Republic of the Philippines

Commission on Higher Education

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

A Research Collateral

Submitted to:
NEMESIO Y. TIONGSON, Ph. D

In Partial fulfilment of the Requirements in

Organization and Management of Educational Institutions
Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

Submitted by:
Airra Gean O. Banal
Kristel Gail S. Basilio
Clarise M. Cruz
Analyn S. Concepcion
Juaren Joy F. Patayan
John Paul E. Pring
Maria Lourdes R. Quiroz
Judy Anne S. Regala
Margie G. Rivera
Renz Louie F. Tejam
Jean S. Torres
Irene D. Trapsi
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

COURSE SYLLABUS IN
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

SUBJECT CODE : MC 101

COURSE TITLE : Organization and Management of Educational Institutions
CREDIT UNITS : 3 units
TIME : 7:30 AM – 10:30 AM
SCHEDULE : Every Saturday
PROFESSOR : Dr. Nemesio Y. Tiongson

VISION : A lead university in producing quality individuals with competent

capacities to generate knowledge and technology and enhance
professional practices for sustainable national and global
competitiveness through continuous innovation.

MISSION : DHVSU commits itself to provide an environment conducive to

continuous creation of knowledge and technology towards the
transformation of students into globally competitive professionals
through the synergy of appropriate teaching, service, and
productive functions.

GS VISION : The Graduate School envisions itself as the lead school in the
advanced studies in creating knowledge and technology and
continuously improving professional competencies and practices
for sustaining national and global competitiveness.

GS MISSION : The Graduate School envisions itself to provide sustained learning

environment through interconnectivity between research, teaching,
service and productivity for competent capacity enhancement of
students toward responsible agents for national and global
development.

AUDIENCE : This subject is intended for MAEd students as one of the major
courses in the curriculum.
 LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:

RESOURCE
TIME SPECIFIC LEARNING METHODS/
MATERIALS/ VALUES
TABLE OBJECTIVE CONTENT STRATEGIES
REFERENCES
1 At the end of the session, ORIENTATION  Discussion Student Sense of
the students should be A. Setting of House Handbook oneness in
able to: Rules the
 Abide by the B. Courses university
“houserules” set Requirements
by the class, C. Grading System
 Identify and
describe the
course
requirement and
grading system.
2 At the end of the session, 1. BACKGROUND  Discussion See references Valuing
the students should be AND EVOLUTION  Reporting the
able to: OF via importance
 Understand the ORGANIZATIONAL powerpoint of school-
importance of MANAGEMENT presentation based
organization and manageme
management of 1.1 Global Setting nt
educational 1.2 Philippine Setting
system at large.
3 At the end of the session, 2. MANAGEMENT  Discussion See references Relevance
the students should be THOUGHTS AND  Reporting of School-
able to: THEORIES via based
 Differentiate the powerpoint manageme
different school 2.1 Classical Theory presentation nt in
based 2.2 Behavioral Theory organizatio
management 2.3 Administrative n
thoughts and Theory
theories. 2.4 Scientific Theory
2.5 X & Y Theory
2.6 Modern
Management Theory
4 At the end of the session, 3. ENVIRONMENT  Discussion See references Valuing
the students should be OF ORGANIZATION  Reporting the
able to: via importance
 Discuss the 3.1 Open system powerpoint of school-
components, model presentation based
characteristics in 3.2 External manageme
managing an environment nt
organizational 3.3 General
environment. environment
3.4 Task environment
3.5 Components of
environment
3.5 Managing the
organization at
environment
strategically.
 5 At the end of the session, 4. THE SCOOL AS  Discussion See references
the students should be SOCIAL SYSTEM  Reporting
able to: via
 Familiarize the 4.1 Social System powerpoint
composite social Defined presentation
system of 4.2 Component of
Philosophy of Social System
Education and 4.3 Society as a
the school of Component of Social
thoughts. System
4.4 Philosophy of
Education
- Idealism
- Realism
- Pragmatism
- Existentialism
- Behaviorism
6-8 At the end of the session, 5. STRUCTURE AND  Discussion See references
the students should be DESIGN OF  Reporting
able to: ORGANIZATION via
 Strengthen the powerpoint
structure and 5.1 DepEd presentation
design of DepEd organizational
Organization. structure
5.2 Legal Basis per
1987 constitution
5.3 RA 9155
5.4 Program and
Delivery Services
5.5 Education for all
5.6 Enhanced Basic
Education Curriculum
(K-12)
5.7 Basic Education
Reform Agenda
5.8 School-Based
Management
5.9 Teacher Education
Development Program
9-12 At the end of the session, 6. MANAGEMENT  Discussion See references
the students should be TECHNIQUES AND  Reporting
able to: APPROACHES via
 Adopt powerpoint
management 6.1 Management by presentation
techniques and Objectives
approaches in the - Concept of MBO
organization of 6.2 Goals and
school based Objective setting
management - Application of
system. SMART
Technique
6.3 Support
mechanism
- Leadership in
organization
- Leaders
relationship with
 others in the
organization
- Leadership style
6.4 Responsibility and
Authority
- Meaning of
Authority
- Delegation
- Power and
conflict in
Organization
6.5 Communication
- Meaning of
Communication
- Role of
Communication
in Organization
6.6 Decision-making
in Organization
- Meaning of
Decision-Making
- Motivation
- Process in
making decision
- Issues and
Problems
13-14 At the end of the session, 7. MANAGING  Discussion See references
the students should be INDIVIDUAL  Reporting
able to: ORGANIZATION via
 Identify proper powerpoint
managing 7.1 Individual presentation
individual in differences
school-based - Perception and
setting. attitude
- Leadership
applied
- Human Resource
Management
7.2 Managing Groups
in Organization
- Groups VS
Crowds in
school-based
management
- Characteristics
- Teams and Team
Building
- Issues and
Problems
15 At the end of the session, 8. ORGANIZATION  Discussion See references
the students should be AND TECHNOLOGY  Reporting
able to: via
 Describe 8.1 Integration of powerpoint
management Technology presentation
problem of 8.2 Management
Organization and Problems in
Technology. Technological Change
 8.3 Impact of
Technology in
Organization
8.4 Management of
Information System
16 FINAL EXAM

TEACHING STRATEGIES/METHODOLOGIES/ENRICHMENT:

 Oral Reports
 Discussion
 Observation
 Critiquing
 Sharing
 Midterm and Final Examination

REQUIREMENTS:

 Major Examination
 Written Report

GRADING SYSTEM

 Attendance 10%
 Oral/Written Report/Participation 40%
 Midterm and Final Examination 50%
TOTAL 100%

COURSE REFERENCES

 Ivanrich, John M. and Matteson, Organization Behavior and Management. 6th,

McGraw-Hill book Company, 2002
 Newstom, John W. and Keith Davis, Organizational Behavior at Work: McGraw-Hill
book Company, 2002
 Stoner, James R., Freeman, Edward and Gilbert Jr., Daniel R. Management. New
Jersey; Prentice hall 2001
 Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior, Concept, Controversies and
Application, 8th edition, Prentice hall. 1997
 Aquino, Gaudencio V. Theory and Practice of Educational Administration. Manila:
Rex Book Store. 1995

Prepared by:

NEMESIO Y. TIONGSON, Ph. D.

Professor

Approved by:

DOLORES T. QUIAMBAO, Ed. D.

Dean, Graduate School
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

CLASS OFFICERS

NAME POSITION
Trapsi, Irene D. President
Clarise M. Cruz Vice President
Torres, Jean S. Secretary
Tejam, Renz Louie F. Treasurer
Pring, John Paul E. Auditor

LIST OF STUDENTS

NAME SIGNATURE
1. Banal, Airra Gean O.
2. Basilio, Kristel Gail S.
3. Cruz, Clarise M.
4. Concepcion, Analyn S.
5. Patayan, Juaren Joy F.
6. Pring, John Paul E.
7. Quiroz, Maria Lourdes R.
8. Regala, Judy Anne S.
9. Rivera, Margie G.
10. Tejam, Renz Louie F.
11. Torres, Jean S.
12. Trapsi, Irene D.

NEMESIO Y. TIONGSON, Ph. D.

Class Adviser
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

BACKGROUND AND EVOLUTION OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Organization Management Definition

Organizational management is a combination of many components of leadership within a

company. The actual structure of the company is utilized to gather information to analyze it. This
analysis is then used to develop strategies that are then implemented and executed via meetings,
training and promotion. Every business utilizes organizational management in a different way
contingent on the unique needs of the business.

Once a plan is implemented, organizational management must monitor and adjust activities
depending on results. If a company is not nimble to change based on feedback, it's organizational
management is not complete. There must be a complete loop of feedback that sets the fluid
strategies set from the top and delegated to the deepest channels of the company where
performance results must let leadership know if strategies are succeeding.
The goal of organizational management is to use the various levels of company leadership in the
leadership hierarchy to set goals, monitor results and build a stronger company. Strategies might
involve employee training, promotional strategies, operations efficiency or any other aspect of
the company.

Organizational Structure vs. Organizational Design

Organizational structure and organizational design are similar but not interchangeable terms.
Both as components of overall organizational management. Organizational structure is the way
the company hierarchy is laid out. This might look like a flow chart with the CEO at the top and
various vice-presidents and operational directors under him. Under that may be branch managers
and other department leaders with the people who do the work underneath. While there are
derivatives to this standard type of linear organizational structure, the idea remains: structure
refers to who is reporting to whom. It is the chain of command.

Organizational design describes how the chain of command functions with processes and
procedures. It is a plan. The organization might execute the flow of information based on email
or memo correspondence. Information might go to one superior to then be summarized and
disseminated while another organizational design might have the same report go to four or five
people in the chain above him. It reviews and catalogs all tasks and functions of all positions at
every level of the organizational structure, then groups these items and sets a workflow for the
efficiency of the entire company.

Importance of Organizational Management

A business should place a priority on establishing solid organizational management to create a

company that clearly pursues goal achievement. Business leaders need to be clear on the goals of
the company and implement processes and procedures and are willing to monitor and adjust
based on critical feedback. When this happens, subordinates are clear on how to complete tasks.
This creates equilibrium in the company allowing it to adapt as needed in changing
environments. It also gives company workers the ability to present ideas from the baseline level
of production or service that gives senior executives the raw data needed to improve things.
Companies emphasizing the details and how to execute them properly but willing to accept
feedback is a company positioned for success because it uses resources optimally. Senior level
managers that live in a bubble without considering what the layperson on the assembly line
knows is leaving the company vulnerable to errors and problems. It also means the company may
miss opportunities for innovation that leaves it exposed to innovative competitors.

Mismanagement leads to mistakes, missed opportunities and ultimately higher costs. Proper
management effectively uses financial resources and reduces overall costs.
Investment brokerages are a good example. The organizational design of a company two decades
ago had much less emphasis on online systems that empower clients. Today's market is
completely transformed with the largest advisors offering online services to clients. Brokerages
not cognizant of the consumer feedback because of poor organizational management had leaders
who felt that they knew better from their penthouse corner office. Many of those companies lost
market share and even closed because they refused to implement designs including customer
feedback from advisors.

Corporate Management Leadership Styles

There are various styles of leadership any business manager can utilize. Most business leaders
have a dominant leadership style but may incorporate other styles as deemed necessary by
presented situations. There are six commonly recognized leadership styles and top management
should consider how these styles affect different departments. It may be that a company employs
leaders of one primary style consistent with the CEO's vision or it may be that a company finds
managers with styles more effective for specific departments.
Each of these styles has advantages and disadvantages. Some are more effective in some
organization's departments than others.

A directive leadership style is the order-giver. This leader says what you should do, and expects
it to be done without question. It is authoritarian and is considered in many modern business
environments to be a little outdated. However, it has merit when needing to hold people
accountable in areas such as compliance or safety issues.
The visionary leadership style has been emulated by organizational leaders seeking to create the
magic that Steve Jobs created at Apple. A visionary leader inspires people from the highest
levels of management to the lowest janitor, drawing them to work together for a common
purpose.

An affiliative leadership style is relationship-driven. This leader spends time developing trust
among employees, and is often in the trenches of a work day with his sleeves rolled up, along
with his staff. The problem with this style is that the leader is less concerned with results and is
more concerned with being liked and trusted. Positions requiring a lot of negotiations could
benefit from this style of leadership.

The participative leadership style functions like a democracy; everyone has input into the
process and goals. While this helps to engage the team in the overall goal, it could dilute a
manager's authority. The team must be competent and self-aware enough to maintain focus on
the company vision for this strategy to be effective.

A pacesetting leadership style is the true lead-by-example model. This model works well in
new departments or departments that have inexperienced workers who might not have the belief
that certain goals are attainable. The pacesetter is always at the front of every report, as the
employee who has the greatest number of sales, the biggest production numbers or the most
lucrative financial negotiations.
A coaching leadership style seeks to build up a team's skill level and confidence. Like a sports
coach, this leader looks for team member's strengths and weaknesses, and works with them to set
action plans to build on strengths and to improve weaknesses.
A top-level organizational leader needs to look at the styles when hiring people for a specific
department. A pacesetter might work well in a highly competitive sales department, but this
leader might burn out an assembly team. Coaches are effective in areas in which development is
critical to employee success. Key leaders should be able to inspire with their passion for the
vision, thus making this style ideal for those creating the strategies and relaying them to the
public and internal members of the organization

Growth and Evolution of Organizations

From agriculture and trade, the advanced economies moved on to focusing on mass production
and distribution. The world has seen tremendous progress being made in manufacturing
processes. Then came, the quality revolution that brought about the concept of process control,
statistical controls and product quality.

If you study the evolution of Organizations and Businesses, you will see that the Organizations
were based on conservative and hierarchical principles with the clear distinction and demarcation
of white collar and blue collar workers etc. The Organizational theories centered around span of
control, hierarchical structure and departmentalization of activities. The division of labor, manual
systems and paper based documentation and control being used to manage the business processes
can be seen in the times following the industrialization. This kind of Organizational structure
tended to be based on individual ownership and family owned enterprises. Profit maximization
was and has been the main motive of the business owners.

