FIRST

EDITION
2009

i
 AR-RAZI
SAUDI METHANOL COMPANY

Basic Machine
Shop
Grade 6 / Job1

2009

SAUDI METHANOL COMPANY (AR-RAZI) P.O. BOX 10065,

JUBAIL, K.S.A 31961

ii
 Table of Contents
Chapter Description PAGE
NO.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV

I Drilling Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Main Parts of the Drill Press and their Function . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. The Controls of a Drill Press and Their Function . . . . . . . . . .. 4
3. Correct Speed and Feeds for Different Materials . . . . . . . . . . 4
II Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1. Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Power Saws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
III Introduction to Power Hacksaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1. Power Hacksaw- Parts and Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

IV Relationship Between Feeds and Speed Required
When cutting Different Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Cutting Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. Portable Power Drills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3. Drill Bits – Angles and Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4. Power Grinders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Grinding Wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
V Checking Out Signs of Damage
to the Grinding Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1. Wheel and Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

VI Metals Alloys and Engineering fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . 35

1 Identify Metal used in the Workshop and their Properties. . . . 35

iii
 Introduction

There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of

generating a certain part geometry and surface texture.

In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material
from a rotating work piece to generate a cylindrical shape. The speed motion in
turning is provided by the rotating work part, and the feed motion is achieved by
the cutting tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
work piece.

Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that is

typically has two cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation into the work part to form the round hole.

In boring, the tool is used to enlarge an already available hole. It is a fine

finishing operation used in the final stages of product manufacture.

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to
the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed
motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided
by the rotating milling cutter.

As a Technician you will use the drill press regularly. It is an important

machine tool that not only lets you drill holes, but also lets you ream,
counter-bore, countersink, and tap holes.

A drill press makes holes of a set size in material. It does this by driving
a drill bit.

The drill bit is turned and this turning or rotary motion lets it cut into a
material. This makes a circular hole the size of the drill bit diameter.

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 Chapter 1 : Drilling Machines

1.0 Main Parts Of The Drill Press and Their Function

Depending upon their manufacturer, drill presses come in many shapes and
sizes. Their size is determined by the diameter of the largest work piece
that they can drill on center. For example, a 400 mm (16’) drill press will
drill a hole in die center of a 400 mm (16’) diameter work piece.

Figure 1A. Various Types of Drills

No matter what size or manufacturer, drill presses have the same major
parts.

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 Motor

Spindle

Chuck
Safety Collar
Drill Bit

Table

Table lock
Raising Table
Column
Lift

Base

Figure 1B. Drill Press Parts

1.1. Spindle

Turning, or rotation movement, is through the spindle. Depending on its

type, the drill bit is secured either directly to the spindle or through a
chuck to the spindle.

1.2. Chuck

The chuck holds drill bits securely. You can use different chucks for very
small or very large drill bits. Commonly a chuck takes up to ½” (12mm)
drill bits.

1.3 Drill Bit

The size of the drill bit is the size of the hole you drill. Commonly, for
holes over ½” (12 mm), you would not use a chuck to secure the drill bit.
For large holes you use a tapered bit. A Morse taper secures tapered drill
bits directly to the spindle.

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1.4 Safety Collar

The safety collar stops the drill press head from falling when die locks are
released unintentionally.

1.5 Motor

This provides drive or turning movement to rotate the spindle and drill bit.

1.6 Table

This lets you position the work piece horizontally within the range of the
spindle. Usually a vise is attached to the table. This lets you secure the
work piece you are drilling.

1.7 Table Lock

This locks the table at die height you want it at on the drill press column.

1.8 Table-Raising Lift

The table-raising lift raises or lowers the table up or down the column.

1.9 Base and Column

The base and column support the drill press and prevent it from moving
about the floor when in use. The base plate can also be used instead of
the table. This lets you increase the vertical capacity of the machine.

1.10 The Height or Vertical Size of the Drill Press

The Height or Vertical Size of the Drill Press is determined by the distance
from the table in its lowest position, to the bottom of the jaws of the
chuck when fully raised, less the amount the drill projects from the spindle
or the chuck.

1.12 Safety

Always make sure the collar is in place and ‘securely locked.

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2.0 The Controls Of A Drill Press And Their Function

To perform drilling tasks, you must know the drill press controls. To make
sure your work is correct and accurate you must also know each control
does.

2.1 Start/Stop Switches

These start or stop the Drill press motor.

2.2 Feed Control

This let you move down the drill bit onto a material. All drill press types
have a hand feed control and some also have an automatic feed control.
Automatic feeds are usually set at certain feed per revolution of the drill
press spindle. That means, for every complete turn of the spindle, the drill
bit lowers by a set amount. For example, 0.10 mm (0.004”) per revolution.
The range of feeds varies from 0.05 to 0.64mm (0.002” to 0.025”) per
revolution.

2.3 Speed Control

A handle or a wheel controls the spindle speed. The type of control you see
depends upon the drill press type and manufacturer. One Common drive
system is the variable-speed drive. With this, you can change to any
speed within that spindle’s speed range. Another drive system is the step-
pulley drive with a VEE-BELT. With this, you change the spindle speed by
moving the VEE-BELT up to a different diameter pulley.

3.0 Correct Speeds and Feeds for Different materials

As you learned earlier, some materials are harder or softer than others.
This means that some are easier to cut through than others. Because of
this, you must set the drill press up correctly for the type of material you
wish to drill.

3.1 Speed

Revolutions per minute (RPM) is how you say the speed of the drill. This
means the number of times the drill bit turns in one minute. For example
if a bit turns or rotates 100 times in one minute, the speed of the drill is
100 RPM. You must use the correct speed for the work piece to prevent
damage or dulling of the drill bit. In general, use low speeds with hard,
tough materials, such as medium carbon steel and stainless steel. Use high
cutting speeds with softer materials, such as aluminum, copper, and low
carbon steel. Tough materials have resistance to cutting while soft materials
have low resistance to cutting.

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 3.2 Feed

Feed is the distance traveled downwards and into a material as the drill bit
turns. The feed control lets you adjust this amount. You will normally see
feed shown as inches or mm per revolution of the drill bit. The feed need
changes with the drill bit size and the work piece material. Most drill presses
have charts fastened to them shown the feed when cutting hard tough
materials, such as medium carbon steel and stainless steel. Use more feed
when cutting softer materials, such as aluminum, copper, and low carbon
steel. Tough materials have resistance to cutting while soft materials have low
resistance to cutting.

3.3 Feed/Speed Chart

The following chart shows an example of a speed/feed chart. If your drill

press has a chart. You must use the figures given on that machine.

Feed Revolution Drill Size Steel RPM Cast Iron RPM Brass and
Aluminum RPM
Inch Mm Inch Mm Imperial Metric Imperial Metric Imperial Metric
.002-004 .05 - 1/8 3 1835 1910 2445 2545 6110 6365
.102
.004-.007 .102-.178 3/4 6 915 1145 1225 1220 3055 3820
.004-.007 .102-.178 3/8 9 610 820 815 815 2035 2730
.007-0.15 .178-.381 1/2 12 460 635 610 610 1530 2120

3.4 Safety Rules For Drill Presses

You know the general workshop safety rules. You know you must follow
them whenever you are in a workshop.

When you work on a drill press there are extra safety rules you must
follow. These drill press safety rules must be followed as well as the
general safety rules.

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3.6 Pre-Use Safety

Before you even begin a task on a drill press you must think of safety.
Remember, safety starts with you.

Plan out your work.

Make sure the work area is clean.

Remove watches and rings.

Wear short sleeves, or roll up long sleeves.

Make sure the power is switched off both at the wall/workshop switch
and the drill press before you touch the drill press.

Make sure your work piece is correctly prepared, (layout and making
complete).

Secure the work piece in the drill press table vise.

Check that you have the correct drill bit for the task and secure it
correctly.

If you use a chuck key, remove it as soon as you have the drill bit
secured.

Check that you know the correct speed and feed needed for your work
piece.

3.7 In-Use Safety

While you are performing drilling tasks you must remember safety.

Make sure that the table is free of cutting chips, tools and any loose
items.

Let the drill run to full power before you begin to drill.

Check for overheating. When cutting hard or thick material, ease the bit
out of the hole regularly and use coolant.

If you have to make any adjustments or change the drill bit, switch
power off both at the drill press and at the wall/workshop switch.

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3.8 After-Use Safety

Even when you have completed your drill task, you must still think of
Safety.

Make sure the drill has come to a full stop and power is off before
moving the work piece.

Make sure the work piece or drill press part is cold before you touch it.
Friction from drilling operations produces a lot of heat. The work piece and
drill bit can be very hot for some time after you stop drilling.

Remove the drill bit and store correctly.

Remove the work piece and remove ragged edges to de-burr the hole.

Remove cuttings with a dustpan and brush to the correct waste

container. Never use a rag or your fingers to move cuttings. Ensure your
work area is left clean and tidy.

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 Chapter 2 : Power Tools

In this chapter you will learn how to correctly operate a number of power
tools. To ensure you can do these tasks without hurting yourself or others.
1 gives you the general safety rules for using power tools. 4.4 teaches
you about power saws, including their safety. 4.10 teaches power drills and
4.13 power grinders. However, at later stages of this course you will use
your new skills and knowledge to produce components using power tools.

1.0 Power Tools

Objectives

Unaided, the Technician will correctly state the general safety rules for
working with power tools.

Terminal Objectives:

Unaided the Technician will correctly state the safety rules for using power
tools

1.1. General Safety Rules For Working With Power Tools

Incorrect use of power tools it dangerous. To protect yourself from pain

and injury you must take care with power tools and follow all their safety
rules. You should remember that power tool safety rules are in addition to
the general safety rules for the workshop.

1.2. Safety for All Power Tools types

Use your common sense.

Wear the correct protective clothing.

Follow all work site safety rules.

Never leave a tool unattended.

Keep tools clean and store them correctly.

1.3 Electrical Tools

Check that the air source is correct for tool size and type.

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 Note:

You may need a regulator fitted

Check that air lines are in good condition.

Blow out any dirt or grease from the lines before fixing them to the
tool.

Check that connections are secure and , if possible, fit a safety wire.

Disconnect air line from the source first, not the tool.

2.0 Power Saws

Unaided, the Technician will correctly identify and state the safe use of
a horizontal band saw, identify its main parts, and state the function of
the main parts.

Unaided, the Technician will correctly identify and state the safe use of a
power hacksaw, identify its main pans, and state the functions of the
main parts.

Unaided, the Technician will identify the relationship between feeds and
speeds required when cutting different materials.

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2.1 Horizontal Band Saw – Parts and Function

Description

The Band saw discussed in this chapter is the electric-driven, fixed position
horizontal Band saw. You may find slight variations between manufacturers’
models, but every band saw has the same main parts.

Band saws come in different sizes. Their size depends upon the size of
material they cut. When set up correctly, horizontal Band saws produce
straight and square cuts time after time with little waste.

Band Blade Adjuster Power switch

Blade Frame

Band
Blade

Machine
Vice

Figure 2.1 – A Horizontal Band -saw Main Part

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2.2 Band Blade

This is the cutting tool of the saw. It is a continuous (endless ) blade with
cutting teeth on one edge.

Commonly, blades are carbon or high-speed alloy steels. These materials

make the blade strong. Blade material and the number of teeth determine
the type of material they can cut.

You install the blade with the teeth pointed in the direction of the cut. The
handsaw cuts in one direction only.

Cutting in one direction creates less friction than the reciprocating (back
and forth) movement of a hacksaw.

2.3 Driver and Idler Wheels

Drive wheels turn the blades. The idler wheel guides the blade in its loop.
Moving the idler wheel away from the drive wheel provides tension to the
blade.

2.4 Blade Guide Rollers and Brush

Blade guide rollers support, position, and guide the blade. You set them as
close together as possible while still letting cutting take place. The brush
removes swarf (cutting chips and small metal fragments) made during the
cutting operation.

2.5 Band Blade Adjuster

The band blade adjuster, or tension screw, changes the blade tension.
Turning it clockwise increases blade tension. Turning counter-clockwise
releases tension.

Commonly, you turn the screw around ¼ of a turn for a 5/8” wide blade.
However, finding the correct tension will only come from experience.

2.6 Machine Vise and Stop Gauge

The machine vise holds and clamps metal stock. This stops the stock from
moving when cutting. The stop gauge lets a number of pieces be cut to
the same length, one after another.

2.7 Feed Weight

The feed weight controls the amount of blade cutting pressure. Changing
the position of the weight changes the pressure on the blade.

2.8 Frame Lock

This locks the blade frame In an upright position. This lets you secure the
blade frame when positioning metal stock in the vice or changing the
blade.

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2.9 Blade Frame

The blade frame supports the rotating parts of the band saw, it also
supports the guide roller arms.

2.10 Main Frame

The main frame supports the parts of the band saw, Fixed to the floor, it
prevents the band saw from moving.

2.11 Blade Frame Damper

This controls how fast the blade frame comes down onto the work piece.

2.12 Motor Drive

This supplies rotary motion to the stepped pulley that drives the end band
wheel. The number of step’s on the pulley is the number of cutting speeds

2.13 Stop/Start Control Switch

This control lets you start and stop the band saw safely.

2.14 Emergency/Cut-Off Switch

The emergency/cut-off switch turns off the power to the motor. It operates
on completion of a cut or if the blade breaks and leaves the frame
without support. The cut-off also causes the handsaw to stop automatically.

2.15 Pre-Use Safety

Ensure that the power supply and power switches are off.

Ensure that the blade frame is locked in the upright position.

Check the blade for any damage.

Ensure that the blade fitted is correct for the material you want to cut.

Ensure that all wheel and blade guards are secure and will not catch
on the blade.

If you wish to cut a long piece of material, ensure you have support
stands available.

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2.16 In-use safety

Fit the work piece in the vise and ensure the work piece is secured
correctly.

Position the guide rollers to the approximate width for the material you
are cutting.

Connect the power and start the motor.

Only when you can see the blade running freely, apply the coolant, and
slowly lower the blade onto the material.

Set the feed weight for the material being cut.

Let the saw cut its own way through the material. Do not push down
on the blade frame.

2.17 After-Use Safety

When cutting tasks have been completed, turn off the power to isolate
the saw.

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 Chapter 3: Introduction to Power Hacksaw - Parts and Function

Clean the work area and remove swarf and unused coolant.

1.0 Power Hacksaw - Parts and Function

Description

Power hacksaws vary in design. Some are light-duty, crank-driven machines.

Others are large, heavy-duty, hydraulically driven machines. However, they
all work on the same principles and have similar features and controls. In
figure 3.1 you will see a typical hacksaw with its parts illustrated.

1.1 Saw Blade

Power hacksaws have heavy blade, thicker than; band saw. The blade is
the cutting tool of the saw! The blade is wide, its cut width is also wide.
Blade types are commonly graded by the material they made from and the
number of cutting teeth per inch (TPI).

Note : the saw teeth per inch ( TPI) on the most commonly used materials
are:

4 TPI – for large section work or soft metals.

6 TPI - for general work.

10 TPI for small section work or hand metal.

Figure 1.1 Power Hacksaw

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1.2 Pressure Feed Adjuster

This keeps the correct cutting pressure on the saw! Blade. The pressure
on the blade controls how deep the blade digs into the work piece at
each cut.

1.3 Hydraulic Feed Damper

This controls how fast the blade frame descends drops onto the work
piece.

1.4 Blade Frame and Tensioner

The blade frame supports and secures the saw blade. The TENSIONER lets
you adjust the blade tension.

1.5 Machine Vise and Stop Gauge

The machine vise holds and clamps metal stock. The stop gauge gauges a
measured length of metal stock.

1.6 Coolant System

This helps to overcome the heat caused by friction when cutting. It

lubricates and cools the blade and the work piece. A small valve lets you
control how much coolant flows.

1.7 Start/Stop Switch

This lets you start and stop the saw.

1.8 Pre-Use Safety

Same rules and precautions followed when using the band

1.9. In-Use Safety

Same rules and precautions followed when using the band saw.

1.10 After-Use Safety

Same rules and precautions followed when using the band saw.

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Chapter 4 : Relationship Between Feeds And Speeds Required When
Cutting Different Materials

Earlier to this part you must have learned that each material has different
properties. Some, like high-carbon steel, are very hard. Others, like
aluminum are quiet soft. Because each material is different, the speed you
can cut it is also different. This is why it is also important to chose the
correct type of blade. As a rule, the more teeth per inch (TPI) a blade
has, the harder the material it can cut.

The speed provides the energy on the teeth as they move in the direction
of the cut. The feed provides weight to the cutting action. This means
that the amount of resistance of the material to the cutting action
determines the cutting speed and feed.

1.0 Cutting Speeds

Commonly, tables list cutting speeds (CS) for different materials. You
measure cutting speed in different ways. It depends on the type of tool
you use. For drilling tools. Cutting speed is in revolutions per minute
(RPM). Power hacksaws have their cutting speed measured in feet per
minute (f/m).

However, if the teeth of a cutting tool pass through the work too quickly,
friction will dull the blade or cause it to break. If the cutting speed is too
slow, this also dulls the blade and cuts take longer. See Figure below

Figure 1. Speed and Feed

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Tough, hard materials have high resistance to cutting. Soft materials have
low resistance. Therefore, you use low speeds with hard materials, for
example when cutting high-speed or stainless steel, with softer materials,
for example, aluminum, copper, or low-carbon steel, you use high cutting
speeds,.

1.1 Cutting Feeds

Feed is the machine movement causing a tool to cut into the surface of
a work piece. In metal cutting, feed is commonly measured In inches or
mm per minute. You change the feed for the different cutting tool sizes
and work piece size and material. Some power tools have charts fastened
to them. These show the correct feed for each blade and material. If
these are available, you should use them Commonly, you use slow feed
when cutting hard materials, and higher feed when cutting softer
materials.

1.2. Power Saws Summary

Power saws cut efficiently and quickly. They let you cut thick work pieces
with little effort. To operate them, you must know their safety rules. The
power hacksaw cuts with a reciprocal, back and forth movement. It is not
as efficient as the hand saw. The band saw cuts with a continuous
cutting motion. Before you begin cutting, you must check the speed and
feed are correct. Speed and feed Changes for each work piece material
and blade type. The positioning of the work piece in the vise clamp is
important. You must set up thee work piece so that at least three teeth
will be in contact with the work piece when cutting.

2.0 Portable Power Drills

The Technician will correctly identify and state the use of portable power
drills,
Identify their main parts, and state the functions of the parts.

2.1 Portable Power Drills – key points

The locking button lets you lock the trigger ON.

The motor is kept cool by air vents in the case.

The chuck has jaws that hold the drill bit securely.

Chuck capacity is the largest diameter drill bit the chuck can hold.

The size of a portable power drill is identified by its chuck capacity.

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 The drill bit is the drill’s cutting tool.

The drill bit is turned by the chuck and cuts its way into the
material.

A reversing switch lets you change the direction that the drill bit
turns.

There are many types of drill bit. Each is designed for cutting in a
certain way.

A cordless drill is powered by a rechargeable battery

A pneumatic drill is powered by compressed air.

Light-duty and y heavy-duty drills are two types of portable drills. One
problem with using heavy-duty drills is that, when breaking through the
hole, the bit can stick and kick the machine, causing injury.

Figure 2.1 Portable Power Drill

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 Safety Rule Reasons

Wear safety equipment including Cutting chips flying from a power

Safety glasses. Drill can be very hot and can burn
your skin.

The area must be free of gas. Sparks from the drill motor could
Cause an explosion.

Secure the drill if it is to be used The drill may fall and cause injury
At height above normal or out.
working

Level.

Before use, check the drill for If the voltage is not correct, the
correct voltage. wires can overheat, or the motor
could burn out.
Check the serrated teeth on the Missing or broken teeth prevent the
Chuck. chuck tightening the jaws fully and
holding the drill bit firmly.

Check that the trigger switch If the trigger lock is unreleased, it

lock is released before connecting can start accidentally and cause
power to the drill. injury and damage.

Inspect the drill bit. It must be sharp, the correct type

for the job, and the correct size to
fit into the drill chuck.
Do not reduce the diameter of This will overload the motor.
the drill shank to fit the chuck.

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 Safety Rule Reasons

Always secure the work piece in A drill bit can seize up causing
a vise or clamp it. the work piece or fixture to rotate
with the spindle and cause injury.

Make a pilot hole for holes To prevent the drill bit from
above 3/8” (9.5 mm). wandering.

Remove the drill bit from the To allow the drill bit to cool,
hole often if you are using a adding lubricants, and give yourself
portable drill or drilling thick hard a rest.
material.

Holding the drill firmly to As the drill exits the material, it

complete a hole, feed the drill bit can seize suddenly. A seized drill
lightly through. can twist in your hands causing
injury or damage.
When using a portable drill, do The chuck rotating against the
not place the drill on the bench bench can throw the drill from the
until the chuck has stopped bench .
rotating.

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2.2 Pre-Use Safety

Ensure that there is no gas in your work area.

Ensure that the drill power lead is disconnected.

Ensure that the drill is the correct voltage for the power supply you will use.

Ensure that the trigger moves freely and is not locked in position or stiff.

Carry out a visual inspection for physical damage to any drill parts.

Ensure that you have the correct chuck fitted to the drill and the correct chuck
key to move the chuck jaws.

Ensure that you have the correct drill bit size and type for your task.

After fitting the bit, remove the chuck key.

Check that you have coolant, if required, for the task.

Ensure that your work piece is correctly secured.

2.3 In-Use Safety

Ensure that you mark the center of where you want to drill with a center punch.

If you want to drill a hole larger than 9.5 mm (3/8”), it is easier if you drill a
small pilot hole first.

Recheck that the trigger is off before plugging the drill into power.

With power on, check that the drill bit is rotating or turning in the
direction you want. Also check that the drill bits rotation is true. This means that
it is centered and square to the drill.

When you are drilling by hand, place the drill bit in the center punch mark (pop)
and apply light pressure.

Do not apply too much pressure when drilling. If drilling tough or thick work
piece, back off the drill now and again to prevent overheating of the drill bit and
clogging of the drill hole.

When you are nearly through a material, reduce the pressure on the drill.

The sound of the motor should change just before you break through. Do not
force the drill as this will break the drill bit.
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3.0 Drill Bits - Angles and Specifications

As you learned in an earlier, a drill bit is a cutting tool. It has two cutting surfaces or
lips. When you rotate the bit, these lips cut into the material.

As the bit rotates, the channel or flute of the drill moves the cuttings away from the
lips. You can see the cuttings as they leave the hole by the flute.

Small, even cuttings mean that bit is cutting correctly. However, if you see metal
dust, the drill may be damaged.

Discolored blue/brown cuttings mean the drill is cutting hot. This means the bit is
either dull or lacks coolant. (See Figure 3)

Figure 3 .A. Drill Specifications & Head-On Bit View

If you look at a bit head on, you can see it has a flat point in its center between the
lips. It is the highest point of the bit.

This dead center, more commonly called a chisel point, does not cut. When you use
small bits this is not a problem.

You overcome the chisel point by using a center punch.

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 Figure 3.B. Pilot Hole

The small hole made by the punch is larger than a small bit’s chisel point. The small
chisel point sits in the punch hole and positions the lips to cut correctly. However,
the larger the bit, the larger the chisel point. On larger bits, to overcome the large
non-cutting chisel point, you must first drill a small pilot hole. The chisel point of the
large bit then fits into the pilot hole. This then lets the lips cut correctly.

3.1 Drill Point Angle

For general work this is 118o . However, certain, certain materials require different
point angles because of their properties. This can be from 60o for very soft material
right up to 150o for very hard materials. See Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Drill Point Angle

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3.2 Lip Clearance Angles

Again, the angle you use is different for different material types, Harder materials
require a smaller angle, softer materials a larger angle.

Commonly the lip clearance angle is between 12 - 15o. see Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 .Lip Clearance Angle

3.3 Common Damage and Wear

Like all cutting tools, a drill bit becomes drill through use. With the cutting edges
worn, a bit will not cut correctly, Worn edges cause more friction. More friction
means more heat. When drilling, heat is a problem.

Too much heat will harden the metal around the hole. This makes further cutting
much harder, scores the materials surface, and may damage the drill bit.

3.4 Pre-Use Checks

To check that the bit will cut correctly, there are some simple pre-use checks.
Complete these checks whenever you use a drill bit:

Visually inspect the bit for damage or cracks.

Check that you have the correct lip clearance.

Use a drill point gauge to check for equal and correctly sized drill point angles and
cutting lips of equal length. See Figure below

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 Figure 3.4 Using a Drill Point Gauge

4.0 Power Grinders

Grinders remove excess material. Cutting particles on the wheel or disk break off as
they grind. The broken particles carry away the ground material and heat. This lets
the wheel or disc grind evenly. Grinding lets you bring the shape close to its final
size.

There are many different types and sizes of grinders. All of them are high-speed
machines. You can fit different types of wheels or discs to grinders. This lets you
select the correct type of grinder and disk/wheel to use for each task and each
material.

In this part you will learn about two types of portable grinders: angle and horizontal.
You will also learn about two fixed grinding machines: pedestal and bench

4.1 Portable Grinders

Angle and horizontal grinders are portable. They can be electric or pneumatic. You
can use them anywhere there is a power source. They quickly remove excess
material from work piece. Portable grinders leave a rough finish on the material.

Typically, you use a portable grinder to grind off large amounts of heavy material.
See Figure 4.1 below

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 Figure 4.1 Types of Portable Grinders

4.2 Fixed Grinders

Bench and pedestal grinders are fixed in one position. You. Use bench grinders only
for light-duty work. Pedestal grinders can be light or heavy duty depending upon
their size and wheel type.

Both bench and pedestal grinders have the same parts. However, the grinding
wheels and motors of heavy-duty grinders are bigger. Commonly, you use heavy
duty pedestal grinders for rough grinding. Light-duty bench or pedestal grinders are
normally used to sharpen tools. See Figure 4.2.A

Figure 4.2.A. One Type of Fixed Grinders Pedestal

Grinder

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 Figure 4.2.B. Another type of Fixed Grinders Bench Grinder

NOTE :

The guard is removed to show the wheel. Never use a grinder without a
guard installed

4.3 Horizontal Grinder

The horizontal grinder is a type of end grinder. However, most horizontal grinders
are larger and have a more powerful motor. The casing and controls are the same
for both end and horizontal grinders. See Figure 4.4

Figure 4.4 Horizontal Grinder

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5.0 Grinding Wheel Selection

Normally, you use grinders on ferrous materials. Soft or nonferrous materials, for
example aluminum or copper, clog or load the wheel. A loaded wheel generates
more heat. Heat cannot escape from a loaded wheel. Another problem is uneven
wear.

This happens because of incorrect use of the grinding surface. Both these problems
make the wheel unbalanced. This can crack the wheel. The high rotation speed of
the Wheel causes the cracks to shatter the wheel. To overcome these problems, the
wheel must be dressed. Dressing is the name given to cleaning the wheel with a
dressing tool. Before you use a grinding wheel, you must make sure it is clean and
of the correct type for the material and task.

You must select the correct type of grinding wheel for the work piece material.
There are different grinding wheels for different materials and grinding tasks. What
materials and tasks the wheel performs is decided by its.

a. Abrasive material

b. Grain size

c. Grade

d. Structure

e. Bonding agent

Depending upon the manufacturer, you find these details printed on the wheel
blotter or the disk surface. The following figure (Figure 5.) tells you how this
coding/marking system works.

Different Types of Grinding Wheels

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 Standard Marking System Chart

Sequence 1 2 3 4 5 6

Prefix Abrasive Grain Size Grade Structure Bond Type Manufacture’s

Record

51 - A - 36 - L - 5 - V - 23

Manufacturer’s Manufacturer’s
symbol Private Marking
indicating exact to Identify
kind of abrasive Coarse Mediu Fin Ver Wheel
(use Optional) m e y
(use Optional)
10 Dense to
Fin
30 70 open
e
12
36 80 1 9
22 V – Vitrified
14
0 2 10
Aluminum Oxide- 46 90
A 16 S – Silicate
24 3 11
54 100
20 0 R – Rubber
60 120 4 12
24 28 RF – Rubber
150 0 5 13 Reinforced

180 32 6 14 B – Resinoid
0
7 15 BF – Resinoid
40 Reinforced
0 8
ET X – Shellac
50 C.
0 O - Oxygen
Soft Medium Hard
60
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R 180
S T U V W X Y Z
0

Grade Scale

Figure 5. Identifying Grinding Wheel Type

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5.1 Abrasive Materials

Wheels are made of abrasive materials like aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.
Aluminum oxide grains are tough. They can grind carbon steels, alloy steels, soft or
hard steels, cast-alloy cutting tools, and wrought iron. Silicon carbide grains are
harder and more brittle than aluminum oxide. They grind materials of low tensile
strength, such as cast iron and ceramics.

5.2. Grain Size

Grain or grit is the size of the abrasive particles in the wheel. The grain size effects
the type of material to be ground, the finish you want, and how much material you
want to remove . In general, use coarse grains for

Large work piece

Softer material
Rapid metal removal

Use fine grains for small work pieces

Hard materials
Fine finishes

5.3 Grade

The grade is the strength of the wheel or holding power of the bolding agent over
the grains. It is shown by a letter from A to Z. A is the softest material or weakest
bond. Z is the hardest material or strongest bond.

5.4 Structure

The structure of a grinding wheel is the space between grains. This is the wheel’s
density. The closer the grains. The more dense the structure. A wheel’s structure is
rated with numbers. One (1) is the most dense, fifteen (15) the least dense.
Commonly, the higher the number the quicker the rate of metal removal.

5.5 Bonding Agent

The bonding agent holds the abrasive grains in position. It also lets them to break
off when needed, Generally, bonding agents are either organic: rubber, shellac, and
resinoid, or inorganic, such as vitrified.

The bond is identified by letters:

V-Vitrified
B-RESINOID
R-rubber
E-SHELLA

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5.6 Vitrified Bond
Vitrified is made of inorganic materials: clay, glass, porcelain, or related ceramic
materials. Approximately 75% of all wheels have vitrified bond. Vitrified bond wheels
are strong. They are not affected by rapid changes in temperature, or oil or water
contamination.

5.7 Rubber Bond

Rubber bonded wheels are elastic. This makes them very strong and shock resistant.
It produces a very good finish.

5.8 Shellac Bond

Wheels with a shellac bond are also very elastic, resilient, and cool cutting. They
produce a very fine finish.

5.9 Resinoid Bond

Wheels with a RESINOID bond have high strength and mechanical shock resistance.
Heavy-duty, high-speed wheels use this bond. They are good for rough grinding
operations involving rapid stock removal, or for cutoff wheels.

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 Chapter 5 : Checking Out Signs of Damage to The Grinding Wheel

You must only safe grinding wheels. To check for a safe wheel, spin each grinding
wheel slowly by hand and visually check for signs of damage. Look for these signs of
damage:

1. Worn, grooved wheel. It can upset the spindle balance, and cause the wheel to
break up.
2. Loaded wheel. It has small particles of metal embedded in the wheel face. A
loaded wheel also upsets the spindle balance. Grind only steel. Grinding the
wrong material, such as brass or aluminum, will load the wheel.
3. Chipped wheel, Wheel needs to be changed.
4. Glazed or polished wheel, Glaze and polish usually result from insufficient
grinding pressure against the wheel or by grinding the wrong material.

The following figure (Figure 1) shows a damage to a wheel and solutions to the
problem.

Figure 1

Any damaged wheel must be replaced before you begin grinding

1.0 Wheel/ Disc Storage

You must store wheels and disks on a RACKING system in a dry area. You must lay
thin wheels or disks flat to prevent warping. You can store thick heavy wheels
vertically in racks. You should store any high-speed wheels in a separate area. This
prevents them from being mixed up with normal-speed grinding wheels.

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1.1 Power Grinders Safety Rules

The following table (TABLE 2) Show some safety rules and the reason behind each
rule. Make sure you follow these rules as well as the general workshop safety rules.

SAFETY RULE REASONS

Check that the tool rest is If the gap is greater than 1/16”
secure and the gap between (1.5 mm), the be-rotating wheel
the rest and the wheel is no can trap the metal or your fingers
greater than 1\16” (1.5 mm ). between the wheel and the tool
rest.
Check that the adjustable If the gap is too large, hot
spark deflector is secure and grindings can travel around the
that its gap is set to minimum. wheel and strike you.

Do not let the material you are Overheating damages the material
grinding overheat. Do not use and burns your fingers. Use
gloves or rags. coolant when possible.

Do not decrease the wheel This can groove the wheel and
speed while grinding and never may cause it to shatter.
press too hard.

Use the full width of the wheel To prevent grooves or tapers from
during the grinding operation. developing in the wheel and
Never use the edge of a wheel weaken it.
or disk.
Hold a portable grinder The force of the rotating wheel or
securely with both hands when disc can cause the tool to move
grinding. around.

Use only the correct grinding The wheel disc wears rapidly and
surface of the wheel or disc. may shatter if the wrong surface
is used.

Do not stop the rotating wheel If you lay down a rotating wheel
or disc by rubbing it against or disc, the grinder could spin out
the work piece or by laying it of control.
on the work bench or floor.

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1.2 Pre-Use Safety

a. Wear the correct safety equipment.

b. Ensure the wheel or disk is correct for the grinder type and motor speed.
c. Check the wheel for damage, loading, or uneven wear.
d. Ensure there is no flammable material in the work area for sparks to ignite.
e. Ensure the material type, size and task are correct for the grinder you use.

1.3 In-Use Safety

Ensure the motor is at full speed before you begin grinding

1.4 Portable Grinders

a. Ensure the trigger is off before plugging in the grinder.

b. Ensure you are holding the tool securely before turning it on.
c. Hold the wheel or disk facing away from your body when you start the motor.
d. Position the grinder so the sparks are deflected away from you.
e. When grinding, if the motor starts to slow or seems to be straining, reduce
the pressure you are applying.

1.5 Fixed Grinders

Before applying power, or switching the grinder on, ensure the tool rests are
approximately 1/16 of an inch away from the wheel.
When you start the motor, stand at one side of the grinder, not in front or
behind the wheels.

1.6 After-Use Safety

Wait until the grinding wheel has come to a full stop before placing down or
leaving a grinding machine.
Do not touch a hot grinding wheel/ disk with your hands.

1.7 Power Grinders Summary

You have learned that angle and horizontal grinders are portable, rough-finish
grinders. You use them to clean areas and remove large amounts of material
quickly. Bench and pedestal grinders are fixed. They look similar and have The same
controls, but The pedestal can be bigger, have larger wheels and be light-or heavy-
duty. You commonly use them to sharpen tools and for fine grinding.

Grinders can be dangerous. They turn at high speed, produce metal sparks, and
become hot. You must strictly follow safety rules to protect yourself from pain or
injury when you use power grinders.

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 Chapter 6 : Metals, Alloys And Engineering Fundamentals

Un aided, the Technician will state general properties of the following metals :
carbon steels, stainless steel, cast iron, aluminum, and copper and its alloys.ion

As a technician, you will work with a variety of materials. In this module, you will
learn about the most common metals and their general properties.

1.0 Identify Metals Used in the Workshop and Their Properties

As a technician you use several types of metals. You must know how to identify each
metal. Metals are of two classes: ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous metals are iron
and steel. Metals other than iron and steel are nonferrous metals.

1.1 The most commonly used ferrous metals are:

a. Cast iron
b. Carbon Steels
c. Stainless Steel

1.2 The most common nonferrous metals are:

a. Aluminum
b. Copper and its alloys
c. Ferrous Metals

1.2.1. Cast Iron

Cast iron is dark gray and dull in appearance. Cast iron is very brittle. Brittle means
that it will break easily when struck with force. You cannot bend it. Shock blows
easily crack or break cast iron. Cast iron corrodes easily. For this reason, paint or
other coating should be applied to protects the surface. Examples of cast-iron
products are machine tool pedestals, low-pressure pump casings, and low-pressure
valves.

1.2.2 Carbon Steels

Steels are also an alloy of iron and carbon like cast iron with a different percentage
composition. Therefore, steels are ferrous metals. The form and amount of carbon
content control the properties of steel. The three most common types of carbon
steels used are:

Low-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel
High-carbon steel

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1.3 Low-Carbon Steel (Mild Steel)

Low-carbon steel is the most common of the carbon steels. The color of low-
carbon steel and other carbon steels is light gray. You can work low-carbon steel
with hand tools and machine tools. You can bend thin-section low-carbon steel when
it is cold. However, you need to add heat to bend heavy sections.

Because it corrodes easily, low-carbon steel often gets a protective coating. Uses of
low-carbon steel include bar, shafts, pipe, plate, and threaded fasteners. Other
examples are metal furniture, machine skids, and low-pressure pipe work.

1.4 Medium-Carbon Steel

Working with medium-carbon steel with hand tools and machine is more difficult
than working with low-carbon steel. Medium-carbon steel does not bend easily
without heat. An important characteristic of medium-carbon steel is its ability to
harden with heat. Many cutting tools made from medium-carbon steel have
hardened cutting edges. In the workshop, color-coding identifies medium-carbon
steel from other metals.

1.5 High-Carbon Steel

High-carbon steel is an allow of iron and carbon. It has the highest percentage of
carbon of all carbon steels. Because of its high carbon content. It is very hard and
brittle. Because it is very hard, you cannot file high-carbon steel or cut it with a
hacksaw. However, you can shape it with a grinding machine. It does not corrode
easily. High-carbon steel makes good metal cutting tools. Such tools include twist
drill bits, lathe machine cutting tools, taps and dies.

C. Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is a ferrous metal, an alloy of iron, carbon, and chromium. Like the
carbon steels stainless steel is light gray and appears bright and shiny when
machined. Stainless Steel does not corrode easily. Its use is for equipment that
might corrode. Such equipment includes pump impellers and shafts, mechanical
seals, measuring instruments, and Valves.

Nonferrous Metals

1.2.1 Aluminum

Aluminum is a bass metal that is strong, soft, and lightweight, When alloyed with
other substances, it gives special qualities. For example, an aluminum alloy that
contains silicon is much harder than pure aluminum.

The natural color of aluminum is silver-gray. Its color can change with different
processes. Aluminum has a low melting point. You must take extra care when you
apply heat to it. Because is soft, you can bend it when it is cold. Generally,
aluminum resists corrosion very well.

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However, sea water and certain chemicals rapidly attack and corrode the metal.
Many shop stock items come in aluminum. These items include step ladders, window
frames, scaffold tubing, and soft drink cans. In addition, aluminum permits
extrusion. Extrusion is squeezing a block of metal at very high pressure through dies
to obtain the finished product. Examples include window frames and aluminum wire.

1.2.2 Copper and Its Alloys

Copper is a base metal. Like aluminum, it is both strong and soft. Alloying it with
other substances gives special qualities. For example, alloying with copper and zinc
produces brass. Brass is harder than copper.

Alloying copper with tin gives bronze. Bronze is stronger and more wear-resistant
than brass. Copper is reddish brown. It is easy to work with hand tools and machine
tools. Copper and all its alloys have low melting points. Take extra care when you
heat them.

Copper resists corrosion. However, copper turns green if it is exposed to air over
time. You bend copper without heating it. You find many copper parts and
equipment in the workshop. These include piping and tubing, and soft jaws for vises.
Because copper is a good and economical conductor of electricity, it makes good
electrical wiring and electrical contractors.

1.2.3 Bronze

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, Bronze is a yellow-orange metal. Like copper
and aluminum, it is easy to work with tools.

Bronze resists corrosion. And, because it wears well, bronze makes good bearings
and bushings. Bronze goes into tools, as pipe fittings and packing glands.

1.2.4 Brass

An alloy of copper and zinc, brass is harder than copper. However, brass still is a
soft metal.

Brass is yellow and appears shiny when you machine it. It is very easy to work with
tools. Like copper, bronze, and aluminum, brass is too soft to grind. And, like the
other soft metals, it has a low melting point.

Brass resists corrosion very well, Many cast or formed shop stock items and
machine parts come in brass.

Examples are metal bar, rod, and sheeting. It also makes good threaded fasteners
and bushings. Brass is also a good conductor of electricity.

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