THE ETRUSCAN MIRROR

Author(s): Nancy Thomson de Grummond

Source: Source: Notes in the History of Art, Vol. 4, No. 2/3 (Winter/Spring 1985), pp. 26-35
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 THE ETRUSCAN MIRROR

Nancy Thomson de Grummond

Etruscan bronze mirrors are receiving more at given to the anthropological significance of the

tention today than ever before in the history of usage and meaning of mirrors among the

Etruscan studies. The reason lies largely in the Etruscans.

state of Etruscology, which has become a The ideal of studying the mirror in its totality
booming discipline. The vigorous pace of ex as an Etruscan artifact underlies the new pub
cavations, exhibitions, conventions, and publica lication of the Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum
tions can only accelerate in 1985—proclaimed ("The Corpus of Etruscan Mirrors" or CSE),
in Italy the "Year of the Etruscans," to be initiated in 1973 by the Istituto di Studi
celebrated with the Second International Etruschi ed Italici (president, Massimo Pallot
Etruscan Congress (the first occurred in 1928!) tino), under the editorial leadership of Adriana
and a feast of tours and exhibitions. Within this Emiliozzi Morandi. Four fascicles have now
climate of intense research, it is natural that appeared (1981-1983), by G. Sassatelli, H.
Etruscan mirrors receive renewed attention, Salskov Roberts, and L. B. van der Meer, deal
from specialists as well as from a wider audience. ing respectively with mirrors in Bologna, Den
The manufacture of mirrors has been referred mark, and the Netherlands, and it is hoped that
to as an "Etruscan national industry," and, in eventually some three thousand mirrors known

deed, these objects are among the most char today will receive similar publication. The re
acteristic products of Etruria. In the past they views have been generally cheerful,1 and the
attracted attention primarily because of the Corpus promises an abundance of new informa

mythological scenes frequently engraved on the tion and new things to think about. At the
reverse of the mirror; many studies were thus same time an attempt has been made, the
by
art-historical, emphasizing problems of iconog present writer and twelve collaborators, to sur

raphy and style. The mirrors were also of vey our knowledge of Etruscan mirrors (largely
interest for their numerous inscriptions, on the basis of pre-Corpus scholarship) in the

providing information about the Etruscan first general handbook on the subject,^ Guide

language and alphabet, and for what they re to Etruscan Mirrors (Tallahassee: 1982).2 The
vealed about Etruscan religion and daily life. Guide is intended to be a summary of scholar

Today, such matters are by no means neg ship, subject to revision as new developments
lected, but experts are seeking to place them in take place. In the present article the author
a fuller context and to balance the analysis of wishes to note some of these developments,
Etruscan mirrors by asking questions about the along with relevant bibliography, and at the
mirror as an excavated artifact. The objects are same time to place these against the background

being weighed, measured, and typed; the bronze of a general introduction to Etruscan mirrors,
recipes are being analyzed; more accurate and proceeding according to the nine chapter head
more complete information is being sought on ings of the Guide. It is hoped that this pro
excavation contexts; new attention is being cedure will serve the dual needs of readers of

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 27

SOURCE who may be studying Etruscan mir other art objects (Copenhagen, Thorvaldsens

rors for the first time and of specialists seeking Museum). Gerhard also advised the Italian artist