With introduction of computer and internet technology, the manufacturing and accounting
processes and procedures underwent changes. Aided by manufacturing resource planning and
quality, the product quality and production processes became competitive and efficient. At this
stage the Organizations did were still not looking at employee welfare and business processes.
The emphasis on quality, control of processes to maintain quality brought about a focus on
Customer. Slowly the businesses began to realize the importance of the customer being the most
important factor governing their business and thus began to orient the entire production
processes towards Zero Defect Product and Customer Satisfaction through superior Product
Quality. All along, the businesses have been focusing on profit maximization and aligned the rest
of their initiatives and business decisions around profit maximization alone.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from the pre-Spanish
times to the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves as focus of
emphases/priorities of the leadership at certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race.

As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and devoid of

methods. Children were provided more vocational training and less academics (3 Rs) by their
parents and in the houses of tribal tutors. The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major
changes during the Spanish colonization. The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish
Missionaries. Education was religion-oriented. It was for the elite, especially in the early years of
Spanish colonization. Access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized through the
enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of at least
one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal
government; and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of
the Jesuits. Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory. Education
during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and controlled. The defeat of Spain by American
forces paved the way for Aguinaldo’s Republic under a Revolutionary Government. The schools
maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed for the time being but were
reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The Burgos Institute in Malolos, the
Military Academy of Malolos, and the Literary University of the Philippines were established. A
system of free and compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos
Constitution. An adequate secularized and free public school system during the first decade of
American rule was established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission. Free
primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was
enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Chaplains and non-
commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the medium of instruction. A
highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission by
virtue of Act No. 74. The implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the
Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines
600 teachers from the U.S.A. They were the Thomasites.

The high school system supported by provincial governments, special educational institutions,
school of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine institutes were
established in 1902 by the Philippine Commission. In 1908, the Philippine Legislature approved
Act No. 1870 which created the University of the Philippines. The Reorganization Act of 1916
provided the Filipinization of all department secretaries except the Secretary of Public
Instruction. Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in 1942. The
Philippine Executive Commission established the Commission of Education, Health and Public
Welfare and schools were reopened in June 1942. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese –
sponsored Republic created the Ministry of Education. Under the Japanese regime, the teaching
of Tagalog, Philippine History, and Character Education was reserved for Filipinos. Love for
work and dignity of labor was emphasized. On February 27, 1945, the Department of Instruction
was made part of the Department of Public Instruction. In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order
No. 94, the Department of Instruction was changed to Department of Education. During this
period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of
Public and Private Schools. In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by
virtue of Proclamation 1081 and the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 y virtue of P.D.
No. 1397. Thirteen regional offices were created and major organizational changes were
implemented in the educational system. The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sports which later became the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports in 1987 by virtue of Executive Order No. 117. The structure of DECS as embodied in EO
No. 117 has practically remained unchanged until 1994 when the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), and 1995 when the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) were established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree technical-
vocational programs, respectively. The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM)
report provided the impetus for Congress to pass RA 7722 and RA 7796 in 1994 creating the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA), respectively. The trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to
basic education which covers elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture
and sports. TESDA now administers the post-secondary, middle-level manpower training and
development while CHED is responsible for higher education. In August 2001, Republic Act
9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education Act, was passed transforming the
name of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to the Department of
Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field offices (regional offices, division offices,
district offices and schools). RA 9155 provides the overall framework for (i) school head
empowerment by strengthening their leadership roles and (ii) school-based management within
the context of transparency and local accountability. The goal of basic education is to provide the
school age population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring,
self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens.

Presented by:

IRENE D. TRAPSI
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

MANAGEMENT THOUGHTS AND THEORIES

THE CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

Classical management theory is based on the belief that workers only have physical and
economic needs. It does not take into account social needs or job satisfaction, but instead
advocates a specialization of labor, centralized leadership and decision-making, and profit
maximization.

Designed solely to streamline operations, increase productivity and enhance the bottom line, this
idea arose in the late 19th century and gained prominence through the first half of the 20th
century. While not widely subscribed to in modern times, this theory offers some principles that
remain valid, to an extent, in small business settings in regards to manufacturing.

Concepts of the Ideal Workplace

The theory outlines an ideal workplace as one that rests on three main concepts:
•Hierarchical structure – Under classical management theory, workplaces are divided under
three distinct layers of management. At the very top are the owners, board of directors and
executives that set the long-range objectives for a firm. Middle management takes on the
responsibility of overseeing supervisors while setting goals at the department level to fit within
the confines of the managers’ budget. At the lowest level of the chain are supervisors, who
manage day-to-day activities, address employee problems and provide training.

•Specialization – The classical management theory involves an assembly line view of the
workplace in which large tasks are broken down into smaller ones that are easy to accomplish.
Workers understand their roles and typically specialize in a single area. This helps increase
productivity and efficiency while eliminating the need for employees to multi-task.

•Incentives – This theory believes that employees are motivated by financial rewards. It
proposes that employees will work harder and be more productive if they are awarded incentives
based on their work. Employers who can motivate their employees using this tactic may be able
to achieve increased production, efficiency and profit.

The autocratic leadership model is the central part of classical management theory. In this
system, there is no need to consult large groups of people for decisions to be made. A single
leader makes a final decision and it is communicated downward for all to follow. This leadership
approach can be beneficial when decisions need to be made quickly by one leader, rather than a
group of company officials.

Strengths of the Theory

While not typically used in today’s workplaces, the classical management theory does have some
strong points. They include:
•A clear structure for management, its functions and operations
•The division of labor that can make tasks easier and more efficient to accomplish, which can
enhance productivity
•Clear definition of employee roles and tasks with little left to guesswork

Flaws in the Model

When the theory is put into action, companies can see their production numbers increase. There
are, however, some flaws that make this particular management model less than attractive in
workplaces. These pitfalls include:
•By attempting to predict and control human behavior, this theory overlooks the importance of
human relations and creativity.
•In essence, this theory views workers almost as machines, but fails to take into account what job
satisfaction, employee input and morale can bring to the workplace.
•The reliance on prior experience and the ability to apply it almost solely to manufacturing
settings is another drawback of this theory.

The classical management theory can help streamline manufacturing operations where high
productivity is a must. However, it fell out of favor after the rise of the human relations
movement, which sought to gain a better understanding of the human motivation for
productivity. Although some of its facets are viable for certain circumstances, this theory
generally does not translate well to workplaces today.

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up regarding
the interactions and motivations of the individual within organizations. Management principles
developed during the classical period were simply not useful in dealing with many management
situations and could not explain the behavior of individual employees. In short, classical theory
ignored employee motivation and behavior. As a result, the behavioral school was a natural
outgrowth of this revolutionary management experiment.

The behavioral management theory is often called the human relations movement because it
addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better
understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group
dynamics, improved productivity.

The theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and
assets to be developed and worked with — not as machines, as in the past. Several individuals
and experiments contributed to this theory.

Elton Mayo's contributions came as part of the Hawthorne studies, a series of experiments that
rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. The Hawthorne
experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric
Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932. The first study was conducted by a group of engineers
seeking to determine the relationship of lighting levels to worker productivity. Surprisingly
enough, they discovered that worker productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased —
that is, until the employees were unable to see what they were doing, after which performance
naturally declined.

A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J.
Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave the women
special privileges, such as the right to leave their workstations without permission, take rest
periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in pay levels and workdays. This experiment
also resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity.

In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted from
the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting or other associated worker
benefits. Because the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the employees, the
intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increased motivation and
resulting productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced
its outcome. This is the origin of the term Hawthorne effect, which describes the special attention
researchers give to a study's subjects and the impact that attention has on the study's findings.
The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the social
needs of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of human
motivation helped revolutionize theories and practices of management.

Abraham Maslow, a practicing psychologist, developed one of the most widely recognized need
theories, a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human needs. His theory of
human needs had three assumptions:
•Human needs are never completely satisfied.
•Human behavior is purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction.
•Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to
highest.

Maslow broke down the needs hierarchy into five specific areas:
•Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical needs necessary for maintaining basic
human well‐being, such as food and drink, into this category. After the need is satisfied,
however, it is no longer is a motivator.

•Safety needs. These needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection, and freedom
from fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all these needs generally satisfied.
Otherwise, they become primary motivators.

•Belonging and love needs. After the physical and safety needs are satisfied and are no longer
motivators, the need for belonging and love emerges as a primary motivator. The individual
strives to establish meaningful relationships with significant others.

•Esteem needs. An individual must develop self‐confidence and wants to achieve status,
reputation, fame, and glory.

•Self‐actualization needs. Assuming that all the previous needs in the hierarchy are satisfied, an
individual feels a need to find himself.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helped managers visualize employee motivation.

Douglas McGregor was heavily influenced by both the Hawthorne studies and Maslow. He
believed that two basic kinds of managers exist. One type, the Theory X manager, has a negative
view of employees and assumes that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and incapable of assuming
responsibility. On the other hand, the Theory Y manager assumes that employees are not only
trustworthy and capable of assuming responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation.

An important aspect of McGregor's idea was his belief that managers who hold either set of
assumptions can create self‐fulfilling prophecies — that through their behavior, these managers
create situations where subordinates act in ways that confirm the manager's original expectations.
As a group, these theorists discovered that people worked for inner satisfaction and not
materialistic rewards, shifting the focus to the role of individuals in an organization's
performance.

ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT THEORY

It attempts to find a rational way to design an organization as a whole. The theory generally calls
for a formalized administrative structure, a clear division of labor, and delegation of power and
authority to administrators relevant to their areas of responsibilities.
Administrative Management Theorists
•Henri Fayol (1841-1925): Fayol was born in France, where he worked for a coal-mining
business. He developed 14 administrative principles for organizational structure and
management.

•James D. Mooney (1884-1957): Mooney studied mechanical engineering and eventually

became a key member of General Motors' top management team. In 1931, he wrote Onward
Industry! The book is considered by many scholars to be a significant contribution to
administrative management theory.

•Luther H. Gulick (1892-1993): Gulick is often considered the 'Dean of Public Administration.'
He applied administrative management theory principles to government.

The Administrative Theory is based on the concept of departmentalization, which means the
different activities to be performed for achieving the common purpose of the organization should
be identified and be classified into different groups or departments, such that the task can be
accomplished effectively.

The administrative theory is given by Henri Fayol, who believed that more emphasis should be
laid on organizational management and the human and behavioral factors in the management.
Thus, unlike the scientific management theory of Taylor where more emphasis was on improving
the worker’s efficiency and minimizing the task time, here the main focus is on how the
management of the organization is structured and how well the individuals therein are organized
to accomplish the tasks given to them.

The other difference between these two is, the administrative theory focuses on improving the
efficiency of management first so that the processes can be standardized and then moves to the
operational level where the individual workers are made to learn the changes and implement
those in their routine jobs. While in the case of the scientific management theory, it emphasizes
on improving the efficiency of the workers at the operating level first which in turn improves the
efficiency of the management. Thus, the administrative theory follows the top-down approach
while the scientific management theory follows the bottom-up approach.

14 Principles of Management

1.Division of Work
In practice, employees are specialized in different areas and they have different skills. Different
levels of expertise can be distinguished within the knowledge areas (from generalist to
specialist). Personal and professional developments support this. According to Henri Fayol
specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce and increases productivity. In addition, the
specialization of the workforce increases their accuracy and speed. This management principle of
the 14 principles of management is applicable to both technical and managerial activities.

2.Authority and Responsibility

In order to get things done in an organization, management has the authority to give orders to the
employees. Of course with this authority comes responsibility. According to Henri Fayol, the
accompanying power or authority gives the management the right to give orders to the
subordinates. The responsibility can be traced back from performance and it is therefore
necessary to make agreements about this. In other words, authority and responsibility go together
and they are two sides of the same coin.

3. Discipline
This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about obedience. It is often a part of
the core values of a mission and vision in the form of good conduct and respectful interactions.
This management principle is essential and is seen as the oil to make the engine of an
organization run smoothly.
4. Unity of Command
The management principle ‘Unity of command’ means that an individual employee should
receive orders from one manager and that the employee is answerable to that manager. If tasks
and related responsibilities are given to the employee by more than one manager, this may lead
to confusion which may lead to possible conflicts for employees. By using this principle, the
responsibility for mistakes can be established more easily.

5. Unity of Direction
This management principle of the 14 principles of management is all about focus and unity. All
employees deliver the same activities that can be linked to the same objectives. All activities
must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These activities must be described in a plan
of action. The manager is ultimately responsible for this plan and he monitors the progress of the
defined and planned activities. Focus areas are the efforts made by the employees and
coordination.

6. Subordination of Individual Interest

There are always all kinds of interests in an organization. In order to have an organization
function well, Henri Fayol indicated that personal interests are subordinate to the interests of the
organization (ethics). The primary focus is on the organizational objectives and not on those of
the individual. This applies to all levels of the entire organization, including the managers.

7. Remuneration
Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth running of an
organization is concerned. This management principle of the 14 principles of management
argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive.
There are two types of remuneration namely non-monetary (a compliment, more responsibilities,
credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or other financial compensation). Ultimately, it is
about rewarding the efforts that have been made.

8. The Degree of Centralization

Management and authority for decision-making process must be properly balanced in an
organization. This depends on the volume and size of an organization including its hierarchy.
Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top management
(executive board). Sharing of authorities for the decision-making process with lower levels
(middle and lower management), is referred to as decentralization by Henri Fayol. Henri Fayol
indicated that an organization should strive for a good balance in this.

9. Scalar Chain
Hierarchy presents itself in any given organization. This varies from senior management
(executive board) to the lowest levels in the organization. Henri Fayol ’s “hierarchy”
management principle states that there should be a clear line in the area of authority (from top to
bottom and all managers at all levels). This can be seen as a type of management structure. Each
employee can contact a manager or a superior in an emergency situation without challenging the
hierarchy. Especially, when it concerns reports about calamities to the immediate
managers/superiors.

10. Order
According to this principle of the 14 principles of management, employees in an organization
must have the right resources at their disposal so that they can function properly in an
organization. In addition to social order (responsibility of the managers) the work environment
must be safe, clean and tidy.

11. Equity
The management principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an organization.
According to Henri Fayol, employees must be treated kindly and equally. Employees must be in
the right place in the organization to do things right. Managers should supervise and monitor this
process and they should treat employees fairly and impartially.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel
This management principle of the 14 principles of management represents deployment and
managing of personnel and this should be in balance with the service that is provided from the
organization. Management strives to minimize employee turnover and to have the right staff in
the right place. Focus areas such as frequent change of position and sufficient development must
be managed well.

13. Initiative
Henri Fayol argued that with this management principle employees should be allowed to express
new ideas. This encourages interest and involvement and creates added value for the company.
Employee initiatives are a source of strength for the organization according to Henri Fayol. This
encourages the employees to be involved and interested.

14. Esprit de Corps

The management principle ‘esprit de corps’ of the 14 principles of management stands for
striving for the involvement and unity of the employees. Managers are responsible for the
development of morale in the workplace; individually and in the area of communication. Esprit
de corps contributes to the development of the culture and creates an atmosphere of mutual trust
and understanding.

HUMAN RELATIONS THEORIES

During the 1930’s, it was noted that the world was in the middle of the worst economic
depressions. During this period, workers started to dislike and question scientific methods and
bureaucracy in organizational settings. In this section, we will introduce the human relationship
approach. We will discuss the historical and cultural backgrounds of this approach.

The Great Depression, which occurred between 1929 -1940, caused many economic and social
struggles for many Americans. Many governmental policies were changing, such as social
security, welfare, and public improvement projects. The depression caused many families to
move from drought, dry farming areas to the West Coast and from poor Southern cities to more
enriched areas of the North. These families were looking for a better life. However, the increase
of workers to these areas led to more competition. Moreover, it led to many types of worker
abuse by corrupt and immoral managers. It was during this time, that many people had advocated
for human rights, labor unions, better wages, and improved work conditions. “Fair wages” were
defined NY worker output. In turn, this increased output usually lead to more injuries, illnesses,
and deaths. Human rights were defined as having twelve hour work days, working six days a
week, and a thirty minute break for lunch. These perspectives concerning “fair” and “human
rights” were seen differently by managers and employees. The difference in perspectives caused
tense and strained relationships between managers and workers.

Later World War II changed everything. There was an increase of employment in the private
sector and the military. These changes resulted in a more human relations approach to
communication in organizations, because there was an increase in well-educated workers. These
new workers encouraged an awareness of worker’s needs, such as feeling important and
appreciated as a worker and an individual. To better understand how new management ideas
ultimately started to transform the face the workplace, we will first discuss a number of key ideas
in the group of theories labeled under the term “human relations” followed by an analysis of two
of the major theorists in this category: Elton Mayo and Kurt Lewin.

Key Ideas in Human Relations

Before we can jump right in and discuss the major theoretical thinkers that spawned the human
relations movement, we first need to understand the basic characteristics of the theoretical
developments in this time period. As with many theoretical movements, the notion of “human
relations” is one that is drawn by researchers after the fact. Specifically, a business professor at
the University of California at Berkley named Raymond E. Miles is responsible for much of the
work on crystalizing the notion of “human relations.”Miles, R. E. (1965). Human relations or
human resources? Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157.

Miles, in a famous article in the Harvard Business ReviewMiles, R. E. (1965). Human relations
or human resources? Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157., discussed human relations as
the natural knee-jerk reaction that many management theorists (along with workers and
managers as well) had to Fredrick Taylor’s scientific management. Where Taylor viewed people
as parts of a working machine, the human relations approach shifted the viewpoint from the task
to the worker. For the first time, workers were viewed as an important part of the organization
that should be viewed holistically instead of bundles of skills and aptitudes. As Miles noted,
managers “were urged to create a ‘sense of satisfaction’ among their subordinates by showing
interest in the employees’ personal success and welfare.”Miles, R. E. (1965). Human relations or
human resources? Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157.Most importantly, the goal of
human relations was to make workers feel like they belonged to something bigger than
themselves, and thus the worker’s work was important to the overall effort of the organization.

For communication scholars, the human relations approach is important because it is the first
time that two-way communication was encouraged, or communication between a worker and her
or his manager was like a dialogue instead of unidirectional communication from the manager
targeted at the worker. Furthermore, the human relations perspective sees communication as a
tool that can be used by management to “buy” cooperation from subordinates. Robert
DubinDubin, R. (1958). The world of work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. coined the
term “privilege pay” to refer to a tool managers can utilize with subordinates when the manager
provides subordinates departmental information and allows the subordinate to engage in open
communication about various departmental issues with the manager. Dubin sees this as a form of
payment a manager makes in order to “buy” cooperation from subordinates because the manager
is having to give up some of her or his access to private information and control over
subordinates because this process enables subordinates to engage in some self-direction.

In sum, the human relations perspective on organizational management notes that the world
would be easier for managers if they could just make decisions and have subordinates follow
those decisions. However, because employees are more productive when they are satisfied, it
becomes the job of the manager to open engage with subordinates. As Miles notes, “this model
suggests, the manager might do better to ‘waste time’ in discussing the problem with
subordinates, and perhaps even to accept suggestions that he believes may be less efficient, in
order to get the decision carried out.” Miles, R. E. (1965). Human relations or human resources?
Harvard Business Review, 43(4), 148–157, pg. 150.

Key People in Human Relations

Now that we’ve explore some of the theoretical underpinnings of the human relations approach
to management, we’re going to explore two of the most important thinkers who are seen as
falling into this category: Elton Mayo and Kurt Lewin.

Elton Mayo

Elton Mayo was a Harvard Professor who had a huge interest in Federick Taylor’s work. He was
interested in learning about ways to increase productivity. In 1924, Elton Mayo and his protégé
Fritz Roethlisberger were awarded a grant by the National Research Council (NRC) of the
National Academy of Science to study productivity and lighting at the Hawthorne Works of the
Western Electric Company. The Hawthorne experiments, as Elton Mayo’s body of work became
known as, are a series of experiments in human relations conducted between 1924 and 1932 at
Western Electric Company's Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois.
Illumination Study

The first study at Hawthorne Works was designed to explicitly test various lighting levels and
how the lighting levels affected worker productivity. The original hypothesis of the illumination
study was the as lighting increased worker productivity would increase. The opposite was also
predicted, as lighting decreased, worker productivity would decrease. The original push behind
the study was the electric power industry who believed that if they could demonstrate the
importance of artificial lighting, organizations around the country would adopt artificial lighting
in place of natural lighting to ensure worker productivity.

Relay Assembly Study

In order to further clarify the impact of a variety of factors on productivity, a second set of tests
were designed to evaluate rest periods and work hours on productivity. The goal of this study
was really to determine how fatigue impacted worker productivity. Six women operators
volunteered to participate in the relay assembly study. The women were given physical
examinations at the beginning of the study and then every six weeks in order to ensure that the
experiment was not adversely affecting their health.
The six women were isolated in a separate room away from other Hawthorne workers where it
was easier to measure experimental conditions like output and quality of work, temperature,
humidity, etc… The specific task in the relay assembly test was an electromagnetic switch that
consisted of 35 parts that had to be put together by hand.

Employee Interview Study

During the middle of the relay assembly studies, a group of Harvard researchers led by Elton
Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger joined the team of engineers at Hawthorne Works to add further
expertise and explanation to the studies underhand. One of the most important contributions
Mayo makes is during the follow-up to the illumination and relay studies when they interviewed
workers at Hawthorne Works.

From 1928 to 1931 the Harvard researchers interviewed over 21,000 workers in attempt to gage
worker morale and determine what job factors impacted both morale and job satisfaction. The
researchers predicted, based on the illumination and relay studies, that if they could increase
worker morale and satisfaction then the workers would be more efficient and productive as well.
The interview study definitely posed some new challenges for the researchers. Mayo not that the
“experience itself was unusual; there are few people in this world who have had the experience
of finding someone intelligent, attentive, and eager to listen without interruption to all that he or
she has to say.”Mayo, E. (1945). The social problems of an industrial civilization. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School, pg. 163. To this end, Mayo trained a series of interviewers to listen
and not give advice as they took descriptive notes of what was being told to them by the workers.

Bank Wiring Observation Study

One of the findings of the interview study was that workers had a tendency of creating an
informal standard for output that was predetermined by the group but never clearly stated. These
productivity standards were never really in-line with the ones communicated by either efficiency
engineers or managers. To examine the influence that informal group rules had on worker
productivity, Mayo and his team created the bank wiring observation study.

The researchers ultimately concluded that the wiremen created their own productivity norms
without ever verbally communicating them to each other. For the first time, the researchers
clearly had evidence that within any organization there exists an informal organization that often
constrains individual employee behavior. The bank wiring observation study was stopped in
spring of 1932 as layoffs occurred at Hawthorne Works because of the worsening Great
Depression.
Kurt Lewin

Kurt Lewin was another person who explored the human relations side to organizational
communication. Lewin was a refugee from Nazi Germany. He adored democracy and had a
passion for applying psychology to improving the world.Tannenbaum, A. S. (1966). Social
psychology of the work organization. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 86. During World War II,
Lewin was at the University of Iowa. The U.S. government asked him to research ways to advise
against housewives from purchasing meat, because there was such a short supply.Lewin, K.
(1958). Group decision and social change. In E. F. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley
(Eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp. 197–211). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, &
Winston. Lewin felt that there was a huge barrier because housewives were expected to buy meat
because of their families, friends, and parents, who anticipated to be served meat. Lewin
hypothesized that if housewives were able to talk with other housewives about their meat buying
tendencies, that they would be able to overcome this barrier. Lewin and his cohorts performed
the experiments and found support for his hypothesis. Housewives who were able to talk about
their meat purchasing with other housewises were ten times more likely to change their behavior.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Scientific Management Theory is well known for its application of engineering science at
the production floor or the operating levels. The major contributor of this theory is Fredrick
Winslow Taylor, and that’s why the scientific management is often called as “Taylorism”.
The scientific management theory focused on improving the efficiency of each individual in the
organization. The major emphasis is on increasing the production through the use of intensive
technology, and the human beings are just considered as adjuncts to machines in the performance
of routine tasks.
The scientific management theory basically encompasses the work performed on the production
floor as these tasks are quite different from the other tasks performed within the organization.
Such as, these are repetitive in nature, and the individual workers performing their daily
activities are divided into a large number of cyclical repetition of same or closely related
activities. Also, these activities do not require the individual worker to exercise complex-
problem solving activity. Therefore, more attention is required to be imposed on the
standardization of working methods and hence the scientific management theory laid emphasis
on this aspect.

The major principles of scientific management, given by Taylor, can be summarized as follows:
•Separate planning from doing.
•The Functional foremanship of supervision,i.e. Eight supervisors required to give directions and
instructions in their respective fields.
•Time, motion and fatigue studies shall be used to determine the fair amount of work done by
each individual worker.
•Improving the working conditions and standardizing the tools, period of work and cost of
production.
•Proper scientific selection and training of workmen should be done.
•The financial incentives should be given to the workers to boost their productivity and motivate
them to perform well.

Thus, the scientific management theory focused more on mechanization and automation, i.e.,
technical aspects of efficiency rather than the broader aspects of human behavior in the
organization.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor developed a leadership theory (McGregor Theory X and Theory Y)
about organization and management in which he represented two opposing perceptions about
people. He referred to these two perceptions as Theory X and Theory Y. Douglas McGregor then
arrived at the conclusion that the style of leadership depends on the manager’s perception of
people.

Theory X

In Theory X, Douglas McGregor summarizes the traditional view of management in a number of

characteristic assumptions in which autocratic leadership style, close supervision and the
hierarchical principle are the key elements.
Theory X starts from the assumption that people are naturally lazy, want to avoid work as much
as possible, do not wish to take responsibility, have no ambition and prefer to be supervised. The
authoritarian leadership style is therefore the most appropriate leadership style in Theory X.
According to this theory, pure work motivation consists of financial incentives. People want to
avoid work and they must be continually coerced and controlled. Therefore, the system of
rewards and punishments works best for them. Furthermore, their tasks and how these should
executed must be laid down in detail. According to this theory, people definitely do not wish to
bear any responsibility for their work.

Theory Y

Unlike in Theory X, Douglas McGregor starts from the assumption in Theory Y that people have
different needs. Theory Y assumes that people are inherently happy to work , they want to exert
themselves and they are motivated to pursue objectives. There is no need for the system that
involves rewards and punishments. People are prepared to take responsibility for everything they
do. People want to use their creativity and they like to take a creative problem solving approach.

Principle of Theory Y

The central principle of Theory Y is that of integration: individuals can achieve their own goals
by also focusing their efforts on the objectives of the organization they work for. They want to
get the most out of their work through satisfaction, appreciation and motivation. Theory Y
invites renewal processes and motivation can be traced back to the style of leadership. Theory Y
therefore assumes that control, rewards and punishments are not the only ways to stimulate
people. People can focus on the objectives they pursue through self-direction and self-control.

Capabilities

A democratic leadership style arises on the basis of Theory Y which allows the employees to
have a greater say. Encouragement and rewards are used rather than control and coercion.
Employees are given an opportunity to develop themselves and put their capabilities to good use.
When an organization does not respond to this, employees will start looking for possibilities to
deploy their skills outside their work. Initially, they will focus on hobbies, committee and
voluntary work, but eventually this could result in a hunt for another job.

Critical note on the McGregor Theory

The McGregor Theory X and Theory Y are not based on a single truth. Theory X managers and
Theory Y managers often see their perceptions of people confirmed. The democratic approach of
Theory Y makes people feel comfortable as a result of which they commit themselves
wholeheartedly to the organization. Managers who build on the basic principles of Theory X, are
often met with a vicious circle in which their suppositions become reality and in which cause and
effect are reversed. Their employees are accustomed to coercion and control and will therefore
not make any effort at all or bear responsibility.

Influence

A good manager will realize that leadership affects employee behaviour. In addition to their
preference for a certain leadership style and the work that has to be done, a manager will either
opt for Theory X or Theory Y. Theory X will sooner be implemented in industrial organizations
where activities revolve around a high degree of productivity. In instances where the thinking
process is important and the employee is expected to act on their own responsibility, managers
prefer to opt for Theory Y. Motivation is created because of the individual employee’s
involvement and participation.

MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Modern Period (1960 to present). After, 1960 management thought has been turning
somewhat away from the extreme human relations ideas particularly regarding the direct relation
between morale and productivity. Present management thinking wishes equal emphasis on man
and machine.

The modern business ideologists have recognized the social responsibilities of business activities
and thinking on similar lines. During the period, the principles of management reached a stage of
refinement and perfection. The formation of big companies resulted in the separation of
ownership and management.

This change in ownership pattern inevitably brought in ‘salaried and professional managers’ in
place of ‘owner managers’. The giving of control to the hired management resulted in the wider
use of scientific methods of management. But at the same time the professional management has
become socially responsible to various sections of society such as customers, shareholders,
suppliers, employees, trade unions and other Government agencies.

Under modern management thought three streams of thinking have beers noticed since 1960:
(i) Quantitative or Mathematical Approach
(ii) Systems Approach
(iii) Contingency Approach

I. Quantitative or Mathematical Approach or Management Science Approach:

Mathematics has made inroads into all disciplines. It has been universally recognised as an
important tool of analysis and a language for precise expression of concept and relationship.
Evolving from the Decision Theory School, the Mathematical School gives a quantitative basis
for decision-making and considers management as a system of mathematical models and
processes. This school is also sometimes called, ‘ Operations Research” or “Management
Science School’. The main feature of this school is the use of mixed teams of scientists from
several disciplines. It uses scientific techniques for providing quantitative base for managerial
decisions. The exponents of this school view management as a system of logical process.
It can be expressed in terms of mathematical symbols and relationships or models. Different
mathematical and quantitative techniques or tools, such as linear programming, simulation and
queuing, are being increasingly used in almost all the areas of management for studying a wide
range of problems.

The exponents of this school believe that all the phases of management can be expressed in
quantitative terms for analysis. However, it is to be noted that mathematical models do help in
the systematic analysis of problems, but models are no substitute for sound judgement.
Moreover, mathematics quantitative techniques provide tools for analysis but they cannot be
treated an independent system of management thought. A lot of mathematics is used in the field
of physical sciences and engineering but mathematics has never been considered as separate
school even in these fields.

The contributions of mathematicians in the field of management are significant. This has
contributed impressively in developing orderly thinking amongst managers. It has given
exactness to the management discipline. Its contributions and usefulness could hardly be over-
emphasized. However, it can only be treated as a tool in managerial practice.
II. Systems Approach:

In the 1960, an approach to management appeared which tried to unify the prior schools of
thought. This approach is commonly known as ‘Systems Approach’. Its early contributors
include Ludwing Von Bertalanffy, Lawrence J. Henderson, W.G. Scott, Deniel Katz, Robert L.
Kahn, W. Buckley and J.D. Thompson.

They viewed organization as an organic and open system, which is composed of interacting and
interdependent parts, called subsystems. The system approach is to look upon management as a
system or as “an organised whole” made up of sub¬systems integrated into a unity or orderly
totality.

System approach is based on the generalization that everything is inter-related and inter-
dependent. A system is composed of related and dependent element which, when in interaction,
forms a unitary whole. A system is simply an assemblage or combination of things or parts
forming a complex whole.

One of its most important characteristic is that it is composed of hierarchy of sub-systems. That
is the parts forming the major systems and so on. For example, the world can be considered to be
a system in which various national economies are sub-systems.

In turn, each national economy is composed of its various industries, each industry is composed
of firms; and of course, a firm can be considered a system composed of sub-systems such as
production, marketing, finance, accounting and so on.

The basic features of systems approach are as under:

(i) A system consists of interacting elements. It is set of inter related and inter¬dependent parts
arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.
(ii) The various sub-systems should be studied in their inter- relationships rather, than in
isolation from each other.
(iii) An organisational system has a boundary that determines which parts are internal and which
are external.
(iv) A system does not exist in a vaccum. It receives information, material and energy from other
systems as inputs. These inputs undergo a transformation process within the system and leave the
system as output to other systems.
(v) An organisation is a dynamic system as it is responsive to its environment. It is vulnerable to
change in its environment.

In the systems approach, attention is paid towards the overall effectiveness of the system rather
than the effectiveness of the sub-systems. The interdependence of the sub-systems is taken into
account. The idea of systems can be applied at an organizational level. In applying system
concepts, organizations are taken into account and not only the objectives and performances of
different departments (sub¬systems).

The systems approach is considered both general and specialized systems. The general systems
approach to management is mainly concerned with formal organizations and the concepts are
relating to technique of sociology, psychology and philosophy. The specific management system
includes the analysis of organisational structure, information, planning and control mechanism
and job design, etc.

III. Contingency or Situational Approach:

The contingency approach is the latest approach to the existing management approaches. During
the 1970’s, contingency theory was developed by J.W. Lorsch and P.R. Lawrence, who were
critical of other approaches presupposing one best way to manage. Management problems are
different under different situations and require to be tackled as per the demand of the situation.
One best way of doing may be useful for repetitive things but not for managerial problems. The
contingency theory aims at integrating theory with practice in systems framework. The
behaviour of an organisation is said to be contingent on forces of environment. “Hence, a
contingency approach is an approach, where behaviour of one sub-unit is dependent on its
environment and relationship to other units or sub-units that have some control over the
sequences desired by that sub- unit.”

Thus behaviour within an organisation is contingent on environment, and if a manager wants to

change the behaviour of any part of the organization, he must try to change the situation
influencing it. Tosi and Hammer tell that organization system is not a matter of managerial
choice, but contingent upon its external environment.

Contingency approach is an improvement over the systems approach. The interactions between
the sub-systems of an organisation have long been recognised by the systems approach.
Contingency approach also recognises that organisational system is the product of the interaction
of the sub systems and the environment. Besides, it seeks to identify exact nature of inter-actions
and inter-relationships.

This approach calls for an identification of the internal and external variables that critically
influence managerial revolution and organisational performance. According to this, internal and
external environment of the organisation is made up of the organisational sub-systems. Thus, the
contingency approach provides a pragmatic method of analysing organisational sub-systems and
tries to integrate these with the environment.

Contingency views are ultimately directed towards suggesting organisational designs situations.
Therefore, this approach is also called situational approach. This approach helps us to evolve
practical answers to the problems remanding solutions.

Kast and Rosenzweig give a broader view of the contingency approach. They say, “The
contingency view seeks to understand the inter-relationships within and among sub-systems as
well as between the organization and its environment and to define patterns of relationships or
configurations of variables contingency views are ultimately directed toward suggesting
organization designs and managerial actions most appropriate for specific situations.

Features of Contingency Approach:

Firstly, the contingency approach does not accept the universality of management theory. It
stresses that there is no one best way of doing things. Management is situation, and managers
should explain objectives, design organisations and prepare strategies, policies and plans
according to prevailing circumstances. Secondly, managerial policies and practices to be
effective, must adjust to changes in environment.

Thirdly, it should improve diagnostic skills so as to anticipate and ready for environmental
changes. Fourthly, managers should have sufficient human relations skill to accommodate and
stabilise change.

Finally, it should apply the contingency model in designing the organization, developing its
information and communication system, following proper leadership styles and preparing
suitable objectives, policies, strategies, programmes and practices. Thus, contingency approach
looks to hold a great deal of promise for the future development of management theory and
practice.

Presented by:

RENZ LOUIE F. TEJAM

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

ENVIRONMENT OF ORGANIZATION

Environment
"An organizations environment is defined as all the elements existing outside the boundary of the
organization that have the potential to affect all or part of the organization

Organizational Environment
Why are organizations affected by their environments? In order to answer this question, let's look
at two very different organizations: Basic Bolt Company and Terrific Technologies. Basic Bolt
Company sells bolts to large manufacturing companies as components to make large machines
and engines. They face a relatively static environment with few changing environmental forces.
Currently, there are no new competitors in their market, few new technologies being discovered,
and little to no activity from outside groups that might influence the organization. Opposite from
this, Terrific Technologies is an Internet marketing start up that faces a dynamic environment
with rapidly changing regulations from the government, new competitors constantly entering the
market, and constantly shifting consumer preferences. These two companies have very different
organizational environments. Organizational environments are composed of forces or institutions
surrounding an organization that affect performance, operations, and resources. It includes all of
the elements that exist outside of the organization's boundaries and have the potential to affect a
portion or all of the organization. Examples include government regulatory agencies,
competitors, customers, suppliers, and pressure from the public. To manage the organization
effectively, managers need to properly understand the environment. Scholars have divided
environmental factors into two parts: internal and external environments.

Internal and External Environment Factors that Influences Organizational Decision

Making
By the word “environment” we understand the surrounding or conditions in which a particular
activity is carried on. And we know that organization is a social entity that has a hierarchical
structure where all necessary items are put together and they act within it to reach the collective
goal. Organization or more specific business organization and it activates are always being
affected by the environment. In an organization, every action of the management body is
influenced by the environment.
Organizations have an external and internal environment;
1. External Environment.
2. Internal Environment.

In this post, we will look at the elements of organizations environment.

External Environment of Organization

In a simple way factor outside or organization are the elements of the external environment. The
organization has no control over how the external environment elements will shape up.

The external environment can be subdivided into 2 layers: the general environment and the task
environment.
1. General Environment
2. Task Environment

General Environment of Organization

The general environment consists of factors that may have an immediate direct effect on
operations but nevertheless influences the activities of the firm. The dimensions of the general
environment are broad and non-specific whereas the dimensions of the task environment are
composed of the specific organization.

Let’s see the elements or dimensions of the general environment.

1. Economic Dimension
The economic dimension of an organization is the overall status if the economic system in which
the organization operates. The important economic factors for business are inflation, interest
rates, and unemployment. These factors of the economy always affect the demand for products.
During inflation, the company pays more for its resources and to cover the higher costs for it,
they raise commodity prices. When interest rates are high, customers are less willing to borrow
money and the company itself must pay more when it borrows. When unemployment is high, the
company is able to be very selective about whom it hires, but customers’ buying power is low as
fewer people are working.

2. Technological Dimension
It denotes to the methods available for converting resources into products or services. Managers
must be careful about the technological dimension. Investment decision must be accurate in new
technologies and they must be adaptable to them.

3. Socio-cultural Dimension
Customs, mores, values and demographic characteristics of the society in which the organization
operates are what made up the socio-cultural dimension of the general environment.The socio-
cultural dimension must be well studied by a manager.It indicates the product, services, and
standards of conduct that the society is likely to value and appreciate. The standard of business
conduct vary from culture to culture and so does the taste and necessity of products and services.

4. Political-Legal Dimension
The politico-legal dimension of the general environment refers to the government law of
business, business-government relationship and the overall political and legal situation of a
country. Business laws of a country set the dos and don’ts of an organization. A good business-
government relationship is essential to the economy and most importantly for the business. And
the overall situation of law implementation and justices in a country indicates that there is a
favorable situation in of business in a country.

5. International Dimension
Virtually every organization is affected by the international dimension. It refers to the degree to
which an organization is involved in or affected by businesses in other countries. Global society
concept has brought all the nation together and modern network of communication and
transportation technology, almost every part of the world is connected.

Task Environment of Organization

The task environment consists of factors that directly affect and are affected by the
organization’s operations. These factors include suppliers, customers, competitors, regulators
and so on. A manager can identify environmental factors of specific interest rather than having to
deal with a more abstract dimension of the general environment.

The different elements of the task environment may be discussed as under:

1. Competitors
Policies of the organization are often influenced by the competitors. Competitive marketplace
companies are always trying to stay and go further ahead of the competitors. In the current world
economy, the competition and competitors in all respects have increased tremendously. The
positive effect of this is that the customers always have options and the overall quality of
products goes high.

2. Customers
“Satisfaction of customer”- the primary goal of every organization. The customer is who pays
money for the organization’s product or services. They are the peoples who hand them the profit
that the companies are targeting. Managers should pay close attention to the customers’
dimension of the task environment because its customers purchase that keeps a company alive
and sound.

3. Suppliers
Suppliers are the providers of production or service materials. Dealing with suppliers is an
important task of management. A good relationship between the organization and the suppliers is
important for an organization to keep a steady follow of quality input materials.

4. Regulators
Regulators are units in the task environment that have the authority to control, regulate or
influence an organization’s policies and practices. Government agencies are the main player in
the environment and interest groups are created by its members to attempt to influence
organizations as well as government. Trade unions and chamber of commerce are the common
examples of an interest group.

5. Strategic Partners
They are the organization and individuals with whom the organization is to an agreement or
understanding for the benefit of the organization. These strategic partners in some way influence
the organization’s activities in various ways.

Internal Environment of Organization

Forces or conditions or surroundings within the boundary of the organization are the elements of
the internal environment of the organization.The internal environment consists mainly of the
organization’s owners, the board of directors, employees and culture.

1. Owners
Owners are people who invested in the company and have property rights and claims on the
organization. Owners can be an individual or group of person who started the company; or who
bought a share of the company in the share market. They have the right to change the company’s
policy at any time.
2. Board of Directors
The board of directors is the governing body of the company who are elected by stockholders,
and they are given the responsibility for overseeing a firm’s top managers such as the general
manager.

3. Employees
Employees or the workforce, the most important element of an organization’s internal
environment, who performs the tasks of the administration. Individual employees and also the
labor unions they join are important parts of the internal environment. If managed properly they
can positively change the organization’s policy. But ill-management of the workforce could lead
to a catastrophic situation for the company.

4. Culture
Organizational culture is the collective behavior of members of an organization and the values,
visions, beliefs, habits that they attach to their actions. An organization’s culture plays a major
role in shaping its success because culture is an important determinant of how well their
organization will perform. As the foundation of the organization’s internal environment, it plays
a major role in shaping managerial behavior.

The environment irrespective of its external or internal nature, a manager must have a clear
understanding of them. Normally, you would not go for a walk in the rain without an umbrella,
because you understand the environment and you know when it rains you can get wet.
Similarly, if a manager does not know and understand the environment of the organization, he or
she will definitively get wet or dry and the organization also in today’s fast and hyper-moving
organizational environment.

Presented by:

MARIA LOURDES R. QUIROZ

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

THE SCHOOL AS SOCIAL SYSTEM

Society- a large group of people who live together in an organized way, making decisions about
how to do things and sharing the work that needs to be done. All the people in a country, or in
several similar countries

Sociologist is someone who studies society and social behavior by examining the groups,
cultures, organizations, social institutions, and process that people develop.

System – a set of connecting things or parts forming a complex whole, in particular.

Social System-
- In sociology, a social system is the patterned network of relationships constituting a coherent
whole that exist between individuals, groups, and institutions.
- Organizations with established structures and rules designed to promote certain goals.

School as a Social System

The school is an important organization that prepares children for future roles. In a school
system, 2 or more people work together coordinating activities to attain these goals.Schools as a
social system uses four different resources from environment these are human, financial,
physical and information.

Elements of Social System

Roles
Each system has a role in the society, which aid in the functioning of society as whole, moreover,
social system is the collective of individuals, each individual within a social system has different
roles and responsibilities, which contribute in the stability of social system.

Status
Like roles and responsibilities each individual within a social system has a status. Each status of
an individual is associated with roles and responsibilities. For example, the staffs have their
respective status as principal, teacher, administrator, accountant, coach etc. they all play different
roles according to their status.

Authority
No system can function without authority; authority is also distributed among individuals
according to their status. In each social system authority is given to an individual.

Rights
Every member of social system who follow the orders and perform their duties according to their
status have rights.
Norms
Norms define the code of conduct and rules of the social system. Without norms the social
system will be disintegrated. It is the blueprint of conduct within the social system, which guide
each individual within a social system.

Territoriality
Each social system has its space to conduct their business. It can be home or building depend on
the type of social system and its operations.

Components of School System

1. Early Learning and Student Success "The first five years of life are critical to a child’s
lifelong development. Young children’s earliest experiences and environments set the stage for
future development and success in school and life."

2. Teaching and Learning is a combined process where an educator assesses learning needs,
establishes specific learning objectives, develops teaching and learning strategies, implements
plan of work and evaluates the outcomes of the instruction.

3. Teaching and Learning Resources – for many people, the words educational materials
invoke images of large, print, classroom textbooks with small type, outdated information, and
content that covers the breadth but not depth of a subject. But learning resources are more than
that. They are any tool that helps teachers teach students learn.

4. Human and Organizational Capital "No matter how modern the facility, how savvy the
technology, or how abundant the teaching supplies, the expertise of the teachers and leaders has
the greatest impact on the quality and extent of student learning."

5. Governance, Leadership, and Accountability "At each of the levels - federal, state, and
local - various governing entities have the authority to enhance educational programs that
schools and school districts provide, or they can create conditions that preclude the delivery of an
adequate education to every child."

6. Culture, Climate, and Organizational Efficacy "All organizations have a culture and a
climate. A proactive approach to making them both as positive as possible will provide
Georgia’s educational system the greatest opportunity to achieve a high level of organizational
efficacy. “

Proactive VS Reactive
A proactive approach focuses on eliminating problems before they have a chance to appear and
a reactive approach is based on responding to events after they have happened. The difference
between these two approaches is the perspective each one provides in assessing actions and
events.

7. Financial Resources "As transformational changes advanced by the Vision Project are
considered for implementation, state-level policymakers will need to determine whether to
incorporate them into a statewide plan for strengthening public education, and if so, to identify
the cost and commit to securing the needed financial resources."

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
- examines the goals, forms, methods, and meaning of education. The term is used to describe
both fundamental philosophical analysis of these themes and the description or analysis of
particular pedagogical approaches.
- The philosophy of education as an independent study has its own scope and function. The
scope of the philosophy of education includes the critical evaluation of aims, ideas and
education, analysis of human nature, educational values, the theory of knowledge and the
relationship of education and social progress.
IDEALISM- ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing

Originators
Plato - father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The
Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world,
which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of
appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is changing,
imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body.
Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and
sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which "education to body and soul all the
beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the
shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To
understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also
believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal
Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas (fully
formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of
mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas
through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to
help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part
logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind.
Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes.)

Socrates
(Socratic method, also known as method of elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate, is a
form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering
questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas)

Goal of Education
- Educators are interested in the search for the truth through ideas rather than through
examination of the false shadowy world of matter
- They encourage the students to search for truth as individuals
-Education is transformation: ideas can change lives

Role of Teacher
- Dealing with abstract notions through dialectic method and connecting analysis with action
- Active, posing questions, selecting materials and establishing an environment to ensure the
desired outcomes
- A role model to be imitated by students

Method of Instruction
- Teachers active in students’ learning
- Through questioning, students are encouraged to discuss, analyze, synthesize, and apply what
they have read

Curriculum
- Examining the roots of the contemporary problems in the past (great literature/classics etc)
- Education at any level should teach students to think
- Subject-matter curriculum
- Back-to-basics approach in education

Most Important Fundamental Principles of Idealism are given below:

• Idealism Believes in the Universal Mind
• Idealism Regards Man as a Spiritual Being
• The World of Ideas and Values is more important than the world of Matter
• Real knowledge is perceived in mind
• Importance of Personality Development

Another Info

Idealism has certain attraction that has appeal to the human mind and thereby exercise a great
influence on human thinking. According to Idealists, knowledge of mind and soul can be
obtained through ideas only. Idealism in education means to develop a good relation between a
student and teacher.

Idealism is when you envision or see things in an ideal or perfect manner.

Idealism is a philosophy developed by Plato. For curriculum, idealist concepts come through
when people believe that learning is mostly an intellectual process. Teaching connects ideas
together when teaching the students.

Idealism is traditional philosophy of education in which teacher has central role who has to be
role model so that the students will adopt his model to become good citizen. Students answer the
asked questions, Teacher provides the feedback and students improve themselves according to
the teacher's feedback.

An idealist teacher focuses on the ideal act of the students and the ideas according to words of
God. Idealist teacher in a classroom aims to develop students' spiritual, mental and moral being.

REALISM- Reality exists independent of the human mind. World of physical objects ultimate
reality.

Originator
Aristotle
(In Raphael’s famous painting, The School of Athens, the great painter depicts dozens of
philosophers all arguing and talking together on the steps of a huge marble archway. In the
center of the painting, Aristotle and Plato are standing together, and they’ve been interpreted as
arguing about realism. Plato is pointing up toward the sky, toward the realm of abstractions and
forms, of which our world is merely shadows. Aristotle, in total disagreement, is gesturing
toward the ground, arguing that truth is right here, all around us.)

Goal of Education
- Develop intellectual abilities
- To equip students with information to understand events (Tabula Rasa)

Role of Teacher
- Having a solid grounding in science, math, and the humanities
- Relying on test scores to place students (competency testing of students with various methods)
- Readily adopting new technology
- Enabling students to learn objective methods of evaluating the works above

Methods of Instruction
- Lecture, question and answer (formal ways of teaching)
- Inductive and scientific reasoning
- Competency-based assessments as a way of ensuring that students learnt what they are being
taught

Curriculum
- Curriculum consists of the basics – math, science, reading, etc.
- Attention is given to didactic and object studies in education (use of pictures, TV, videos in
educational process)
- Use of objects in education (Montessori)

Another Info:

The Montessori approach is aimed at children's cognitive, social and physical development. One
can see the same in Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner as Montessori, also
advocates how important it is for children to be evaluated in every field (Vardin 2003).

Realism is the belief developed by Aristotle that there is an absolute reality, and educational
realism attempts to teach students how to find that reality through logical processes. Study of the
natural world, as well as the skill of inquiry, and the scientific method, are all important parts of
a realist classroom.

The purpose of this explanation is to enable the pupil to adjust himself in the environment in
which he must live. Rabelais, a realist, says that the aim of education is “the formation of a
complete man, skilled in art and industry,” the development of the whole man, physically,
morally, intellectually.

PRAGMATISM - Universe is dynamic, evolving. Purpose of thought is action. Truth is relative.

Originators
Charles Sanders Peirce
(On this account, then, to have a full understanding of some concept we must not only be
familiar with it in day to day encounters, and be able to offer a definition of it, we must also
know what effects to expect from holding that concept to be true.)

John Dewey (Learning by Doing)

Goal of Education
- Primary goal of education is growth
- Education should not be looked upon merely as schooling and the acquisition of academic
subject matter but as a part of life itself
- Schools should balance the needs of the society and community on the one hand and the needs
of the students on the other

Role of Teacher
- Applies democratic methods
- Classroom is a community of learners
- Teacher encourages, offers suggestions, questions and helps plan and implements courses of
study

Methods of Instruction
- Problem solving, experiential learning, inquiry methods, field trips, projects (not all students
can learn in the same way – vary strategies)
- Formal instruction is abandoned (flexible methods are used moveable chairs, freedom in class
etc.)

Curriculum
- Learner-centered curriculum
- Pragmatist curriculum is composed of both process (experience) and content (knowledge)
- All academic and vocational disciplines in an integrated and connected way

Another info:

Pragmatism is an educational philosophy that says that education should be about life and
growth. Two important elements of pragmatism include practical learning, which focuses on the
real-world applications of lessons, and experiential learning, which involves learning through
experience, not through simple ideas.

EXISTENTIALISM- a philosophical theory or approach which emphasizes the existence of the

individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through
acts of the will.

Originators
Soren Kierkegaard
(On freedom and choice. The choice to obey God unconditionally is a true existential 'either/or'
decision faced by the individual. Either one chooses to live in faith (the religious stage) or to live
ethically (the ethical stage). In Either/Or, Kierkegaard insists that the single individual has
ethical responsibility of his life)

Martin Heidegger
(It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions
despite existing in an irrational universe.)

Jean-Paul Sartre
(to be human is characterised by an existence that precedes its essence.)

Goal of Education
- a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It is the view that
humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an
irrational universe.
- is to understand the way the client sees the world and help them make choices based on this
new insight.

Role of Teacher
- The teacher in existentialist education is there to provide pathways for students to explore
their own values, meanings, and choices. In order to do this, learners need to be aware of as
many options and choices as possible; they need to feel empowered and free to determine
their own values and identities; and they need a multiplicity of experiences to enhance their
self-awareness. The teacher’s primary responsibility is to provide all these things, and to
maintain a learning environment where students feel encouraged to express themselves
through discussion, creative projects, and choice of study areas.

Methods of Instruction
- In arts, existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and
imitating established models. Criticism to any individual work is less important. To help
students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they take in life.

Curriculum
- content is focused on individuals and relationships: relationships between learners, learner-
teacher relationships, and even the learners' relationships with historical individuals, who
demonstrate possible actions and choices for the learner to model their own life after.

Another info:

The role of the student is to determine their own values and identity. Existentialist education
recognizes the role of both culture and individual nature in identity formation. The existentialist
student maintains a dialogue between the self and cultural values: considering the self in cultural
context, and considering cultural values in relation to the self.

Freedom, choice, and responsibility form a complex interrelation in existentialist philosophy.

The student is free to form and pursue their own values, but that freedom comes includes taking
full responsibility for those values. The existentialist student accepts responsibility for their own
values, feelings, and actions, because these have been self-generated rather than dictated by an
authority.

BEHAVIORISM -is a branch of psychology that, when applied to a classroom setting, focuses
on conditioning student behavior with various types of behavior reinforcements and
consequences called operant conditioning. It has increasingly become part of the educational
process.

Originators
John B. Watson
(created the school of behaviorist methodology within psychology and he published his views on
this psychological theory in 1913. ... It outlined behaviorism as an objective branch of science
that would base its theories and findings on experimental research using purely observable data.)

Burrhus Frederic Skinner

(A behaviorist, he developed the theory of operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is
determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or
less likely that the behavior will occur again.)

Ivan Pavlov
(Classical conditioning. He studied the effect of outside stimuli on body processes. His most
famous experiment involved the salivation reflex in dogs. He would condition dogs to expect
food when a bell sounded.)

Edward Thorndike
(He was perhaps best-known for his famous puzzle box experiments with cats which led to the
development of his law of effect.)

Goal of Education
- aims to promote and modify observable behavior. It considers learning to be a behavior that
shows acquisition of knowledge or skills. ... Positive reinforcement (reward): A stimulus
presented that will increase behavior, e.g. giving praise to a student.
- is often used by teachers who reward or punish student behaviors. Behaviorism is often seen in
contrast to constructivism.

Role of Teacher
- believe that if teachers provide positive reinforcement, or rewards, whenever students perform
a desired behavior, they will learn to perform the behavior on their own. The same concept
applies to punishments.
- Give the learner immediate feedback
- Break down the tasks into small tasks
- Repeat the directions as many times as possible
- Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks
- Give positive reinforcement
- Skinner believed that positive reinforcement is more effective in changing behavior than
punishment

Methods of Instruction
-Teacher provides stimulus material and prompts for the correct response. Repetition and proper
conditioning keeps the bucket filled.

Examples of teaching methods to help prevent brain drain:

• Drill work
• Repetitive practice
• Bonus points
• Participation points
• Verbal reinforcement
• Establishing rules

Curriculum
- Behaviorism techniques have used in education for a long time to encourage behavior that is
desirable and to discourage behavior that is not desirable. Behaviorism techniques used in
education are contracts (concentrate on behavior change), consequence, reinforcement, and
extinction and behavior modification. Behaviorism was the traditional approach used in our
educational system and which gives more importance to chalk and talk behavior of the teacher
and emphasis on the importance of the teacher and also the product or outcome.

Presented by:

JUAREN JOY F. PATAYAN

MARGIE G. RIVERA
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

STRUCTURE AND DESIGN OF ORGANIZATION

LEGAL BASIS PER 1987 CONSTITUTION

Article XIV – Education, Science and Technology, Arts and Culture, and Sports

EDUCATION

Section 1. Promote quality education at all levels regardless of the differences and diversity of
the learners.
Section 2. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of
education relevant to the needs of the people and society. The state shall maintain a system of
free public school education, scholarship grants, subsidies and incentives shall also be available
in both private and public schools. Encourage the non-formal, informal, and indigenous learning
system
Section 3. All educational institution shall include the study of constitution as part of the
curriculum, it is also stated in the educational institution shall inculcate patriotism and
nationalism, foster love for humanity respect for human rights appreciation for national heroes in
the historical development of the country.The spiritual being of the students is also given valued
by allowing religion to be taught to the elementary and high school students
Section 4. The state recognizes complementary roles of public and private institutions in the
educational system.Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants, endowments, donations or
contributions used actually, directly, and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt
from tax.
Section 5.Encourage local planning in the development of educational policies and programs.
Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning. Enhance the right of
teachers to professional advancement.The state shall assign the highest budgetary priority to
education.

LANGUAGE

For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages are Filipino, until
otherwise provided by law, English

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The state shall give priority to research and development, invention, innovation and to
utilization. Science and technology are essential for national development and progress. The
congress may provide for incentives, including tax deduction, to encourage private participation
in programs of basic and applied scientific research
ARTS AND CULTURE

The state shall preserve and enrich the Filipino national culture base on the principle of unity and
diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression.The state shall encourage and
support researches and studies on the Arts and Culture

SPORTS

The state shall promote physical education and encourage sports program, league competition,
and amateur sports including training for international competitions to foster self-discipline,
teamwork, and excellence for the development of a healthy and alert citizenry. All educational
institutions shall undertake regular sports activities throughout the country in cooperation with
athletic clubs and other sectors.

RA 9155 – Government of Basic Education Act of 2001

This Act shall be known as the Government of Basic Education Act of 2001

Definition of Terms

Alternative learning system (ALS) - Is a parallel learning system to provide a viable alternative
to the existing formal education instruction.
Basic education - Is the education intended to meet basic learning needs which lays the
foundation on which subsequent learning can be based.
Cluster of Schools - Is a group of schools which are geographically contiguous and brought
together to improve the learning outcomes.
Formal Education - Is the systematic and deliberate process of hierarchically structed and
sequential learning corresponding to the general concept of elementary ad secondary level of
schooling.
Information education - Is a lifelong process of learning
Integrated School - Is a school that offers a complete basic education in one school site.
Learner - Is any individual seeking basic literacy skills
Learning center - Is a physical space to house learning resources and facilities of a learning
program for out-of-school youth and adults.
Learning Facilitator - Is the key-learning support person who is responsible for
supervising/facilitating the learning process of the learner.
Non-formal education - Is any organized, systematized educational activity carried outside the
framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to a segment of a
population.

Chapter 1: Governance of basic education

Section 5. Principle of shared governance - Every unit in the education bureaucracy has a
particular task, role and responsibility inherent in the office.
Section 6. Governance - The Department of Education, Culture and Sports shall henceforth be
called the Department of Education.
Section 7. Powers, Duties and Functions - The Secretary of the Department of education shall
exercise overall authority and supervision over the operation of the Department.

A. National Level

•Formulating national educational policies

•Formulating a national basic education plan
•Promulgating national educational standard
•Monitoring and assessing national learning outcomes
•Undertaking national educational research and studies
•Enhancing the employment status, professional competence, welfare and working condition of
all personnel of department of education
•Enhancing the total development of learners through local and national programs and project
The secretary of education shall be assisted by not more than 4 undersecretaries and not more
than 4 assistant secretaries whose assignments, duties and responsibilities shall be governed by
law.

B. Regional Level

There shall be as many regional offices as may be provided by law. Each regional office shall
have a director, an assistant director and an office staff for program, promotion and support,
planning, administrative and fiscal services.
•Defining a regional educational policy framework.
•Developing a regional basic education plan
•Developing regional educational standards
•Monitoring, evaluating, and assessing regional learning outcomes
•Undertaking research projects and developing and managing region wide projects.
•Ensuring strict compliance with prescribed national criteria for the recruitment of all staff I the
region and divisions
•Formulating the budget to support the regional educational plan which shall take account the
educational plans of the division and districts.
•Determining the organization component and approving the proposed staffing pattern of all
employees in the divisions and districts.
•Hiring, placing, and evaluating all employees in the regional office.
•Evaluating all schools division superintendents, and assistant division superintendents in the
region.
•Planning and managing the effective and efficient used if all personnel
•Managing the database and management information system of the region.
•Approving the establishment of public and private elementary and high schools and learning
centers.
•Performing such other functions as may be assigned b proper authorities.

C. Division level

A division shall consist of a province or a city which shall have a schools division
superintendent, at least one assistant schools division superintendent and an office staff for
programs promotion, planning administrative, fiscal, legal, ancillary and other supports services.
•Developing and implementing division education development plans.
•Planning and managing the effective and efficient use of all personnel, physical, and fiscal
resources of the division.
•Hiring, placing, and evaluating all division supervisors and schools district supervisors as well
as all employee in the division, both teaching and non-teaching personnel, including heads.
•Monitoring the utilization of funds provided by the national government and the local
government units to the school and learning centers.
•Ensuring compliance of quality standards for basic education programs
•Promoting awareness of and adherence by all schools and learning centers to accreditation
standards prescribed by the Secretary of Education.
•Supervising the operation of all private and public elementary and secondary and integrated
schools, and learning centers.

D. Schools District Level

The regional director ma establish additional schools district within a school division. Schools
districts already existing at all time of the passage of this law shall be maintained. A school
district shall have a school district supervisor and an office staff for program promotion.
•Providing professional and instructional advice and supports to the school heads and teachers of
schools and learning centers in the district cluster.
•Curricula supervision
•Performing such other functions as may be assigned b proper authorities

E. School Level

There shall be a school head for all public elementary schools and high schools. The
establishment of integrated schools from existing public elementary and high school shall be
encouraged.

The school head who may be assisted by an assistant school head shall form a tea with the school
teachers for delivery of quality educational programs, projects and services.
•Setting the mission, vision, goals and objectives of the school.
•Creating a classroom that is conducive to the teaching and learning process.
•Implementing the school curriculum and being accountable for the learning outcomes.
•Developing the school education program and school improvement plan
•Offering educational programs, projects and services which provide equitable opportunities for
all learners in the community
•Introducing new and innovative modes of instruction to achieve higher learning outcomes.
•Administrating and managing all personnel, physical and fiscal resources of the school.
•Recommending the staffing complement of the school based on its needs.
•Encouraging staff development.
•Establishing school and community networks and encouraging the active participation of
teachers organization, non-academic personnel of public school, and PTCA
•Donation or grants must be reported to the appropriate district supervisors and division
superintendents.

The secretary of education shall create a promotion board, which shall formulate and implement
a system of promotion for schools division supervisors, school district supervisors, and school
heads. Promotion of school heads shall be based on educational qualification, merit and
performance rather than the number of teachers and learners in the school.
No appointment to the position of regional directors, assistant regional directors, schools division
superintendents and assistant school division superintendents shall be made unless the appointee
is a career executive service officer who preferably shall have risen from the ranks.

Chapter 2: Transfer of Cultural Agencies

Section 8. Cultural Agencies - The Komisyon ng Wikang Pilipino, National Historical Institute,
Records Management and Archieves Office and National Library shall now be administratively
attached to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCAA) and no longer with the
department of Education. The program for school arts and culture shall remain part of the
curriculum.

Chapter 3: Abolition of the Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports

Section 9. Abolition of BPESS - All functions, programs and activities of the department of
education related to sports competition shall be transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission
(PSC). The program for school sports and physical fitness shall remain part of the basic
education curriculum.

Chapter 4: Support and Assistance of other Government Agencies

Section 10 - The Secretary of Education and the Secretary of Budget and Management shall
within 90 days from the approval of this Act jointly promulgated the guidelines on the allocation
of resources, provided by the national government for the fields.
Section 11 - The Secretary of Education, subject to civil service laws and regulations, shall issue
appropriate policy rules and regulations that will best meet the requirements of the teaching
profession.
Section 12 - The commission on Audit, in the issuance of audit rules and regulations that will
govern the utilization of all resources as well as the liquidation, recording and reporting, shall
take into account the different characteristics and district features of the department’s field
offices, its organizational set-up as well as the nature of the operation of schools and learning
centers.

EDUCATION FOR ALL

- Is an existing government movement to provide quality basic education for all children, youth
and adults Universal basic education is the central goal of the Philippine EFA strategies.

Six EFA Goals

1.Expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education.
2.Ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, those in difficult circumstances and those
belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete, free and compulsory primary
education of good quality.
3.Ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access
to appropriate learning and life-skills program.
4.Achieve a 50% improvement in adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable
access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
5.Reducing gender disparities, and achieve gender equality.
6.Improve all aspects of the quality of education and ensure the excellence of all.

ENHANCED BASIC EDUCATION (K-12 CURRICULUM)

The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013

K-12 program makes the Philippine Education system par with the international standard of 12-
year basic education thereby contributing to a better educated society capable of pursuing
productive employment, entrepreneurship, or higher education studies.After going through
kindergarten, elementary, junior high and a specialized senior high school program, every k-12
graduate is ready to go into different paths – higher education, middle level skills development or
entrepreneurship. The k-12 graduates are also expected to be equipped with 21st century skills
like information, media and technology skills, learning innovation skills, and life and career
skills.

BASES OF THE K-12 IMPLEMENTATION

1.Insufficient mastery of basic competencies due to congested curriculum.
2.The Philippine is the only remaining country in Asia with 10-year basic education program.
3.Basic Education program puts millions of overseas Filipino workers, esp. the professionals,
and those who intended study abroad at disadvantages.
4.Employability of Filipino High School graduates.

Section 5 of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, stipulated the following curricular
standards which the curriculum developers adhered to on crafting the K to 12 curriculum.
a)The curriculum shall be learner-centered, inclusive and developmentally appropriate;
b)The curriculum shall be relevant, responsive and research-based;
c)The curriculum shall be culture- sensitive;
d)The curriculum shall be contextualized and global;
e)The curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that are constructivist, inquiry-based,
reflective, collaborative and integrative.
f)The curriculum shall adhere to the principles and framework of Mother- tongue-based
Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)
g)The curriculum shall use the spiral progression approach to ensure the mastery of knowledge
and skills after each level, and
h)The curriculum shall be flexible enough to enable and allow schools to localize, indigenize and
enhance the same based on their respective educational and social contexts.

THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM

ACADEMIC TRACK TEC VOC TRACK SPORTS & ARTS DESIGN TRACK
1.Science,Technology, 1. Home Economics
Engineering and Math (HE)
(STEM)
2. Humanities and 2. Information and
Social Sciences Communication ( ICT
(HUMSS) )
3. Accounting Business 3. Agri- Fishery Arts;
and Management
(ABM)
4. General Academic 4. Industrial Arts.
Strand (GAS)

BASIC EDUCATION SCHOOL REFORM AGENDA (BESRA)

A package of policy reforms that as a whole seeks to systematically improve critical regulator,
institutional, structural, financial, cultural, physical and informational conditions affecting basic
education provision, access and delivery on the ground.

FIVE KEY REFORM THRUSTS (KRTs ) that focus on:

1. Strengthened School –Based Management (SBM)
2. Improved teaching effectiveness and teacher development
3. Enhanced quality assurance through standards and assessment
4. Improved access and learning outcomes through alternative learning, etc.
5. Institutionalized culture change in the Dep. Ed

According to Dr. Allan Bernardo, a Professor of De La Salle University in a Forum on Education

about BESRA’s Promise………. “There are many important reasons why BESRA is a truly
positive set of policy reform initiatives.

The most important reason is the Educational Philosophy underlying the various components
BESRA. All components of the reform initiatives are intended to help Filipino Learners to attain
higher levels of learning and Achievement. The higher levels of learning are defined in terms of
cognitive and affective knowledge in the major learning areas that would allow the learner to
effectively participate in diverse and complex life situations beyond the school and to continue
life learning.”

NINE POSITIVE QUALITIES OF BESRA

•Focuses on the improving student learning processes and outcome.
•Affirms the need to employ diverse approaches to facilitating learning in the classroom.
•Locates the reform interventions at the level of the school and the classroom.
•Locating the reform initiatives at the school level also creates stronger accountabilities to the
community, and allows for more responsive and more relevant school programs.
•Recognizes the important role of teachers and teacher development in improving student
learning outcomes.
•Builds on community – school relationships, and aims to strengthen such relationships by
looking at the community as a resource for improving schools, and by ensuring that schools are
accountable to the community.
•BESRA reforms are based on previous interventions that worked
•Shifts the reform initiatives of DepEd from project approach to a more organic approach.
•BESRA reforms are truly positive because BESRA is DepEd’s reform initiative.

SCHOOL – BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM)

- It is a key component of the DepEd’s Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda which is a
widely –accepted reform initiative which recognizes that schools as they are the key providers
of education, should be able to continuously improve by being empowered to make informed
and localized decisions based on their own unique needs.
- It is the decentralization of decision – making authority to schools. At the School level,
School heads, teachers, and students work together with community leaders and local
government officials and other stakeholders to improve school performance.

Four Dimensions of School Based Management

I. Leadership and Governance- A network of leadership that provides the vision and direction
to the education system making it relevant and responsive to the context of diverse communities.
II. Curriculum and Learning- The learning systems collaboratively developed and
continuously improved, anchored on the community and learner’s context and aspiration.
III. Accountability and Continuous Improvement- A clear, transparent, inclusive and
responsive accountability system is in place collaboratively developed by community
stakeholders, which monitors expected and actual performance continually, address the gaps and
ensures a venue for feedback readdresses.
IV. Management of Resources- resources are collectively and judiciously mobilized and
managed transparency, effectiveness and efficiency.

TEACHER EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN

- is the master plan for Teacher Education.
- is the articulation of a singular competency-based framework for teaching and teacher
development that would guide all policies, reforms, and activities related to teaching and teacher
development.
- conceptualizes a teacher’s career path as a continuum that starts with the entry to a teacher
education program and concludes when a teacher reaches retirement from formal service.

AGENCIES WORKING HAND ON HAND FOR THE GOOD OF THE TEACHING

PROFESSION
1. DEPED 4. CSC
2. CHED 5. TEIs
3. PRC

NATIONAL COMPETENCY – BASED TEACHER STANDARDS

- is at the heart of the TEDP. It is the key element of TEDP.
- defines effective teaching as being able to help all types of students learn the different
learning goals in the curriculum.
- based on the core values of Filipino teachers and on effective teaching and learning with
seven 7 domains, 23 strands and 80 performance indicators.

The Seven Domains of NCBTS

1. Social Regard for learning
2. The learning environment
3. The Diversity of Learners
4. Curriculum
5. Planning, Assessing; and Reporting
6. Community Linkages
7. Personal Growth and Professional Development

Presented by:

JEAN S. TORRES
ANALYN S. CONCEPCION
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AND APPROACHES

Management by Objectives
- A comprehensive managerial system that integrates many key managerial activities in a
systematic manner, consciously directed towards the effective and efficient achievement of
organizational objectives. (Harold Koontz, 1977)
- A process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify
its common goals, define each individual’s major areas of responsibility in terms of the results
expected of him and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the
contribution of each of its member. (George S. Odiorne, 1965)

Concepts of MBO
- It was first outlined by Peter Ducker in 1954 in his book “The Practice of Management”.
- In 1990s, he himself decreased the significance of this organization management method
when he said, “It’s just another tool. It is not the great cure for management inefficiency …
Management by Objectives works if you know the objectives, 90% fo the time you don’t.”

Objectives of MBO
1. To relate individual performance to organizational goals,
2. To clarify both the job to be done and the expectations of accomplishment,
3. To foster the increasing competence and growth of the subordinates,
4. To enhance communication between superior and subordinates,
5. To serve as a device for organizational control and integration

Process of MBO

Stimulate the
Translation of participation of
Determine the objectives among subordinates in the
objectives subordinates determining of the
objecives

Evaluate and reward Monitor the progress

achievements
Limitations of MBO
1. Difficulty in setting objectives
2. Costly and time consuming
3. Resentful attitudes of subordinates
4. Increased paper works
5. Lack of follow up

Guidelines in setting Goals and Objectives

1. COMMITMENT TO ACTIONS- any particular objective is achieved and a result of some

action. It is a pre-requisite for the formulation of an objective.
2. SPECIFY A SINGLE KEY RESULT AREA- an objective should specify a single key
result area to measure a particular objective effectively each subordinate and manager must
know specifically what is to be achieved.
3. KEY RESULT AREA- priority areas which can help in directing the limited resources
towards significant achievements.
4. SHOULD BE MEASURABLE AND VERIFIABLE- it is possible to assess how much
progress has been made.
5. UNDERSTANDABLE- an objective that is easy to understand can be easily implemented. It
should be understood by those who are responsible for accomplishing it.
6. SPECIFY A TARGET DATE- objective should specify a deadline for result to be
accomplished. It should have a specific target date identified.
7. SHOULD BE CONSISTENT WITH ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES- the objective
should match the resources of the organization. Moreover, the organization should willing to
commit its resources towards the attainment of those objectives.
8. SHOULD BE MUTUALLY ACCEPTED BY SUPERIORS AND SUBORDINATES-
objectives should be discussed by the superiors and subordinates and should be mutually
understood and accepted objectives.

Application of SMART Technique

1. SPECIFIC- They should be specific. In other words, they should describe specifically the
result that is desired. When drafting your goal or objective, try to answer the five “W” questions.
2. MEASURABLE- It is important to have measurable goals so you can assess the progress and
assessing progress will help you to stay focused, meet your deadlines and feel the excitement of
getting closer to achieving your goals.
3. ATTAINABLE/ACHIEVABLE- It should be realistic and attainable. It should stretch your
abilities but still remain possible.
4. RELEVANT- It aligns with other relevant goals. We all need support and assistance in
achieving our goals but it is important to retain control over them. Make sure that your plans
drive everyone forward, but that you are still responsible for achieving your goals.
5. TIME-BOUND- It will determine whether your goal or objective is met or not. If you do not
time and schedule, there is a possibility that you will not achieve your goal or objective.

SUPPORT MECHANISM - is any formal system or method of providing support or assistance.

LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATION

Leadership is the action of leading employees to achieve goals.

A leader sets a clear vision for the organization, motivates employees, guides employees
through the work process and build morale. Setting a clear vision means influencing employees
to understand and accept the future state of the organization. Motivates employees’ means to find
out enough about the needs and wants of employees, giving them what they need and providing
praise for a job well done. When guiding employees, it is important to define their role in the
work process and provide them with tools needed to perform and participate in their efforts along
the way.
LEADER’S RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHERS IN ORGANIZATION

Leaders cannot lead unless they understand the people they are leading. One way to look at
leadership is that the function of a leader is to lead and guide people who will follow with the
same values. An effective leader thus must be able to build relationships and create communities.
One of the keys to becoming as effective as possible, as quickly as possible, is in getting to know
your team well – building those relationships. Your success as a leader will be judged by your
team’s results – so those results can often be seen as a reflection of your relationships with the
people delivering them.

How to Build Good Work Relationships

So, what can you do to build better relationships at work?

Develop Your People Skills

Good relationships start with good people skills. For instance, how well you collaborate,
communicate and deal with conflict.

Identify Your Relationship Needs

Look at your own relationship needs. Do you know what you need from others? And do you
know what they need from you? Understanding these needs can be instrumental in building
better relationships.

Schedule Time to Build Relationships

Devote a portion of your day toward relationship building, even if it's just 20 minutes, perhaps
broken up into five-minute segments. For example, you could pop into someone's office during
lunch, reply to people's postings on Twitter or Facebook, or ask a colleague out for a quick cup
of coffee. These little interactions help build the foundation of a good relationship, especially if
they're face-to-face.

Focus on Your EI
Also, spend time developing your emotional intelligence (EI). Among other things, this is your
ability to recognize your own emotions, and clearly understand what they're telling you. High EI
also helps you to understand the emotions and needs of others.

Appreciate Others
Show your appreciation whenever someone helps you. Everyone, from your boss to the office
cleaner, wants to feel that their work is appreciated. So, genuinely compliment the people around
you when they do something well. This will open the door to great work relationships.

Be Positive
Focus on being positive. Positivity is attractive and contagious, and it will help strengthen your
relationships with your colleagues. No one wants to be around someone who's negative all the
time.

Manage Your Boundaries

Make sure that you set and manage boundaries properly – all of us want to have friends at work,
but, occasionally, a friendship can start to impact our jobs, especially when a friend or colleague
begins to monopolize our time. If this happens, it's important that you're assertive about your
boundaries, and that you know how much time you can devote during the work day for social
interactions.

Avoid Gossiping
Don't gossip – office politics and "gossip" are major relationship killers at work. If you're
experiencing conflict with someone in your group, talk to them directly about the problem.
Gossiping about the situation with other colleagues will only exacerbate the situation, and will
cause mistrust and animosity between you.
Listen Actively
Practice active listening when you talk to your customers and colleagues. People respond to
those who truly listen to what they have to say. Focus on listening more than you talk, and you'll
quickly become known as someone who can be trusted.

LEADERSHIP STYLE

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and
motivating people. Leadership styles can be defined as a person’s way of governing, directing,
and motivating followers. Leaders also help determine how successful the group is at achieving
its goals and how motivated and committed followers are to the group and its goals.

Let’s take a closer look at some of the major leadership styles that have been identified by
different researchers.

1. Authoritarian Leadership Styles

Authoritarian leaders are also known as autocratic or dictatorial leaders.
This leadership style is characterized by:
• Close supervision
• Lack of input from followers
• Complete control
• Total authority
• Solo decision-making

The authoritarian style was first described by psychologist Kurt Lewin in a study that identified
three key styles of leadership. People with an authoritarian leadership style make decisions
without consulting anyone else on the team. This leadership style can be problematic when
overused because it can come off as domineering and tyrannical. Team members may feel
unappreciated, unmotivated, and uncommitted to the group because their input is never
requested. Are there situations where authoritarian leadership can be beneficial? One of the
advantages of authoritarian leadership is that it leads to quick decision-making. This can be
critical in situations where decisions need to be made quickly and under a lot of pressure. It can
also be a good choice when the leader is the most knowledgeable and skilled person in the group.

2. Democratic Leadership Styles

The democratic leadership, or participative leadership, was another one Lewin’s three styles of
leadership.
This leadership style is characterized by:
• Shared decision-making responsibilities
• Social equality
• Creativity
• High engagement from group members

Leaders who exhibit this style are often described as honest, fair, creative, intelligent, and
competent. This style of leadership can lead to a great deal of commitment from group members
because they typically feel more input in the group’s success and failure. It is important to
remember that while democratic leaders accept and encourage team members to offer their ideas
and contributions, the leader does retain the final say over all decisions. This style of leadership
is often identified as one of the “best” approaches to leading groups, but it is not necessarily
appropriate for every situation. Some situations where the democratic style may be inappropriate
include those where the group members are untrained or where decisions must be made on a
tight deadline.

3. Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles

The laissez-faire style was another of the three styles observed and described by Lewin and his
colleagues.
This style is characterized by:
• Little direction from the leader
• Lots of freedom for group members
• Team members are responsible for making all decisions
• Great deal of autonomy

Laissez-faire leaders are sometimes referred to as delegative leaders. Rather than attempt to
direct and control the group, they instead hand over the responsibility of leading the group to the
team members themselves. The laissez-faire style can have both advantages and disadvantages,
depending upon the characteristics of the situation and the group. When the members of the
group are highly skilled and knowledgeable, letting them guide themselves can be a great
strategy. In such cases, the leader can still offer support and advice when needed, but followers
are mostly able to make their own choices.This leadership style can be a poor choice in situations
that require quick decision-making or where members of the group lack the skills to succeed. In
such cases, team members may be left feeling unsure of what they should do. Such situations
also lead to a lack of accountability, missed deadlines, and low commitment to the group.

4. Transactional Leadership Styles

Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, is all about managing others
using rewards and punishments. People with this leadership style tend to prefer a great deal of
structure with clearly defined roles and expectations.
The transactional leadership style is characterized by:
• Lots of instruction
• Clear expectations
• Clear goals
• Inflexibility
• Efficiency
• Focused on following rules

Transactional leaders usually lay out their rules and expectations. Each member of the group is
given clear directions about what they should be doing, how they should be doing it, and when it
should be done. The focus of this style is on making sure that things are completed correctly, on
time, and according to the rules. Because it is centered on productivity, efficiency, and safety,
this can be an effective style when used within an organizational structure. It can be stifling in
settings where workers feel micro-managed. Because this style is so focused on extrinsic
motivations, with rewards and bonuses offered for meeting or exceeding goals, followers may
not develop much intrinsic motivation for their work.

5. Transformational Leadership Styles

Transformational leadership is characterized by high levels of motivation, inspiration, and
commitment. People with this leadership style take charge of the group by presenting a clear
vision of the outcome, display a great deal of passion for the work, and help group members feel
inspired and committed to the goals.
People who have this leadership style are often described as:
• Energetic
• Passionate
• Enthusiastic
• Trustworthy
• Creative
• Intelligent

Transformational leaders are not only highly creative; they also inspire creativity in others. They
offer support and guidance in order to help each member of the team achieve their full potential.
Team members look to the leader as a role model. Because of this, followers tend to internalize
the ideals of the leader and strive to emulate these qualities.
RESPONSIBILITY AND AUTHORITY

Responsibility - means state of being accountable or answerable for any obligation, trust, debt or
something or in other words it means obligation to complete a job assigned on time and in best
way.
Authority - is the power to give orders and get it obeyed or in other words it is the power to take
decisions. Authority is a formal right to make decision based on formal organizational
relationships. Authority is also seen as the right to command others to act or not to act in a
manner deemed by the possessor of the authority to further organization objectives.
Delegation
- is the assignment of any responsibility or authority to another person to carry out specific
activities.

POWER AND CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION

Power - is the potential or actual ability of a person to affect the behaviour of others. This ability
can be based on a number of factors, such as knowledge, personality, and even on authority.
When power receives formal recognition and backing by the organization, it will be called
authority. In other words, power is a larger concept than authority and indeed, subsumes it as a
formal power relationship. Power can also be seen as the influence that is not based on
organizational positions. Because of this, power applies to any interpersonal influence that exists
either within or outside the bounds of formal organizational relationship

Types of Power
1. Legitimate Power (Position Power)
2. Charismatic Power
3. Expert Power
4. Reward Power
5. Political Power

ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT

Conflict is a natural phenomenon and therefore unavoidable in organization life. Conflict is a

problem. Human life is full of problems. There is no living human being that does not have one
type of problem or the other no matter the person’s level of intelligent, wisdom, and the amount
of authority and power that the person possesses. This is the same thing with organizations.
Organizations are made up of human beings and therefore cannot avoid conflict.

Organizational conflict occurs when two or more individuals or groups that have opposing goals,
ideas, philosophies, or orientations disagree with each other in organization decision making.
The conflict most of the time is as a result of disagreement on resource allocation. At times,
conflict can occur as a result of bad organizational system which does not allow enough freedom
to the workers or as a result of clash of values that is caused by job requirements. Conflict is
central to organization life and no organization can do without it. Although conflict often leads to
some frustrations and confrontations within or between organizations, it is part of the universal
principles of organizational management.

Presented by:

JOHN PAUL E. PRING

AIRRA GEAN O. BANAL
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

MANAGING INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATION

THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Individual differences are the facts that make people different from each other. We all know
that we are different from each other in many ways such as; our physical aspects, our likes,
dislikes, interests, values, psychological makeup etc. In other words the whole
“PERSONALITY”.

There are various factors used to identify individual differences few of them include:

Biographical Characteristics - Age

Relation between age and job performance- Gender
Job Performance
Psychological Studies
- Women are more willing to conform to authority.
- Men are more aggressive to have expectation of success.
- No significant difference in job productivity between men and women.
Tenure
Seniority – Productivity Relationship
Impact of Seniority on Job Performance

Ability
An Ability is an individual’s capacity to perform the various task in a job. Contrary to what we
were taught in school, we weren’t all created equal. Everyone has strengths & weaknesses in
terms of ability that make him or her relatively superior or inferior to others in performing
certain tasks or activities.

Intellectual Abilities - the capacity to do mental activities such as thinking, reasoning, and
problem solving.

Physical Abilities - the capacity of the body to do physical activities

Organizational behavior – the study of actions of people at work.

Focus of the Organization

1. Individual behavior including attitudes, personality, perception, learning and motivation.
2. Group behavior including norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict
3. Organizational aspects including structure, culture, and human resource policies and practices.
Introduction to Human Resource and Management

Human Resource Management – The process of planning, organizing, directing(motivating),

and controlling the procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance, and
separation of organizational human resources to the end that organizational, individual, and
societal needs are satisfied.

Human Resource Management includes all activities used to attract & retain employees and to
ensure they perform at a high level in meeting organizational goals.

These activities are made up of:

1. Recruitment & selection.
2. Training and development.
3. Performance appraisal and feedback.
4. Pay and benefits.
5. Labor relations.

1. Recruitment - develop a pool of qualified applicants.

Selection - determine relative qualifications & potential for a job.
2. Training & Development - ongoing process to develop worker’s abilities and skills.
3. Performance appraisal & feedback - provides information about how to train, motivate, and
reward workers. Managers can evaluate and then give feedback to enhance worker performance.
4. Pay and Benefits: high performing employees should be rewarded with raises, bonuses.
Increased pay provides additional incentive. Benefits, such as health insurance, reward
membership in firm.
5. Labor relations - managers need an effective relationship with labor unions that represent
workers. Unions help establish pay, and working conditions.

HRM PLANNING: OUTSOURCING

Outsourcing - managers can decide to contract with outside workers rather than hiring them. It
is more flexible for the firm. It often provides human capital at a lower cost.

Selection Process
After a pool of applicants are identified, qualifications related to the job requirements are
determined.

Background Information - includes education prior employment, college major, etc.

Interview - almost all firms use one of two types:
Structured interview - managers ask each person the same job-related questions.
Unstructured interview - held like a normal conversation. Usually structured interviews
preferred. Bias is possible
Physical Ability Test - measure strength & endurance. Good for physically demanding jobs.
Paper & Pencil Test - Either an ability and personality test.
Ability test - assess if applicant has right skills for the job.
Personality test - seek traits relevant to job performance. Be sure test is a good predictor of job
performance.
Performance Tests - measure job performance. Typing speed test is one example.
Assessment Center - candidates assessed on job-related activities over a period of a few days.
References - outside people provide candid information about candidate. Can be hard to get
accurate information.

Selection tools must be reliable and valid.

Reliability - the degree to which the tool measures the same thing each time it is used. Scores
should be close for the same person taking the same test over time.
Validity - Does the test measure what is supposed to measure? Example: does a physical ability
test really predict the job performance of a firefighter? Managers have an ethical and legal day to
develop good selection tools.

Training & Development

Training - teach organizational members how to perform their current jobs. Help worker’s
acquire skills to perform effectively.
Development - build worker’s skills to enable then to take on new duties. Training is used more
often at lower levels of firm, development in common with managers. A needs Assessment
should be taken first to determine who needs which program and what topics should be stressed.

Pay and Benefits

Pay level - how the firm’s pay incentives compare to other firms in the industry. Managers can
decide to offer low or high relative wages
Pay Structure - clusters jobs into categories based on importance, skills, and other issues.

Benefits - Some are required (social security, workers’ comp.) Others (health insurance, day
care, and others) are provided at the employers option

Team or Organizational Incentive

Gain Sharing – teams of employees share in gains from improvements in productivity or cost
saving measures
Profit Sharing – A percentage of profits earned by a department or company
Stock Ownership

Role of Individual in Organizations

The individuals play an important role in the functioning of the organization. The members of an
organization must be induced, coerced or forced to participate in it.

Conclusion
People are constellations of multiple identities: personal identities like age, height, weight,
gender, race, country of origin, religious affiliation, familial status, level of
education…organizational identities like the industry they work in, the size of their organization,
and their own tenure, department, or position level. These barely scratch the surface of how
many individual differences a person may have or express at any given time, and that’s not even
taking into account things like preferences, biases, and opinions. Different employees need
different things to be engaged, and painting people with large brush strokes does not create
organizational or team environments that maximize engagement. Instead, organizations must
prioritize accepting and managing individual differences. Managers must strive to know
employees at a personal and professional level, allowing them to understand, accept, and manage
individual differences. This, then, can pave to way for performance excellence and high
employee engagement.

MANAGING GROUPS IN ORGANIZATION

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Group- is called when two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives.
Group Work- A group that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to
help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. No joint effort required
here to bring out the desired result.
Team- A small group of people with complementary skills, who work actively together to
achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable.
Teamwork- It is the act of working effectively with other members of the team to achieve a
common goal. Teamwork puts joint effort to get e job done what can be done easily with a team
work which might have very difficult to do only with individual effort.

DIFFERENCE OF GROUP WORK AND TEAM WORK

Group Work Team Work

Individual accountability Individual and mutual accountability
Come together to share information and Frequently come together for discussion,
perspectives decision making, and problem solving, and
planning.
Focus on individual goals Focus on team goals
Produce individual work products Produce collective work products
Define individual roles, responsibilities, Define individual roles, responsibilities,
and tasks and tasks to help team do its work; often
share and rotate them
Concern with one's own outcome and Concern with outcomes of everyone and
challenges challenges the team faces
Purpose, goals, approach to work Purpose, goals, approach to work shaped
shaped by manager by team leader with team members

THEORIES OF GROUP FORMATION

1. Propinquity Theory - The most basic theory explaining affiliation is propinquity. This
interesting word means simply that individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or
geographical proximity.

2. Homan’s Theory - The classic theory of George Homans based on activities, interactions, and
sentiments. This theory lends a great deal to the understanding of group formation and process.
According to George C. Homans, “The more activities persons share, the more numerous will be
there interactions and the stronger will be their shared activities and sentiments, and the more
sentiments people have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions.”

3. Balance Theory - Theodore Newcomb’s classic balance theory of group formation states that
persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar attitudes toward commonly relevant
objects and goals.

4. Exchange - exchange theory of groups is based on reward-cost outcomes of interaction. A

minimum positive level (rewards greater than costs) of an outcome must exist in order for
attraction or affiliation to take place. Rewards from interactions gratify needs, whereas costs incur
anxiety, frustration, embarrassment, or fatigue. Propinquity, interaction, and common attitudes all
have roles in exchange theory.

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

1. Forming. This initial stage is marked by uncertainty and even confusion. Group members are
not sure about the purpose, structure, task, or leadership of the group.
2. Storming. This stage of development, as indicated by the term, is characterized by conflict and
confrontation.
3. Norming. In this stage the members begin to settle into cooperation and collaboration. They
have a “we” feeling with high cohesion, group identity, and camaraderie.
4. Performing. This is the stage where the group is fully functioning and devoted to
effectively accomplishing the tasks agreed on in the norming stage.
5. Adjourning. This represents the end of the group, which in ongoing, permanent
groups will never be reached. However, for project teams or task forces with a specific objective,
once the objective is accomplished, the group will disband or have a new composition, and the
stages will start over again.

TYPES OF TEAMS

1. Problem-Solving Teams. Members share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes
and methods can be improved. Rarely are they given the authority to unilaterally implement their
suggested actions.
2. Functional team is something which is related to a function. For example, you have the design
function, purchasing function, etc. People from these group when they work together form a
functional team.
3. Virtual Team is a team which is not sitting together, which do not have a face-to-face
interaction. Here we have people who were sitting in different time zones. These are people from
different cultures, different language and they are working towards a common goal using the help
of technology.
4. Self-managed team comes together on their own. These are not formally assigned to a particular
project. The members of the self-managed team come together on their own with the minimum
input from management. For example, they see a problem; they come together to form an informal
team and work together towards that goal.
5. Cross Functional Team is a team where people from different functions work towards a
common goal. The members of this team could be as subject matter experts from different
functions, say, for example, one person from maintenance, one person from design, one person
from purchasing, one person from sales. Together they make a cross-functional team. This team is
used when you're working on it improvement project which spans over a number of functions.

CHARACTERICTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS

1. Clear Purpose
2. Open Communication
3. Constructive Conflict
4. Effective Problem Solving and Decision Making
5. Defined Roles, Responsibilities and Accountability
6. Strong Relationships
7. Systems and Procedures
8. Experimentation and Creativity
9. Measurement and Self-assessment
10. Shared Leadership

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN MANAGING TEAMS

These were classified as:
1. INTERNAL FACTORS that exist within the team itself
2. EXTERNAL FACTORS present in the team’s organizational environment

Top EXTERNAL Reasons Why Teams Fail

1. Team members are often required to work on their "team" assignments in addition to a full
workload.
2. Management does not model the principles and behaviors that support teams in being
successful.
3. Compensation systems do not adequately reward teamwork and individual team members.
4. Team leaders and/or managers do not release appropriate control to team members.
5. Teams are not given adequate resources (e.g., money, time, human resources) to do the job.
6. Changes in the organization cause frequent changes in team membership.
7. Team members resist taking responsibility for tasks traditionally performed by management.
8. Teams are not well chartered.
9. Team assignments are not aligned or integrated with business strategies.
10. Teams are given more work than they are capable of handling.

Top INTERNAL Reasons Why Teams Fail:

1. Team members don't influence and get support from key external stakeholders
2. Team members don't set appropriate goals for the team and then build and implement a plan
for reaching them.
3. Team members don't spend enough time planning how they will work together.
4. Team members don't know how to reconcile differences or resolve interpersonal conflict.
5. Teams don't conduct efficient meetings that produce results.
6. Team members don't have compatible levels of problem-solving, analytic or project
management skills.
7. Team members don't make decisions effectively as a group.
8. Team members don't know how to influence the work of other team members.
9. Teams members don't have consistent or clear team leadership

Presented by:

JUDY ANNE S. REGALA

KRISTEL GAIL S. BASILIO
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bacolor, Pampanga

GRADUATE SCHOOL

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Third Trimester, School Year 2018-2019

ORGANIZATION AND TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION

Technology - the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially industry.
Machinery and equipment developed from the application of scientific knowledge. It is the
collection of techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in the production of goods or
services or in the accomplishment of objectives.

Technology Integration - is the use of technology tools in general content areas in education in
order to allow students to apply computer and technology skills to learning and problem-solving.
In classroom, it gives the students opportunity to complete assignments on computer rather than
with normal pencil and paper.

Curriculum Integration with the use of Technology - it involves the infusion of technology as
a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting. Integrating
technology with standard curriculum can not only give students a sense of power, but also allows
for more advanced learning among broad topics.

Problems in Technology Integration

1. A high ratio of students to technological device has been shown to impede or slow learning
and task completion.
2. The availability of appropriate software to students.
3. Lack of long-range planning for these tools within educative districts they are being used.

How Technology Works?

Technology is continuously, and rapidly, evolving. It is an ongoing process and demands

continual learning. Learning that is relevant and assessment that is authentic.
1.Entry - Teacher uses technology to technology to deliver curriculum content to students.
2.Adoption - Teacher directs students in the conventional use of tool-based software.
3.Adaptation - Teacher allows students to select and modify a tool to accomplish the task.
4.Infusion - Teacher applies infusion of technology tools with understanding, applying,
analyzing, and evaluating learning tasks.
5.Transformation - Teacher cultivates a rich learning environment where blending choice of
technology is promoted.

Advantages
1.Communication - with help of information technologies the instant messaging, emails, voice
and video calls becomes quicker, cheaper and much efficient.
2.Availability - information systems has made it possible for businesses to be open 24×7 all over
the globe.
3.Globalization and Cultural Gap - by implementing information systems we can bring down
the linguistic, geographical and some cultural boundaries.
4.Creation of new types of jobs - one of the best advantages of information systems is the
creation of new and interesting jobs
5.Cost productivity and Effectiveness - the IS application promotes more efficient operation of
the company and also improves the supply of information to decision-makers; applying such
systems can also play an important role in helping companies to put greater emphasis on
information technology.

Disadvantages
1.Dominant Culture - while information technology may have made the world a global village,
it has also contributed to one culture dominating another weaker one.
2.Security - thieves and hackers get access to identities and corporate saboteurs target sensitive
company data.
3.Implementation Expenses - to integrate the information system it require pretty good amount
of cost in a case of software, hardware and people.
4.Unemployment - implementing the information systems can save a great deal of time during
the completion of tasks and some labor mechanic works.

Technological Change and Impact on Organizations

Three aspects of organizational environment that will be affected on technological change:

1.The amount of market competition and uncertainty will increase.
2.There will be requirements for more diversity and higher quality in the organization’s products
and services.
3.External politics and legislative reform will increase in complexity.

Management Information Systems (MIS) - is a computerized database of financial information

organized and programmed in such a way that it produces regular reports on operations for every
level of management in a company. It is a computer system consisting of hardware and software
that serves as the backbone of an organization's operations.

Purpose of MIS
- It gives managers feedback about their own performance.
- Information displayed shows “actual” data over against “planned” results and results from a
year before.
- It receives data from company units and functions automatically.

Some applications used in different learning areas:

1. Articulate
2. Flip Builder
3. Geo Gebra
4. Grammar Jammers
5. Virtual History
6. Medibang Paint

Online Threats
1. