of contents......................................................................................................8
1. Pump SystemS Optimization & Prescreening....................................................11
1.1. General............................................................................................................... 12
1.2. Life Cycle Costs................................................................................................... 12
1.3. Prescreening....................................................................................................... 13
1.4. Key Learning Points............................................................................................. 14
2. Pump Systems and Process Demands............................................................... 15
2.1. General............................................................................................................... 15
2.2. System Boundaries............................................................................................ 16
2.3. Process Demand................................................................................................. 16
2.4. Duration Diagrams............................................................................................. 17
2.5. Key Learning Points............................................................................................ 18
3. Pump Types........................................................................................................... 19
3.1. General............................................................................................................... 19
3.2. Rotodynamic Pumps...........................................................................................20
3.3. Positive Displacement Pumps.............................................................................22
3.4. Key Points..........................................................................................................24
4. Basic Hydraulics................................................................................................. 25
4.1. General...............................................................................................................25
4.2. Fundamental Relationships................................................................................25
4.3. Fluid Flow...........................................................................................................25
4.4. Head..................................................................................................................26
4.5. System Curves....................................................................................................32
4.6. Key Learning Points............................................................................................ 33
4.7. Exercises............................................................................................................ 33
5. Understanding Pump Performance ................................................................. 35
5.1. General ............................................................................................................. 35
5.2. Pump Curves..................................................................................................... 35
5.3. Affinity Laws......................................................................................................36
5.4. Variable Speed Curves.......................................................................................36
5.5. Impeller Trimming.............................................................................................. 37
5.6. Pump Operating Point........................................................................................ 37
5.7. Pumps Connected in Parallel .............................................................................38
5.8. Pumps Connected in Series................................................................................38
5.9. Cavitation...........................................................................................................39
5.10. Key Learning Points............................................................................................40
5.11. Exercises............................................................................................................40
8
6. Pump Maintenance and Reliability..................................................................43
6.1. General..............................................................................................................43
6.2. Factors that influence Reliability ........................................................................44
6.3. Pump System Monitoring ...................................................................................50
6.5. Exercises............................................................................................................ 53
7. Pump System Energy Use................................................................................... 54
7.1. General...............................................................................................................54
7.2. Power Equations.................................................................................................54
7.3. Using the Power Equations ................................................................................. 55
7.4. Specific Energy................................................................................................... 55
7.5. Electric Utility Rate Schedules.............................................................................63
7.6. Key Learning Points.............................................................................................65
8. Motors................................................................................................................66
8.1. General............................................................................................................. 66
8.2. Asynchronous Induction Motors........................................................................ 66
8.3. Key Points.......................................................................................................... 71
9. Control Methods for Pumping Systems ........................................................ 72
9.1. Overview............................................................................................................72
9.2. Pump Control Strategies..................................................................................... 73
9.3. System Requirements.........................................................................................76
9.4. Understanding Variable Speed Drives.................................................................78
10. PSAT ProgramME Introduction.......................................................................84
10.1. Overview of PSAT Programme.............................................................................84
10.2. PSAT Features....................................................................................................85
10.3. PSAT Success Stories.........................................................................................85
11. ASME Pump Standard Introduction................................................................87
11.1. Overview of the ASME Pump Standard................................................................87
12. Field Inspecting and Data Collection.............................................................92
12.1. Preparation .......................................................................................................92
12.2. Data Collection Before Field Testing...................................................................92
12.3. Collecting Field Data..........................................................................................93
12.4. Key Learning Points......................................................................................... 109
13. Working with the Data.....................................................................................110
13.1. Overview ......................................................................................................... 110
13.2. Developing a System Curve.............................................................................. 110
14. Example Problem.............................................................................................. 113
14.1. System with a Problem Control Valve.................................................................113
15. Appendixes.........................................................................................................118
15.1. Appendix A: Prescreening Sheet....................................................................... 118
15.2. Appendix B: PSAT Manual................................................................................119
9
1
1. Pump SystemS Optimization &

Prescreening
1.1. General
From studies carried out by the European Commission it was shown that pumping systems
account for about 22% of the worlds electric motor energy demand as shown in Figure 1.1.
Fans 16%
Other
Equipment 35%
Air
Compresor 18%
Compressors 18%
Cooling
Compressor 7%
Compressors 7%
Conveyors 2%
Pumps 22%
Fig. 1.1. System components
The large amounts of energy used for pumping makes pump systems a major candidate for
energy savings. Of the energy used for pumping, about 75% is used for centrifugal pumps
and the remaining 25% for positive displacement pumps.
Over the years pump performance has been improved through optimized design and improved
manufacturing techniques, however, the efficiency of a centrifugal pump is very sensitive
to where it is being operated on its curve. When a pump has not been matched to system
requirements significant savings can be realized through pump systems optimization.
11
1.2. Life Cycle Costs

Pump systems optimization starts with a detailed review of all pump system costs to evaluate
the true cost of pumping over the life of the equipment. The initial purchase price of a pump
is a small part of the total life cycle costs (LCC) that includes maintenance, installation, down
time, and energy costs.
An example of how pumping life cycle costs can be compared to the cost of operating a car is
provided in the example below.
Example 1:
Life Cycle Costs of an Automobile
For a car that is operated 32,000 km/year for 10 years the following costs are assumed:
• Initial year fuel price = 4.90 ZAR/l

• Initial year maintenance & insurance = ZAR 13,920
• Initial year miscellaneous expenses = ZAR 696
• Discount rate = 8%
• Energy inflation rate = 10%
• Other cost inflation rates = 4%
These costs are shown in Figure 1.2.
Based on this data, the total life cycle ownership cost of owning the car in current day ZAR
would be 375,840.
Now lets take the same approach with a pump system.
Life Cycle Costs of Pump
For a 200 kW pump system we will assume the following operating costs:
• Operate the pump for 7,000 hours/year for 10 years

• Initial year electricity price = 35 c/kWh
• Initial year miscellaneous expenses = ZAR 13,920
• Other cost inflation rates = 4%
These costs are illustrated in Figure 1.3.
For the pump system, the total life cycle ownership cost in current day dollars is approxi‑
mately ZAR 5,637,600 (note that the fuel price is conservatively low, and the inflation rate
assumed for electricity is only half that assumed for gasoline).If we change the example to
reduce the pump operating hours from 7000 hours per year to only 4380 hours, the following
assumptions can be made.
12
• Operate the pump for 4,380 hours/year for 10 years
• Initial year electricity price = 35c/kWh
• Initial year miscellaneous expenses =ZAR 13,920
• Other cost inflation rates = 4% pump system
• Total life cycle ownership cost in current day ZAR = 3,403,440
These costs are shown in Figure 1.4.
Even with the lower run time hours, pump system energy use is still the highest cost over the
life of the pump.
Miscellanenous Miscellanenous
Miscellaneous 1% Operations 2% Operations 3%
Purchase 4% Maintenance 9%
Maintenance 6%
Purchase 11%
Maintenance
Insurance 24%
Purchase 42%
Energy 88% Energy 77%

Energy 33% First year energy First year energy
cost = ZAR 483,000 cost = ZAR 300,000
Fig. 1.2. Automobile LCC Fig. 1.3. Pump LCC Overview Fig. 1.4. Pump LCC Overview
Overview (7000 hours) (4380 hours)
1.3. Prescreening
The DOE Best Practices Programme encourages a three tiered prescreening and assessment
approach that includes:
• Initial prescreening based on size, run time and pump type

• Secondary prescreening to narrow the focus to systems where significant energy saving
opportunities are more likely
• Evaluating the opportunities and quantifying the potential savings
This is illustrated in Figure 1.5 where large centrifugal loads with high operating hours provide
the greatest opportunity.
Four common causes of less than optimal pump system performance include:
• Installed components are inefficient at the typical operating condition.

• The efficiency of the pump system components has degraded.
• More flow or more head is being provided than the system requires.
• The pump is being operated when it is not required by the system.
13
These conditions can be revealed through the following symptoms that provide an indication
of pump system improvement opportunities:
• Valves throttled to control flow.

• Bypass (re-circulation line) normally open.
• Multiple parallel pump system with same number of pumps always operating.
• Constant pump operation for a batch process.
• Cavitation noise (at the pump or elsewhere in the system).
• High system maintenance.
• Systems that have undergone a change in function.
A sample prescreening worksheet has been provided in Appendix A.

Primary
All plant Big loads Big centrifugal
motor systems that run a lot loads that run a lot
Filter 1 Filter 2 Symptom or

Seldom used, Non-centrifugal, experience-based
small loads ASD loads segregation
Secondary
Policies
and practices Moderate Highest
Priority Priority
Fig. 1.5. Prescreening Flow Chart
1.4. Key Learning Points

Key learning points for this chapter includes:
• Pump systems optimization starts with recognizing the importance of life cycle costs.
• Prescreening is a useful tool to focus on pump systems that provide the greatest opportunity
for savings.
14
2
2. Pump Systems and Process Demands
2.1. General
With a pumping system, we must understand all the different components that are connected
to and interact with a pump. This includes components like controls and drivers for the
pump as well as all the piping and other components lsuch as valves and heat exchangers
that the fluid passes through.
It is important to understand that all the various components of a pumping system influence
each other. Changes to one component will therefore influence other components in a system
and thus cannot be treated individually.
In complicated systems, it is necessary to chart out the system and to make sure that all of its
parts are included when the system is studied as shown in Figure 2.1.
At each interface there are inefficiencies. The goal should be

Utility feed to maximize the overall cost effectiveness of the pumping, or
how much flow is delivered per unit of input energy.
Transformer
Breaker/starter ASD (maybe) Motor Pump Fluid system
Fig. 2.1. System components
15
2.2. System Boundaries

The importance of correct system boundaries is illustrated in Figure 2.2. This figure shows
a simple system pumping from one reservoir to a higher positioned reservoir. The system is
equipped with a re-circulating line, a couple of flow meters and pressure sensors. The efficiency
of the system varies considerably depending on how the system boundaries are defined. We
encourage and recommend that the largest box be defined as the system in this case.
F2
Input
P F1
P
MCC
Fig. 2.2. Three possible system boundaries for a simple system
2.3. Process Demand

Understanding how flow requirements vary over time is a crucial element in optimizing fluid
systems. It is very common for pump systems to be over-designed, that is, that they are capa‑
ble of delivering more flow or head than what is really needed by the process. The reason
for this varies, but common reasons are that the system is designed for “future needs”, an
anticipated increase in flow requirement in the future, or that the engineer just wanted to
be “on the safe side”. Over-design of the pump systems lead to excessive losses and power
consumption, and should therefore be avoided.
2.3.1. Constant Flow Requirements

Flow requirements can be constant or variable. For systems with constant flow requirements
it is fairly simple to address these issues. The pump system should be designed to deliver
what is necessary and not more. If future expansion is called for it is often a better solution
to, for example, add a larger impeller when the larger flow is called for.
2.3.2. Variable Flow Requirements

Systems with variable process needs are more complicated to deal with. Examples of systems
with varying flow demands are: Seasonal loads (chilled water, associated tower water, etc),
industrial processes with variable output, potable water and wastewater systems. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.3.
16
The first task is to get an idea of what the variation is expected to be, or, in an existing sys‑
tem, to measure the variation over a specific period of time. A suitable way of showing the
demand is shown in Figures 2.3 and 2.4.
Flow rate
Average flow rate
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 am 6 am 12 pm 6 am 12 am
Calendar month Time
Fig. 2.3. Example of annual variation of Fig. 2.4. Example of daily variations of

flow demand flow demand
2.4. Duration Diagrams

The information in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 can be rearranged to show a “duration curve” which
simply highlights the variation of flow requirements over a year. The flow duration diagram
in Figure 2.5 shows how many hours during a year the flow requirement exceeds a certain
level. The peak flow rate that is required is the intercept with the Y-axis. The advantage of
this diagram is that it clearly shows the demands from the system, regarding max flow rate,
average flow rate and the variations.
It is fairly common that systems are optimized for maximum flow rates. It is of course important
that the system can deliver the maximum required flow rate at a decent efficiency but, from
an economic point of view, it is more important that systems are optimized for the flow rates
they are going to operate at most of the time.
From a Life Cycle Cost perspective, it could for example be cheaper to have one pump set for
handling the maximum flow rates and another to handle average flow rates.
Flow Rate
Annual Hours Above a Certain Flow Rate
Fig. 2.5. Typical annualized duration curve for a wastewater system
17
As the x-axis highlights time, and the y-axis flow rate, the area below the curve equals the
volume that is pumped during one year. Figure 2.6 shows how many hours during a year a
large wastewater pump has to run to pump the yearly flow. (equal area under the curves). It is
seen that the pump operates less than 2500 hours per year at the peak flow rate.
In Figure 2.7, a smaller pump is added to the system. In this case, the large pump runs about
200 hours per year, whereas the smaller pump runs for a bit more than 5000 hours at a lower
flow rate. The advantage with this arrangement is that the flow will be more even and as the
flow velocities are smaller the losses will be smaller.
150 150
Flow Rate (l/s)
100 100
Flow Rate (l/s)

50 50
0 0
0 5,000 10,000 0 5,000 10,000
Time (Hours) Time (Hours)
Fig. 2.6. Flow duration diagram for a large Fig. 2.7. Flow duration diagram using two
wastewater pump pumps, one large and one small

• Before evaluating pump system operation, the system needs must be defined.
• Process demands may be constant or vary considerably over time. These variations could
occur hourly, daily, or monthly.
• A duration curve helps evaluate the number of hours a pump operates at different flow
rates and is useful to determine the best combination of pumps to match the system’s
flow requirement.
18
3
3. Pump Types
3.1. General
Pumps are divided into two main groups- rotodynamic and positive displacement
pumps. The names come from how the pumps transfer energy to the pumped media,
i.e. by a rotating impeller that transfers energy through a dynamic action or by moving
fluid by displacement. As shown in Figure 3.1, the majority of pumps used in industry are
rotodynamic or centrifugal type pumps.
Positive Displacement
Pumps 27%
Centrifugal
Pumps 73%
Fig. 3.1. Types of pumps used in industry
Figure 3.2 show different pump types available on the market today. These main groups
are then split into subgroups. These subgroups indicate more specifically the mechanical
execution of the pumps. Each pump type has its preferred application area, where it fulfills
the process demands in the best possible way.
19
Self-Priming
Single Suction Closed Impeller
Radial Flow / Single Stage
Mixed Flow Open Impeller
Double Suction Multistage
Single Stage Closed Impeller

Retrodynamics Axial Flow Fixed Pitch
Multistage Open Impeller
Single Stage Self-Priming Variable Pitch
Peripheral Simplex
Multistage Non-Self Priming

Fluid Double Acting Multiplex
Single Acting Simplex

Pumps Duplex
Plunger/Piston
Power Double Acting Triplex
Reciprocating Multiplex
Simplex Fluid Operated
Diaphragm
Multiplex Mechanically Operated
Vane Tuber
Flexible
Liner
Member
Positive
Dislacement Screw Vane
Single Rotor
Peristaltic
Progressive Cavity
Axial
Piston
Rotary Radial
External
Gear
Internal
Lobe
Multiple Rotor
Circumferential Piston
Screw
Fig. 3.2. Classification of pumps
3.2. Rotodynamic Pumps

A rotodynamic (centrifugal) pump transfers energy to a fluid using a rotating impeller. The
fluid enters the pump suction into the eye of the impeller, is accelerated to high velocity, then
passes through a diffuser to convert velocity head into pressure head before exiting through
the pump discharge as shown in Figure 3.3.
Pump Discharge
Pump Suction
Fig. 3.3. Typical end suction pump
20
3.2.1. Types
Centrifugal pumps can be arranged horizontally or vertically and may be frame mounted or
close coupled as shown in Figure 3.4.
Fig. 3.4. Frame mounted and close coupled pumps
There are three flow categories for centrifugal pumps: A radial flow pump, where the pump
discharge is 90° degrees to the suction; the mixed flow pump, where the discharge is at an
angle less than 180° from the suction but greater than 90°; and the axial flow pump, where
water is pushed out the discharge directly opposite the suction. These flow configurations
are shown in Figure 3.5.
Fig. 3.5. Centrifugal pump flow patterns (radial, mixed and axial)
Radial and mixed flow pumps are the most common pumps on the market. They are often
controlled by throttling valves and offer good opportunities for energy savings. Variable
speed drives can often easily be used to control output instead of throttling valves. When,
and how, to do this will be discussed in detail below. These pumps are available in a large
number of executions specialized for high or low flow and high or low head.
For high-pressure pump systems such as municipal water systems or boiler feed pumps, mul‑
tistage pumps are used to increase pressure by directing flow from an impeller discharge to
the next impeller suction as shown in Figure 3.6. As flow moves through each impeller stage,
the pressure increases. This concept is discussed more in Chapter 4.
21
Discharge
Fig. 3.6. Vertical and horizontal multistage pumps
3.2.2. Characteristics
The impeller configuration and number of pump impellers will vary depending on the type of
pump. Impellers are classified by specific speed, size and style. Figure 3.7 shows a semi‑open,
open and closed impeller style.
Fig. 3.7. Impeller types (semi-open, open and closed)
The semi-open impeller has one side of the impeller closed in with a shroud and has lower
solids capability than an open impeller but is efficient for pumping chemicals, paper, slurry
and other industrial process uses. The open impeller design has no shrouds and is mainly
used to pump fluids which contain large solids. They are considered to be low-efficiency
impellers that will pump high volumes at low pressures. The closed impeller design is very
efficient and has both sides of the waterway closed with a shroud. This impeller is typically
used for clean liquid service.
3.3. Positive Displacement Pumps

The positive displacement pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity contracts. A
22
Positive Displacement pump (PD pump), will in theory produce the same flow at a given
speed or rpm, regardless of the discharge pressure. In reality the pressure is limited by the
torque of the motor and by internal leakage, “slip”. The pressure can nevertheless reach
dangerous levels and a pressure relief valve should therefore normally be installed on the
pressure side in order to avoid damage to the system. This valve can be external or internal.
Positive Displacement pumps are “constant flow machines”. The flow rate is in general
proportional to the speed of the pump, making them ideally suited for flow control by means
of variable speed. They are used for high pressures and for viscous fluids.
3.3.1. Types
The two main types of PD pumps are reciprocating and rotary pumps. There are many
subgroups within these main groups as can be seen in Figure 3.2. An example of several
positive displacement pump types is shown below in Figure 3.8.
Fig. 3.8. Examples of Rotary Lobe, Tube and Screw Pumps

(Figures courtesy of Hydraulic Institute)
Rotary PD pumps typically work at pressures up to 3500 kPa. They transfer liquid from the
suction to the pressure side through the action of rotating rotors, screws, lobes, gears, rollers
etc. that operate within a rigid casing.
Reciprocating PD pumps work at pressures up to 50 000 kPa. They transfer liquid by changing
the internal volume, for example, through the action of a piston in a cylinder. They normally
have non-return valves fitted to both the inlet and the outlet side of the pump.
3.3.2. Characteristics
The “slip” in a rotary PD pump is a function of the viscosity of the pumped media and the
output pressure. The slip decreases with increasing viscosity.
The output from a reciprocating PD pump is pulsating in nature with large swings in pressure, as
the cavity is filled and emptied. It is critical that these pressure changes be controlled to ensure
accurate metering and batching demands and to protect the mechanical integrity of the pump and
process equipment. It is therefore common to include pulsation dampening devices and or for the
pumps to operate with two or three cylinders. The more cylinders, the more even the flow is.
23
3.4. Key Points

• The two main types of pumps are rotodynamic (or centrifugal) and Positive Displacement pumps.
• Subgroups under the main types are named after their mechanical design features.
• Centrifugal pump arrangement can be frame mounted or close coupled.
• Flow configurations for centrifugal pumps are classified as radial, mixed and axial.
• Centrifugal pumps can have one or more impellers. The three main impeller types are open,
semi-open and closed.
• PD pumps are constant flow machines that can generate dangerous pressures and they
therefore have to be equipped with pressure relief valves and pulsation dampeners to
protect the system.
• PD pumps are mainly used to pump viscous fluids and when very high pressures are required.
24
4
4. Basic Hydraulics
4.1. General
This section on hydraulics provides the fundamental knowledge needed to understand how
fluid characteristics affect pump system operation.
4.2. Fundamental Relationships

For pump systems, the relationship between fluid power, flow, pressure (head) and specific
gravity of the fluid can be expressed in the following equations:
U. S. Units
Head (ft) * Flow (gpm) * specific gravity
Fluid Power (bhp) =
3960
Metric
Fluid Power = Head (m) * Flow (m3/sec) * density * 9.8
Head (m) * Flow (m3/hr) * density

Fluid Power =
367
Head (m) * Flow (liters/sec) * density

Fluid Power =
102
Eq. 4.1. Fluid Power Equations (in the U. S. the power delivered by the pump is measured
in brake horse power)
4.3. Fluid Flow

One of the fundamental laws that govern the flow of fluids is Bernoulli’s law. In its simplest
form it deals with the relationship between pressure and fluid velocity in a frictionless fluid. It
25
states, “The total energy is constant along a frictionless stream line”. This might sound com‑
plicated but it is similar to an ordinary swing for children where the energy changes between
potential energy and kinetic energy. (Think of pressure as potential energy and fluid velocity
as kinetic). If the two points are located at different elevations this also has to be taken into
account. Equation 4.2 shows it in its simplest form.
a = is the first point along the pipe

b = is the second point along the pipe
P = static pressure (ft or m)
1 2 1 ρ = density (ft or m)
Pa + ρνa + ρgha = Pb + ρνb2 + ρghb
2 2 ν = velocity head (ft or m)
g = gravitational acceleration
h = height (ft or m)
Eq. 4.2. Bernoulli’s equation
Note that the above is valid only for frictionless flow. If friction is present some of the energy
is dissipated as heat and that amount of energy has to be added to the right side of the
equation, thereby making the pressure, and/or the velocity component, smaller. It is common
to divide each term in the equation above by the density and gravitational constant. The
different terms can then be measured in feet.
Flow is typically expressed as gallons per minute (gpm) in the U.S and in meters3/hr (m3/hr)
or liters/second (l/s) in all countries using the metric system.
4.4. Head
When considering pump systems, head can be characterized as a measure of the total
energy transferred to the liquid at a specific operating speed and capacity. Head is typically
defined in feet or meters.
When pressure gauges are used to determine head, the following conversions can be used
for water (specific gravity of 1.0):
U. S. Units Metric
Head (ft) = 2.31 × Pressure (psi) Head (m) = Pressure (kPa)/9.8
Head (m) = 10.2 × Pressure (bar)
Eq. 4.3. Pressure Conversions
For U.S. units, pressure can be expressed in absolute units (psia) or gauge units (psig). In the
metric system, pressures are usually measured in kPa or bars and are gauge unless noted.
For gauge readings, the pressure is given in relation to the atmospheric pressure, in contrast
to absolute pressure, which includes atmospheric pressure.
The total head of a system, which a pump must operate against, is made up of the
following components:
26
• Static Head
• Velocity Head
• Friction or Dynamic Head
4.4.1. Static Head

The static head is the difference in elevation between the liquid surfaces in the vessels
on the input and output side of the pump. If the pump pumps into a closed system with a
pressure different from atmospheric, this pressure has to be taken into account as well. The
static pressure is independent of flow rate and is marked as a straight line in a system curve
diagram. The energy required to overcome the static pressure is only a function of height and
density of the pumped media and can hence not be affected by changes in flow rate.
4.4.2. Velocity Head

Velocity head is the amount of energy in a liquid required to move it at a given velocity and is
represented by the following equation:
hv = velocity head (ft or m)

V 2 V = liquid velocity (ft/s or m/s)
hv =
2g g = acceleration due to gravity, or 9.81 m/s2 (32.2 ft/s2)
Eq. 4.4. Velocity Head
Typically, velocity must first be calculated using Eq. 4.5 before the velocity head can be determined:
Q = flow in cfs (gpm * .00223) or m3/sec

Q
V= V = liquid velocity (ft/s or m/sec)
A A = pipe area (3.14 * r2) with r in ft or m
Eq. 4.5. Calculating velocities from flow and pipe area
For many high head systems, velocity head is often negligible (less than 0.5 m or 1 ft). However,
when velocity head is not negligible, the value must be calculated (possibly for both the suction
and discharge side of the pump) and added to pressure gauge readings to determine total head.
4.4.3. Friction Head

Friction head is the head necessary to overcome the friction losses in the piping and pipe
components of a pump system. The friction head will vary with the amount of flow, the char‑
acteristics of the piping, fittings and valves and the fluid properties. Depending on the pump
system, friction losses can also include entrance losses at the end of the suction piping and
exit losses at the discharge point.
Friction or dynamic head is a square function of the flow rate. This means that a doubling
of the flow rate requires four times the pressure in order to overcome the frictional losses.
A lowering of the flow rate therefore has a large influence on the required pressure and
hence on the power needed.
27
The sources of friction are all the different components through which the fluid passes,
such as: pipe-walls, valves, elbows, tees, reducers/expanders, expansion joints, tank inlets
and outlets. Experimental data of friction losses has been collected over many years and is
available from many sources such as the Moody chart, Hydraulic Institute tables, etc.
4.4.3.1. Friction in Pipes

It is common to measure the pressure drop in pipes and other component in feet as a function
of flow rate. Friction losses in piping are usually estimated using Darcy-Weisbach equation
(Equation 4.6) and the Hazen-Williams equation (Equation 4.7).
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is very useful to examine and to understand what parameters
influence friction losses in piping:
∆hf = pressure drop due to friction (ft or m)

f = Darcy friction factor
L V 2
∆hf = f × × L = pipe length (ft or m)
d 2g d = pipe diameter (ft or m)
V2/2g = velocity head (ft or m)
Eq. 4.6. Darcy-Weisbach Equation
The friction factor, f, is affected by the roughness of the piping, the viscosity of the fluid being
pumped, the size of the piping, and the velocity of the fluid. The Moody diagram (shown in
Figure 4.1) allows the friction factor to be estimated graphically.
0.100
GCNS runs distance learning courses for the
0.090
pipe friction chart Engineering Council Graduate Diploma.
applicable to circular pipes running full
website: www.glasgow-nautical.ac.uk
0.080 e-mail: engineering@glasgow-nautical.ac.uk
© Glasgow College of Nautical Studies Faculty of Engineering
0.070
0.060
0.050
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.018 h
f =
L u2
0.016 ⋅
d 2g
0.014
ud
0.012 Re =
ν
3 4 5 6 7 8
10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
0.01
Fig. 4.1. Moody diagram for pipe losses
28
The Hazen-Williams method also calculates piping frictional losses – but must only be used
for water systems under turbulent conditions. The Hazen-Williams coefficient (C) is a factor
used to account for pipe roughness. New, smooth pipe is normally allocated a (C) value of
140 (although higher values for smooth pipe such as PVC are sometimes used), while older
pipes may have (C) values of less than 100.
Metric
∆hf = Headloss (m)

 10.7 L Q 
1.852 L = Length (m)
∆hf =  1.852 4.87  Q = Flow (m3/s)
 C D  D = Pipe diameter (m)
C = Hazen-Williams coefficient (60-160 range)
U. S. Units
∆hf = Headloss (ft)

 4.7 L Q 1.852  L = Length (ft)
∆hf =  1.852 4.87  Q = Flow (ft3/s)
 C D  D = Pipe diameter (ft)
C = Hazen-Williams coefficient (60-160 range)
Eq. 4.7. Hazen-Williams Equation
Over time, some pipe systems accumulate significant scale, corrosion, foreign material,
or other buildups on the pipe walls. As can be seen from the Darcy-Weisbach relation, any
reduction in pipe diameter (not to mention increased roughness and its effect on the friction
factor) can have a significant impact on frictional losses.
Figure 4.2, shows a section of pipe removed from a water distribution system. The piping
shows considerable tuberculation buildup that would certainly have major impact on the
system friction losses.
When systems experience severe fouling or

build-up like in Figure 4.2, the capacity of the
system to deliver flow diminishes severely. There
are two methods that could be used to maintain
desired flow rate. Either install a bigger pump or
do something about the pipe system. Installing a
bigger pump is costly both to install and operate.
The other alternative is to clean the pipe, if pos‑
sible. The pipe in Figure 4.2 was cleaned using
what is commonly referred to as a “pipe pig” – a
device that is inserted into the system and forced
through by fluid pressure.
Fig. 4.2. Water distribution pipe with

significant tuberculation
(courtesy of Diagnostic Solutions)
29
4.4.3.2. Friction losses in valves and valve characteristics

In industry, control valves have been a principal means of controlling flow in pumping sys‑
tems. Valves can be used to completely isolate flow or adjusted to modulate the flow rate.
Valves used to modulate the flow rate are generally referred to as control valves, while valves
that are either fully opened or closed to isolate flow are called isolation valves.
System frictional loss analyses are usually based on loss characteristics. However, valve
suppliers typically rely on the relationship shown in Equation 4.8 to define the flow
characteristics of the valve.
Metric
Q = flow rate (m3/hour)

∆P Kν = flow coeffcient
Qν = Kν
√ s.g. ∆P = differential pressure (pascals)
s.g. = scpecific gravity
U. S. Units
Q = flow rate (gpm)

∆P Kν = flow coeffcient
Qν = Cν
√ s.g. ∆P = differential pressure (psi)
s.g. = scpecific gravity
Eq. 4.8. Valve Characteristic Equation
4.4.3.3. Friction in Piping Components

Piping component friction losses such as valves, elbows, and tees are primarily dependent
on experimental data and are often referred to as minor losses. However, in many piping sys‑
tems, these minor losses can contribute a significant amount of frictional losses - especially
when control valves are used to reduce system flow. For pipe components, friction losses are
often estimated based on the velocity head as shown in Equation 4.9
∆hf = friction head loss (ft or m)

V 2 K = loss coefficient
∆hf = K × V = fluid velocity (ft/sec or m/s)
2g
g = gravitation constant (ft/sec2 or m/s2)
Eq. 4.9. Darcy-Weisbach Equation for Pipe Component Friction Losses
(K) is a loss coefficient that is a function of size, and for valves, the valve type, and valve %
open. There are various sources that provide piping component loss coefficients for standard
components. Some typical (K) values are provided in Table 4.1.
A good rule of thumb is to assume that the generic data is within 10-15% of the actual
for new installations. As equipment ages, the variability between generic and actual is
likely to grow. Measurement of line pressures and flow rates with good instrumentation
will provide a much more representative picture of what actual losses are (and what the
actual pump performance is).
30
Table 4.1. Pipe System Component K Values
Component Type K
90° elbow, standard 0.2 - 0.3
90° elbow, long radius 0.1 - 0.2
Square-edged inlet (from tank) 0.5
Bell mouth inlet 0.05
Discharge into tank 1
Tee (branch flow) 0.3 - 1
Swing check valve 2
Gate valve (full open) 0.03-0.2
Globe valve (full open) 3-10
Butterfly valve (full open) 0.5-2
Ball valve (full open) 0.04-0.1
4.4.3.4. Component Losses Using Equivalent Pipe Length Method

Many systems are made up of a series of pipes and components. To assess the overall
losses in a series of devices, the individual losses are summed. A common technique used
to estimate the overall friction loss in a series of pipe and components is to represent the
component losses as equivalent lengths of pipe.
One approach is to convert the individual component loss coefficients into an equivalent
number of pipe diameters, and then add the equivalent pipe lengths to the length of the
actual system pipe. Some sources of component loss data include equivalent L/D ratios
for many pipe fittings. Users can calculate equivalent lengths from loss coefficient data, as
shown in Equation 4.10.
L/D = lenght/diameter ratio

L K K = component loss coefficient
(equivalent) =
D f f = friction factor
Eq. 4.10. Estimating Components Losses as Equivalent Lengths of Pipe
One problem associated with this calculational approach is the fact that, as noted above,
the friction factor varies with flow rate. A reasonable approach to solving this dilemma is to
use the friction factor for the highest anticipated flow rate, as head requirements are almost
always driven by the highest flow rate condition (at which the frictional losses are greatest).
Although the friction factor will be higher at lower flow rates, that increase will be more than
compensated by the reduced velocity head.
4.4.4. Other Effects on Head

4.4.4.1. Specific gravity or density
The specific gravity of a substance is a comparison of its density to that of water at 4 degrees C.
Substances that have a lower density than water will have a specific gravity of less than one.
Substances with densities higher than water will have a specific gravity greater than one.
31
The lower the specific gravity of a fluid the less power is required to pump it. Conversely, a
fluid with higher specific gravity will require a greater amount of power. Temperature also
affects specific gravity as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Effects of Water Temperature and Specific Gravity/density and Power

Water Temp °C Specific Gravity/Density kW
4 1.0 100
60 0.983 98.3
100 0.958 95.8
125 0.939 93.9
150 0.917 91.7
4.4.4.2. Viscosity
Viscosity can be considered the fluids internal friction and varies with the type of fluid being
pumped. Viscosity is expressed in three different ways as shown below:
• Saybolt seconds universal or SSU

• Centistokes – defining the kinematic viscosity
• Centipoises – defining the absolute viscosity
The Hydraulic Institute has published charts that provide the viscosity of various liquids at
certain temperatures in SSU and centistokes.
Viscosity effects pump performance in relation to the pump fluid and disk friction. When the
viscosity of a fluid increases, the discharge pressure, capacity and efficiency will be reduced,
and greater power will be required. The viscosity of a fluid is also directly related to the tem‑
perature of a fluid -the lower the temperature, the higher the viscosity.
4.5. System Curves

Up to this point, we have reviewed how head, flow and specific gravity affect fluid power.
These flow characteristics can be expressed graphically using a system curve in Figure 4.3.
A system curve consist of two fundamental parts, the static and the friction head, as shown
in Figure 4.3. As discussed, static head is
related to the difference in tank elevations,
hence, when suction or discharge tank eleva‑ 50
tions (or pressures) change, the system curve 40
will also change as shown in Figure 4.4. Friction Head
Head, m
30
For changes in frictional head the system 20

Total Head
curve will be altered as shown in Figure 4.5. 10 Static Head
It can be seen that the point where the curve
0
begins, at zero flow (representing the system 0 200 400 600 800 1000
static head), does not change when the fric‑ Flow rate, m3/hr
tional head changes.
Fig. 4.3. System Curve Components
32
50 50
New System Curve
New System Curve due to higher
40 due to a increase in 40 friction head
static head
Head, m
Head, m
30 30
20 20
New System Curve
New System Curve due to a lower
10 Static head due to a decrease in 10 Static head friction head
static head
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Flow rate, m3/hr Flow rate, m3/hr
Fig. 4.4. Impact of static head changes on Fig. 4.5. Impact of frictional head changes
system curve on system curve

• Fluid power required for pumping is related to the flow, head, and specific gravity of a fluid.
• Total head consists of static head and frictional head
• Friction losses in Pipes and common Pipe System Components
• A system curve provides a graphical relationship between flow and head. Depending on
the type of head, the system curve will be impacted in different ways
4.7. Exercises
Example #1
P = pressure (kPa or psi) P2, Q2, v2, A2

Q = flow (l/s or gpm) P1, Q1, v1, A1
v = velocity (m/s or ft/s)
r2
r = pipe radius (m or ft) r1
A = pipe area (m2 or ft2)
The following is known for points A and B:
Flow = 10.0 l/s (9510 gpm)

Density (r) = 1000 kg/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3)
r1 = 0.1 m (0.328 ft)
P1 = 200 kPa (29 psi)
r2 = 0.02 m (0.066 ft)

Use the relationship between pressures, flow and pipe area, to determine the velocity in both
areas of the pipe and determine P2.
33
Answer:
A1 = 3.14 × (0.1) 2 = 0.0314 m2 (0.338 ft2)
A2 = 3.14 x (0.02) 2 = 0.001256 m2
v = P/A
v1 = 0.01/ 0.0314 = 0.318 m/s
v2 = 0.01/ 0.001256 = 7.96 m/s
P2 = P1 - r/2 ((v2 ) 2 – (v1 ) 2)
P2 = 200,000 – 1000/2 × ((7.96) 2 –(0.318) 2) = 168,370 N/m2 = 168 kPa
34
5
5. Understanding Pump Performance
5.1. General
The design of centrifugal pumps is characterized by one or more vanned impeller(s) rotating
inside a pump housing. The impeller(s) transfer energy to the fluid when rotating and this
energy is used to move the liquid, increase its pressure, or both. The rotodynamic pumps are
split into two major groups, radial and axial pumps. There are also a number of pumps that
fall in between these groups and they are commonly known as mixed flow pumps.
The second large group of pumps, positive displacement pumps, or PD pumps, transfer
energy to the fluid by containing the fluid within walls that are moved and discharge the fluid
through openings or valves at the pump outlet. PD pumps do not have the same characteristic
behavior as centrifugal pumps.
5.2. Pump Curves

The performance of a centrifugal pump is usually shown in a diagram (see Figure 5.1) that
plots head (H) versus flow (Q). Parameters such as efficiency (shown in Figure 5.2), shaft
power and net positive suction head (NPSH) are frequently displayed in the same diagram.
50 50 100
Hea Hea
d-ca d-cu
pacit rve
40 y cu 40 80
rve
Shaft power, kW
Head, m
Head, m
30 30 ve 60
r cur
powe
20 Rated: 715 m3/hr, 30m 20 Shaft 40
10 10 20
0 0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 5.1. Centrifugal pump head Fig. 5.2. Power curve added to a basic

capacity curve pump curve
35
5.3. Affinity Laws

Changes to pump performance are governed by the so-called affinity laws as shown in
Equations 5.1 and 5.2. The affinity laws describe how pump performance is changed when
the speed or impeller diameter is changed. It should be noticed that the affinity laws are
used to calculate how the pump performance curves are changed, when the pump geometry
or speed is changed. They do not give any information about what the new operating point
will be when the pump is hooked up to a system. In order to find a new operating point, it is
necessary to also have information about the system curve that the pump is operating on.
To accurately calculate energy savings, both for speed reductions and for impeller trimming,
the system curve has to be known. Failure in this area can lead to major errors.
N   N2  2  N2  3
Q2 = Q1 ×  2  H2 = H 1 ×   P2 = P1 ×  
 N1   N1   N1 
Eq. 5.1. Affinity Laws
(Q) = flow rate, (N) = rotational speed, (H) = head, and (P) = power. The subscripts 1 and 2
represent two different speeds.
Another form of the affinity laws relates to impeller diameter, (D):
D   D2  2  D2  3
Q2 = Q1 ×  2  H2 = H 1 ×   P2 = P1 ×  
 D1   D1   D1 
Eq. 5.2. Alternative form of Affinity Laws
The subscripts 1 and 2 represent two different impeller diameters. The impeller diameter
affinity scaling relationships have proven useful in some field-based measurement
experiences in that the impeller diameter used as the basis for the performance curves can
be modified iteratively to a point where the curve-based flow estimates from measured head
and power are in agreement.
5.4. Variable Speed Curves

Fig. 5.3. Pump curves for varying speeds
Figure 5.3 shows how the pump performance
curves change when the speed of the impeller
50
is changed in a given pump. The new reduced 40 50
60 80,5 (BEP)
70
speed pump curves can be accurately calcu‑ 40 75
78
80
lated using the affinity laws, described above.
Head, m
30 80
78
75
20
10
Iso-efficiency lines are also shown. In the case

0%
80
90
10 %
%
sp
of speed regulation, these are second-degree

ee
70
d
%
0
functions originating from the origin. The power 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
consumed by the pump is proportional to the
Flow rate, m /hr3
cube of the speed along these iso‑efficiency
36
lines. Substantial power reductions can therefore be achieved in many systems by changing the
speed of the pump driver, thereby reducing the flow rate. The achievable energy savings cannot
be calculated without also knowing the system curve, which together with the pump curve
determines where on the pump curve (and at what efficiency) the pump is going to operate.
5.5. Impeller Trimming

Figure 5.4 shows the corresponding curves for impeller diameter changes in a pump. As
seen, the iso-efficiency curves are radically different from the variable speed curves in Fig‑
ure 5.5. These curves now look like a topographical map, with the peak at a certain diameter
and operating point. This is also the point where the optimum relationship between impeller
diameter, pump housing geometry and flow rate is found. Deviations from this point, in any
direction, cause losses in the pump to increase and the efficiency to decrease. The reduced
diameter pump curves can also be calculated using the affinity laws as long as the changes
are minor. For larger changes, it is recommended to contact the manufacturer who should
have the required information.
5.6. Pump Operating Point

The pump will operate at a point on its curve where there is equilibrium between the pressure
supplied by the pump and the pressure needed to pass a certain flow rate through the system
attached to the pump. This is illustrated graphically in Figure 5.5. The operating point is where
the system and pump curves intersect.
The system curve can be changed, for example, by throttling the pump discharge valve, which
increases the resistance in the system and makes the system curve steeper.
It follows that when the operating point moves up to the left on the pump curve the internal
forces on the pump impeller then increase, which can lead to shorter equipment life. Care
should be taken so that operation high up on the pump curve for long periods of time is
avoided. For this reason the manufacturer usually gives out information about the allowable
operating region. If the pump is operated outside the boundaries of this region for long
periods of time equipment life can be seriously impacted.
50 289 m 50
m 60
70 75
40 251 m 78 40
m 80
82
30 82 80
Head, m
Head, m
213 m 83 78 30
m 75
84
70
20 20
Operating point or duty point
10 10 = 800 m3/hr at 27.5 m head
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Flow rate, m3/hr Flow rate, m /hr
3
Fig. 5.4. Pump curves and iso efficiency Fig. 5.5. System and pump curves with
lines for various impeller diameters operating point
37
5.7. Pumps Connected in Parallel

It is common in many applications to connect pumps in parallel. This provides both flexibility
and redundancy. By operating pumps in parallel, the flow can be changed in steps depending
on how many and what sized pumps are turned on.
When pumps are connected in parallel, the flow for each operating pump is added at con‑
stant pressure, as illustrated in Figure 5.6. If the shut off head (the maximum achievable
pressure a pump can generate) differs between the pumps, care has to be taken so that the
pumps are not operating at higher pressure than the highest recommended pressure for the
pump with the lowest shut off head.
If this is not done, the result may be that the smaller pump is operating in a harmful area
or even subjected to reverse flow through the pump. A control system that controls which
pumps are on or off can eliminate this risk.
The resulting flow when pumps are connected in parallel depends on the system curve.
The system curve generally doesn’t change when more pumps are run, but when the flow
increases the required pressure also increases and all pumps will operate at this higher
pressure on their respective curves. Only in systems with very flat system curves will the
resulting flow rate come close to the sum of the flow rates of the individual pumps operated
individually. This is shown in Figure 5.7.
70 50
60 40
Head, m
Head, m
50 30
Pu Tota
40 m l 2p
Pu
p 20 1p um
Pu
B um p
mp
m
p
pA
30
C
10
20 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Fig. 5.6. Combined pump curve for pumps Fig. 5.7. Resulting flow rates for two equal
connected in parallel pumps operating in parallel for three
different systems
5.8. Pumps Connected in Series

150
3 pu
Just as pumps can be connected in parallel, they 125 mps
can also be connected in series. This is usually 100

Head, m
2 pum
ps
done when high heads are required. The combined 75
pump curve is obtained by adding the pressure 50 1 pump
generated for the various flows. 25

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 5.8. Resulting pump curves for two and
Flow rate, m3/hr
three identical pumps connected in series
38
5.9. Cavitation
The boiling temperature of a fluid depends on the pressure in the fluid. The boiling temperature
of water at atmospheric pressure is 100 degrees centigrade. However, it is well known that
water boils at less than 100 degrees at high altitudes. In Johannesburg, for example, the
boiling temperature of water is 96 degrees centigrade. If the pressure is low enough, the
liquid will boil at room temperature.
Bernoulli’s law governs the pressure in a fluid system. If the fluid velocity gets high, the pres‑
sure gets low. The pressure is also a function of how much friction there is in the system.
Due to these two facts, it is common that the pressure at the inlet of an impeller can get low
enough for the liquid to boil or form vapor cavities at room temperature.
A low pressure at the inlet can come both from pressure losses between the source of the
liquid and because of the fluid being accelerated to high speeds when it enters the impel‑
ler. Small vapor bubbles are formed and swept with the flow. As the purpose of the pump is
to increase pressure, the bubbles rapidly move into an area of higher pressure where they
implode. If the implosion takes place in the midst of the fluid it will implode uniformly and is
not a major concern, but if the cavity is moving along a surface when it implodes then there
will be no fluid filling the cavity from the direction of the wall and the liquid filling the cavity
will form a micro jet directed towards the surface.
Such micro jets are strong enough to remove material from the surface of the wall. After
constant bombardment over time, a surface exposed to cavitation will deteriorate and attain
a very rugged look. See Figure 5.10.
The only way to avoid cavitation is to increase the pressure to such a level that formation
of vapor bubbles cannot take place. In order to know how high the pressure needs to be to
avoid cavitation, it is necessary to compare the pressure in the liquid to the vapor pressure of
the fluid at the temperature at hand. To do this we use the term NPSH or Net Positive Suction
Head, which is a measure of the actual pressure in a liquid and the liquids vapor pressure at
a given temperature.
Cavitation bubble imploding close to a fixed surface generating

a jet (4) of the surrounding liquid.
Surrounding liquid
Increased static pressure
Fig. 5.9. Formation of damaging micro jets in Fig. 5.10. Cavitaion damage on an

connection with cavitation impeller
39
To show the pressure that is available over the vapor pressure we form NPSHA.
NPSHA = Hs + Ha - Hvp - Hf
where:
Hs = the static head above the centerline of the impeller,

Ha = the pressure on the free surface of the liquid in the suction tank,
Hvp = the vapor pressure of the liquid, and
Hf = all the friction losses on the pump inlet side
The available NPSHA has to be compared to the required NPSHR, which is published by the
pump manufacturer after testing when the pump starts to cavitate. It should be noted that
the NPSHR is measured at a point where the discharge pressure has dropped 3% relative to
the non-cavitating performance. Hence, at this point the pump is already cavitating.
There have been several attempts to define a safe margin above NPSHA to avoid cavitation.
So far, manufacturers have not been able to agree on such a margin.
In each case when there is a risk of cavitation, the designer should contact the manufacturer
and try to get guidance on how large the margin should be in the specific case.

• Understanding centrifugal pump curves

• Knowing what information is provided in the various curves
• Understanding the affinity laws and what they can be used for
• Knowing where the pump will operate on its curve
• Knowing how pump performance is changed when speed or geometry is changed
• Understand what happens when pumps are connected in parallel or series
• Understanding what cavitation is
5.11. Exercises
Example #1
A double-suction centrifugal pump equipped with a 355 mm diameter impeller is throttled to

provide a process cooling water flow rate of 190 l/s. The pumping system operates for 8,000 hours
per year with a head of 50 m and pump efficiency (η) of 80%. The pump requires 119 kW. An
examination of the pump and systems curves indicates that the required flow rate of 190 l/s can
be supplied at a head of 38 m using a trimmed impeller. There is no static head in the system.
Calculate an approximate new trim for the impeller that will deliver the necessary flow. Then
calculate the approximate energy and cost savings using a cost of 0.10 USD/Euro per kWh.
Assume a 94% motor efficiency.
40
Answer:
Using the affinity laws, the diameter of the trimmed impeller can be approximated as follows:
 H  1/3  41  1/3
D2 = D1 ×  2  D2 = 355 ×   D2 = 325
 H1   54 
With a 325 mm trimmed impeller installed, input power requirements can be determined
using the pump equation.
Flow * Head * Density

Power (W) =
102 * ηpump * ηmotor
190 * 38 * 1000
Power (W) =
102 * 0.8 * 0.94
Power = 94.1 kW
Energy savings are:
(119.0 kW – 94.1 kW) × 8000 hrs/year = 200 000 kWh/year.
At 0.10/kWh, these savings are valued at 20 000 USD/Euro per year
Remark: Using the affinity laws like above is an approximation that can lead to errors. It is
better to consult the pump manufacturer to get the appropriate curves.
Example #2
Consider a split case centrifugal pump that operates close to its best efficiency point (BEP)
while providing a flow rate of 100 l/s at a total head of 22.5 m.
When an identical parallel pump is switched on, the composite system operating point shifts
to 145 l/s at 32 m of head (see Figure 5.11). Each pump now operates at 80% efficiency,
providing a capacity of 72.5 l/s while the fluid flow rate increases by 45%.
45
System Curve
Original Operating
Point
30
Head (m)
Pump performance
curve for one pump
15
Pump performance
curve for two pumps
0 50 100 150 200 250

Flow (l/s)
Fig. 5.11. Composite pump curve for two identical pumps in parallel
41
The static head is 15 m and the pump operates 4000 hours/year. The pump operates at an
efficiency of 90% while pumping fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0. Combined motor and
drive efficiency is 94%,
1. Calculate the electrical power required when one pump is operated.

2. Calculate the electrical power required by the pumping system when two pumps are
in operation.
3. Calculate the Specific Energy for both cases using the following relationship:
Energy Consumption (kWh) Power kW

SE1 = =
m pumped
3
flow rate m3/h
Answer:
1. Using the power equation for one pump:
flow (l/s)* head(m) * density

Power (W) =
102 * ηpump * ηmotor * ηvsd
100 l/s * 22.5 m

Power1 (W) =
102 * 0.90 * 0.94
P1 = 26.1 kW
2. Using the power equation for two pumps:
145 l/s * 32 m
Power2 (W) =
102 * 0.80 * 0.94
P2 = 60.5 kW
For fluid transfer applications it is useful to examine the Specific Energy (SE), the energy
required per million liters of fluid pumped.
For operation with a single pump, the Specific Energy (SE) is:
Power Consumption (W)

SE1 =
Flow (m3)
26100 W 26.100 kW
SE1 = = = 0.0725 kWh/m3
100 l/s 0.1 * 3600 m3/h
When both pumps are in operation, the Specific Energy increases to:
60.5 kW
SE2 = = 0.116 kWh/m3
0.145 * 3600 m3/h
When operating both pumps in parallel, the electrical demand charge (kW draw) increases by
34 kW. If process requirements will allow the use of a single pump, the pumping energy use
will decrease by 37%.
42
6
6. Pump Maintenance and Reliability
6.1. General
A large, and sometimes dominating, part of the Life Cycle Cost of a pump system is the main‑
tenance cost. Several studies have shown that these costs can be controlled, or at the very
least influenced, by the system design and how the pump is operated. The following will give
some insights on what can be done in order to influence and better control these costs.
The maintenance costs are already significantly established in the design state when the
engineer specifies the system design and the components of the system. The duty point at
which the pump will operate, as well as the other specifications, will largely determine the
reliability of the system, and hence the operating and maintenance costs.
Normally, the design process starts by establishing the purpose of the system, i.e. what is
being pumped, at what flow rates, at what pressures, how, far, etc. The answers to these
questions influence the choice of pipe diameters, control system, material selection, pump
type, and so forth.
It must be remembered that at this point all calculations are theoretical and approximate.
When the system is built and first started up, there will most certainly be deviations
compared to the calculated values. Also, the duty point of the pump will differ from the one
originally calculated.
Often the process demand will also change with time, resulting in different operating/duty
points for the pump. In such cases, a new evaluation of the system should be made to ensure
that the changes would not adversely affect reliability and maintenance costs.
The best way to ensure high reliability and low maintenance cost is to ensure that the sys‑
tem is properly designed for its intended purpose. It must also be operated as intended.
Deviations from the intended duty point due to process changes or over-sizing in the design
stage may lead to pump operation away from BEP, which, in turn, has negative consequences
for the life of the system components. Modern control and monitoring systems can prevent
pumps from operating under harmful conditions.
43
6.2. Factors that influence Reliability

Experience shows that the following factors frequently influence the reliability, and hence
affect the maintenance costs of a pump system:
• Choice of pump type, including use of the proper material for the application
• Proper grouting and alignment (alignment should be made with filled pipes)
• Improper piping and inflow conditions
• Not enough NPSH
• Entrained air
• Dry running
• Operation outside of the permissible range
• Improper balancing
• Seals and bearings
• Bearing contamination, use of the wrong oil or grease
• Use of “pirated” parts and improper repairs
• Infrequent maintenance
• Lack of operator training
It is obvious that we have at least some degree of control over most of these factors. Following
is a brief discussion of the various items.
6.2.1. Pump Types and Service

To start with, the specified pump must be suitable for the duty. The following International
Standards give guidelines in this respect:
• ISO 9905 corresponding to API 610

• ISO 5199 covering most industrial applications
• ISO 9908 light duty applications
These standards provide engineers with an understanding of what pump characteristics are
recommended for specific applications so that a chemical pump is selected for pumping
certain chemicals, instead of trying to use a wastewater pump that may not have a suitable
design for the application. There are, however, more factors that will influence the choice of
a pump, which will be discussed in this Chapter.
6.2.2. Installation: Grouting, Alignment and Nozzle Loads

This subject is a science in itself. The Hydraulic Institute has published a new ANSI Standard
called:
American National Standard for Centrifugal and Vertical Pumps for Allowable
Nozzle Loads (ANSI/HI 9.6.2-New)
This Standard covers, among other things:
44
• Motor/pump coupling alignment
• Internal pump distortion
• Pump hold down bolts Air pockets can form
• Pump mounting
• Nozzle stress
• Pressure-temperature considerations
• Pump materials
• Bedplate construction
Incorrect installation
It suffices to say that a proper installa‑
tion is necessary for the pump to oper‑
ate satisfactorily.
In addition to a proper pump installa‑

tion, proper selection and installation
of the piping and system components Correct installation
is critical to pump reliability. An exam‑
ple of this is shown in Figure 6.1. Fig. 6.1. Suction pipe installation
6.2.3. Improper Piping and Inflow Conditions

Proper design of the piping system is an important factor for trouble-free operation. If the
pipe diameter is too small for the desired flow rates this will cause high flow velocities and
large pressure drops in the system. This means that the pump has to produce a higher than
necessary pressure. The inlet pressure will in all likelihood be lower with the increased risk
of having cavitation problems.
Bad or uneven inflow to a pump can also have dramatic affects on the performance of the
pump. The inflow should be as even as possible. Vortices must be avoided at all cost. 80% of
pump problems are system problems and 80% of those are suction system problems.
6.2.4. NPSH
NPSHR is a measure of the pressure that is required at the inlet of the impeller in order to avoid
cavitation damage during operation of the pump. NPSHA is the available pressure, which has to be
higher than the required pressure NPSHR. It must be pointed out that curves indicating the NPSH
requirement of a pump often refer to a “3% drop” in pressure relative to cavitation-free performance.
EUROPUMP and HI have published Standard ANSI/HI9.6.l 1998 (currently being revised) for
NPSH margins that give the user suggested margins of NPSHA over NPSHR.
6.2.5. Entrained Air

It is important to avoid entrained air in the pumped media as much as possible. Entrained
air causes damage similar to cavitation in the pump. It can also be the origin of severe noise
problems. Some of the time a small amount of air quiets a pump. Centrifugal pumps can only
handle 3-5% air before performance deteriorates.
45
6.2.6. Dry Running

Dry running, or running against a closed
valve, can cause enormous heat buildup
in the pump, seizure of parts, and, in a
worst-case scenario, lead to an explosion.
Proper monitoring of the system should be
in place to avoid this situation. Figure 6.2
shows what can happen when a pump
is operated against a closed valve for an
extended period.
Fig. 6.2. Explosion due to closed valves

on both sides of a pump
6.2.7. Allowable Operating Region

Every centrifugal pump has a best efficiency point, which is marked on its pump curve. This
is the design point for the pump. At this point, the efficiency reaches its maximum and the
forces on the bearings are generally the lowest. When the pump is operated away from the
BEP the efficiency goes down.
Due to the fact that the harmful hydraulic forces in the pump increase rapidly when the pump
is operated away from the best efficiency point, each manufacturer assigns an “allowed or
recommended operating region” around the BEP. If the pump operates outside this region for
an extended period of it can be damaged.
The system designer has to calculate a system curve that will be used to choose the right pump for
the required duty. The system curve determines where on the pump curve the pump is operating.
What is even more important from reliability and maintenance point of view is that the hydraulic
forces in the pump increase rapidly, which can affect the shaft deflection as shown in Figure 6.3.
Changes in the duty point can be made both by varying the system curve, i.e. by throttling,
and by varying pump performance by changing the speed of the pump. It must be remem‑
bered that the real duty point, in all likelihood, will be different from the calculated duty point;
therefore, adjustments should be made, if possible, when the system is commissioned. With
time, processes are usually changed, which also results in changes in duty point for the pump.
Pumps in the process industry are often

regulated with valves. One common Shaft Deflection
occurrence is that the operators want to 2.5
increase production, which leads them 2

Shaft Deflection
to open the control valves in order to

increase flow rates. In such cases, care 1.5
must be taken so that the pump does not 1

run too far on the curve in cavitation mode
0.5
or create excessive loads on the bearings.
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Fig. 6.3. Typical shaft deflections due
to radial forces Q/Qnom
46
6.2.8. Seals and Bearings
At the BEP, the hydraulic loads imposed on the impeller are minimized and are usually fairly
steady. At flows greater or less than the BEP, the hydraulic loads increase in intensity and
become unsteady because of turbulence and/or re-circulation in the impeller and casing.
These unsteady loads have a negative affect on both the seals and the bearings of a pump.
Figure 6.4 shows how bearing loads and shaft deflection can vary with flow rate for a volute-
type, centrifugal pump. This shows how dramatic the influence of the operating point can be
on bearing life. Seal life in turn is very dependent on shaft deflection.
Contamination of the bearings can drastically shorten bearing life and lead to failure. The bearings
should, therefore, be well protected from all types of contaminants. Also, it is of the utmost impor‑
tance that the bearing manufacturers’ recommendations regarding oil or grease types are followed.
Relatively recent tests have shown that

any type of external fluid that enters the Radial Bearing Life
grease in a roller bearing will rapidly 1.2
lead to deterioration of the grease or
Bearing Life at Qnom=1
1
oil. Deteriorated grease, in turn, is 0.8
transferred out of the bearing by its
0.6
movement, which leads to rapid failure.
0.4
It is, therefore, extremely important
0.2
that a greased bearing is protected
from all kinds of water intrusion or the 0
pumped fluid.
Q/Qnom
Fig. 6.4. Typical radial bearing life as a

function of normalized flow rate
6.2.9. Use of “Pirated” Parts and Improper Repairs

In order to maintain the quality of the pump system, it is essential that original parts be used
for repairs. This includes items like bearings, where the manufacturers’ recommendations
should be strictly followed.
6.2.10. Improper Balancing

It is self-evident that improper balancing of rotating parts leads to increased forces of the
bearings and, therefore, also shortened bearing life. ANSI/HI Standard 9.6.4 –New - and ISO
Standards contain recommendations for maximum unfiltered vibration limits for pumps with
either journal or rolling contact bearings. Pump manufacturers have found, by experience
and theoretical analysis, that there are no adverse affects on pump life or reliability due to
vibration forces, so long as the vibration amplitudes do not exceed these limits. Reputable
manufacturers will ensure that their products are balanced to these standards.
Some foreign object in the pumped media can, however, damage an impeller during oper‑
ation. It is, therefore, a good idea to monitor vibration levels to make certain that the pump
is in good condition.
47
6.2.11. Effect on Maintenance by Operating Away from BEP

The reliability and, hence, maintenance costs are very dependent on where on its curve the pump
is operated. Figure 6.5 shows how the reliability varies with distance from the best efficiency point
(BEP). As can be seen, even small deviations from BEP have major influence on the reliability.
Pump Curve Sensitivity for Pump Reliability
Lower Impeller Life

Low Row Cavitation
Suction Recirculation
Discharge Recirculation
Total Head
High Temperature
Rise Low Bearing and Best Practice
Low Seal Life -10% to +5%
Reliability
Best Efficiency Lowbearing and seal life
Point
Better Practice Cavitation
-20% to +10%
Reliability Curve Pump Curve

Good Practice
-30% to +15%
Flow
Fig. 6.5. Reliability as a function of distance from BEP
6.2.12. Maintenance Cost Relative to Distance from BEP

When a pump is operated away from its BEP, the forces from the fluid on the impeller in the
pump increase rapidly. As bearing life depends on the forces the bearings have to support,
bearing life will also be affected (as shown in Figure 6.4) and the increased forces cause
increased shaft deflection (as seen in Figure 6.3) which has a very negative influence on seal
life. If the operating point deviation from the BEP is large, there may also be vibrations due to
cavitation or recirculation in the impeller. The more unstable fluid flow can then damage the
impeller and shorten its life. Table 6.1 shows an example from the Chemical industry of how
maintenance cost can be influenced by operating point.
Pump Head Capacity Curve
BEP
Head
20% of 40% of 60% of 75% to 115% 140% of

BEP BEP BEP of BEP BEP
Flow rate
48
Table 6.1. Example of how maintenance costs can vary with distance from BEP
% of Best Efficiency Point
Cost/Failure
75% to (USD/Euro)
20% 40% 60% 140%
115%
Life 2 months 4 months 1 year 2 years 2 months 1000 Parts
Failure/Year 6 3 1 0.5 6 500 Labor
Seals
Cost/Year
9000 4500 1500 750 9000
(USD/Euro)
Life 1 year 3 years 4 years 5 years 1 year 500 Parts
Failure/Year 1.00 0.33 0.25 0.20 1.00 500 Labor
Bearings
Cost/Year
1000 333 250 200 1000
(USD/Euro)
Life 2 years 5 years 7 years 10 years 2 years 2000 Parts
Casing/ Failure/Year 0.50 0.20 0.01 0.10 0.5 0 Labor
Impeller Cost/Year
1000 400 285 200 1,000
(USD/Euro)
Total Cost/Year
11 000 5230 2040 1150 11 000
(USD/Euro)
6.2.13. Effect of Pump Wear on Pump Characteristics

After being in service for a period of time, pumps may require adjustments to maintain original
efficiencies. Depending on the type of pump, this may be done by adjusting wear plates or
distance between the impeller and the pump bowl. If adjustments are not done at specified
intervals, the pump characteristics may change and the pump may be operating outside its
recommended operating region. It is good practice to benchmark the pump after startup of a
pumping system and perform periodic testing to discover any deviations. An example of how
a worn pump may affect pump characteristics is shown in Figure 6.6.
New pump
Efficiency curve
Worn pump
Efficiency
Head
Pump head curve
System curve
Power head curve

Power
Flow Difference
Flow
Fig. 6.6. Effect of worn pump on pump characteristics
49
Pumps wear in different ways. Although efficiency, flow and pressure are almost always
reduced, power may increase or decrease depending on the pump. This is important to rec‑
ognize as pumps used for systems such as irrigation may increase power consumption when
pump efficiency is improved, if the pumps are still operated for the same amount of time
(and pumping more flow). With these systems, the pumps should be operated for less time
to benefit from the increased pump efficiency.
Maintaining the appropriate clearances between the bottom of the vanes of a semi-open
impeller and the bowl housing is necessary for efficient pump performance, as shown in
Figure 6.7, for a vertical well pump.
Pump adjustments for vertical, turbine pumps with semi-open impellers can be done by
adjusting a nut on the top of the shaft to lower the impeller. However, this technique will not
work for pumps that have enclosed impellers.
Fig. 6.7. Travel distance for a vertical turbine pump
6.3. Pump System Monitoring

Maintenance practices vary significantly from one facility to another. The key areas for any
maintenance department should include the following:
• Have adequate, skilled staff to keep up with equipment repairs and preventative maintenance
• Have the right equipment, tools and spare parts available
• Perform maintenance functions in a systematic and efficient manner
• Understand that they are part of a team and need to support facility operations
• Work with facility management to integrate maintenance activities into an efficient “asset
management program”
• Have trained supervisors that plan maintenance activities efficiently
• Balancing corrective, predictive and preventive maintenance costs effectively
A maintenance maturity matrix in Table 6.2 published in Computerized Maintenance Man-

agement Systems by Terry Wireman provides an overview of different maintenance levels.
50
Table 6.2. Example of maintenance maturity matrix
Measurement Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Category Uncertainty Awakening Enlightenment Wisdom Certainty
Corporate/ No comprehension Recognizes that Learns more about Participative
Includes maintenance
Plant of maintenance maintenance could ROI; becomes more attitude; recognizes
as a part of the total
Management prevention; fix it be improved, but is interested and management support
company system
Attitude when it’s broken unwilling to fund supportive is mandatory
PREDICTIVE: Utilizes
techniques such as PRODUCTIVE: Combines
CONSCIOUS: PREVENTIVE: Uses
vibration analysis, prior techniques with
Still reactive but routine inspections,
Maintenance REACTIVE: works on thermography, NDT, operator involvement
rebuilds major lubrication,
equipment when it sonics, etc. to monitor to free maintenance
Organization fails; otherwise very
components adjustments, and
equipment condition, technicians to
Status and has spares minor service to
little productivity allowing for proactive concentrate on repair
available when improve equipment
replacement and data analysis and major
failures occur MTBF
problems solving maintenance activities
instead of failures
Percentage (%)
of Maintenance
30+% 20-30% 10-20% 5-10% Less than 5%
Resources
Wasted
Problems solved Problems are
Maintenance Short-range fixes
by input from anticipated; strong
Problems fought as are provided;
Problem they are discovered elementary failure
maintenance, team problem-solving Problems are prevented
Solving operations, and disciplines are
analysis begins
engineering utilized
Quality + Quality = Pride and professionalism
Poor work quality Workers' lack
Quality; expanded/ permeate; work
accepted; rigid of skills linked Quality work
shared job roles; assignment flexibility;
craft lines; skills to breakdowns; expected; “multiskill”
Maintenance a few “critical skilled for future needs;
outdated; skills trade/craft lines job roles; skills up
skills” developed; operators trained by
Workers, training viewed questioned; skills to date and tracked;
training expenses maintenance, ongoing
Qualification as unnecessary obsolescence
reimbursed; new
training required
training; percent of
and Training expense; time in identified; training and provided; pay
pay level for targeted pay based on plant
grade pay; low needs recognized; for competency
skills; increased productivity; low
worker turnover/ traditional pay progression
turnover/ fear of employee turnover/high
apathy questioned
change enthusiasm
A manual or A manual or
Maintenance A computerized
computerized computerized work
information Maintenance tries maintenance control A maintenance
work order order system is used
to keep records, system is used by all information system
and disciplines are not
system is used by by maintenance,
parts of the company; is integrated into the
Improvement maintenance; little operations,
enforced, poor data information is reliable corporate operation
Actions or no planning or engineering,
and accurate
scheduling planners
“We don’t know “Everyone is
why the equipment committed to quality
“Do our
breaks down; that maintenance as “We don’t expect
Summation competitors have “With the new
is what we pay a routine part of breakdowns and are
these kinds of commitment from
of Company maintenance for. our operational surprised when they
problems with management, we can
Maintenance Sure, our scrap
their equipment? begin to identify and
philosophy. We occur; maintenance
Position rates are high, can’t make quality contributes to the bottom
Scrap is costing us solve problems.”
but that’s not products with line!”
a bundle!”
a maintenance poorly maintained
problem.” equipment.”
At the minimum, operators should follow the manufacturers’ recommended maintenance

schedule and do periodic walk downs to listen for unfamiliar noises and feel the vibrations.
In this way, a good operator can catch many problems before they reach a serious stage.
Monitoring the system and looking for deviations in vibration patterns can also be a good
way of discovering problems before they lead to serious problems.
51
6.3.1. Asset Management

There are several ways to increase the life, reliability and productivity of a system. To manage
the system in order to get optimal value out of it is called Asset Management.
The key to achieving this is to ensure that the system is always operated in accordance with
the intentions of the designer. There are many new products available on the market that
can help achieve this goal, and more are constantly coming. A number of such products /
methods are described below:
6.3.2. Monitoring Systems

Monitoring systems have been around for many years and, with falling prices on electronic
components, are becoming increasingly sophisticated. Monitoring of flow rate, pressure,
temperature, rpm, vibration levels, etc. are common. These systems can discover deviations
from normal operating conditions, but it is still up to the operator to ensure that the pump is
operated as intended.
6.3.3. Integrated Monitoring and Control Systems

The latest development in the monitoring and control of pump systems integrates these func‑
tions. The output from monitoring sensors is fed into a small computer, which uses specific
algorithms to control pump operation by changing its speed.
One such system can perform the following tasks:
• Prevents the pump from running against a closed discharge valve

• Prevents the pump from running with a closed suction valve
• Prevents dry running
• Prevents running in cavitation mode
• Restricts operation to customer-specified operating ranges
• Reacts and “alarms” at process system upsets
• Enables the customer to maintain flow pressure or other process variables
• Possesses self-diagnostic capabilities that alert the user when the pump is in need of
maintenance, i.e. adjustment of clearances

• Maintenance costs are basically decided on when the system is designed. From the above,
it is evident that the way in which the pump system is operated is the real key to increased
reliability and lower maintenance costs.
• It is of the utmost importance that the pump is operated as close as possible to the BEP.
Over sizing of the pump frequently leads to excessive throttling of the flow by a valve. This,
in turn, results in a change in the duty point, normally towards shut-off.
52
• Proper installation is very important for trouble free operation.
• All facilities should strive to put together a comprehensive maintenance program.
• The Manufacturers’ recommended service intervals should be adhered to.
• Advanced monitoring and control system can protect and extend the life of the system.
6.5. Exercises
Example #1
Pump efficiency tests indicate that a 150 kW water pump operating with a variable speed
drive produces 400 l/s at 15 m of total head at 80% of full speed. An electrical measurement
shows that the pump draws 110 kW. The pump operates 6000 hours per year at a cost of
0.05 USD/Euro per kWh. Demand cost is 10.00 USD/Euro per kW, motor efficiency is 90%,
vsd efficiency is 95%, and the original pump efficiency is 85% at the same flow rate and head.
1. Calculate the existing pump efficiency.

2. Determine the cost savings if the pump was restored back to its original condition.
Answer:
Use the pump equation to first calculate the existing efficiency:
flow (l/s)* head(m)

kW =
102 * ηpump * ηmotor * ηvsd
Solving for Pump Efficiency (ηpump):
400 l/s * 15 m
Pump Efficiency = = 0.62
102 * 110 kW * 0.90 * 0.95
Next, use the pump equation at the same flow rate and head but with the original pump
efficiency (vsd speed will be lower at the higher efficiency since the pump can produce the
same flow at the same head using less power).
400 l/s * 15 m
kW = = 81 kW
102 * 0.85 * 0.90 * 0.95
110 kW – 81 kW = 29 kW
Annual Demand savings =29 kW * 10.00/kW * 12 months = 3480 USD/Euro
Annual kWh Savings = 29 kW * 6000 hours * 0.05 per kWh = 8700 USD/Euro
Total Cost Savings: 12 180 USD/Euro
53
7. Pump System Energy Use
7.1. General
In Chapter 4, the relationship between fluid power, pressure (head) and the specific gravity of a
fluid was discussed. This Chapter expands on this concept by adding mechanical and electrical
component efficiencies to the equation, and translating it into kilowatts and energy dollars.
7.2. Power Equations

When the equation for fluid power is expanded to include equipment efficiency, the corre‑
sponding relationship will be similar to equation 7.1. As noted for the metric equations, kW
includes an “electric power” subscript to distinguish this kW from the kW used in Chapter 4
to represent fluid power.
U. S. Units
Head (ft) * Flow (gpm) * specific gravity * 0.746

kW =
3960 * ηpump * ηmotor * ηasd
Metric
Head (m) * Flow (m3/sec) * density * 9.8

kWelectric power =
ηpump * ηmotor * ηasd * 1000
Head (m) * Flow (m3/hr) * density

kWelectric power =
367 * ηpump * ηmotor * ηasd * 1000
Head (m) * Flow (liters/hr) * density

kWelectric power =
102 * ηpump * ηmotor * ηasd * 1000
Eq. 7.1. Electric Power Equations
54
Besides including pump efficiency, the elec‑
tric power equations, shown in Equation 7.1, Hydraulic power =
l/s . m . relative density
also include electrical efficiency values for the 102
Pump
motor and variable speed drive (vsd). Depend‑ Pump input power (kW) = Hydraulic power
ing on the pump system, these components (or motor output) Pump efficiency
will vary and can be adjusted as needed. The
Motor
Motor output power
Motor input power (kWe) =
important aspect to recognize is that every Motor efficiency
component between the electric meter and

the pump should be included if efficiency is
being reduced. This is illustrated in Figure 7.1.
Fig. 7.1. Breakdown of Energy Equation
7.3. Using the Power Equations

The electric power equations are extremely useful to evaluate pump system energy use. When
properly used, these equations provide a kW value for any point that the pump is capable of
operating at. Some of the ways these equations can be used include:
• Evaluating energy savings when pump or motor efficiency is improved

• Comparing field data with calculated data to verify results
• Evaluating the impact of reducing or increasing total head or flow
It is important to remember that the electric power equations must also account for efficiency
changes when flow or head are changed. Using a pump curve and system curve will help
determine pump efficiency changes.
Obtaining a kW value for each operating point that the pump is expected to operate at is the
first step to evaluate pump system energy use. Using this value, kWh can be easily determined
by multiplying each calculated kW value by the number of hours the pump is expected to
operate at that interval. At this point it appears to be simple math to then multiply the number
of kWh by the cost/kWh to get a total energy cost. However, most utility rate schedules are far
more complicated and must be reviewed in detail to determine the true monthly energy cost.
7.4. Specific Energy

It is very useful to be able to track the performance of a system in order to see how efficiently
it is operating relative to optimum, but also to be able to easily and quickly discover devi‑
ations from the normal. When monitoring systems, it is therefore desirable to be able to
measure some parameters that give an indication of how the system is performing and if the
performance changes over time.
Pump systems in industry are often connected to various types of monitoring and control
systems. Traditionally, flow rate, pressure, power or current are monitored. Just monitoring
one or several of these entities is, however, not enough to get a good picture of the system
performance. However, in many cases the information collected can be made more useful if
different parameters are combined to form key performance indicators that are followed in
time. Monitoring of pumps can, for example, be made more useful by dividing the flow and
power to form specific energy, rather than just measuring them independently.
55
The specific energy is a very useful key performance indicator to follow and monitor pump systems.
The U.S. Department of Energy’s PSAT Programme can be used together with the specific
energy concept to construct a diagram that shows total system performance relative to an
optimal system. This diagram makes it easy to demonstrate the optimization potential both
as a function of improving the existing system components and as a function of eliminat‑
ing throttling losses. The diagram also shows how the cost of pumping is affected by such
changes to the system.
When judging how a pumping system performs, energy wise, it is important to know what
to measure. A pump can operate at high efficiency, whereas the system as a whole operates
at low efficiency. This is particularly common when throttling valves control the system. Very
large amounts of energy can be wasted in a heavily throttled system.
A common reason why excessive throttling takes place is over-sizing. It should not be a surprise
to anyone that most pump systems are oversized. It is hard to make accurate calculations of the
required head and rate of flow that have to be delivered by pumps. Safety margins are there‑
fore usually added during the design phase. Add to that, that flow resistance often increases
with time as well as that flow requirements are often increased in the future and it is easy to
understand that most systems are oversized and capable of providing more flow than needed.
Throttling valves and Variable Speed Drives are frequently used is to correct over-sizing.
It is important that an operator or plant manager understands how efficiently the pump sys‑
tems in a plant work. To answer this question it is common practice to perform a system
assessment where the actual process demands are compared to the available supply and
suggestions for how the system can be improved are put forward.
After a system has been optimized, it is important to make sure that the achieved
improvements are maintained and that the system efficiency is not allowed to slip. The
specific Energy can be used as a Key Performance Indicator (KPI) in order to investigate
and follow system efficiency and to make sure deviations in system performance get
detected at an early stage.
It is very useful to be able to track the performance of a pump system in order to see how efficiently
it is operating relative to optimum, but also to be able to easily and quickly discover deviations from
normal. Monitoring the performance of pumping systems can be a very profitable undertaking.
Pump systems in industry are often connected to various types of monitoring and control sys‑
tems. Traditionally, flow rate, pressure, power or current are monitored. Just monitoring one
or several of these entities is, however, not enough to get a good picture of how the system
is performing. There is also risk of missing important information about system performance
as a whole. In many cases, the information collected can be made more useful if different
parameters are combined and followed in time. The monitoring of pumps can, for example,
be made more useful by relating the flow and power, rather than just measuring them inde‑
pendently. It is shown that power divided by flow rate is a very important key performance
indicator for a pump system.
In many industries motor current is monitored instead of power. The current is roughly
proportional to power and can be used as a substitute for power. In both cases, the
56
quotient will be a very good measure of the system efficiency and also sensitive to
changes in the system.
In order to explain how this KPI is derived, and the benefits it brings, some fundamental
relationships must first be described.
7.4.1. Fluid Power

For pump systems, the relationship between fluid power, flow rate, pressure (head), and
specific gravity of the fluid can be expressed in the following equation:
Fluid Power = Head (m) * Flow (m3/sec) * specific gravity * 9.8 (1)
In order to obtain the electrical power used by the system, it is necessary to divide the fluid
power by the efficiencies of the different components that produce the fluid power: i.e. motor,
pump and if present, variable speed drive, VSD, efficiencies.
7.4.2. Specific Energy calculations

A useful measure for calculating the cost of pumping is the specific energy, Es, which is
defined as the energy used to move a certain volume through the system. Specific energy
is measured as Watt hours/m3 or any other suitable unit and has the advantage of being a
direct measurement of the cost of pumping, once you know the cost of energy.
Energy used
= Specific Energy (2)
Pumped Volume
Pin · Time Pin

Es = = (3)
V Q
As seen in equation (3), the instantaneous value of the specific energy equals the input
power divided by the flow rate.
Using the equation for fluid power and dividing by the various efficiencies we get:
Head (m) * Flow (m3/sec) * specific gravity * 9.8

InputPower = (4)
ηpump * ηmotor * ηdrive
From this we get:
Head (m) * specific gravity * 9.8

Es = (5)
ηpump * ηmotor * ηdrive
If there is no variable speed drive in the system, the corresponding term equals 1.
Specific Energy is hence a linear function of head if the efficiencies are constant. It is a useful
measure for comparing different system solutions and the cost of pumping.
57
In systems where the flow is constant this is a simple task by using the equations above. In sys‑
tems with varying flow rates it becomes a little more complicated. First, Es needs to be calculated
as a function of flow rate, which requires information from pump, motor and drive manufactur‑
ers. The pump manufacturer has to provide pump curves for variable speed operation, while
the motor and drive suppliers have to provide efficiency curves as a function of load and speed.
In existing systems, specific energy can be calculated directly from measurement of absorbed
energy and flow rate.
Specific Energy, Es, is a linear function of the head if the other factors are constant. We can,
therefore, plot Es as a function of head for different overall efficiencies. See figure 7.2, where
the overall efficiency is the product of the different component efficiencies from Eq. 5. The
lowest line in the diagram represents 100% efficiency and is of course not reachable. If input
power, flow rate and head are available at a specific duty point, it is easy to calculate Es and
mark that as a point in figure 7.2. The overall system efficiency can then be interpolated.
Using a computer program, such as US Department of Energy’s PSAT, the best available pump
and motor efficiencies for specific duty point can be found and a lowest possible specific
energy can be calculated for the duty point in question, if there is no VSD involved. It is harder
to find out what the efficiency of a drive/motor combination is as it varies depending on how
well motor and drive fit together. The drive, if present, introduces additional losses in the
motor that should be accounted for.
Figure 7.3 gives an idea about the combined efficiency of a drive and motor. Motors react
differently to different drives. It is therefore recommended to buy a drive and motor from
the same manufacturer to assure a combination that is well matched. Modern drives have
improved considerably compared to what was available some years ago, but they still
influence motor efficiency and this should be accounted for.
Possible Range of Specific Energy

1000
900
Overall Efficiency 0,3
800
Specific energy in Wh/m3
700
0,4
600
500 0,5
400 0,7
300 0,9
200 1,0
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Head in m
Fig. 7.2. Specific energy as a function of head for different overall

efficiencies (= hdrive * hmotor * hpump)
58
One on the benefits with using PSAT 88 88
86 86
is that the programme has included
Combined efficiency, %
84 84
information about the kind of pump 82 82 Best
Best Average
that is used and information about 80 Average 80
Worst
the best available pump efficiency 78 Worst 78
76 76
for many kinds of pumps is stored in 74 74
the program. The Hydraulic Institute, 72 72
HI, has made the data available. 70 70
50 60 70 80 90 100 20 40 60 80 100
Speed, % rated Shaft power, % rated
Note: 38-kW, 2-pole, standard efficiency motor (89% efficient @ full load)
Fig. 7.3. Combined motor / drive efficiency

when attached to different drives, (DOE)
7.4.3. Flow control

The two basic methods for flow control are: to either change the system curve, by throttling,
or the pump curve, by using a variable speed drive. The most common option is still the use
of a throttling valve. Variable speed drives are always more efficient than throttling valves,
and they will usually be more economical to use than valve regulation, especially on a life
cycle cost comparison. Controlling the rate of flow by by-passing some of the pumped liquid
is also used in many applications in spite of its being uneconomical.
In systems where precise flow control is not needed, other solutions than throttling valves or
VFDs may prove to be more efficient. For example, properly sized pumps running on/off can
be a very efficient solution for many systems.
7.4.4. Flow Regulation by Throttling

When the flow is regulated using a throttling valve, the system curve is changed. The duty
point moves to the left on the pump curve when the flow is throttled, see Figure 7.4. The ver‑
tical red line in Figure 7.4 represents throttling losses in the valve. The specific energy Es can
be calculated for each operating point by dividing the input power to the motor by the flow
rate. Es usually increases rapidly as throttling reduces the flow. The reason for this is two fold,
the losses in the valve and frequently falling pump efficiency higher up on the pump curve.
Fig. 7.4. Throttling a valve changes the flow rate by adding the pressure drop in the valve to
the system losses. The new system curve will be steeper and the operating point moves up
along the pump curve.
59
From the information in Figure 7.4, it is possible to estimate the head that would be necessary
to produce a certain flow in the system if there would be no throttling. (One method of getting
the pump to operate at such an un-throttled duty point would be to use a variable speed
drive to reduce the pump output instead of throttling the pump). The head requirement
without throttling can be read on the original un-throttled curve below the desired operating
point. Again PSAT can be used to estimate the efficiency of the best possible motor/pump
combination for this un-throttled rate of flow.
Using PSAT, the ideal specific energy for this un-throttled operating point can thus be
calculated and plotted in the specific energy diagram. This has been done in Figure 7.5.
The top right point represents the present operating point. The lower right point repre‑
sents the specific energy, using an optimal motor/pump combination, obtained from
PSAT. The lower left point represents an optimal pump/motor combination operating
without throttling. The diagram gives a very good graphical representation of where the
system is operated from a cost point of view and where it could operate if optimized and
without throttling losses.
As there is a cost associated with each kWh, the y-axis shows the cost of pumping a unit
volume through the system. The example in figure 7.5 thus shows that the specific energy
can be lowered from 360 Wh/m3 to 240 Wh/m3 by improving the pump and motor. A further
reduction to 120 Wh/m3 is possible by removing the throttling losses.
The people responsible for the system can thus easily see that they are using three
times as much energy and money as they need to do to perform a certain duty. Changes
in pump performance will also be much easier to detect than if power and flow are
monitored independently.

1000
900
Specific energy in Wh/m3
800
700
0,4
600
0,5
500
400 0,7
300 0,9
200 1,0
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Head in m
Fig. 7.5. Specific Energy Diagram with Three Operating Points.
60
7.4.5. Flow Regulation Using Variable Speed Drives
A variable speed drive makes it possible to adjust the output to the demand without throttling.
The common over-sizing of pumps can therefore often be neutralized and large amounts
of energy saved. In the case of systems exhibiting a large amount of static head, however,
special care has to be taken. When the speed is reduced in such a system the operating point
moves higher and higher on the reduced pump curves, until the pump finally is dead‑headed.
It should be stressed that long before that happens, the pump leaves the preferred operating
range and can experience severe damage if operated under such conditions for an extended
period of time. It is therefore necessary to take a broad view of the system before deciding on
what kind of control to use.
Variable speed pumping can save a tremendous amount of energy relative to throttling, but
is not always the best solution to a pumping problem. Variable Speed Drives sometimes
actually increase the energy consumption. It is therefore important to understand when to
use them and when not to use them. This has been described in an earlier eemods (Energy
Efficiency in Motor Driven Systems) paper.
Figure 7.6 shows two system curves and reduced pump curves (solid lines) and lines of constant
efficiency (dashed lines), the middle one having the highest efficiency. It demonstrates what
happens in a speed-regulated system. Here new pump curves are obtained as the speed is
decreased. New operating points will be determined by the intersection of the system curve
and a reduced pump curve. It is important to separate systems with and systems without
static head as they react quite differently to speed changes.
In a system with static head, the pump efficiency will change as the speed is changed. In
systems without static head, on the other hand, the new operating points obtained when the
speed is reduced will remain at the original efficiency as shown in Figure 7.6.
Due to the above, it is a bit more complicated to use the specific energy diagram with speed
control. If the best possible efficiency is to be plotted in the diagram, the changes in efficiency
with speed for all the system components have to be considered. This could be done for a
limited number of points, where after the points are connected. The instantaneous energy
use and flow rate can still be monitored and compared to the optimum in the diagram. A
system with static head might look like the curve in figure 7.6.
Fig. 7.6. With a VSD, the operating point moves along the system curve. The figures show
two different system curves, one with static head and one without.
61
7.4.6. Specific energy as a Key Performance Indicator, KPI

It is very useful to be able to track the performance of a pump system in order to see how
efficiently it is operating relative to optimum, but also to be able to easily and quickly dis‑
cover deviations from the normal. It is suggested that power divided by flow rate would be
a very useful key performance indicator if flow rate and power were monitored.
In many industries motor current is monitored instead of power. The current is roughly
proportional to power and can be used as a substitute for power. As the power fac‑
tor changes with motor load, this has to be taken into account when using the current
instead of power. It has to be realized that if the current is used, it will not give a correct
measure of the specific energy without being converted to power. PSAT has the capabil‑
ity of doing this with fairly high accuracy as long as the motor is not very lightly loaded
(below 25%). However, if the current is used instead of power, the quotient will still be
sensitive to changes in the specific energy and could thus be used for detecting perfor‑
mance changes. In both cases the quotient will be a very good detector of changes in the
system efficiency.
At a recent assessment of a pump station, it was found that one of the three parallel pumps
was drawing about 100kW but contributed almost nothing in flow. The pump was practically
dead-headed by the other two pumps as the wear rings were badly worn and the delivered
head was therefore lower than for the other pumps.
The system was set up to monitor total flow and motor currents independently and the
problem with the pump was hidden. Had the total current divided by the flow rate for the
system as a whole been monitored, the problem would certainly have caught someone’s
attention much earlier.

1000
900
Specific energy in Wh/m 3
800
700
0,4
600
0,5
500
400 0,7
300 0,9
200 1,0
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Head in m
Fig. 7.7. Typical Specific Energy curve for a VSD driven system
62
7.5. Electric Utility Rate Schedules
Most commercial electric utility rate schedules (also called tariffs) include the following
cost components
• Energy consumption (kWh or kVARh)

• Demand (kW or kVA)
• Power Factor
• Misc. Service charges, fuel cost adjustments, etc.
7.5.1. Energy Consumption

Energy consumption (kWh) on the “load” side can be calculated fairly easily as discussed
above. However, depending on the electric utility, this value may be tracked and billed in
many different ways on the “meter” side. Some of these billing calculations include:
• What time of day the energy was used (on peak, off peak)
• What month or season the energy was used (i.e. winter/summer)
• Different rates for each quantity (or block) of energy used during the month
In addition, these kWh charges may be billed multiple times in different categories and
for those areas where electric utilities have been deregulated, may also be itemized on a
separate energy supply bill and an energy delivery bill.
7.5.2. Demand Charges

Demand charges are billed by the electric utilities to recover costs for providing distribution
and transmission capacity to meet a facility’s peak electrical load. The monthly demand
charges on an electric bill are based on the peak energy use (usually in kW) recorded during
the month. The electric meter that measures this value records the highest average kW value
in a 15 or 30-minute period. Based on this measurement interval, it can be seen that a short
surge in energy use (such as a when a motor is started) will have a minimal effect on the
demand recorded. An example of a typical facility demand profile is shown in Figure 7.8
Fig. 7.8. Sample Demand Chart
63
The chart, in Figure 7.8, shows a steady demand just over 200 kW all day Sunday and
Monday morning. However when additional equipment is operated during the day shift,
the demand reaches close to 300 kW. This is the value that the utility will charge for the
monthly peak demand.
When the value is read by the utility every month, it is reset back to zero to record the peak
value for the next month. Demand charges can range from 3.00 USD/Euro per kW up to
25.00 USD/Euro per kW, depending on the utility and the rate schedule.
It is also worth noting that a portion of a peak demand value recorded in one month may
also be carried forward for up to 11 months, even though the monthly demand has dropped
to a lower level. This is typically shown as the “billed demand” versus the actual monthly
demand, which is usually labeled as the “recorded demand”.
For some pump stations, demand can be a significant cost component of an electric bill. An
example of this is shown below:
A pump station with a 100 kW pump operates 100 hours during the month
• Demand would be 100 kW (assuming that the pump operated continuously for
longer than the 15 or 30 minute demand period)
• Consumption would be 100 kW * 100 hours or 10 000 kWh for the month
Using a typical demand charge of 8.00 USD/Euro per kW and a energy consumption
cost of 0.10 USD/Euro per kWh:
100 kW * 8.00/kW = 800 USD/Euro per month
10 000 kWh * 0.10/kWh = 1000 USD/Euro per month
Monthly consumption and demand charges are 1800 USD/Euro
For this simplified example, annual pump station electric cost is 21 600 USD/Euro
with demand representing 44% of the total bill!
The above example shows that the impact of demand charges that must be accounted for to
maximize energy cost savings when pump systems are optimized.
7.5.3. Power Factor

Power factor is the ratio of working power to apparent power. Power factor measures how
effective electricity is being used by a facility. A facility that has a substantial amount of induc‑
tive motor loads may have a poor power factor compared to a facility that has mostly resistive
loads (such as electric heaters). Utilities may penalize facilities with low power factors (typi‑
cally less than 80%), and may reward facilities with high power factors.
64
The good news is that power factor can be improved by installing power factor correction
capacitors. The economics of installing this equipment must be reviewed to evaluate
project cost effectiveness.
7.5.4. Contacting the Electric Utility

The important thing to realize is that energy bills can be very complicated and that one of
the most important steps when performing energy cost saving calculations is to contact your
electric utility account representative and review the electric rate schedule together to make
sure you understand how your being billed.

• The electric power equations can be used to determine pump system energy use anywhere
on the pump curve and that all system components that effect efficiency must be included.
• Electric utility rate schedules typically include a kWh charge and demand charge, but may
also include power factor charges and other fees.
• The cost for kWh may vary with the time of day, quantity use, or the time of year. kWh charges
may also have many different components and be listed on a supply and distribution bill.
• Demand charges are based on the highest kW value recorded in a 15 or 30-minute period
during the month and can be a substantial portion of the monthly electric bill.
• The best way to understand your electric bill is to review it with your utility account
representative.
65
8. Motors
8.1. General
Electrical motors are the prime drivers for pumps. There are many types of electrical motors
available. However, the caged rotor, asynchronous, AC induction motor is by far the most
common type. This motor is simple, rugged, reliable and inexpensive. The latest designs
of Premium motors are generally very efficient and the motors can easily be controlled by a
variable frequency drive (VFD). All of this makes them ideal prime drivers for pumps.
The cost of permanent magnets is steadily decreasing, as the quality gets higher. As
permanent magnet (PM) motors offer even higher efficiencies, it is reasonable to assume
that the use of PM motors will increase.
There are many older types of motors that can also be operated at different speeds, i.e. the DC
motors and wound rotor motors, but the electronic variable speed drives driving AC motors
dominate the market today. The following will therefore deal only with this type of motor.
Motors are dealt with more thoroughly in Motor System Module of the Industrial Systems
Optimization Program.
8.2. Asynchronous Induction Motors

Fig. 8.1. Typical motor nameplate
As stated above, asynchronous induction
motors are the most common motor type.
Of these over 90% are of the rotor gage
or “squirrel cage” execution. The name
comes from the design of the rotor that
has conductors of aluminum or copper that
resembles a squirrel cage. There are both
single and three phase motors available of
this type. For industrial use, three phase
66
motors are commonly used. The most common motor enclosures are open drip proof motors
(ODP) that are used in clean, non-hazardous areas, totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motors
which are typically used in non-hazardous, industrial areas where dirt or moisture be present,
and hazardous location motors which are designed to be used in hazardous environments as
defined by the National Electrical Code (NEC) classifications. General information about the
motor can be found on the motor nameplate as shown in Figure 8.1.
8.2.1. Starting Characteristics

When connected to the full line voltage, an induction motors draw a very high current known
as the “Locked Rotor Current.” They also produce torque, which is known as the “Locked
Rotor Torque”. The Locked Rotor Torque (LRT) and the Locked Rotor Current (LRC) are a func‑
tion of the terminal voltage of the motor and the motor design. As the motor accelerates,
both the torque and the current will change with rotor speed if the voltage is maintained con‑
stantly. The starting current will drop slowly as the motor accelerates and will only begin to
fall significantly when the motor has reached at least 80% of the full speed. Figure 8.2 shows
the typical starting characteristics for a direct on line start of an induction motor. The actual
curves can vary considerably between designs but the general trend is for a high current until
the motor has almost reached full speed. The Locked Rotor Current (LRC) of a motor can range
from 500% of Full-Load Current (FLC) to as high as 1400% of FLC. Typically, good motors fall
in the range of 550% to 750% of FLC.
It is important to know the starting current of a motor in order to properly size the other
electrical components.
The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a fixed voltage will drop a little to the
minimum torque, known as the pull-up torque, as the motor accelerates and then rises to a
maximum torque, known as the breakdown or pull-out torque, at almost full speed and then
drop to zero at the synchronous speed.
Pull-out Torque
Current (% of Motor Full-Load Current)
Torque (% of Motor Full-Load Torque)
7X FLC
Full Voltage Stator Current
LRC
6X FLC 2X FLT
5X FLC
4X FLC
LRT Full Voltage Start Torque
3X FLC 1X FLT
2X FLC Pull-up Torque
1X FLC Sample Load Torque Curve
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Rotor Speed (% of Speed)
Fig. 8.2. Typical torque-speed curve for a 3-phase AC induction motor
67
The curve of the start torque against the rotor speed is dependant on the terminal voltage
and the rotor design. The Locked Rotor Torque (LRT) of an induction motor can vary from as
low as 60% of FLT to as high as 350% of FLT. The pull-up torque can be as low as 40% of FLT
and the breakdown torque can be as high as 350% of FLT. Typically, LRTs for medium to large
motors are in the order of 120% of FLT to 280% of FLT. For the motor to start, it is important
that the available torque is larger than the torque required by the load. The motor will run at
a point where the motor torque and the load torque are equal. This occurs at a speed some‑
what lower than the synchronous speed. The difference is called the slip.
Motors with high efficiency tend to have lower slip and hence run faster than older motors
with lower efficiency. The actual running speed is important to know since it influences
the pump performance.
8.2.2. Running Characteristics

The synchronous speed of a motor is determined by the number of poles in the stator as
defined by Equation 8.1.
n = 120 × f/p
Eq. 8.1. Motor Speed
Where n = speed in r/min, f = supply frequency (Hz), and p = number of poles
Table 8.1. Speeds for 60 Hz motors with different pole numbers

Synchronous speed at Synchronous speed at
Nº of Poles
50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
The actual full-load slip of a particular motor is dependant on the motor design. Typically,
it is less than 3-4%.
8.2.3. Motor Efficiency

The majority of induction motors are designed and manufactured to meet specific design stand‑
ards, which specify output power, synchronous speed and critical dimensions. The efficiency
standards were set, in 1992, by the Energy Policy Act (EPAct 92) In the U.S. This standard covers
most motors sold in the market place and sets minimum efficiency standards. Figure 8.3 shows
typical motor efficiencies for 75 kW standard industrial motors. As can be seen in the figure,
the efficiency of a modern motor is very high. In general, the efficiency is constant within 1-2%
between 50 and 100% load. The maximum efficiency usually occurs around 75% load. Below
50% load the efficiency falls, but for modern motors it remains good down to about 25% load.
68
96
95
ole
94 4-p 8-pole
Efficiency, %
6-pole
93
92
le
po
91 2-
90
25 50 75 100
Load, % of rated
Fig. 8.3. Typical efficiencies for 60Hz, 75 kW motors
8.2.4. Using Adjustable Speed Drives with Motors

When a motor is connected to an ASD, it is subjected to short and high voltage pulses sent out
at a very high frequency by the ASD. The voltage of these pulses is related to the line voltage
and can reach levels where corona effects are created in the windings. This, in turn, can have
a detrimental effect on the wire insulation and can cause burn through in the stator. This has
led to the development of new types of wire insulation that are resistant to the high voltage
spikes sent out by an ASD. Motors equipped with this type of higher quality wire insulation
are called “inverter duty motors”. The problem with voltage spikes is more pronounced on 60
Hz grids than they are on 50 Hz grids, as the line voltages there are higher.
8.2.5. Service Factor

The service factor (SF) is a measure of continuous overload capacity at which a motor can
operate without overload or damage. The motor manufacturer measures the heat rise in
a motor as a function of load. The motor is stamped as having a certain power i.e. 75 kW
depending on how high temperature-rise is that can be tolerated. The power that the motor
can deliver is, however, higher than the stamped value. If the motor delivers more power
than its nominal power, it will run hotter and the life of the motor will be shorter. As long as
the power delivered is within the service factor, the temperature rise in the motor will still be
within specifications. For motors larger than 1 kW, the standard NEMA service factor is 1.15 for
open drip proof motors and 1.0 for TEFC motors.
Regardless of the nameplate service factor, any motor that is operated above a 1.0 service
factor increases the risk of premature motor failure. The service factor is intended to signify
the motor’s capability of operating in an overload condition for a short period of time not as
a consistent mode of operation.
8.2.6. Temperature Rise

According to NEMA MG1 12.15-16, the winding temperature rise above the temperature of the
cooling medium (ambient temperature, shall not exceed the values given in Table 8.2.
69
Table 8.2. Average Winding Temperature Rise

(Based on maximum ambient temperature of 40° C; Temperatures given in Degrees C)
Insulation Class A B F H
Motors with 1.0 Service Factor other than those listed below 60 80 105 125
All motors with 1.15 or higher service factor 70 90 115 ----
Totally enclosed non-ventilated motors with 1.0 service factor 65 85 110 130
Motors with encapsulated windings and with 1.0 service factor, all enclosures 65 85 110 ----
When these temperatures are higher than recommended, motor winding insulation will
deteriorate rapidly. A rule of thumb is that insulation life is reduced by 50% for every increase
of 10° C of additional heat to the windings.
8.2.7. Maximum Number of Starts

In addition to having a properly sized motor, the entire system must be designed properly
to ensure motor reliability is not comprised. When a motor is used for a pump system, one
of the key parameters that must be reviewed is the number of starts and stops a motor is
subjected to during normal operation. Table 8.3 provides a general guide to the number of
motor starts and minimum off time per hour.
Table 8.3. Maximum starts/minimum off time per hour

kW 2-pole 4-pole 6-pole
Minimum Minimum Minimum
Max Max Max
off off off
Starts/hr Starts/hr Starts/hr
time (sec) time (sec) time (sec)
1 15 75 30 38 34 33
5 8.1 83 16.3 42 18.4 37
10 6.2 92 12.5 46 14.2 41
15 5.4 100 10.7 46 12.1 44
20 4.8 100 9.6 55 10.9 48
50 3.4 145 6.8 72 7.7 64
75 2.9 180 5.8 90 6.6 79
100 2.6 220 5.2 110 5.9 97
200 2 600 4 300 4.8 268
250 1.8 1000 3.7 500 4.2 440
Preventing frequent motor starts and stops may require system changes such as:
• Larger tanks on pump suction and discharge to extend pump run time
• Adjustment of process parameters to extend on/off times
• Inclusion of a variable speed drive to extend run time
Ideally, system changes will also strive to optimize pump system efficiency.
70
8.2.8. Effects of Changing out Motors
It is common that motors are exchanged for new ones when they break down. When a new
motor is put in service it will in all likelihood be more efficient than the old motor, as the
efficiency standards have been improved. Energy efficient motors run with less slip than
older, less efficient, motors. A centrifugal load will therefore run faster with a newer motor.
The affinity laws have taught us that for small changes the power absorbed by the motor is
roughly proportional to the cube of the speed (especially for low static head applications). A
small increase in speed would therefore have large effects on the power draw. For example,
a pump running 2% faster would draw 8% more power from the motor. If this extra flow and
pressure is throttled, the paradox that a more efficient motor requires more power arises.
In order to avoid this, other changes like impeller trimming or using a variable speed drive
should be undertaken in order to make use of the higher efficiency motor.
8.3. Key Points

• The most common motors used in industry are three phase squirrel cage asynchronous
induction motors.
• Motor information can generally be found on the motor nameplate.
• Motor speed depends on supply frequency and pole number.
• Motor efficiencies are generally high for this type of motor.
• Use inverter duty motors together with ASDs.
• The meaning of service factor.
• Efficient motors run faster.
71
9. Control Methods for Pumping

Systems
9.1. Overview
This chapter reviews some common pump system control strategies and how each control
method affects the pump head curve and system curve. The benefits and potential issues of
using variable speed drives are also discussed.
9.1.1. Pump System Control Strategies

Most process systems served by pumps do not require the full pump capacity on a continu‑
ous basis. When full flow or pressure is a not required, centrifugal pump and system require‑
ments are commonly controlled using one of the following methods:
• On/Off control
• Throttling a pump discharge valve
• Recirculating flow
• Using a variable speed drive
These methods are initiated by monitoring the process using instrumentation, and activating
the pump, control valves or variable speed drive (vsd) to adjust pump capacity.
9.1.2. Process Parameters Used For Pump Control

Fig. 9.1. Control Valve and VSD Systems
Some of the process parameters that are Controller Variable Speed Drive Controller
used include:
• Level controls
• Pressure indicators
• Flow meters Control Valve
• Temperature probes Flow meter
Flow meter
72
These instruments transmit an on/off signal based on set points or a varying signal. When a
varied signal is provided (4-20mA is the most common), a distributed control system or loop
controller is used to determine when pumps should be turned on and off, valves opened
and closed or how a variable speed drive should be operated to satisfy designated process
parameters. A simple illustration of a control valve and variable speed drive system controlled
system that uses flow instrumentation for feedback is shown below in Figure 9.1.
9.2. Pump Control Strategies
9.2.1. On/Off Control

On/Off control is the simplest and most common way to operate small pumps. When flow is
needed, a pump is activated to satisfy process needs and deactivated when the pump is no
longer required. This type of control is adequate for small pump systems, but may become
less practical for larger pump systems that require frequent on/off control for process needs.
9.2.2. Using a Control Valve to Throttle the Pump Discharge

In many industries, pump flow is routinely controlled by throttling a modulating control valves
on the pump discharge. The throttled valve can be controlled to maintain a designated flow
rate, pressure or any other parameter to satisfy system needs. Whether it is a single valve on
the pump discharge or multiple valves throughout a system (such as golf course sprinkler
system), the pump flow is decreased by increasing the resistance in the pipe system and
moving the operating point up the pump head curve as shown in Figure 9.2.
As seen in the Figure 9.2, throttling increases the pressure required to move fluid through
the system. The vertical lines in the figure represent the frictional losses in the valve. The
throttling losses, which are proportional to the flow rate multiplied by the pressure drop in
the valve, can be substantial.
45 System Curves
Original Operating
Pressure Loss Due Point
30 To Valve Throttling
Head
(m)
15
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (l/s)
Fig. 9.2. Throttling of a centrifugal pump.
73
9.2.3. Energy representation of throttling a pump system

The energy used at different operating points in a throttled system can be graphically shown,
as in the following figures:
Throttling: Duty Point Moves to Left on the

Pump System Energy Representation Pump Curve
Wasted energy in Pressure drop in the

Useful motor, pump and valve valve makes the friction
Head Head System curve with losses larger and the
energy System curve with
valve fully open, S1 valve throttled, S2 system curve steeper.
~Head x
The system curve gets
Flow S1 steeper and steeper as
the valve closes. 2 valve-
positions shown
Flow Flow
60 l/s
30 l/s
Energy wasted Useful energy System curve with valve fully open
in pump and motor
Fig. 9.3. The pump operates at BEP without Fig. 9.4. The figure shows useful energy
any throttling. The only losses are in the transferred to the fluid and energy lost in
motor and pump. motor, pump and valve. The pump losses
are larger due to change in operating point.
Throttling: Duty Point Moves to Left on the

Pump Curve
Wasted Energy in
Pressure drop in the
motor, pump and valve valve makes the
Head friction losses larger
S3
and the system
S1 curve steeper. The
system curve gets
steeper and steeper
as the valve closes.
2 valve-positions
shown
Flow
15 l/s
Needed
Useful energy flow System curve with valve fully open
Fig. 9.5. The pump is further throttled and the operation point moves to the left. The
pump efficiency has fallen even more and the losses in the valve have also increased.
Only a small fraction of the energy supplied to the motor is used to move fluid.
74
9.2.4. Flow Recirculation Using a Bypass System
A bypass system regulates flow by recirculating a portion of the pumped flow to the inlet side
of the pump. Two control valves are typically used, as shown in Figure 9.6.
Bypass Valve
This method is used to keep large
pumps activated and maintain min‑ Controller
imum pump flow when the throt‑
tled discharge valve has reduced
flow to shut-off or extremely low To Process
flow conditions.
Flow meter
Fig. 9.6. Flow Recirculation
9.2.5. Using a Variable Speed Drive

Variable speed drives change the flow through the pump by changing the pump speed. This
changes the pump curve as opposed to the system curve as in the case when a valve is used to
regulate the flow. When using a vsd, the new duty point will fall on the system curve as shown
in Figure 9.7. The shape and form of the system curve is therefore of extreme importance.
45 Pump Operation when System Curves

Throttling Discharge Valve
Reduction in Original Operating

30 pressure loss Point
Head using a vsd
(m)
15
Pump Operation when Using

a Variable Speed Drive
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (l/s)
Fig. 9.7. Impact of pump speed changes with system curves
The largest pitfall when applying speed regulation is whether the system curve exhibits static
head or not. Figure 9.8 shows the reduced pump curves together with efficiency lines. As can
be seen in the figure, there is a large difference between the two system curves. In the case
with no static head (Curve 1), the duty point follows a constant efficiency line of 80% from
100% to 70% speed. The pump efficiency is therefore constant when the speed is reduced.
75
50
40 50
60 80,5 (BEP)
40 70
75
78
80
Head, m
30 80
78
75
20
10
0%
80
90
10 %
sp
e
70
ed
%
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Flow rate, m3/hr
Fig. 9.8. Impact of pump speed changes with system curves
In the case of the system curve with static head (Curve 2), the situation is radically different.
In this case, the system curve will move across the efficiency curves and the pump efficiency
will be reduced to 60% as the pump speed is reduced from 100% to 70% speed. In cases
with high static head this can result in serious problems. The operating point of the pump can
move into areas where the pump should not be operated even with small changes in speed.
The pump efficiency also falls and this can cause the energy usage per pumped unit of
volume to actually increase even if the power used by the motor decreases. It is therefore
imperative that care be taken when installing variable speed drives in systems that have a
fair amount of static head. Each case has to be examined individually to determine what the
possible benefits could be.
9.3. System Requirements
9.3.1. Controlling by Level

Operating
A simple level control system is Range
shown in Figure 9.9. When the
Head
water in the tank reaches the
upper float the pump is activated
and as the tank level is reduced,
the lower float shuts the pump off. Flow
Fig. 9.9. On/off level control
In this arrangement, the pump operates in a narrow range on the pump curve. As the tank level
goes down, the system curve moves up slightly because of the lower head on the suction side of
the pump (assuming there is no level change on the pump discharge). When a vsd and a level sys‑
tem with proportional signal are used, the pump operating range changes as shown in Figure 9.10.
76
In Figure 9.10, an ultrasonic level control provides a signal to the controller where level set
points are programmed. A proportional signal is then used to speed up or slow down the var‑
iable speed drive to maintain a designated level range. As shown, the pump operates
between two operating points on the system curve, instead of on the full speed pump head
curve for the on/off pump system operation. However, it is important to make sure that the
controls do not allow the pump to operate at low speeds that may reduce pump efficiency too
much or operate below the system curve.
Other proportional level control

systems include pressure controls Ultrasonic
located at the bottom of the tank Level
Controls
Head
that measure levels through a pres‑
sure transducer, bubbler tubes that
vsd Operating
sense tank height based on the Range
backpressure of a tube inserted in Flow
the tank, and capacitance probes.
Fig. 9.10. Level controls using a vsd equipped pump
9.3.2. Controlling by Pressure

Many water systems require pumps to maintain a relatively constant pressure when flow var‑
ies due to system changes. A simple illustration of an on/off pressure control is shown in
Figure 9.11. Notice that the system curve suggests that the static head has not changed since
the point at zero, flow stays the same as the pump operating point moves up the head curve
when pressure increases.
Operating
Figure 9.12 shows a pressure Head
Range
based control system equipped

Off
with a variable speed drive using On
a proportional pressure signal
to speed up and slow down the
pump to maintain a designated
Flow
pressure.
Fig. 9.11. On/off pressure controls
The above control system is

common in water supply systems Operating
Head Range
such as potable municipal water
and golf course irrigation systems. Designated
vsd Pressure
As the number of users decreases
(or automatic sprinkler valves
shut off), the vsd reduces pump
speed. Eventually, the vsd must Flow
be shut-off when the flow reaches

a minimum flow set point. Fig. 9.12. Pressure controls with vsd equipped pump
77
9.3.3. Flow Controls

In some cooling and washing Throttled Valve
Operating Point Operating
systems, a constant flow rate is Variable Speed Drive Controller Head Range of VSD
needed. For this application, a
signal from a flow meter is used to
adjust vsd pump speed in relation
to the designated flow set point. Flow meter
This is shown in Figure 9.13 Flow
Fig. 9.13. Pressure controls with vsd equipped pump
If flow was controlled using a throttled discharge valve, the flow would be fixed on the pump
head curve as shown.
9.4. Understanding Variable Speed Drives
9.4.1. Types of Drives

The speed of an electric motor can be regulated using an electrical or mechanical type of
variable speed drive. Older mechanical methods include adjustable belt drive units and eddy
current magnetic clutch type drives, as shown in Figures 9.14 and 9.15.
Actutor
linkage
Belt
Pulley
High speed Low speed
Fig. 9.14. Adjustable Belt Drive
Fig. 9.15. Eddy current magnetic clutch drive
78
On the electrical side, the variable frequency drive dominates the market today. There are
several different methods available that include current and voltage source inverters for
asynchronous motors. Older systems that have been used in the past include wound rotor
motors and eddy current magnetic clutch drives.
During the last few years the Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) drives have come to dominate
the market and are used in the majority of applications. However, for some applications alter‑
native drive types such as magnetic drives are also used.
Fig. 9.16. PWM and magnetic variable speed drives

(courtesy of Robicon and MagnaDrive)
9.4.2. How Speed Regulation Influences Operating Conditions

The following illustrates what happens when the pump speed is changed in a pump attached
to three different systems, See Figure 9.17.
9.4.3. Reduced speed pump curves

The pump in Figure 9.17 is attached to the three different systems with the same full speed
duty point, 800 m3/hr @ 27.5 m of head. The power drawn by the motor is 79.5 kW at this
operating point as shown in Figure 9.18.
50 200
800 m3/hr at 27.5 m
40 (79.5 kwe) Friction Only
150
Head, m
Head, m
30
Static Only
100
20 79.5
50
10 Static and
Friction
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 9.17. The three systems used to illustrate Fig. 9.18. Three different system curves going
effects of speed variation through the same full speed duty point at 800 m3/hr
79
The speed is then dropped until half the flow rate is obtained in each system and speed and
power draw are recorded in each case.
For the all-frictional system, the speed change does not change the pump efficiency when the
speed is reduced to 50% of the original full speed. Figure 9.19.
To develop 400 m3/hr in the mixed static/frictional system, the speed only has to be reduced
to 78.5% of the original. The pump efficiency changes here as well. Figure 9.2o.
50 50
40 100 40 100
% sp % sp
eed eed
78%
Head, m
Head, m
30 30 spee
d
20 20
50% spe
ed 400 m3/hr 21.9 m
10 400 m3/hr, 6.9 m 10
(34.6 kwe)
(10.4 kwe)
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 9.19. Change in speed for the all- Fig. 9.20. Speed change in the mixed
frictional system static/frictional system
50
100%
spee To develop 400 m3/hr in the all-static head
40 d
86.5%
spee
system, the speed reduction needed to
d
achieve 50% flow is even less, 86.5% of the
Head, m
30
20
original. The pump efficiency changes even
more in this case. Figure 9.21.
400 m3/hr, 27.5 m
10
(44.7 kwe)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Flow rate, m3/hr Fig. 9.21. Speed change in the all-static

head system
9.4.4. Energy representation for a Variable Speed driven pump

How a VSD saves energy
The pump curve changes, not the system curve.

NO Head
Wasted S3 System curve with valve fully open
Energy
S1
With a smaller pump or a
slowed down pump, the
Fig. 9.22. This shows how the throttling
delivered without the
large losses in the valve
losses and excessive losses in pump and
motor are avoided when using a variable
Flow speed drive. It should be observed that this
Useful energy the same as is the most favorable situation when there is
before. Valve losses are
eliminated no static head in the system.
80
Table 9.1 shows the change in power consumed and also the energy used per unit volume. In
the case of all-static head, the energy used per unit volume of pumped liquid actually increases.
In such systems the cost of pumping would therefore increase when the flow is reduced to half.
Table 9.1. Summary of the effect of speed regulation in three different systems

Static head (m) m3/hr Speed (%) kwe m3/kwhr kwhr/m3
0 800 100 79.5 10.1 0.099
0 400 50.0 10.4 38.5 0.026
20 800 100 79.5 10.1 0.099
20 400 78.5 34.6 11.6 0.087
27.5 800 100 79.5 10.1 0.099
27.5 400 86.5 44.7 8.6 0.112
9.4.5. Static Head Considerations

It follows from the above that extra care has to be taken when installing variable speed drives
in systems that have a static head. This is especially true when the static head is the domi‑
nant part of the system curve. There might be several good reasons for installing a variable
speed drive in such a system, like better flow control. It should, however, be understood that
the result achieved is very dependent on the type of system the drive is applied to.
Energy savings could still be obtained in systems with static head, but the savings will
generally not be as large as in systems without static head.
If compared to using a throttling valve, variable speed drives will always save energy but the
energy consumption to pump a certain volume of liquid could increase compared to fixed
speed pumping using on/off regulation.
The affinity laws can thus not be used for estimating energy usage in systems with static
head. In order to estimate the energy usage, the actual energy use at the various operating
points has to be found by combining system curve and pump curve information.
9.4.6. VFD Efficiency

VFDs will influence the motor character‑ Sample Data for ASD without motor
istics when they are added to a system. 98
96 100% Torque
Efficiency (%)
75% Torque
There will also be losses in the VFD that 94 50% Torque
25% Torque
are fairly constant, and hence vary as 92
90 Full Power Loss
a percentage of the power delivered. 3,7 kW 0.113 kW
88
Figure 9.23 shows an example of how the 86
37 kW 1.30 kW
370 kW 10.99 kW
efficiency varies for a VSD as a function 84
of speed and torque. For pumping 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
applications, the torque is a second- Frequency (Hz)

degree function and it therefore falls off Fig. 9.23. VSD efficiency as a function of
quickly when the speed is lowered. speed and torque
81
Figure 9.24 gives an idea about 88 88

86 86
the combined efficiency of drive
84 84
and motor. Motors react differently 82 82 Best
Best Average
to different drives. It is therefore 80 Average 80
Worst
recommended to buy the drive and 78 Worst 78
76 76
motor from the same manufacturer 74 74
in order to get a combination that is 72 72
well matched. Modern drives have 70 70
50 60 70 80 90 100 20 40 60 80 100
improved considerably compared to
Speed, % rated Shaft power, % rated
what was available some years ago. Note: 38-kW, 2-pole, standard efficiency motor (89% efficient @ full load)
Fig. 9.24. Combined motor/drive efficiency

when attached to different drives
9.4.7. Benefits and Problems Associated with VFDs

There are many benefits that come with a variable frequency drive system such as:
• Controls speed variations

• Provides flow control
• Eliminates startup impacts causing system vibration
• Provides fault tolerance
• Supports soft starts
• Restarts spinning load
• Controls speed swings
• Enhances product quality
• Can conserve energy in some systems
• Repeats results
These benefits could be a strong reason to install a variable speed drive system even without
the benefits of energy savings. There are, however, also some problems that are commonly
associated with VSDs. These problems all have solutions, but the engineer/user must be
aware of them in order to avoid unpleasant surprises. Typical problems include:
• Harmonic currents
• Motor terminal standing wave & ASD PWM waveform
• Crosstalk between circuits
• Bearing currents
• Mechanical vibrations
• Increased noise (acoustical)
• Static head considerations
For a detailed description of benefits and concerns, the reader is recommended to read HI
and Europump’s Book: “Variable Speed Pumping, A Guide to Successful Applications.”
82
• The difference between various control methods

• Effects of speed regulation in different types of systems
• VFD efficiencies
• Benefits and concerns of using VFDs
Exercise:
A vfd is retrofitted onto a pumping system that was previously controlled by a 300mm globe
valve. The continuously operated circulating water pump provides a flow rate of 200 l/s 40%
of the time and 150 l/s for the remainder.
1. Based on the values provided in Table 9.2, what are the annual energy savings given that
the globe valve is replaced with a 300 mm butterfly valve (K = 0.35 fully open)? Assume an
electrical energy cost of 0.05 USD or Euro/kWh.
2. Discuss any unrealistic assumptions (see table footnotes) that have been made in
this example.
Table 9.2. Pressure Drop and Energy Loss versus Flow Rate for a Fully-Open 300mm Valve
Flow Rate, l/s 250 200 150 100 50
Flow Velocity1, m/sec 3.54 2.83 2.12 1.42 0.71
Head Loss, m
Globe Valve, K=10 6.38 4.08 2.29 1.03 0.26
Butterfly Valve, K=0.35 0.22 0.14 0.08 0.04 0.01
Head Loss Reduction2, m 6.16 3.94 2.21 0.99 0.25
Fluid kW Reduction 15.1 7.73 3.25 0.97 0.12
Power Savings3, kW 21.6 11.04 4.64 1.39 0.18
1
Assumes a 300mm diameter pipe.
2
Loss reduction due to replacing the 300mm globe valve with a fully open 300 mm butterfly valve.
3
Assumes a 70% pumping plant efficiency (including the vfd).
Answer:
Energy Savings = (0.4 × 8,760 × 11.04 kW) + (0.6 × 8,760 × 4.64 kW) = 53,317 kWh/year
Cost Savings = 53,317 kWh/year × 0.05/kWh = 2,665
It is unrealistic to assume constant pump system efficiency as the speed of the vsd is reduced.
83
10
10. PSAT ProgramME Introduction
10.1. Overview of PSAT Programme

The Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) is a software programme developed for the
U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT). The program was
developed to assist engineers and facility operators to evaluate the efficiency of their facility
pumping systems based on pump and motor nameplate data and three field measurements.
A screen capture of PSAT 2008 is shown in Figure 10.1.
Fig. 10.1. PSAT Main Screen
84
For many industrial facilities, the energy consumed in pumping fluids comprises a large
fraction of the total energy consumption of the facility. Operators are often not aware of
how effectively energy is consumed in pumping systems. The PSAT tool provides a relatively
simple and fast means of determining system efficiency and potential alternatives.
PSAT identifies energy saving opportunities in pumping systems and quantifies those oppor‑
tunities in both dollars and electrical energy savings. Although PSAT does not tell how to
improve systems, it does prioritize attractive opportunities and supports broader or narrower
searches for improving pump efficiency.
10.2. PSAT Features

PSAT assesses current pump system efficiency by comparing field measurements of the
power delivered to the motor with the fluid work (flow and head) required by the application.
It estimates a system’s achievable efficiency based on pump efficiencies (from Hydraulic
Institute standards) and performance characteristics of pumps and motors (based on the
MotorMaster+ database).
PSAT is best used to determine the following:
• Establish system efficiency

• Quantify potential energy savings
• Examine the impacts of different operating scenarios
• Provide data for trending system performance
• Clarify impacts of operational changes on demand charges
• Identify degraded or poorly performing pumps
Subsequent comparison of the actual and achievable efficiencies distinguishes systems with
lower levels of opportunity from those that warrant additional engineering analysis.
10.3. PSAT Success Stories

Some examples of savings that have been discovered using the PSAT programme include:
Mining Operation
At a gold mine, the PSAT prescreening filter (provided in Appendix A) identified three pumping
systems for further analysis. Over 170 000 USD/Euro per year (2 398 200 kWh) in potential
savings was identified.
Paper Mill
Prescreening at a paper mill identified one system that presented a significant energy savings
opportunity. The 64 000 USD/Euro (2252 Mwh) in annual savings was traced to inefficient
operating practices rather than pump degradation.
85
Aluminum
An aluminum rolling mill applied PSAT to four related systems and identified over 38 000 USD/
Euro per year (1 015 000 kWh) in potential savings. An aluminum plant in Pennsylvania
identified savings for three systems resulting in 110 000 USD/Euro in annual savings.
Steel Mill
A steel mill used PSAT to examine its hood spray application that used bypass controls. The
mill discovered an opportunity to save 41 700 USD/Euro per year and use 13% less energy.
The bypass flow control set-up was replaced with a properly sized pump and energy efficient
motor that operated only when needed.
A comprehensive PSAT user manual has been included in Appendix A. The PSAT programme
is available (free of charge) for download at the Department of Energy’s Best Practices
Programme site: http://www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices
86
11
11. ASME Pump Standard Introduction
11.1. Overview of the ASME Pump Standard

The ASME Pump System Assessment Standard Documentation includes the Standard as well
as Guidance Document. A summary of the two documents is provided below.
Difference Between ASME

Pump Standard & Guidance Document
Standard EA-2-2009
• Provides a common understanding of what should be included in a pump system

assessment to replace the lack of a standardization for pumps systems previously
evaluated as part of an energy evaluation, audit, survey or energy study.
• Defines specific requirements that must be performed for different assessment levels.
Guidance Document EA-2G-2010
• Provides technical background and application details to help the user apply the standard.
• Includes rational for the technical requirements, application notes, alternative
approaches, tips, techniques and examples.
11.1.1. The objectives of the standard include:

• Provide a step-by-step approach to perform an energy assessment of a pump system.
• Identify energy assessment levels and the effort required for each type of assessment.
• Emphasize the importance of taking a systems approach.
• Review equipment data that should be collected for pump system evaluations.
• Become familiar with solutions for pump system optimization.
• Present the results in a suitable format.
87
The standard is organized into the following sections:
1. Scope & Introduction

2. Definitions
3. References
4. Organizing the Assessment
5. Conducting the Assessment
6. Analyzing the Data
7. Reporting & Documentation
For this review we will focus on Sections 4 and 5.
11.1.2. Section 4 of the ASME Standard

Section 4 of the standard looks at organizing the assessment. Specific areas include:
4.1 Identification and Responsibilities of Assessment Team Members
• Authorized Manager - accepts overall responsibility for funding and decision making (may
not be present during assessment).
• Assessment Team Leader - familiar with operations and maintenance of pump systems to
be reviewed and able to organize resources to evaluate pumps.
• Pump System Expert - qualified to perform the assessment activities, data analysis and
report preparation.
4.2 Facility Management Support
Facility management should provide written support, to commit the resources needed.
Develop a written agreement/purchase order before arriving on site that clearly defines Goals
and Scope of Assessment.
4.4 Access to Resources and Information
• Review access to equipment areas.

• Discuss needed personnel to conduct assessment (electrician, engineers, operations staff).
• Determine access to data such as drawings, manuals, utility bill data, computer monitoring
and control data.
4.5 Assessment Goals & Scope
Overall goals and assessment scope should be reviewed (This was defined before arriving on
site – but should be reviewed with all meeting attendees)
4.6 Initial Data Collection and Evaluation
Before Arriving on Site: Work with facility to identify pump systems that will be reviewed. A
sample-prescreening template is shown below.
88
Pump System Screening Questions
System Name/ID Paper Machines 411 and 412
Pump ID
Pump #401 Pump #605 Pump #333 Pump #210 Pump #422
Estimated annual operating hours 7600 7600 7600 7600 7600
Motor rated hp 75 125 150 100 150
Is system throttle valve-controlled? yes yes yes yes yes
Is the pump bypassing to regulate flow/
no no no no no
pressure?
Multiple parallel pumps with same #
yes yes yes yes yes
normally operating?
Distributed cooling system with
no no no no no
multiple unregulated loads?
Constant pump operation in batch
constant constant constant constant constant
process?
Frequent cycle batch operation in
no no no no no
continuous process?
Cavitation noise at pump or elsewhere
no no no no no
in system?
High system maintenance without
no no no no yes
obvious causes?
Has system fonction or demand
changed over time with no pump no no no no no
change?
Is flow metered? yes yes yes yes yes
Obtain energy use and cost data to determine unit costs
Step 2: Plant's Consuption & Production Overview

Current
2010
Year
Monthly Site Monthly Total Monthly Monthly
Total Monthly Total Monthly Monthly Heavy Fuel
Electricity Natural Gas Natural Gas Steam
Month Electricity Steam Cost Oil Consomption
Consumption Consumption Cost Consomption
Cost ($) ($) (MMBtu)
(MWH) (MMBtu) ($) (MMBtu)
January 6.57 $445,924 17,448 $120,466 78,698 $451,885
February 6.39 $456,088 16,635 $147,556 72,787 $447,478
March 6.86 $466,007 17,809 $123,209 73,095 $437,502
April 5.65 $459,013 14,379 $143,309 49,906 $373,967
May 7.41 $513,624 19,652 $121,629 54,454 $375,194
June 7.88 $545,731 20,353 $161,600 53,877 $379,361
July 7.32 $527,183 16,738 $143,719 52,889 $379,405
August 7.49 $530,737 19,189 50,424 $364,642
September
October
November
December
Grand Total 55.58 $3,944,308 142,201.80 $961,488 486,129 $3,209,434 0
89
Upon arriving at the facility, system data can be collected. The details of this process are
summarized in the following standard sections:
4.6.4 Systems Data
• Define the system (s) functions and boundaries

• Identify high energy use equipment
• Identify control methods
• Identify inefficient devices
• Initial measurement of key operating parameters
4.7 Site Specific Goals
Based on preliminary data collection – develop a measurement plan that takes into account
the three evaluation levels (to be discussed) and goals that are consistent with scope of work.
4.8 Develop a plan of action & schedule activities
• Review information that has been collected

• Prioritize pump systems that will be reviewed in more detail (assessment levels to be discussed)
• Identify control methods
• Identify inefficient devices
• Initial measurement of key operating parameters
• Define schedule for activities (staff interviews, electrician time, meetings)
11.1.3. Section 5 of the ASME Standard

Section 5 of the standard reviews strategies for conducting the assessment. Specific areas include:
• 5.2 Assessment Levels.

• 5.3 Walk Through.
• 5.4 Understanding System Requirements.
• 5.5 Determining System Boundaries and System Demand.
• 5.6 Information Needed to Assess the Efficiency of a Pump System.
• 5.7 Data Collection Methodology.
• 5.8 Cross Validation.
• 5.9 Wrap-up Meeting and Presentation of Initial Findings and Recommendations.
The assessment levels are summarized below:
Level #1 Level #2
Prescreening and gathering prelimi‑ Measurement based quantitative evaluation
nary data(qualitative effort) to identify to determine energy savings. This assessment
potential energy savings potential. is based on “snapshot” measurements that
cover a limited amount of time.
Level #3
This requires more extensive quantitative data collection effort to develop a system load
profile because it is for systems where conditions vary over time.
90
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Activities
Assessment Assessment Assessment
Prescreening Req. n/a n/a

Walk through Opt. Req. Req.
Identify systems with potential saving
Req. Req. Req.
opportunities
Evaluate systems with potential saving
Opt. Req. Req.
opportunities
Snapshot type measurement of flow, head
Opt. Req. n/a
and power data
Measurement/data logging of systems
n/a n/a Req.
with flow conditions that vary over time
We recommend obtaining a copy of the Standard & Guidance Document for a more detailed
review of the assessment process.
91
12
12. Field Inspecting and Data Collection
12.1. Preparation
In this Chapter it’s time to “roll up your sleeves” and head out into the facility to begin
collecting field data.
However, before rushing out to take data for every pump system in the plant, an important
part of identifying energy saving opportunities is to take the time to understand the facilities
pump systems thoroughly before starting to collect field data. This process includes sitting
down with an operator or mechanic (both is preferable) to discuss all major pump systems
at the facility. As discussed in the Prescreening section of Chapter 1, some of the questions
that should be asked include:
• What are the largest pump systems at the facility

• What are they used for? What are the system requirements?
• How many hours does each pump operate annually? Are pumps operated in parallel?
• When the pumps are operated, is flow or head reduced during certain times of the day?
How many hours do they operate at these conditions?
• Are discharge valves or adjustable speed drives used to control flow?
• Do any of the pumps require high maintenance?
As part of this effort, it is important to focus first on the largest pump systems that operate
the most hours and then to move on to smaller pumps as time permits.
12.2. Data Collection Before Field Testing

Hopefully after your initial discussions, several high energy use pump systems have been
identified as potential evaluation candidates. However, before grabbing your test equipment
and heading out to the plant, this is the best time to collect two other pieces of information
that will help make the data collection process more productive.
92
The first item is a P&ID (process and instrumentation diagram) or a piping schematic of the
pump system. Ideally these drawings would also have elevations of the pump and the suc‑
tion and discharge points. This information will be useful later during the analysis stage. As
the operator traces out the flow, additional information can be collected about the system
and what kind of data collection will be required to determine what the system needs versus
what the pump may be providing.
The second item that should be requested at this time is a copy of the pump curve,
any field-testing data taken when the pump was installed (or if pump tests have been
performed over the years) and specific component information (pump and motor spec‑
ification sheets).
Having the above information will make your field-testing much more productive by devel‑
oping a data collection strategy that may be focused more on system measurements versus
taking data at the pump only.
12.3. Collecting Field Data
12.3.1. Nameplate Data

Hopefully at this point, you have collected
information about the motor and pump from the
manufacturer’s O&M manual or most likely from the
submittal that the contractor provided to the facility
to get approval before purchasing the pump.
The next step is to verify this information and obtain

addition data from the pump and motor nameplates
as shown in Figure 12.1.
The most useful nameplate data includes motor hp,

rpms, volts, amps and efficiency rating for the motor,
and flow, total head, stages and impeller trim for
the pump. A pocketknife, rag and flashlight may be
needed to uncover this information below several
layers of paint or grease. Fig. 12.1. Motor and Pump
Nameplate Data
12.3.2. Test Equipment

On rare occasions, getting data may be as simple as recording information from existing
flow, pressure and power instrumentation (all permanently installed and recently calibrated).
However, in most cases it will be necessary to invest in portable instrumentation and some
simple tools as noted below in Table 12.1.
93
Table 12.1. Recommended Equipment
Estimated Cost
Equipment
(USD/Euro)
Ultrasonic flow meter & accessories 5000 to 7000

Power meter w/various probes 1000 to 2000
Portable pressure instrumentation w/various NPT adaptors 300 to 500
Strobe tachometer 300
Flashlight, rag, sandpaper, wrenches, screwdrivers < 100
Extension cord, pocket knife, notepad < 100
Digital camera, extra batteries for all equipment 500
Rubber gloves, safety glasses, hardhat < 100
Data loggers, various CTs 500 to 700
Laptop (to program data loggers) 1500
12.3.3. Fundamentals Review

The parameters needed for assessing the efficiency of a pumping system are:
• Flow rate
• Pressure
• Elevation
• Electric power
• Fluid Properties
The Bernoulli equation is the basic law governing fluid flow. It is an energy conservation law.
However, we will get back to the Bernoulli law later as first we will start with some other basic
relationships that are valid for incompressible flow.
12.3.4. The Law of Continuity

In a closed pipe the flow rate will be the same at all points. If the pipe branches of the sum
of the branch flow rates will be equal to the original flow rate. The flow rate equals average
velocity multiplied with the cross sectional area.
V d
Q1 Q2
Q1 = Q2
A practical principle for filled liquid piping systems:
the flow rate at two points at any particular point in time will be equal
Fig. 12.2. Continuity [A = π × d2/22]
94
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
Q2
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 1200 gpm
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1
2000 gpm Q3
2000 gpm 2000 gmp 2000 gmp 800 gpm
Fig. 12.3. Law of Continuity
12.3.5. Pressure and Elevation Basics

15
’’Standard’’ atmospheric pressure, psia

Pressure in a vessel is usu‑ 14
ally measured in kilo Pas‑ 13
cal, kPa. It is measured rel‑ 12
ative atmospheric pressure 11
or as an absolute pressure 10
independent of atmospheric 9
8
pressure. The atmospheric
7
pressure varies with time and
6
height relative to the sea level 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(as shown in Figure 12.4). Elevation, ft above sea level DAC 10/28/2005
Fig. 12.4. Atmospheric Pressure as a Function of

The pressure in a vessel filled Elevation
with liquid varies in the same
way. This is why we always Note: pump was off during this set of measuremets. Pres-
need to know at which height sure transducer scaling 1 mV/psig.
pressure is measured. Elevations of transducers in the riser at right (above floor):

3.55 ft 2.55ft 0.21 ft
The pressure at a given

height in the vessel will
be the same, but it varies
with height. Therefore, it is
important to know at what
height the measurement is
taken. This is demonstrated
in Figure 12.5.
Fig. 12.5. Pressure Based on Height
Furthermore, the pressure
measured in the system will
be lower as you move down‑
stream with the fluid due
to friction, which consumes
energy. This manifests itself
as a loss of pressure. Varia‑
tions in pressure along a pipe
are similar (figure 12.6)
Fig. 12.6. Gauge Pressure Varies with Location and Time
95
12.3.6. The Bernoulli equation

Bernoulli’s law is a conservation of energy law. As long as there is no friction the total energy
content in the fluid will be the same at point 1 and 2 in Figure 12.7. As seen, there are 3
different energy components kinetic energy, pressure and potential energy (elevation).
 V2 2.31 P   V2 2.31 P 
 1+ 1
+ Z1  =  2 + 2
+ Z2 
 2g s.g.   2g s.g. 
Symbol Represents Units

V Velocity ft/s
g gravitation acceleration ft/s2
P pressure psig
s.g. specific gravity none
Z Elevation ft
Fig. 12.7. Bernoulli’s Law
The energy content is usually expressed as head and measured in meters. The sum of
elevation head and the pressure is called “static head”. The reason it is called static is that
in many systems it is fairly independent of flow rate.
The combination of static and friction head equals the total pressure in a system. The
resistance a pump sees as it is pushing fluid through a system is described with a system
curve. This curve has two components, the frictional resistance and the static head:
Friction head varies with

approximately the square of the
flow rate
Total system head
Static head is the sum of pressure
+ elevation head difference from
start to finish
Fig. 12.8. Combination of Static Head and Friction Head
96
12.3.7. The Data Collection Process
As you collect your testing equipment and begin to head off to the plant to investigate the
pump systems that appear to have the most energy saving potential, it may take several trips
to collect all the data needed. Some of the reasons for this include:
• The pump may support a critical process at that time and the facility staff does not want to
take a chance that during testing the pump could be tripped.
• No pressure taps are available – or the pressure taps do not have working isolation valves.
• Some of the data may be questionable and other testing methods may need to be devel‑
oped to verify data (such as a tank pump down test to verify flow).
• An electrician was not available to assist with the testing.
Be prepared to make a return visit as part of your testing schedule and remember that it is
important to take the time to get good data, even taking several measurements using differ‑
ent methods along with detailed notes and photos of the pump system.
12.3.8. Measuring Pressure to Determine Total Pump Head

12.3.8.1. Pump System Configurations
Pressure measurements before and after the pump provide the information needed to calculate
total pump head. In some cases this will be a fairly straightforward process, as shown in Figure 12.9,
where gauge taps are installed on the suction and discharge piping at the same elevation.
 v2 - v2  2.31
Hp =  d s  + (pd - ps) + (zd - zs)
 2g  s.g.
ps pd Symbol Represents Units
zs zd g gravitational constant msec2
Hp pump head m
p pressure kPa
s.g. fluid specific gravity dimensionless
vs vd v fuid velocity m/sec
z elevation m
subscrits: ----- -----
d discharge n/a
s suction n/a
Fig. 12.9. Calculating Pump Head With Closed Suction Piping
However, there are many different types of pump configurations that will be encountered dur‑
ing field-testing. In the case of Figure 12.10, it is not as simple as reading gauges on each side
of the pump. On one hand, no suction measurement is needed as the pump bowls are sub‑
merged in the tank, but on the other hand, the discharge side of the pump bowls, the fluid
travels through the pump shaft column and out through the discharge flange before a gauge
measures the discharge pressure after that point. For this arrangement, the friction losses
must be estimated when it cannot be measured by pressure gauges.
97
pd
vd
z d-zs
zd
zs
vd2 2.31 pd
Hp = + + (zd - zs)
2g s.g.
Fig. 12.10. Open Suction and Remote Discharge Gauge Location
One method to calculate unknown losses is provided by a feature in the PSAT 2008 programme
created by Diagnostic Solutions shown in Figure 12.11. This program allows the user to add
up component K values when gauges cannot measure the pressure losses to provide a more
accurate method to calculate total head.
Fig. 12.11. Pump head Calculator W/ Component Loss Calculator
12.3.9. Pressure measurements

Most systems in industry have pressure gauges of the Bourdon type, as shown in
Figure 12.12. The Bourdon type pressure transducer consists of a C-formed tube, which
tries to straighten itself when subjected to internal pressure. Mechanical linkage moves a
hand that indicates pressure.
98
As seen above, (although no longer connected) the pressure gauge in Figure 12.13 still shows
a reading of approximately 50. Not the type of gauge you want to use to get accurate field
pressure values.
To obtain accurate pressure measurements, it is recommended that the existing gauges are
removed and a portable pressure instrument, such the one shown in Figure 12.14 is used.
Diaphragm-based strain gauge transducers are used instead. These meters are hooked up to
a multi-meter to display pressure.
Strain gauge transducers are susceptible to thermal drift as shown below in Figure 12.15.
Fig. 12.12. Bourdon Type Pressure Gauge Fig. 12.13. Fluke Pressure Transducer
Fig. 12.14. Inaccurate Pressure Gauge and

PV-350 Pressure Indicator
Fig. 12.15. Thermal and transient effects on

strain gauge pressure transducers
99
It is therefore good practice

to let them warm up and zero
them before measurements are
taken. Transducers can also be
hooked up to a common pres‑
sure and checked so that all
read the same pressure. When
pressure transducers have been
hooked up to a system for a
longer period of time it is recom‑
mended that they be checked
for offset at removal.
Fig. 12.16. Taps for Measuring Suction and Discharge
Measurement of pump head Pressure
cannot be done by one direct
measurement. It involves sev‑
eral measurements that have to
be combined in order to get the
right result.
In Figure 12.16, the tap is close

to the pump. However, in many
cases there are losses between
the pump discharge and the
point where pressure is mea‑
sured. These losses have to
be estimated and included in
the calculations in order not to
underestimate the fluid power
delivered by the pump. If there
is a difference in pipe diame‑
ters between suction and dis‑
charge, this will influence the
velocity head and thus has to
be included.
PSAT has a built in head calcu‑

lator that does the necessary
calculations. There are two vari‑
ants, see Figure 12.17, of the
head calculator corresponding
to common industrial pump con‑
figurations. Once the appropri‑
ate (blue) boxes have been filled
with numbers PSAT will perform
the calculations and transfer
them to the main programme.
Fig. 12.17. Taps for Measuring Suction and Discharge
Pressure
100
When the losses between pump and measuring point are estimated, the accuracy of the
estimate is not always very good. There are often large differences between generic and
specific losses. See Figure 12.18
Approximate Range of Variation for K

(From Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book, 2nd edition)
Fitting Range of Variation
Regular Screwed ± 20 per cent above 2 inch size
Regular Screwed ± 40 per cent above 2 inch size
90 Deg. Elbow Long Radius, Screwed ± 25 per cent
Regular Flanged ± 35 per cent
Long Radius, Flanged ± 30 per cent
Regular Screwed ± 10 per cent
45 Deg. Elbow
Long Radius, Screwed ± 10 per cent
Regular Screwed ± 25 per cent
110 Deg. Bend Regular Flanged ± 35 per cent
Long Radius, Screwed ± 30 per cent
Screwed, Line or Branch Flow ± 25 per cent
Tee
Flanged, Line or Branch Flow ± 35 per cent
Screwed ± 25 per cent
Global Valve
Flanged ± 25 per cent
Gate Valve
Flanged ± 50 per cent
Check Valve
Flanged + 200 per cent / - 80 per cent
Fig. 12.18. Generic Loss Coefficients
It is therefore a good idea to input different estimates of the loss coefficients to see how
much influence they have on the pump head calculation. See Figure 12.19. In most industrial
applications this influence is minor.
Fig. 12.19. Checking the influence of loss coefficients on head calculations
Case 1A Case 1B
4 x loss => 1%
change in head
101
Case 2A Case 2B
2 x loss => 11%

change in head
12.3.10. Flow Measurements

Flow measurements are usually the most difficult measurements when assessing pump
systems. There are a large number of different methods to measure flow that include:
• Differential pressure- orifice, venturi, nozzle.

• Velocity - magnetic, ultrasonic, propeller (turbine), paddlewheel, vortex shedding.
• Open flow - Weir
These are based on different principles but common issues are that the flow profile has to
be fully developed in order to obtain accurate measurements. To develop a full flow profile
usually takes about 10 diameters of pipe length. It is therefore recommended that a straight
pipe of ten diameters length is installed upstream of a flow meter. The flow meter is also
influenced by irregularities downstream of the meter. It is recommended to have at least 5
diameters of straight pipe downstream of the meter as well.
Many flow meters use Bernoulli’s equation to calculate flow, as shown in Figure 12.20.
 V2 2.31 P   V2 2.31 P  Manipulating equations give us:

 1+ 1
+ Z1  =  2 + 2
+ Z2 
 2g s.g.   2g s.g.  b4dP
V1 (ft/s) = 12.194
dP = P1 - P2 √ s.g.(1-b )
1 2 4
or
d1 d2
dP
Q (gmp) = 29.851 d22
√ s.g.(1-b )
4
dP
g = 32.174 gravitational acceleration ft/s2

where,
P pressure psi d2
b=
s.g. fluid specific gravity dimensionless d1
V velocity ft/s
Z elevation ft
Fig. 12.20. Bernoulli’s Equation
102
Some flow meters like venture and especially orifice meters create a constant pressure drop
in the line and thus consume energy that has to be paid for via the motor’s energy use.
Permanently installed magnetic flow meters are usually accurate and reliable. They also have
to have good flow conditions upstream and downstream of the meter in order to take full
advantage of their accuracy.
At systems were there are no installed flow meters a possible solution is to use portable ultra
sonic flow meters. These meters usually work well, but don’t function with all sorts of liquids.
They usually have problems with liquids containing particles or bubbles. Many of them have
a built in function that reports when a measurement is unreliable, but the user should still be
aware of the possibility that the measurements are unreliable in such instances.
As the sound signal has to pass through both the wall and the liquid, the wall thickness has
to be measured and compensated for. Flow meters are frequently calibrated against draw
down or fill rates of tanks with known volumes.
There are several different types of portable flow meters that operate on a number of
principles. Some of these are discussed below.
12.3.10.1. Pitot Tubes

Pitot tubes are sometimes used as temporary, portable
flow meters. They are more commonly used in agricultural
or municipal services where the system can be shut down
and the test connection location isolated to allow the
installation, versus industrial applications where process
shut down is often not possible.
A close-up picture of a customized pitot tube is shown at the

left side of Figure 12.21 the overall test assembly, including
the manometer used to indicate differential pressure is
shown at the right.
The testing being done in Figure 12.21 used a multiport

pickup. This minimizes errors associated with positioning
and disturbed flow profiles.
12.3.10.2. Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic technology is used for permanent flow monitoring,
but is probably better known for its application in portable
units. There are two basic types of technology that are
employed: Doppler and time-of-flight.
The Doppler technique relies on detection of a shift in the

frequency of an ultrasonic signal associated with the fluid
velocity. Doppler technology requires that there be some level
of impurities (or gas bubbles) in the fluid to work effectively.
Fig. 12.21. Flow Reading with
a Multi-port Pitot Tube
103
The time of flight technology is, as the name suggests, a time-based technique. A transit time
ultrasonic flow meter is shown in Figure 12.22. This type of meter measures the ultrasonic
pulses in a fluid to calculate flow velocity.
Fig. 12.22. Transit-time ultrasonic flow meter
Depending on the configuration, the signal may be reflected off the pipe walls as shown
above with the double traverse method or transmitted across the pipe as shown in the single
transverse method in Figure 12.23.
Fig. 12.23. Single and Double Traverse Methods

(courtesy of GE Panametrics)
The equipment manufacturer for the flow meter shown in Figure 12.23 advises users to
first attempt the double traverse installation for mounting the transducers. The reasons
for this include:
• Accuracy is improved because the signal is in the fluid longer

• The double traverse installation is usually easier to install
Whether the double or single traverse method is used, it is important to install the transducers
on the sides of the pipe instead of the top and bottom to avoid potential errors that could
be caused by air collected in the top of the pipe and sediment that collected in the bottom.
Installation must also be done on a straight length of pipe with 10 diameters of “undisturbed
piping” upstream of the transducers and 5 diameters downstream. Undisturbed pipe means
avoiding potential sources of turbulence such as flanges, elbows and tees.
104
One of the important features of portable meter setup is wall thickness, particularly in
smaller diameter piping. The wall thickness and outer diameter are two of the parameters
that must be input to the controller (along with material type and fluid properties) before it
can designate transducer axial spacing. The meter shown in Figure 12.22 is also equipped
with a transducer to determine pipe wall thickness.
It should be noted that this meter has not been successful in every application. Two particular
circumstances have prevented it from working – a high level of scale buildup on the inside of
the pipe wall, and a high level of aeration in the pumped fluid.
12.3.10.3. Pump Down Test

To check existing flow meters or as an alternative to using an ultrasonic flow meter, filling up
or pumping water out of a tank can also calculate the pump system flow. Simply isolating the
tank, measuring the existing level and activating the pump over a given time frame will deter‑
mine the gallons pumped out of (or into) the tank. This method is illustrated below with the
corresponding equation for a round tank.
r
h
3.14 * r2 * h * 1000
Flow (l/s) =
Time (min)
Fig. 12.24. Determining Flow From Tank Volume
12.3.11. Electrical Measurements

Electrical measurements should only be taken by qualified electricians or trained technical spe‑
cialists. One thing worth repeating is the importance of proper safety precautions when taking
any electrical measurements. The National Electrical Code discusses safety guidelines and qual‑
ifications for people working around switchgear. There are also OSHA regulations, which follow
the code guidelines. Short circuits can create very high current levels, with the potential to melt or
vaporize conductors. The two jaws of a test probe, shown in Figure 12.25, were accidentally put in
contact across two phases. Even though the breaker tripped to isolate the short circuit, it did not
occur before the lead exploded. The sound from the explosion was similar to that of a shotgun.
400 400
300 300
200 200
Voltage, volts
Current, amps
100 100
1.389 msec
0 16.667 msec 0
-100 -100
1.389 x 3600 = 300
-200 16.667 -200
-300 -300
-400 -400
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016
Time, sec
Note: we can display the waveforms on a 2-channel digital oscilloscope and
determine the phase angle between two sine waves in this way.
Fig. 12.25. Normal and Vaporized Test Fig. 12.26. Time Between Zero crossings of the
Lead Waveforms
105
Power can be measured directly or calculated from voltage and ampere measurements. The
calculation of power from these measurements cannot be done without estimating the power
factor that is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current waveforms, as shown
below in Figure 12.26.
PSAT has a built in power factor estimator that is very good compared to other estimators
on the market.
12.3.11.1. Voltage
Of the measured parameters, the voltage will generally have the least impact on the calcu‑
lated results. This is not because voltage is unimportant, but rather because voltage normally
varies by a relatively small amount in comparison with the other parameters. For example, it
is very unusual for voltage to depart from nominal by more than 10% during normal, steady
state conditions.
Voltage can usually be found displayed on panel meters (analog or digital) at motor control
centers, particularly if the motor is powered from a medium voltage bus. In many situations
where low voltage (e.g. 230- or 460-volt motors) is applied, there may not be a permanently
installed bus voltage indicator.
From a field measurement standpoint, it is advisable to measure the three phase-to-phase

voltages, as shown in Figure 12.27. The average of the three readings should then be used.
Fig. 12.27. Voltage Readings
12.3.11.2. Amperage
It is important, when possible, to monitor all three phases of current, as shown in Figure 12.29, and
average the three. This is particularly important if the voltage is unbalanced because the current
can vary significantly from phase to phase as the voltage gets progressively more unbalanced.
Fig. 12.28. Monitoring all Three Phases
Fig. 12.29. Amp Measurements for Each Phase
106
12.3.11.3. Measuring Current With Capacitor Banks Installed
In some instances, power factor-correcting capacitors are connected in parallel with the
motor. When capacitors are paralleled to the motor, it is important to monitor current to the
motor, not current to the combined capacitor and motor.
In situations where capacitors are installed, it is important that the current measured for PSAT
purposes be the current going to the motor, not the incoming current from the line which will
be lower than that to the motor because of the capacitor bank. The reason is that the PSAT
estimation methodology uses motor performance characteristics to estimate shaft load, and
the motor power factor is inherent in the data used by PSAT.
Electric power measurement is the preferred method of estimating shaft power. But the
measurement of current and voltage alone (i.e. no power meter available) normally provides
reasonably accurate results, provided that factors such as capacitor banks be recognized
and accounted for.
12.3.11.4. Measuring current in an Adjustable Frequency Drive Application

Adjustable frequency drives present another challenge when using current to evaluate pump
system energy use. The motor may be operating at quite a different speed than that which
it was rated, so measurement of current to the motor is problematic. Adjustable frequency
drives employ rectifiers at the front end of the drive, and the drive power factors tend to be
very high, with high displacement power factors of around 0.95.
For pump system data collection, the use of drive input power is strongly encouraged as the
load estimating method. Some drives output power on a drive digital display and/or as an
analog output. If not, a portable power meter can be used.
As a fallback position, where power is not reported by the drive and a power meter is not
available, the three-phase average drive input current and phase-to-phase voltages can be
measured and then power estimated using an assumed power factor of 0.95 (or other value
suggested by the drive manufacturer). The calculation is as follows:
Power (kW) = Average voltage × Average current × 0.95 × 1.732 / 1000
12.3.11.5. Power
Measuring kW is the preferred method to evaluate pump power consumption. The reason
that motor input electric power is preferred is that it is only one step removed from shaft
power, namely the motor efficiency.
When motor current is used, there are two variables at play – the efficiency and power factor.
As both power factor and efficiency vary with load and motor type, there is increased uncer‑
tainty in the shaft power estimate from the motor current.
12.3.12. Checking Rotational Speed

It is important to check rotational speed to determine if any adjustments should be made
when comparing the flow and head data to the original pump curve. An example of how RPMs
can affect flow is shown on Figure 12.30.
107
90
1780 90 l/s
80 rpm
1750 97 l/s
rpm
70 (8% higher)
Head, m
60
50
40
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Flow rate, l/s
The difference is 8% in this case
Fig. 12.30. Taking RPM Readings
RPMs can be measured easily with a non-contact strobe type tachometer as shown in
Figure 12.30. In most cases, there will be nicks or scratches on the shaft that can be seen
when the strobe light is aimed at the shaft and no reflective tape is needed. The knobs on
the strobe light are adjusted until the shaft marks appear to be motionless, at that point the
corresponding RPM reading can be recorded.
It is important for the user to be aware that the initial RPM for the strobe light must first be
adjusted close to what the true RPM is. The reason for this is that if you begin taking readings
at 3600-RPM for an 1800-RPM pump, it will appear to be adjusted correctly as the value is a
multiple of the true reading. This is especially important when working with low RPM pumps
that may be equipped with variable speed drives.
12.3.13. Data Logging

12.3.13.1. Motor On/Off loggers
One of the simplest, yet very helpful, loggers is a simple On/Off logger. The logger shown in
Figure 12.31 is installed adjacent to a motor circuit breaker (held in place by a Velcro strap).
The logger indicates “on” because the motor is running.
This type of logger is sensitive to the ambient magnetic field strength and can be strapped
on the motor or power leads as well. Other loggers use clamp-on current transformers for the
same purpose.
Examples of the way the data is stored and summary results from a month’s operation are
shown in Figure 12.31.
Fig. 12.31. On/Off Logger and Data Output
108
12.3.13.2. General-purpose data loggers
General-purpose loggers can be used to log general analog signals. Depending on the
particular logger features, the types and ranges of signals that can be logged vary. Common
signal types such as 0-5 volts dc, 4-20 milliamps and TTL pulse counts are the most common.
With some loggers, the signal scaling can be set up to store both the literal signal amplitude
and the individual transducer scaling so that when the data is subsequently retrieved, the
values reported are in the properly scaled engineering units.
Signal sample rates for these types of loggers can typically be varied from a couple of hun‑
dred per second to once every 12 hours; some include averaging features so that the value
reported over long periods is not the instantaneous value at the time of reading, but the aver‑
age over the preceding period.
Figure 12.32 shows a general-purpose logger with amperage CT that can be clipped on to one
leg of a three-phase circuit. This logger has the capability of logging 4 input signals. Typically,
the user activates the logger in the field with a laptop computer after selecting the desired
logging interval. When the logger is picked later, the unit is plugged back into the logger and
the data is downloaded into an Excel file for analysis.
Fig. 12.32. General Purpose Data Logger

• Collecting pump data before taking field measurements

• Equipment and tools needed for field measurements
• Types of instrumentation and recording data:
∙∙ Nameplate data
∙∙ Rotational speed
∙∙ Pressure and determination of total pump head
∙∙ Flow measurements
∙∙ Electrical measurements
• Using data loggers
109
13
13. Working with the Data
13.1. Overview
This Chapter reviews what to do with the data after it has been collected. Prior to beginning
this process, the pump user should have assembled the following equipment information:
• Copy of pump curve

• Drawings of system with elevations
• Motor and Pump nameplate data
• Equipment data/specifications when available
As part of pump testing data collection effort the following information should also have
been collected for various flow intervals:
• Determination of system flow and pressure requirements

• Pump pressure measurements
• Flow measurements
• Electric data (amperage, voltage, kW)
• RPMs
• Hours of operation
With this information, the user can begin analyzing the data.
13.2. Developing a System Curve

As discussed, the most important first step during a pump system evaluation is to develop
the system curve. After the needed data has been collected, this process is relatively easy as
shown in the figures 13.1 through 13.4.
The diagram in Figure 13.1 shows a simple pump system with pressure readings taken at P1,
P2, P3 and P4. To develop a system curve, the total head must first be calculated by finding
the static and friction head (velocity head will be considered negligible for this example).
Figure 13.2 illustrates how the static head is determined.
110
Once the static head has been determined, the frictional head can now be calculated at
one flow rate. This is done by simply taking the pressure measurements on the suction and
discharge of the pump and converting pressure to meters of head, as shown in Figure 13.3
P4 P4
(P4 - P1)
+ (Z4 - Z1)
Pressure gauges 2 and 3

are in the same size pipe Z4 - Z 1
F F
P1 P1
P3 P3
P2 P2
Fig. 13.1. Example System Diagram Fig. 13.2. Calculating static head (a)
208.0 kPa P4 P4
(P4 - P1)
= 11.0 m
9.81
(P3 - P2)
+ 0.5 m = 27 m
9.81
Z4 - Z1 = 10.0 m
100.0 kPa F F
P1 Flow rate = 190 l/s
P1 600 kPa Pump head = 27 m
0.5 m
P3 340 kPa P3 Note: pressure gauges 2 & 3
P2 P2 are in the same size pipe, so
the velocity heads are equal
Fig. 13.2. Calculating static head (b) Fig. 13.3. Calculating friction head

Now that we have two points on the system curve (21 m at 0 l/s and 27 m at 190 l/s), a system
curve can be developed using the following equations:
H2 - H1
K= and H3 = H1 + K * Q32
Q22 - Q12
Eq. 13.1. Calculating system curve points
Where H3 and Q3 represent head and flow at any other point on the system curve. When
enough points are developed a system curve is constructed, as shown in Figure 13.4.
32 32
The system head curve,
30 30
developed from two points
Total head at 190 l/s
28 28
(measured)
Head, m
Head, m
26 26
24 24
Total head at 0 l/s = static head
22 (no flow means no frictional losses) 22
20 20
0 60 120 190 250 0 60 120 190 250
Flow rate, l/s Flow rate, l/s
Fig. 13.4. System Curve Development
111
Now that a system curve has been developed, the system requirements can be reviewed
in more detail to evaluate potential areas of improvement. Some of these considerations
should include:
• Can the system curve be changed to improve efficiency?

• Is the pump operating point matched to what the system needs?
• Can the pump operate at a lower point on the system curve and still satisfy system needs?
As these issues are considered, the collected pump data should also be reviewed for each
flow interval. The data can be organized as shown in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1. Data Collection Table

kW or Annual
Interval Pump Flow Total Head RPMs kWhs
Amperage Hours
1
2
3
4
5
At this point, the user can begin the process of comparing how efficiently the pump system
is matched to the system requirements.
112
14
14. Example Problem
14.1. System with a Problem Control Valve

In this example the LCC analysis for the piping system is directed at a control valve. The
system is a single pump circuit that transports a process fluid containing some solids from
a storage tank to a pressurized tank. A heat exchanger heats the fluid and a control valve
regulates the rate of flow into the pressurized tank to 80 m3/h (350 USgpm).
The plant engineer experiences problems with a control valve that fails as a result of erosion
caused by cavitation. The valve fails every 10 to 12 months at a cost of 4000 Euro or USD per
repair. A change to the control valve is being considered to replace the existing valve with one
that can resist cavitation.
Before changing out the control valve again, the project engineer wanted to look at other
options and perform a LCC analysis on alternative solutions.
Pressure
tank
2.0 bar
Storage tank FCV @ 15%
Pump Heat exchanger
Fig. 14.1. Sketch of pumping system in which the control valve fails.

Storage tank, Pump, Heat exchanger, FCV @ 15%, Pressure tank 2.0 Bar
113
How the system operates:
The first step is to determine how the system is operating and to determine why the control
valve fails, then to see what can be done to correct the problem.
The control valve currently operates between 15 to 20 percent open and with considerable
cavitation noise from the valve. It appears the valve was not sized properly for the applica‑
tion. After reviewing the original design calculations, it was discovered that the pump was
sized for 110 m3/h (485 USgpm) instead of 80 m3/h (350 USgpm) resulting in a larger pres‑
sure drop across the control valve than originally intended.
As a result of the large differential pressure at the operating rate of flow, and the fact that the
valve is showing cavitation damage with regular intervals, it is determined that the control
valve is not suitable for this process. The following four options are suggested:
A. A new control valve can be installed to accommodate the high-pressure differential.

B. The pump impeller can be trimmed so that the pump does not develop as much head,
resulting in a lower pressure drop across the current valve.
C. An adjustable speed drive (such as a variable frequency drive [VFD]) can be installed and
the flow control valve removed. The VFD can vary the pump speed and thus achieve the
desired process flow.
D. The system can be left as it is, with a yearly repair of the flow control valve to be expected.
The cost of a new control valve that is properly sized is 5000 Euro or USD. The cost of
modifying the pump performance by reduction of the impeller diameter is 2250 Euro or USD.
The process operates at 80 m3/h for 6000 h/year. The energy cost is 0.08 Euro or USD per
kWh and the motor efficiency is 90 percent.
100
DP for 80 m3/h
80
DP for 100 m3/h
Head m
60
System Curve
with valve 100%
40 open
20
Pump curve
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Flow m3/h
Fig. 14.2. Pump and system curves
114
100 % eff
‘System curve’ option A&D
‘System curve’ option B

80 100
430 mm impeller ‘System curve’
option C
80
Head m
60
375 mm impeller
40 60
20 40
Reduced speed pump curve
0 20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Flow m3/h
Fig. 14.3. Pump and system curves for impeller trimming, variable speed operation, and
different system curves
By trimming the impeller to 375 mm, the pump’s total head is reduced to 42 m (138 ft) at
80 m3/h. This drop in pressure reduces the differential pressure across the control valve to
less than 10 m (33 ft), which better matches the valve’s original design point. The resulting
annual energy cost with the smaller impeller is 6720 Euro or USD. It costs 2250 Euro or USD
to trim the impeller. This includes the machining cost as well as the cost to disassemble and
reassemble the pump. A 30 kW VFD costs 20 000 Euro or USD, and an additional 1500 Euro
or USD to install. The VFD will cost 500 Euro or USD to maintain each year. It is assumed that
it will not need any repairs over the project’s 8-year life.
The option to leave the system unchanged will result in a yearly cost of 4000 Euro or USD for
repairs to the cavitating flow control valve.
Table 14.1. Cost comparison for Options A through D in the system with a failing control valve.
Change Control Repair Control
Trim Impeller VFD
Cost Valve Valve
(B) (C)
(A) (D)
Pump Cost Data
Impeller diameter 430 mm 375 mm 430 mm 430 mm
Pump head 71.7 m (235 ft) 42.0 m (138 ft) 34.5 m (113 ft) 71.7 m (235 ft)
Pump efficiency 75.1% 72.7% 77% 75.1%
80 m /h (350
3
80 m /h (350
3
80 m /h (350
3
80 m3/h (350
Rate of flow
USgpm) USgpm) USgpm) USgpm)
Power consumed 23.1 kW 14.0 kW 11.6 kW 23.1 kW
Energy Cost Per Year 11 088 Euro or USD 6720 Euro or USD 5568 Euro or USD 11 088 Euro or USD
New Valve 5000 Euro or USD 0 0 0

Modify impeller 0 2250 Euro or USD 0 0
VDF 0 0 20 000 Euro or USD 0
Installation of VDF 0 0 1500 Euro or USD 0
Valve repair/year 0 0 0 4000 Euro or USD
115
14.1.1. Discuss:
1. What benefits do you see in the different solutions?
2. Which would you recommend and why?
116
117
118
System Name /
Raw water
Description
Bldg 83 cold well
Pump Type [MC, PD,

Vacuum, Centrifugal]
Centrifugal
Centrifugal
13 A,B
Pump ID / Process Area

Installed Motor HP
42 A, B, C 125
200
Equipment Information
Service (e.g. utility,

process, etc.)
Time in Service (years)
Indicate Shared Duty
Pump Systems / in Service
Spares
Voltage
Adjustable Speed Drive
Throttled (% open if
x
x
available)
x
Bypass / Re-circ
On / Off
apply)
More than one Pump /

Split Duty
Not Controlled (pumps
Control Schemes (check all that
just run)
Operating Hours or % of
95
80
Time Equipment Operates

Power or Current
Flow Requirements Have
No
No
Changed or Are Expected

to Change
Design Flow Rate
x
Operational Flow Rate

Design Head
Operational Head
Upstream Pressure
Downstream Pressure
otherwise indicate with check if it is acquirable)
(after control valve, or

Operating Parameters (provide if readily available,
bypass line, etc.)

Cavitation at Pump or in
System?
Other
System Maintenance Level

Symptoms
Med
Med
(Hi/Med/Lo)
Typical Flow Rates and
Variation Thereof
Duration Diagrams
Additional
Maintenenace Costs
acquirable?)
PID / DCS Screen-Shots Information (is
15.1. Appendix A: Prescreening Sheet
15. Appendixes
15.2. Appendix B: PSAT Manual
Pumping System Assessment Tool User’s Manual
15.2.1. About this manual

The Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) is designed to allow users to evaluate the
potential energy saving opportunities of pumping systems based on field-measured data.
This user’s guide document gives basic information about the data entry items, the calcu‑
lated results and assorted control button features. It is not intended to provide a tutorial on
how to obtain field data or perform pumping system evaluations. The U.S. Department of
Energy sponsors both end-user and specialist workshops on those subjects. International
affiliates are also undertaking similar efforts. A listing of currently planned training sessions
is available on the web at: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/training.html
Support from the U.S. Department of Energy

The U.S. Department of Energy supports the operation of the EERE Information Center at:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/info_center.html
Users may call (1-877-337-3463) or e-mail (eereic@ee.doe.gov) the EERE Information Center
with questions about program operation or technical questions related to pumping
systems operating efficiency.
Fig. 15.1. PSAT main panel layout
119
15.2.2. PSAT main panel general overview

A brief overview of the major sections of the PSAT main panel is provided below. Detailed
information is provided in subsequent sections.
Fig. 15.2. PSAT input section
The PSAT main panel, shown in Fig‑
ure 15.1, is the primary user inter‑
face. Calculations are performed
simultaneously on two independent
conditions, Condition A and Condi‑
tion B, shown in Figure 15.2.
While most of the inputs involve sim‑

ply selecting an item from a drop-
down menu or typing in the numerical
value, and are discussed individually
later in this guide, there are three but‑
tons that are important to highlight.
The first is the “Estimate FLA” button

(FLA = Full-Load Amps). This version
of PSAT requires the user to specify
the FLA even if power is used as the
method to estimate motor output
(shaft) power. If the motor nameplate
FLA is not readily available, clicking
the “Estimate FLA” button will insert a
reasonable estimate for the specified
motor speed, size and efficiency class.
The second button that is important

to note is the “Head tool” button.
This button takes the user to the supporting head tool calculation panel, from which
measured field data are translated into operating head. The head tool calculation panel
is discussed in detail later in this guide.
The third button is the “Fixed specific speed?” selector. Generally speaking, it is more con‑
servative to select YES. If, however, the basic pump design can be changed (such as number
of stages adjusted) in an effort to improve achievable efficiency, NO may be chosen.
The inputs inside the yellow (Condition A) and grey (Condition B) boxes on the left
side of the main panel are used by PSAT to compute the results which are shown in the
correspondingly‑labeled boxes in the upper right hand side of the panel, as shown in
Figure 15.3. The “Existing” column reflects PSAT’s estimates of equipment (and/or system)
parameters for the current operation. The “Optimal” column reflects PSAT’s estimate of top
of the line, commercially available equipment performance.
The data entered under Condition A can be for the same pump as in Condition B, but meas‑
ured at a different point in time, at different operating conditions, etc. Alternatively, it can be
120
for another pump in the same system, a similar pump in a different facility, or a completely
unrelated application. So there is no limitation on the selection of pump and motor combina‑
tions or the system of units. In the case of the inputs and results shown in Figures 15.2 and
15.3, different pump types, motors, and systems of units were used.
PSAT analysis may be saved for subsequent retrieval using the “Log file” controls buttons
(Fig. 15.4) in the middle section of the display. Logging is somewhat analogous to saving
a file, but it provides flexibility and retrieval of information that is not available through
the normal Windows interface.
Fig. 15.3. PSAT results section Fig. 15.4. Log file controls section
PSAT analyses can also be exported to a spreadsheet format (tab-delimited file) using the
“Summary file controls” section (Fig. 15.5) in the middle right hand side of the main panel
display. Existing summary files may also be appended; more detailed discussion is provided
in the Log and summary files control section.
The lower right hand section of

the main panel provides the user
with a means to record the facil‑
ity, system, application, date,
name of the individual(s) per‑
forming the evaluation and gen‑ Fig. 15.5. Summary file controls section
eral comments for each of the
two “Conditions.” The Documen‑
tation section (Fig. 15.6) is espe‑
cially important to the overall
documentation of the analysis.
Furthermore, it is available for
the user to read when retrieving
previously logged analysis. As in
many cases, the user may have
multiple sets of analysis for an
individual pumping system, the
documentation section is a vital
portion of any saved work. Fig. 15.6. Documentation section
121
The “Retrieve defaults” and “Set defaults” buttons (Fig. 15.7)

are in the lower left section of the main display, beneath the
“Condition A” input section. The “Set default” button is used
Fig. 15.7. Retrieve, Set
to define a set of input and documentation values that will
default buttons
automatically be displayed when starting PSAT. The “Retrieve
defaults ” will reset the main panel to the default values at
any time (without stopping and restarting the program).
The “Copy A to B” and “Copy B to A” buttons (Fig. 15.8),

located underneath the two Condition input sections, allow Fig. 15.8. Copy Condition
the user to quickly copy Condition A inputs to Condition B buttons
(or vice-versa). This can be especially helpful when inputting
alternative conditions for the same pump, as not only will the
basic nameplate type selections be the same, the line size,
gauge location, etc. information that was used in calculating
pump head for one condition (but is not displayed on the Fig. 15.9. Background
main panel) will automatically be transferred along with the info button
visible main panel inputs.
The “Background information” button (Fig. 15.9), located near the bottom center of the main
panel, brings up a secondary panel from which the user can get more details about recommended
methods for prescreening industrial systems and the underlying methods used by PSAT.
Use of the “System curve tool” menu bar (Fig. 15.10), located at the bottom left part of the
main panel, can bring up a secondary panel in which the user can develop an estimated
system curve for simple systems (e.g. those with a single suction source and receiving target).
The system curve panel is discussed in detail later in this guide.
The “STOP” button (Fig. 15.11) allows the user to suspend calculation updating. Under normal
conditions, PSAT is continuously updates the results on the main panel as input changes are
made, the “STOP” button is visible at the bottom middle of the panel, and a black Run arrow
(shown beside the “STOP” button in Figure 15.11) appears just below the Edit menu item.
In some situations, the user may prefer to temporarily halt PSAT without closing the appli‑
cation. Clicking on the “STOP” button will halt PSAT operations and cause the “Calcula‑
tion updating off” alert box (Fig. 15.12) to appear and the ”Run” arrow to change to white
(shown beside the Calculation updating box in Figure 15.12). To make PSAT “live” again,
simply click on the white Run arrow below the Edit menu. The “STOP” button will once
again become visible, the “Calculation updating” alert box will disappear, and the Run
arrow will change from white to black.
Fig. 15.10. System curve selection menu bar. Fig. 15.11. Fig. 15.12. Calculation
STOP button updating off alert box.
Detailed discussions of each of the input, calculated, and control elements are provided in the
balance of this guide and are organized by sections in the main display and supporting panels.
122
1. Pump, fluid section
2. Motor data section
3. Duty and unit cost
4. Field data section
5. Common controls area
6. Results section
7. Documentation
8. Pump head calculation panel
9. System curve panel
15.2.3. Pump, fluid section
Pump style
The pump style list used here is based on a listing of styles in

Hydraulic Institute (HI) standard ANSI/HI 1.3-2000, American
National Standard for Centrifugal Pumps for Design and Applica‑
tion (and also in a paper published by HI, Efficiency Prediction
Method for Centrifugal Pumps).
The HI standard includes algorithms that estimate achievable

pump efficiencies based on pump style and operating conditions.
Beginning with PSAT2007, the user is also provided with the abil‑
ity to specify an achievable efficiency (completely independent of
the HI standard methodology). This may be used, for example, to
estimate potential savings associated with use of a specific pump
model, or restoration of a pump to like-new conditions. It can also
be helpful in assessing opportunities in systems that require spe‑
cial purpose pumps that are not addressed by the HI standard
methods, such as recessed impeller pumps.
Achievable efficiency
The pump “Achievable efficiency" input is only displayed when

the pump style is “ Selected optimal eff (below)".
The input value would normally be the pump efficiency at the

specified operating conditions (under the Field data section), as
opposed to the best efficiency point flow rate.
123
Pump rpm
The operating or nameplate speed for the pump is used, along
with the measured/required flow rate and head and number
of stages, to calculate the pump specific speed. The specific
speed is used to determine efficiency penalty associated with
the particular pump application.
(Note that in common use, specific speed for a particular pump

applies to its best efficiency point.)
Drive
This drop-down selection menu allows the user to define whether

the fan is direct driven by the motor or belt-driven.
The average losses used are based on curves from Appendix L of

AMCA Publication 203-90. Variations ranging from -1% to +2% of
the average value for motor loads exceeding 10 hp are indicated
by the AMCA curves.
The reason that adjustable speed drives (ASDs) are not included
here is twofold:
1. ASD efficiency is variable with speed. The user is referred to the

PSAT workshop, which includes example ranges of combined
motor and drive efficiencies for different drive types.
2. The current-based load estimation method employed by PSAT only
applies to applications where the motor is driven directly across the
line. Considerable variations in details associated with the drive
and auxiliary component design render this method impractical.
If an adjustable speed drive is used, the user is cautioned to rec‑

ognize that drive losses will inherently reduce the optimization
rate, and artificially inflate the potential savings (assuming that
the drive needs to remain in place).
Units
System of units choices indicate units of flow, head, and shaft power
• gpm, ft, hp....U.S. gallons/minute, feet, horsepower

• MGD,ft,hp....U.S. million gallons/day, feet, horsepower
• L/s, m, kW....Liters/second, meters, kilowatts
• m^3/hr, m, kW....cubic meters/hour, meters, kilowatts
124
Kinematic viscosity (cS)
This is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid being pumped, in centistokes.
This is used, in conjunction with algorithms from ANSI/HI 1.3-

2000 to estimate reductions in achievable efficiency associated
with elevated fluid viscosity.
Specific gravity
The fluid “specific gravity" is the ratio of the density of the fluid to
water at standard conditions. It is used when calculating the fluid
power at the specified pump flow rate and head conditions.
# stages
The number of pump “stages" is used to calculate pump specific speed.
Fixed specific speed?

The pump configuration switch allows you to specify whether the
pump speed and/or number of stages can be changed or must
remain as currently specified.
If the configuration must remain constant (i.e. value = "YES"), the pump
specific speed will be calculated, and an efficiency penalty will be
applied if the calculated specific speed is outside of the optimal range.
If the pump speed or number of stages can be changed, select "NO",

and the optimal efficiency value will be used (no specific speed penalty).
More information about specific speed and the efficiency effect

(modeled using HI standard estimates) can be accessed using the
"Background information" near the bottom of the panel. This is fol‑
lowed in succession by clicking the "Pump efficiency curves" and
"See specific speed efficiency penalty plot" selections.
15.2.4. Motor section
125
Line frequency
Line frequency is the mains supply frequency; choices are 50 Hz
and 60 Hz. The only use of this input is to determine the number of
motor poles, based on the specified motor speed. PSAT uses algo‑
rithms based on the number of motor poles, along with efficiency
class to establish the characteristic motor curves (efficiency, cur‑
rent, power factor vs. load).
Motor rated power (HP or kW)
The rated power is the nameplate (shaft output) power rating for
the existing motor. Depending on the Units selected in the "Pump,
fluid" section, the motor power rating will be either in horsepower
(HP) or kilowatts (kW).
For the HP option, standard NEMA (MG-1) sizes from 5 hp and

upwards will be available for selection. For the kW option, the
preferred ratings from IEC 60072 are used up to 1000 kW. Above
1000 kW, the numerical values from the NEMA standard are used,
simply because they reflect a reasonable span.
Motor rpm
The motor nameplate speed and the line frequency are used to
determine the number of motor poles. This, in turn, is used (along
with the motor class and size) to estimate motor efficiency and
output shaft power for the measured electrical power or current
conditions. These estimates are based on curve-fitting algorithms
developed for PSAT using average performance of motors in the
specified class from the MotorMaster+ database and (for larger
motors) other published manufacturer data.
Motor Efficiency class
There are four basic efficiency classes of motors available in this

menu list item: “Standard efficiency", “Energy efficient", “Aver‑
age", and user “Specified". In all cases, the selection applies to
the existing motor ONLY. For the optimal case, PSAT selects an
energy-efficient motor (the user has no choice in the selection).
The motor classification is based on how the motor rated efficiency

compares with the NEMA MG 1-2003, Table 12-11 standard. If at or
above the Table 12-11 Nominal Efficiency, the Energy efficient classifi‑
cation applies; if below, the Standard efficiency classification should
126
be used. If unknown, the selection of Average results in the average
of Standard efficiency and Energy efficient performance being used.
A value can also be specified if nameplate or other data sources

are available to better inform the user.
The classification is used in estimating the motor efficiency and out‑

put power conditions for a given input power or current. It is also
used to estimate full load current using the “Estimate FLA” button.
The performance of both HP- and kW-rated motors uses the

same classification scheme, even though different standards
apply. In the larger scheme of things for pumping systems, the
differences are insignificant.
Full Load (FL) efficiency, %
The Full Load efficiency input only appears if the Motor Efficiency
class selection is "Specified (below)".
In many respects, this is the preferred method for evaluating the

existing operation, in that if the nameplate full load efficiency
is available, it should provide a better reflection of the specific
motor performance than would the values in the other three Motor
Efficiency classifications, which are strictly based on the motor
population statistical averages.
Motor rated voltage
The nominal motor voltage is the motor design (nameplate) volt‑

age. The Pumping System Assessment Tool develops load and
efficiency estimates based on normalized characteristics for 460
volt rating from the MotorMaster+ database, supplemented by
additional published data for large and slower speed motors from
several motor manufacturers.
Since the normalized performance of motors is minimally

affected by rated voltage, the 460-volt characteristic motor per‑
formance curve shapes are used for all nominal voltages. Effi‑
ciency as a percent of load is held constant; average current is
adjusted inversely to the ratio of voltage.
Estimate Full Load Amps (FLA)
This button can be used to provide an estimate of full load amps

(FLA) when nameplate information is not available. This estimate is
based on average data for motors of the specified motor hp, class,
voltage, and speed; hence those parameters must be selected
before clicking this button. Motor data used in the algorithms was
127
normalized 460 volt; if another voltage is selected when the full

load amps initialization button is depressed, the FLA shown will
be adjusted in a linear, inverse fashion to the existing voltage. For
example, the average FLA for four-pole, 460-volt, premium effi‑
ciency, 25 hp motors in the database is 30.0 amps.
If the specified Nominal motor voltage is 230 volts, clicking on the

“FLA initialization" button will cause a value of (460/230) * 30.0 =
60.0 amps to be used.
If the Nameplate FLA varies by more than 5% from the average FLA for
the motor rated power, speed, voltage, and class, the Estimate but‑
ton and the Nameplate FLA background color will turn yellow. This is
a caution to the user that the FLA value is outside the expected range.
Full-load amps
The nameplate “Full load amps (FLA) " is used as a normalizing

value if “Current" is the selected load estimation method (see dis‑
cussion in the Measured or required conditions section below).
If the FLA is unknown, an estimate can be made by using the "Estimate"

on the left. Note that the correct Nominal motor voltage, hp, and speed
should be entered before the FLA initialization button is depressed.
If the Nameplate FLA varies by more than 5% from the average FLA for
the motor rated power, speed, voltage, and class, the “Estimate" but‑
ton and the Nameplate FLA background color will turn yellow. This is
a caution to the user that the FLA value is outside the expected range.
Size margin, %
This size margin is added to the motor selected for the optimal
application. If 90 shaft hp is required for a pump operating opti‑
mally at the specified hydraulic conditions, and a 15% margin is
specified, PSAT will assume that the motor rating will be the next
size larger. As 90 x 1.15=103.5, a 125 hp motor would be selected.
If a 10% margin had been specified, a 100 hp motor would have
been selected, since 90 x 1.10 = 99.
15.2.5. Duty, unit cost section
Operating fraction
This is simply the fraction of the calendar hours that the equip‑
ment is operating at the specified conditions. It is used to calcu‑
late the annual cost results.
128
$/kwhr (electric energy unit cost rate)
This is the per unit energy cost of electricity.
Demand charges, power factor-related penalties, and other issues

can have a significant impact on the average per unit energy cost.
Factors such as the time and amount of use, existing power factor,
etc. would need to be considered in a detailed analysis.
For most purposes, the simplest approach is to divide the

monthly (or preferably annual) electric energy cost by the corre‑
sponding period's energy consumption, both of which are nor‑
mally included in electric bills.
15.2.6. Field data section
Flow rate (gallons per minute, million gallons/day, Liters/second,

or cubic meters/hour)
Either the measured or the required flow rate in units that are consist‑
ent with the selection in the “Pump, fluid” section above is input here.
The flow rate value is used by the software to calculate the fluid
power, which in turn is used to estimate existing pump efficiency
and the optimal pump operating efficiency.
PSAT uses curve fit algorithms that extend beyond the HI curve
limits, so efficiency estimates will be made for all entries. If the
specified flow rate is outside of the HI standard range limits, the
background color will turn orange as a caution to the user.
Head (ft or m)
Either the measured or the required pump head in feet (or meters)
is specified here.
Head, flow rate, and specific gravity are used to calculate fluid
power for the existing condition. When combined with the esti‑
mated shaft power for the existing condition (which is based on
the measured electrical data and the specified motor nameplate
information), the existing pump efficiency can be determined.
To assist in calculating measured pump head, the "Head tool" but‑

ton to the left of the head input box can be clicked to bring up a
head calculation panel.
129
Head tool button

This button is used to access a pump head calculation panel
where the user specifies measured pressure, elevation, flow rate,
and line size data to calculate the head developed by the pump.
The head calculated in the routine can be returned to the pri‑

mary panel (for the Condition from which the head calculator was
selected), or canceled, leaving the primary panel unaffected.
Load estimation method
There are two choices of Load estimation methods: "Power" and

"Current"; both refer to the values at the motor input.
The preferred Load estimation method is power. If input power is

accurately measured, the estimate of both pump and motor efficien‑
cies will likely be more accurate than if current is measured alone.
If a power measurement is not practical, current can be used,

along with algorithms built into PSAT, to estimate input power. The
power estimate from current is made based on curve fits of the
average motor current vs. load profile for the specified motor size,
class, and speed. Experience has shown that for motors loaded
to 50% of their rating or greater, the electrical power estimated by
the PSAT current-based estimates will generally agree with actual
power to within a few percent. However, for lightly loaded motors
(e.g., 25% load), the error can be much greater. Fortunately, the
vast majority of pump applications have motors that are loaded to
greater than 50% of their rating.
Motor kW or Motor amps
Either "Motor kW" (power) or "Motor amps" (current) will be dis‑

played, depending on the load estimation method selected. Power
is the preferred measurement, but unless a permanently installed
power meter is available it is much more intrusive and challenging.
The measured current is needed if power cannot be measured. If

possible, the value entered should be the average current among
the three phases. Use of current to estimate input power or load is
not ideal. As noted above, if current is used as the load estimation
method, the measured current is compared to the average cur‑
rent vs. load and efficiency vs. load curves for the specified motor
size, speed, and class to estimate the motor's electrical input and
mechanical output powers.
The current estimating method should NOT be used if adjustable

frequency drives are used. PSAT’s algorithms are based on motor
130
performance for direct, across-the-line applications. Adjustable
frequency drive power may be used, but the user should recognize
that losses in the drive and increased losses in the motor are not
accounted for by PSAT.
Another caution relative to current measurements: If power factor

correction capacitors are in use, be sure the measured current is
that to the motor, not to the combination of the motor and the
capacitor bank (which will be lower than the motor current).
Voltage
The measured bus Voltage is used, along with measured current,

to estimate input motor power if current is the specified load
estimation method. If power is the load estimation method, the
current is estimated from power and voltage.
A simple algorithm based on a combination of sources is used

to adjust for over/under voltage. The algorithm assumes that at
100% of rated load, current drops 1% for every 1% increase in volt‑
age (or vice-versa at reduced voltage). At the other end of the load
scale, no load, the algorithm assumes that current increases 1%
for every 1% increase in voltage (and vice-versa at reduced volt‑
age). The relationship is assumed linear with load, so that at 50%
load, current is assumed to be unaffected by voltage.
It is recognized that such a simplistic algorithm cannot accurately

capture response of all motors. Nevertheless, it is believed to
be reasonably representative within the normal range of voltage
deviation seen in industrial applications, and has been used with
good success on a number of motors in actual field service.
If there is greater than 10% between measured and nominal motor

voltage, the measured Voltage box background color will change
to yellow as a flag to alert the user to likely input error.
15.2.7. Common area controls
Retrieve defaults
Clicking this button will set the entire panel back to the default
values, which the user can set using the button labeled "Set
defaults". This arrangement allows the user to specify standard
electrical cost rate data, facility and evaluator names, etc.
131
Note that another way of establishing multiple default values

is to simply create a dedicated log (using the log file controls)
and store different setups. This provides more flexibility but also
involves additional steps.
Set defaults
Clicking this button will make the currently displayed data the
default configuration. The default configuration will automatically
load each time PSAT is started. It can also be retrieved at any time
by clicking the "Retrieve defaults" button to the left.
When the "Set defaults" button is clicked, the user will be prompted
to verify that the default values are to be changed.
This arrangement allows the user to specify standard electrical

cost rate data, units, facility and evaluator names, etc. that will be
automatically loaded.
Note that another way of establishing multiple default values is

to simply create a dedicated log (using the log file controls) and
store different setups. This provides more flexibility, but also
involves additional steps.
Copy A to B, Copy B to A
These buttons are used to copy all of the data from "Condition A"
to the "Condition B" (or vice-versa).
This includes supporting hidden data, including head calculation

inputs and system curve data.
Background information
This button is used to access background information about the
operation of this software, motor, pump, system efficiency con‑
siderations and discussions of other points of interest relative to
pumping system optimization, including distinguishing between
measured and required conditions.
A prescreening section provides suggestions for activities and

approaches to consider before spending the time and effort to
acquire the data needed by PSAT.
A link to a units-converter tool is also provided.
132
System curve tool menu bar
For systems that deliver flow to a single location or to multiple loca‑
tions with essentially identical, parallel paths, a system curve can
be estimated from any two measured flow rate/head conditions
(provided that the system configuration remains unchanged).
More information about system curve development can be found

on the system curve panel, which is triggered by selecting any
of the three options listed in the drop-down menu. For the first
selection, "Condition A + specified H/Q", the head/flow data from
Condition A will be transferred to the system curve panel where
the user will need to enter another system head/flow point for the
system curve to be drawn.
The same pattern applies to "Condition B + specified H/Q."
For the third entry, "Conditions A+B", the flow and head values
from both entries will be used to construct the system curve with
no additional information required from the user.
Obviously, the units will need to be consistent for proper

curve development.
STOP button
The "STOP" button can be used to temporarily suspend program

calculations and updates. This may improve processor speed
when the user wants to work in another application without quit‑
ting the PSAT application. Clicking on this button will stop the pro‑
gram updating but not quit the application.
Note that the "STOP" button only appears when the program is
actively updating and will disappear after clicking, when a box
alerting the user that “Calculation updating is off” replaces it.
To resume calculations, click on the arrow just below the Edit

menu in the upper left corner of the screen.
The "STOP" button will reappear after clicking the arrow,

reminding the user that the program is continuously updating
calculated results.
The preferred method for exiting the PSAT programme is to first

click the "STOP" button and then close the program by clicking on
the standard window close button to the upper right.
133
Calculation updating is off alert box

This is simply a status advisory noting that PSAT's calculations
have been stopped. When this box is visible changes to inputs
can be made, but the results will not be updated until clicking the
arrow below the Edit menu restarts updating.
Run arrow
PSAT’s Run arrow appears just below the Edit menu. When PSAT
calculation updating is live, the "STOP" button will be displayed
and the run arrow will be black. If the "STOP" button is depressed,
PSAT calculation updating will halt, the “Calculation updating is
off” alert box will appear, and the Run arrow will change to white.
To start PSAT running again, click on the white run arrow.
15.2.8. Results section
Pump efficiency
• Existing
Existing pump efficiency is fluid power added by the pump divided
by pump input shaft power.
Fluid power added by the pump is calculated from the product of the
flow rate, head, and specific gravity. Shaft power is estimated using
measured electrical data and PSAT's motor efficiency vs load curves.
• Optimal
Optimal pump efficiency is estimated based on the efficiency esti‑
mating algorithms contained in Hydraulic Institute Standard HI
1.3-2000, Centrifugal Pump Design and Application.
134
The efficiency value used in PSAT includes the positive deviation from
"generally attainable efficiency" shown in HI 1.3 Figures 1.76A and 1.76B.
Motor rated power
• Existing
Existing motor nameplate power (same as Rated power in the
Motor input section)
• Optimal
This is the nameplate motor rated power for an optimally sized pump.
PSAT uses the calculated fluid power and optimal pump efficiency
to determine the optimal pump input shaft power. For a direct-
driven pump, this is the same as the motor shaft power. If a belt
drive is specified, belt losses are accounted for so the required
motor shaft power will be greater.
The size margin specified in the Motor input section is added to

the required motor shaft power. Using the resultant value, PSAT
selects the next largest standard motor size.
Motor shaft power

• Existing
This is the estimated motor shaft power for the existing motor. The
estimate is based on measured electrical data and the PSAT's effi‑
ciency estimate for the specified motor size, speed, and class.
• Optimal
This is the motor shaft power requirement for the optimal pump,
based on the specified flow rate, head, and specific gravity val‑
ues, along with the HI 1.3 achievable efficiency algorithms. If a
belt drive is specified, associated losses are added to the pump
shaft power to determine required motor power. For direct-driven
pumps, the pump and motor shaft powers are the same.
Pump shaft power
• Existing
This is the estimated pump shaft power for the existing motor. The esti‑
mate is the same as the motor shaft power (above) for direct-driven
applications. For belt-driven applications, belt losses are deducted
from the motor shaft power to determine pump shaft power.
• Optimal
This is the shaft power requirement for the optimal pump, based
on the specified flow rate, head, and specific gravity values, along
with the HI 1.3 achievable efficiency algorithms.
135
Motor efficiency
• Existing
This is the estimated efficiency of the existing motor at the existing load.
• Optimal
This is the estimated efficiency for an energy- efficient motor of the
size indicated in the Optimal Motor rated power entry above when
operating at the Optimal Motor shaft power (also indicated above).
Motor power factor
• Existing
This is the estimated power factor for the existing motor at the
existing load. It is based on the measured electrical data and the
motor performance characteristic curves for the specified motor.
• Optimal
This is the estimated power factor for an energy-efficient motor of the
operating at the optimal motor shaft power (also indicated above).
Motor current
• Existing
This is the estimated or measured current for the existing motor at
the existing load.
• Optimal
This is the estimated current for an energy-efficient motor of the
Motor power
• Existing
This is the estimated or measured electric power for the existing
motor at the existing load.
• Optimal
This is the estimated electric power for an energy-efficient motor of
the size indicated in the Optimal Motor rated power entry above when
Annual energy
• Existing
This is the annual energy consumption at the measured/estimated
power level for the existing equipment when operated for the frac‑
tion of time indicated in the Operating fraction at left.
136
• Optimal
This is the annual energy consumption for an optimized pump
driven by an energy-efficient motor, based on the estimated Motor
power (above) and on the fraction of time the pump is operated
(see Operating fraction at left).
Annual cost
• Existing
This is the existing annual energy cost based on the product of the
Existing annual energy consumption (above) and the unit operat‑
ing cost (cents/kwhr) input.
• Optimal
This is the existing annual energy cost based on the product of the
Optimal annual energy consumption (above) and the unit operat‑
ing cost (cents/kwhr) input.
Annual savings potential, $1,000
This is the potential annual savings, in thousands of dollars if the

existing equipment was replaced with equipment that performed
consistently with that indicated for the Optimal case above.
It is the difference in the Annual cost for the Existing and Optimal cases.
Optimization rating, %
This is a measure of the overall rating of the existing pumping sys‑

tem efficiency relative to the optimal motor, optimal pump con‑
figuration, expressed as a percentage. A value of 100 means the
existing system is equal to the optimal, while a value of 50 means
the existing system is half as efficient as the optimal system.
Mathematically, it is simply the Optimal Motor power divided by

the Existing Motor power, expressed as a percentage.
It is possible for values of greater than 100% to exist, since the

pump efficiencies used in the program reflect "generally attainable
efficiency levels." There can be significant deviation in efficiency,
particularly with smaller pumps (see Figure 1.63 of HI1.3-2000).
The background color for the Optimization rating varies with the rating:
>100: Dark Blue
90-100: Green
80-90: Olive
70-80: Yellow
60-70: Orange
<60: Red
137
15.2.9. Log and summary files controls section
Create new log button
Click on this button to create a new data log with the existing infor‑
mation. The data will then be available for subsequent retrieval
using the "Retrieve Log" button.
Add to existing log button
Click on this button to add the currently displayed data to an existing

log file. You will be prompted to identify the log file to which the data
will be added. Note: the file is not overwritten – it is supplemented
with the currently displayed information. The data will then be avail‑
able for subsequent retrieval using the "Retrieve Log" button.
Retrieve log entry
Click on this button to retrieve previously logged data. You will be

prompted to locate the file that the data is stored in. If there is more
than one logged data set in the file, you will then see a listing of
available logs from which to select, such as shown below. Click the
numbered red button to the left of the text section, which includes
information entered into the Documentation section. Adequate
annotation of an analysis is important to the retrieval process.
Delete log entry
Click on this button to be prompted to select the log file from which
a log entry will be deleted; once the file is selected, you will be
shown all existing logs from which you can select one for deletion.
After deleting the log (or canceling log deletion), you'll be

returned to this window and you can then repeat the sequence
to delete a different entry.
138
Write summary file
The "Write summary file" button and "Existing summary files" drop
down menu list are related chameleons, in that both have two dif‑
ferent labels and colors. The label and color are dependent on the
item selected in “Existing summary files”.
If the Existing summary files menu selection is "CREATE NEW", the

button will be labeled "Create new summary file”, and the back‑
ground color for both will be white. If any existing summary file
is selected (such as “Example 2007 summary”), the button will
be labeled "Append existing summary file”, and the background
color for both will be light blue.
If creating a new summary file, the user will be prompted to locate

and name the file. The default location for summary files is in the
"Summary files" folder, located in the PSAT main folder. Only sum‑
mary files saved to this location will be displayed in the Existing
summary files listing. Summary files can be saved elsewhere, but
will not be available for appending.
A summary file is in a tab-delimited spreadsheet format. It can be

opened with Excel or other spreadsheet program and it can also
be opened with any text-editing or word processing program.
15.2.10. Documentation section
139
The documentation section includes several text boxes with relatively straightforward
titles. The purpose of this section is, as the name implies, to simply record information that
is useful in identifying the pumping system being evaluated, when the data was acquired,
assumptions made, who did the analysis, etc. There is no requirement to complete any of
the boxes, but if the analysis is to be logged for subsequent retrieval it is an excellent idea
to complete this section.
Note that the General comments entry includes a scroll bar. This allows the user to
provide as much information as is desired concerning assumptions, methods, circum‑
stances, etc. as desired.
15.2.11. Pump head calculation panel: with suction and discharge

pressure gauges
The pump head calculation panel provides two types of configurations to help the user calcu‑
late operating pump head. The configuration below is for situations where both suction and
discharge pressure measurements can be made.
140
15.2.12. Pump head calculation panel: with suction tank elevation
and discharge pressure
The configuration below is for situations where the suction pressure is not available, but suc‑
tion tank (or well) level is.
Descriptions of the individual controls and indicators on the head panel follow.
15.2.13. Pump head panel input data section

Type of measurement configuration
The popup menu near the top of the panel can make the selec‑
tion of “measurement configuration”. The graphic underneath the
menu changes to provide a graphical indication of the selected
configuration, as illustrated below. Shown immediately below the
graphic is the list of suction side inputs that correspond to the
selected configuration.
If an input only appears under one of the two types of measure‑

ment configurations, it will be so noted in italics to the right of the
heading in the Input data section descriptions that follow.
141
Suction pipe diameter (ID)
Suction pipe inside diameter in inches or mm. This is used to cal‑

culate the fluid velocity in the suction pipe, which in turn is used
to determine the suction velocity head.
Suction gauge pressure (Ps) – Suction and discharge line pressure con-
figuration
Suction gauge pressure in psig or kPa
Suction tank gas overpressure (Pg) – Suction tank elevation, gas space
pressure, and discharge line
pressure configuration
This is the gas overpressure in the suction tank in psig or kPa.

If the tank (or well, lake, etc.) is open to atmosphere, the gauge
pressure should be set to 0.
Suction gauge elevation (Zs) – Suction and discharge line pressure

configuration
Suction gauge elevation in feet or meters, relative to a common

reference point elevation.
This reference can be absolute (e.g. sea level), or relative (e.g.

floor level). However, the same reference elevation must be used
to define the discharge gauge elevation.
142
Suction tank fluid surface elevation (Zs) – Suction tank elevation, gas
space pressure, and dis-
charge line pressure con-
figuration
This is the elevation of the tank (or well, lake, etc.) relative to a
common reference point elevation in either feet or meters.

to define the discharge pressure gauge elevation.
Suction line loss coefficients, Ks
The suction line loss coefficients are used to estimate the fric‑
tional head losses between the suction reference point (tank level
or suction line pressure gauge) and the pump suction flange. Note
that these coefficients apply to the Darcy-Weisbach style calcula‑
tion (loss = K × velocity head).
These losses might come from elbows, tees, suction isolation

valve, etc. and in the situation where the suction tank level is used
as a reference, the entrance loss from the tank to the pipe.
IMPORTANT: All losses must be normalized to the specified suc‑

tion pipe diameter, and loss coefficient adjustments are made to
the 4th order of the pipe diameter ratio. For example, if there is
a 12-inch isolation valve with a loss coefficient (K) of 0.4, but the
suction pipe diameter at the point where pressure is measured is
16-inches - such as in a suction header - the loss coefficient for the
valve would be 0.4 × (16/12)^4, or 1.26.
Note: the fact that the word “coefficients” is plural is intentional – it

is intended to account for the sum of all suction line loss elements.
Discharge pipe diameter (ID)
Discharge pipe inside diameter in inches or mm. This is used to

calculate the fluid velocity in the discharge pipe, which in turn is
used to determine the discharge velocity head.
Discharge gauge pressure (Pd)
Discharge gauge pressure in psig or kPa
143
Discharge gauge elevation (Zd)

Discharge gauge elevation in feet or meters, relative to a common
reference point elevation.

in defining the suction gauge elevation.
Discharge line loss coefficients, Kd
The discharge line loss coefficients value is used to estimate the

frictional head losses between the pump discharge flange and the
discharge pressure gauge. Note that these coefficients apply to
the Darcy-Weisbach style calculation (loss = K x velocity head).
These losses might come from elbows, tees, discharge isolation

valve, check valve, etc.
IMPORTANT: All losses must be normalized to the specified dis‑

charge pipe diameter, and loss coefficient adjustments are made
to the 4th order of the pipe diameter ratio. For example, if there is
an 8-inch swing check valve with a loss coefficient (K) of 2, but the
discharge pipe diameter at the point where pressure is measured
is 16-inches - such as in a discharge header - the loss coefficient
for the valve would be 2 × (16/8)^4, or 32.
Note: the fact that the word “coefficients” is plural is intentional – it

is intended to account for the sum of all discharge line loss elements.
Fluid specific gravity
Specific gravity of the fluid
Note: this value is brought over from the main PSAT panel. It can be
changed here in the head calculator panel. If it is changed, the mod‑
ified value will be returned along with the calculated head (if the
“Click to Accept and return the calculated head” button is clicked).
Flow rate
Pump flow rate in the indicated units (which are based on those
selected on the main PSAT panel).
Note: this value is brought over from the main PSAT panel. It can be
changed here in the head calculator panel. If it is changed, the mod‑
ified value will be returned along with the calculated head (if the
“Click to Accept and return the calculated head” button is clicked).
144
Don’t update button
Click this button to return to the main panel without updating the
main panel flow rate, head, and specific gravity values.
Accept and update button
Click this button to return the above specified flow rate and specific
gravity values and the calculated head (right). The main panel will be
updated to reflect these values. If the main panel is subsequently
logged, all of the information on the head calculator panel (line sizes,
gauge elevations, etc.) will be retained with the logged analysis.
Differential elevation head
This is the difference in elevation between the suction and dis‑

charge reference points.
In the case where a tank level is used, the elevation difference will
be the elevation of the discharge pressure gauge minus the tank
fluid surface elevation.
In the case where both suction and discharge gauges are used,
the elevation difference will be the elevation of the discharge
gauge minus the elevation of the suction gauge.
Differential pressure head
The differential pressure head is the difference between the suc‑

tion and discharge pressures, converted to units of feet or meters
for the specified specific gravity.
Differential velocity head
The differential velocity head is the discharge velocity head minus

the suction velocity head.
Velocity head = V^2/2g
In the case where the suction tank level is used as a reference

point, the differential velocity head will be identical to the dis‑
charge velocity head, as it is assumed that the tank is sufficiently
large that the fluid velocity will be essentially zero.
If the suction and discharge line sizes are identical, the differ‑
ential velocity head will be zero, as the velocity head in the two
lines will be identical.
145
Estimated suction friction head

This is an estimate of the friction losses in the suction line (from
the suction reference point to the pump), based upon the calcu‑
lated velocity head and the specified loss coefficients. The friction
loss in feet or meters is:
Hfs = Ks × V2/2g
Estimated discharge friction head
This is an estimate of the friction losses in the discharge line (from

the pump to the discharge gauge), based upon the calculated
velocity head and the specified loss coefficients. The friction loss
in feet or meters is:
Hfd = Kd × V2/2g
Pump head
This is the total pump head, including elevation, pressure, velocity

components plus the estimated suction and discharge friction losses.
15.2.14. System curve panel
146
15.2.15. System curve element descriptions
Specific gravity
The "Fluid specific gravity” is initially set to the value specified on

the main PSAT panel, but can be changed here.
The specific gravity does not affect the system head curve, but
does affect the fluid power, which is directly proportional to
the specific gravity.
System loss exponent, C
The system friction loss exponent is the exponent to which the

flow rate is raised in developing friction loss estimates. While the
Darcy-Weisbach equation, as applied to both pipe and fittings,
indicates an exponent of 2 proportionality, the fact that the friction
factor declines slightly with increasing Reynolds number causes
the net effect to be slightly less than an exponent of 2.
The difference is generally not significant. You might want to

experiment with exponents ranging from 1.8 to 2.0 to see how the
system head curve changes.
Point 1 conditions
The Point 1 flow rate and head values are initially specified based
on data passed from the main PT panel. Depending upon which
system curve source is used, the initial values will be:
Condition A + user specified: Condition A flow, Condition A head

Condition B + user specified: Condition B flow, Condition B head
Condition A + Condition B: Condition A flow, Condition A head
The fluid power for point 1 is calculated from the product of the
flow rate, head, and specific gravity and is reported in either hp or
kW, depending on the system of units from the main PSAT panel.
Point 2 conditions
If the Condition A + Condition B selection was made on the main

PSAT panel, the flow rate shown here will be the value from Con‑
dition B. Otherwise, the user can specify another flow and head
data pair to develop the system curve. In many cases this will be
the system static head with the flow rate = 0.
147
Alternate duty point

To see the head for any flow rate on the system curve, type the
flow rate value in the Alternate entry. The head for that point will
be calculated from the system curve, displayed along side of it
and marked on the curve (orange circle). The associated fluid
power will also be displayed.
System static head and K’ loss coefficient
Both the system static head and the K’ loss coefficient are deter‑
mined from the combination of supplied Point 1 and Point 2 flow
and head values, the loss exponent C, and the general curve char‑
acteristic H(Q) = Hs + K’QC
Retain system curve button
Clicking this button will return the user to the main PSAT panel. It
will also result in the curve data being retained in PSAT. If the main
panel is subsequently logged, the system curve information will
be stored within the log.
Ignore changes button
Clicking this button will return the user to the main PSAT panel, but
without modifying the system curve information.
Export to spreadsheet button
This button is used to export the parameters needed to construct

the curve (static head, the K' loss coefficient, and the System loss
exponent C) to a tab-delimited text file. This will allow the user
to construct a system curve in a spreadsheet or other numerical
processing program.
System curve source indicator
This is an indicator that reports the selection made by the user on

the main PSAT panel that led to this system curve panel.
148
Inconsistent flow units warning
This warning appears when the user has called up the system curve panel with the Con‑
dition A + Condition B selection, but the systems of units used in the two conditions are
different. A system curve is only valid if the pair of specified flow/head units are consistent.
The entire system curve panel will automatically close, as noted, in 5 seconds after it is
opened, taking the user back at the main PSAT panel.
149
Notes
150
Notes
151

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MANUAL FOR

INDUSTRIAL PUMP SYSTEMS

UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION

Copyright © United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2016

Energy is a fundamental prerequisite for development and economic

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) is a specialized agency of

• Advancing economic competitiveness

About UNIDO Industrial Energy Efficiency Programme

About the UNIDO Pump Systems Optimization (PSO) Programme

• Providing technical assistance to enterprises on pump systems energy assessment and

Day 5 Periodic communication

3-4 weeks 2-3 months 1-2 weeks Time

LEGEND EXPERT Trainees PSO Teams carry PSO TEAM

1. Pump SystemS Optimization &

1.2. Life Cycle Costs

Life Cycle Costs of an Automobile

• Initial year fuel price = 4.90 ZAR/l

These costs are shown in Figure 1.2.

Now lets take the same approach with a pump system.

Life Cycle Costs of Pump

• Operate the pump for 7,000 hours/year for 10 years

These costs are illustrated in Figure 1.3.

These costs are shown in Figure 1.4.

Energy 88% Energy 77%

• Initial prescreening based on size, run time and pump type

• Installed components are inefficient at the typical operating condition.

• Valves throttled to control flow.

A sample prescreening worksheet has been provided in Appendix A.

Filter 1 Filter 2 Symptom or

Fig. 1.5. Prescreening Flow Chart

1.4. Key Learning Points

2. Pump Systems and Process Demands

At each interface there are inefficiencies. The goal should be

Breaker/starter ASD (maybe) Motor Pump Fluid system

Fig. 2.1. System components

2.2. System Boundaries

Fig. 2.2. Three possible system boundaries for a simple system

2.3. Process Demand

2.3.1. Constant Flow Requirements

2.3.2. Variable Flow Requirements

Fig. 2.3. Example of annual variation of Fig. 2.4. Example of daily variations of

2.4. Duration Diagrams

Annual Hours Above a Certain Flow Rate

Fig. 2.5. Typical annualized duration curve for a wastewater system

Flow Rate (l/s)

2.5. Key Learning Points

3. Pump Types

Fig. 3.1. Types of pumps used in industry

Single Stage Closed Impeller

Multistage Non-Self Priming

Single Acting Simplex

Fig. 3.2. Classification of pumps

3.2. Rotodynamic Pumps

Fig. 3.3. Typical end suction pump

Fig. 3.4. Frame mounted and close coupled pumps

Fig. 3.5. Centrifugal pump flow patterns (radial, mixed and axial)

Fig. 3.6. Vertical and horizontal multistage pumps

Fig. 3.7. Impeller types (semi-open, open and closed)

3.3. Positive Displacement Pumps