to stay current on the subject.3 collector Pelagio Palagi, whose mirrors are

today in Bologna. As future fascicles of the

I. The History of the Study of Etruscan Mirrors CSE appear, we shall no doubt learn more of

such individual collectors. At present, reports

Etruscan mirrors were already known in the six
indicate that most collectors did not specialize
teenth century; they attracted scholarly atten
in mirrors, but acquired only one or two as part
tion in the seventeenth century, within the
of a general collection of antiquities. These
circle in Rome of Poussin and
antiquarian later found their into museums. Other mir
way
Cassiano dal Pozzo. The latter believed that the
rors went directly into museums, especially in
were paterae, or saucers used for ritual
objects after their excavation.
Italy,
libations, an identification that persisted in Adriana Emiliozzi Morandi and Larissa Bon
eighteenth-century publications, such as those
fante have recently communicated information
by de la Chausse, Montfaucon, and Gori. These
on what may be the earliest evidence of Etrus
authors published a number of illustrations and
can mirrors being collected. Two tantalizing
created a body of material for study, leading to
passages in a fourteenth-century biography of
the first true monograph on Etruscan mirrors,
the Roman political firebrand Cola di Rienzi
prepared by F. Inghirami as volume 2 of his seem to refer to these One of the mir
objects.
Monumenti Etruschi (Fiesole: 1824). The work
rors was owned by an enemy slain by Cola. It
included 90 plates and a learned commentary. was described as made of polished metal
Inghirami finally established that the objects rather than
("acciaro"—i.e., accaio, "steel,"
were mirrors, citing ancient representations of
bronze) and as having upon it letters and
mirrors in use, although he was later criticized
figures. The passage also refers to a "spirito" on
for thinking that the mirrors were used in
the mirror and brings to mind the numerous
mystery rituals and for calling them "specchi
winged beings on Etruscan mirrors. The other
mistici."
passage refers to a mirror kept beneath the head
From Inghirami we proceed to the work of
of the bed of the bishop of Verona (also mur
Eduard Gerhard, and thus move from the first
dered), decorated with many "strange" letters
monograph to the first corpus. Gerhard began
and with a figure on the handle. F. Orioli, who
Etruskische Spiegel in 1840 and finished four
published these passages in 1841, was evidently
volumes before his death in 1867. The publica
influenced by Inghirami's concept of "specchi
tion was completed with a fifth volume by A.
mistici," for he argued that these mirrors,
Kltigmann and G. Korte (1897), containing in
originally Etruscan, were used in the fourteenth
its final form some 900 illustrations with
century in some kind of ritual of necromancy
general text and profuse commentary. It has
or catoptromancy.5
been the backbone of modern scholarship prior
to the new fascicles of the CSE,4
II. Types of Etruscan Mirrors
As for collecting Etruscan mirrors, Gerhard

himself assembled a sizable group, now in the From the earliest mirrors, c. 530 B.C., to the

Antikensammlung, Berlin, and the Danish latest, in the second or first century B.C., the

sculptor Thorvaldsen, his friend and colleague, Etruscans used two basic types: grip mirrors
collected 30 mirrors along with some 8,000 and covered mirrors.

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 28

The grip mirrors had a polished bronze disk,

either cast in one piece with a bronze handle

(Fig. 4) or with a projecting tang to which a

handle of separate material might be attached

(Figs. 1-3, 5). So far only bone (especially) and

ivory handles are actually attested, although
doubtless wood was used. Frances Follin Jones

has recently raised the possibility that plaster

may have been used, as exemplified by a cylin

drical plaster handle with horizontal ribs, re
calling Etruscan bone examples, in the Art

Museum at Princeton (acc. no. 54-468).

The covered mirrors, used later (from the
third to the first century were of two
B.C.),

types. The first, which is well known, is similar

to the Greek Klappspiegel, a round bronze box

Fig. 1 Bronze Etruscan mirror. Engraving of with two valves much like a modern compact

(cf. Congdon, supra, Figs. 4-6). The mirror was

Juggler and Ducks. Brooklyn Museum, no.
L78.17.47. (Photo: The Brooklyn Museum) box on the lower and the
inside the valve,

upper valve, or cover, was often decorated on

Fig. 2 Bronze Etruscan mirror. Engraving of Fig. 3 Bronze Etruscan mirror. Engraving of

Arming of a Hero. The Glencairn Museum, Turan and Atunis with Attendants. Leningrad,
Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania, no. 05.XX.29. Hermitage Museum. (After E. Gerhard, Etrus

Drawing by Martha Gyllenhaal. (Photo: The kische Spiegel, IV, pi. 322)
Glencairn Museum)

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 29

top with relief sculpture. The other covered gested that the mirroring surface was polished
mirror type is known only from representations with emery and tin oxide but that there was
in art, especially on Volterran urns, where it no plating of the surface to enhance reflection.

appears as a rectangular bivalve box, evidently The resulting disk was normally convex on the
of wood. A polished bronze mirror, either round reflecting side, producing an image that was
or rectangular, was affixed to the inside of one smaller than life but included more of the per
or both valves. son reflected than a flat mirror of the same

diameter would have shown. The concave

III. Mirrors of the Mediterranean reverse was ideal for an engraved decoration;
the mirror could be placed with this side down
The article presented in this issue of SOURCE
on the dressing table, and the curved rim would
on other mirrors of the Mediterranean, fully
protect it from scratches or other damage. A
providing relevant information and bibliography,
still-debated feature of the concave side is the
makes it unnecessary to review here this section
small indentation or cupule sometimes found
of the Guide.
in the center of the disk, which may have

served as a centering point for turning and

IV. Fabric of Etruscan Mirrors
finishingthe mirror on a lathe.
The bronze grip mirrors were formed by casting, The formula of the bronze was analyzed by
probably using the lost-wax process, and were L. Maes and G. Genin, who published their re
further shaped and made durable by a sequence sults in 1977 and 1978, showing that the recipe
of hammering and annealing. It has been sug was binary, with an average of 87.35 percent

Fig. 4 Bronze Etruscan mirror. Engraving of Fig. 5 Bronze Etruscan mirror. Engraving of
the Dioscuri. Bologna, Museo Civico Archeol Lasa. Toronto, Royal Ontario Museum, no.
ogico, no. It. 743, coll. Universitaria no. 279. 919.26.1. (Photo: Royal Ontario Museum)
(After Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum, Italia,
I, 1,9)

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 30

copper and 11.37 percent tin. Recent analyses forged, as in the case of CSE Netherlands 33

published in the CSE tend to confirm their re (Nijmegen), where the artist made his own disk
sults; when make an exceptional de with tang and copied upon it a scene of the
pieces
from these averages, the reasons are Wrestling Match of Peleus and Thetis, found in
parture
usually clear. CSE Denmark 1, 9, for example, nearly identical form on a dozen specimens. Only
is a covered mirror and has a formula of Cu one of these, now in the British Museum, has

95.5, Sn 2.8 in its upper decorated valve. Since been accepted as authentic. Doubts about the

this portion of the mirror was worked in re specimen in Nijmegen receive support from the

pousse and had no reflecting function, it would fact that the formula from the bronze is the du

not be surprising for the foundry to use a dif bious combination of Cu 81.0, Sn 1.9, Zn 15.0.
ferent formula. In another case, Maes and More often, the actual bronze mirror is

Genin themselves noted as exceptional a type ancient, but the engraving is a modern addition.

of cast-bronze detachable handle with a high A good number of Etruscan mirrors were sent

percentage of lead in the formula (cf. CSE to the grave lacking any engraved decoration;
Netherlands 16, with a formula of Cu 80.0, Sn when they were found, the modern "excavators"

7.6, Pb 12.3) and did not include such pieces in or dealers attempted to enhance their monetary

making their averages. The exclusion was jus value by adding an engraved scene. This was

tified on the grounds that these mirror handles probably the case with CSE Italia 1.1.42, which
were made at the Latin site of Praeneste and, shows a strangely costumed warrior, and a

according to many, should not be properly horse that is more typical of the Orientalizing
classified as Etruscan. The Praenestine works, period than the fourth century, the period to

though often heavily influenced by Etruscan which the mirror's shape belongs. Sassatelli

mirrors and regularly studied along with them doubts the authenticity of the mirror itself. But

(as, for example, in the CSE), nevertheless the bronze formula of Cu 89.33, Sn 7.38 is ac

sometimes demonstrate features that ally them ceptable, and the pear shape of the mirror (it is
more with Roman art, as here; Roman bronze the type with handle cast in one piece with the
casting seems to have made frequent use of disk) suggests that it should be classified with a

lead.6 number of pear-shaped (originally) unengraved

Not all Etruscan and Praenestine mirrors specimens found at Praeneste that seem to have

were bronze. There are occasional examples of passed through the hands of a modern artist

silver box mirrors, and recently Michael Vickers dealer in Rome.

has called to my attention a rare silver grip Yet a third approach to forgery can be seen
mirror of the Praenestine type that features an on a mirror in Sarasota that has an ancient disk

engraved scene on the reverse (Oxford, Ash and original engraving, but with certain details
molean Museum, inv. no. 1971.896). Not every added. The ancient scene of a dancing maenad

one, however, agrees that the piece is authentic. and musical satyr was made more exciting (and

certainly more puzzling) by the imposition of

V. Forgeries engraved erect phalluses on the swinging legs of
the satyr's animal skin.7
There are numerous cases of the modern forging
of Etruscan mirrors, a practice that began as
VI. Inscriptions
early as the eighteenth century. The various
methods of mirror forgery are exemplified here The on Etruscan mirrors have al
inscriptions
by some newly published mirrors. Sometimes ways fascinated collectors and scholars. The
the entire object—mirror and decoration—is writing, normally running from right to left in

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 5I

typical ttruscan style, provides intormation tomb ot Leithurnea. There are also inscrip
beyond the mirrors themselves for scholars of tions showing that the mirror was a gift: "Tite
Etruscan epigraphy and language. In turn, their Cale: atial: turce malstria: ever"—"Tite Cale
studies illuminate the work of mirror specialists. gave this mirror to his mother as a gift"; other
Recent publications include an especially useful inscriptions simply record the name of the

work, The Etruscan Language by Giuliano Bon owner, as on a newly published specimen in
fante and Larissa Bonfante (Manchester: 1982), Tubingen: "mi: Ramthas: Paithnas"—"I belong
the first textbook in English on the Etruscan to Ramtha Paithna."8

language.
A majority or tne inscriptions are labels ol tne
vll. subject Matter
characters or details in the scenes represented.
For example, on a mirror in Leningrad (Fig. 3), Ihe scenes on Etruscan mirrors include a rich
the central figures of Turan and Atunis (Aphro of of them chosen for
/ariety subjects, many
dite and Adonis) are labeled, as are the numer their to the female owners of
special appeal
dus attendant figures, and even the huge bird of these There are numerous scenes
objects.
the goddess, inscribed "tusna." Sometimes the the of a woman's life—
representing cycle
labels are longer and become a commentary or scenes are mar
:ourtship (some openly erotic),
documentation of the scene. A famous mirror riage, birth, and the rearing of children. In
from Volterra showing Uni (Hera) nursing looking at the mirrors, we are reminded that
Hercle (Heracles) announces: "eca: sren tva: Etruscan women were more liberated than their
ichnac: hercle: unial: clan: thra: see" ("This in Rome and in Greece,
:ounterparts especially
shows how Hercle, son of Uni, drank milk"). and that their in society was
participation very
3n the mirrors produced at Praeneste, where full. In public suffered few on
they restrictions
:he language is akin to Latin and the inscrip their behavior, and are shown
accordingly they
tions run from left to right, one mirror 3n the mirrors the couch with
displays sharing banquet
i conversation. A youth and a girl are playing a theirmen and dancing merrily in mixed couples.
Same: "devincam ted," she says-'Tm going to tVe can tell that they were educated, for they
)eat you"; "opeinod," he rejoins-"I believe ;ould read the Etruscan written on their mir
t!" Two other inscriptions from Praeneste are and that took a in
rors, they lively interest
:xceptional, recording the names of artists who themes from Greek
sophisticated mythology.
:reated the engravings ("Vibis Pilipus cailavit" in the many scenes of romance, the Etruscan
-"Vibius Philippus engraved [this]") or per ;oddess of love, Turan, is naturally In
popular.
laps the entire mirror ("Noci opus L. Valerii" ter own scenes, she is often shown as
courtship
-"Work of Nocus [or Nocius], [slave] of L. lominant, as, for example, on the Leningrad
/alerius"). nirror (Fig. 3), where the mature Turan courts
ah oi me aoove types ot were he youthful Atunis. Frequently Turan is as
inscriptions
irobably made when the mirror itself was dsted in her an
campaign by array of deae
nanufactured. Other inscriptions seem to have who her or furnish
>matrices, perfume her with
>een added later, though still in antiquity. A ibbons, and other adornments.
jewelry, Their
lumber of mirrors have an inscription across the lames are delightfully Etruscan: Zipna, for ex
effecting side—the word "suthina," meaning imple, is the chief assistant on the Leningrad
'for the tomb," evidently intended to cancel nirror. She holds alabastron and perfume dip
>ut usage of the mirror in the world of the >er,while Achvizr, Alpan, Mean, and Munthuch
iving. Sometimes these inscriptions indicate the lutter around the border with other accessories
iwner's name: "Ceithurneal suthina"—"For the or the Sometimes
goddess. these same at

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 3:

tendants assist at the adornment of other figures They appear not so much in scenes of adventure

associated with love and marriage, such as Elinai as they do in quiet conversation pieces with

of Troy) or the young woman Malavisch, their sister Elinai, or Menrva or Turan, or yet
(Helen
who seems to the role of bride in other figures. Most often the two are shown as
epitomize
Etruria. It is that the theme of a simple pair (Fig. 4), wearing short tunics and
interesting
adornment have a male as the focus Phrygian caps, and accompanied by their
may figure
of attention even the mirror was made symbols—the star of immortality and the dokana
though
for a female; this was the case, for (the beams found on their shrine at Laconia).
example,
with a mirror found in a female burial at Among the other Greek heroes depicted on

Praeneste, being dressed in Etruscan mirrors, the he-man Hercle appears

depicting Ajax
armor most often10—in action scenes from the
by a solicitous goddess. lively
The attendants of Turan are sometimes labeled standard Greek repertory of Labors, and also in

with the name Lasa, a word that may actually uniquely Etruscan themes. An exceptionally
be generic and mean little more than "spirit" or fine mirror in the British Museum, for example,

"nymph," as is suggested by the fact that it shows him abducting the lady Mlacuch, other

often occurs with a second name. (Lasa Thimrae wise unknown. Themes from Greek mythology
and Lasa Racuneta, for example, are nude in general were immensely popular, especially

winged females equipped with alabastron and those from the Trojan cycle and the realm of

perfume dipper who appear on a large, ambi Dionysus. But sometimes such scenes were very
tious mirror in the Bibliotheque Nationale.) In different in general tone or in detail from com

any case, modern scholarship regularly employs parable Greek examples. The Etruscan Zeus—

the name Lasa to refer to a nude female figure Tinia—frequently appears as an unbearded

(Fig. 5) who recurs on a number of mirrors of youth, while Menrva may have wings and Uni

the third century B.C., fluttering alone across (Hera) may be outrageously nude; when Tinia

the circular field of the disk, carrying alabas gives birth to Menrva, the Etruscan midwives

tron, dipper, and other instruments that pertain Thalna and Thanr do more work than Sethlans
to adornment. Paola Moscati has recently (the Etruscan Hephaestus); in the Judgment of

demonstrated statistically that Lasa is one of Paris, Uni is cordial, even solicitous, toward
the most frequent figures on Etruscan mirrors.9 her rival, the victorious Turan; on the new mir

It comes as no surprise that this spirit of ror in Tubingen, the story of the Golden Fleece

adornment is so frequently represented on mir is represented, with Menrva, fleece, and a sus

rors made for the boudoir. What is more re piciously cheerful dragon, but no Jason! Ex

markable in Moscati's conclusions is that both amples could be multiplied, demonstrating that

Lasa and Turan are outranked by another god while Etruscans depicted Greek myths on the

dess-Menrva, the Etruscan Minerva or Athena. mirrors far more frequently than their own

Moscati explains her popularity by noting that stories, the Greek themes and characters often

while she in roles that are well estab reveal versions of the myth unknown or obscure
appears
lished in Greek art (e.g., of the heroes in Greece.
patroness
Hercle and Pherse [Perseus]; fighting against
VIII. Styles
giants), she seems to have gained special status

in Etruria for her role as protectress of matri It is possible to follow on Etruscan engraved

mony and educator of babies. mirrors the same general stylistic sequence from

Among males, the Dioscuri—Castur and Pul Archaic to Classical to Hellenistic originally
tuce (Castor and Pollux)—are the most popular. established for Greek art and widely occurring

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 33

elsewhere in Etruria under Greek influence the profile and hairdo of the lady, especially,

(e.g., in tomb painting and sculpture). But, as reveal the influence of the quiet, contained

always, the Etruscans reserve the right to be faces of contemporary Greece. The border of

themselves, and there are many mirrors that do ivy and berries and the ground line of cross

not conform to the categories of Greek art and hatchings are frequent in the fifth century, as is

remain difficult to date. Local schools likewise the use of punctation to ornament borders on

remain elusive in spite of dedicated studies in the garments.

this area; thus far only Vulci and Praeneste have The late Classical style is exemplified by the
emerged with a clear and convincing identity. Leningrad mirror (Fig. 3, c. 325 B.C.), with its
Here only a tew selected examples can be calm, dreaming faces and secure naturalism. It

used to demonstrate the sequence. Two pre has a new richness in the crowded central com

viously unpublished mirrors (illustrated here in position, the populated border, and the elabo

Figs. 1 and 2) can be assigned with some confi rate drapery and wings everywhere. The stip
dence to the Archaic and early Classical periods, pling of the ground is typical of the late fourth
respectively. A delightful piece in the Brooklyn century and frequently serves, as here, to create
Museum (Fig. 1, c. 500 B.C.)11 is among the an atmospheric effect.
rare known specimens from the archaic period. This hasty survey of style concludes with an

(I. Mayer-Prokop catalogued only fifty-five in example from the Hellenistic period, a mirror in
her authoritative study.) It is typical of the Bologna with the Dioscuri (Fig. 4, CSE Italia
Archaic in depicting a light-hearted theme—a 1.1.9). It has a standardized pattern repeated
lively juggler performing with two flying ducks over and over in the last years of the engraved
as companions. There are at least three other Etruscan mirror. The twin mirroring images of
Archaic mirrors with a juggling motif and the hero-gods create an abstract composition,
many that show scenes of amusement such as and the figure style is also antinaturalistic in

dancing, banqueting, and music making. The both proportion (e.g., the extremely high waist

single-figure composition in also frequent, as lines) and pose (the uneasy tiptoeing stance, the
are the ivy border with a chain of heart-shaped angled arms). Simplification also occurs in the
leaves and the figure style showing Ionian return to a two-figure group, now omitting any
Greek influence (the heavy thighs, the long border decoration and reducing setting to

trailing hair). The pose, with head in profile, abstract elements. There is a repetitive, indus
shoulders frontal, and legs in profile, is also trial flavor to many of the Hellenistic mirrors,
Archaic. with Dioscuri and with Lasa; the example in
A mirror in the Glencairn Museum, Bryn Bologna is of higher artistic quality than average.
Athyn, Pennsylvania (Fig. 2, c. 450 B.C.),12 As to dating, H. Salskov Roberts has recently
shows the transition to the Classical style. It published a valuable study in which she argues
features a theme that may be classified as from the evidence of tomb groups that these

"adornment," for it shows a hero receiving his late mirrors continue well into the second

array of armor from a tall and stately female— century B.C.13

perhaps Achilles being armed by his goddess

mother Thetis. The number of figures is still
IX. The Usage of Etruscan Mirrors
limited in the Classical period (two- and three
figure groups recur). The composition demon Studies of tomb groups,14 inscriptions, and
strates the calm, stable framework of horizontals 'epresentations of mirrors in use demonstrate
ind verticals typical of Greek Classical art, and repeatedly that the mirrors were made for, and

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 34

used by, women. The objects were no doubt ly pertinent and appealing to the owner during

employed first of all in daily life, but they also her lifetime, may have had added significance
seem to have been important in the afterlife, when her mirror was, at the end, buried with

for the find spots have consistently been tombs her. Thus, scenes of adornment, whether of

(evidently the Etruscans, unlike the Greeks, Turan or Elinai or even a male hero, indicate

Egyptians, and Romans, did not use the mirror a form of preparation for immortality. Perhaps
as a votive object).15 Mirrors are frequently the numerous mirrors of Lasa, standardized and

found in combination with other objects of sometimes downright unattractive, were not

adornment, such as combs, perfume bottles, really meant to be regarded in life, but were

sponges, strigils, toilet boxes (cistae), and a actually made for the grave, providing the lady

wide variety of jewelry. These objects symbol with an attendant spirit to adorn her eternally.
ized the status of an Etruscan lady and were as The parallel series of the Dioscuri, similarly
essential for her dignity in the afterlife as were standardized, may also have been made ex

the armor and reminders of political achieve clusively for the grave, although it is not so

ment included in male burials. The instruments easy to explain the content. The connection of
of adornment that had brought her success in the Dioscuri with adornment is slight (they
love, marriage, and reproduction were closely were the brothers of Elinai; as athletes they
connected with her status in the afterlife, for looked to the care of their bodies). Perhaps the

they alluded to her fertility and, therefore, her explanation lies rather in the fact that they had

immortality. been made divine and thus also symbolized

In this light it seems likely that many of the immortality.
themes engraved on the mirrors, while obvious

NOTES

1. L. Bonfante in American Journal of Archaeology Funerary Urn," American Journal of Archaeology 88

88 (1984):279-281; G. Lloyd-Morgan in Journal of (1984):531-539. The new Lexikon Iconographicum
Roman Studies 73 (1983):233—235; N. T. de Grum Mythologiae Classicae, I, 1 (Zurich: 1981), includes
rtiond in Archaeological News, forthcoming. But cf. Etruscan mythological figures as well as Etruscan ver
the salutary objections of F. R. Serra Ridgway in sions of Greek myths, and should be consulted under
Classical Review
33 (1983):291-294. the individual relevant entries.
2. Reviews by M. Del Chiaro in American Journal 4. There is not space enough here to summarize the
of Archaeology 88 (1984):281—282, and F. R. Serra work of the twentieth century. See the Guide, pp. 5-7
Ridgway in Classical Review 34 (1984): 151. and 187-196 (bibliography).
3. In the sections that follow, bibliography is given 5. F. Orioli, "D'un uso non conosciuto degli Specchi
in the footnotes for material not included earlier in mistici d'Etruria nei Secoli XIII e XIV," Giornale del
the Guide. For full documentation of each section, see R. Istituto Lombardo di Scienze Lettere ed Arti 1
the corresponding chapter of the Guide. It has not (1841): 1-18.
been possible to incorporate into the discussions in 6. Add to the bibliography on Praeneste R. Adam,
this article all new publications. Thus, in addition to Recherches sur les miroirs prinestins (Paris: 1980);
the works cited below, the following should also be I. Wiman, "A Praenestine Mirror in the Medelhavs
noted: M. Tirelli, "La Rappresentazione del sole museet," Bulletin of the Museum of Mediterranean
nell'arte etrusca," Studi Etruschi 49 (1981):41-54; and Near Eastern Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet) 17
F. Brommer, "Theseus und Minotauros in der etrus (1982):37—41; E. H. Richardson, "The Tree and the
kischen Kunst," Romische Mitteilungen 88 (1981):1 Spring: The Story of Amycus and the Dioscuri,"
12; L. Bonfante, "Human Sacrifice on an Etruscan Archaeological News, forthcoming. On the bronze

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 35

formula used in Roman

mirrors, see A. Panseri and illustrate and publish it. It will be treated fully by the
M. Leoni, "Esame di bronzei ritrovati in
specchi present writer and L. Bonfante in a separate study.
sepolcreti romani," Sibrium 3 (1956): 179—183. On 12. I am grateful to David Gilman Romano for call
Roman bronzes in general, see E. R. Caley, "Chemical ing this mirror to my attention and for supplying an
Composition of Greek and Roman Statuary Bronzes," illustration.
in Art and Technology, ed. S. Doeringer, D. G. Mitten, 13. H. Salskov Roberts, "Later Etruscan Mirrors,
and A. Steinberg (Cambridge, Mass.: 1970), pp. 37-49. Evidence for Dating from Recent Excavations,"
7. N. T. de Grummond, "Bronze Etruscan Mirror," Analecta Romana 12 (1983): 31—54.
in Ancient Art from Cyprus: The Ringling Collection, 14. In addition to H. Salskov Roberts, see the tomb
ed. Norma Kershaw (Sarasota: 1983), pp. 38-42. On groups just published by E. Mangani, Museo Civico di
forgery see also U. Fischer-Graf, "Der etruskische Asciano, I materialida Poggio Pincio (Siena: 1983),
Silberreliefspiegel in Florenz, eine Vihdaung" Antike pp. 15-67, with six mirrors, pp. 50-55. The burials
Kunst 25 (1982): 117—123. were excavated in 1957. Unfortunately the contents
8. B. von Freytaggen. Loringhoff and C. DeSimone, can no longer be sorted into individual groups.
"Argonautika: Ein etruskischer Spiegel in der Tiibinger 15. I thank Emeline H. Richardson for pointing out
Sammlung," in PraestantInterna: Festschrift fur that mirrors were found in a votive context at a Latin
Ulrich Hausmann (Tubingen: 1982), pp. 271-279. site on Lake Nemi and also at Marzabotto,
probably
9. P. Moscati, Ricerche matematico-statistiche sugli north of Etruria proper. A. Delia Seta, Museo di Villa
specchi etruschi, Contributi del Centro Linceo Inter Giulia (Rome: 1918), pp. 224-225; G. Gozzadini, Di
disciplinare di Scienze, Matematiche e loro Ap un' antica necropoli a Marzabotto nel Bolognese
plicazioni, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 381 (Bologna: 1865). Cf. H. Pairault Massa, "Deux Ques
(1984): 231. tions religieuses sur Marzabotto," Melanges de I'Ecole
10. A. J. Pfiffig, Herakles in der Bilderwelt der etrus de Rome, Antiquiti 93 (1981):esp. 144-145.
Frangaise
kischen Spiegel (Graz: 1980). (The article contains much material relevant for the
11. I wish to thank Robert S. Bianchi for calling this study of mirrors.)
mirror to my attention and for granting permission to

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions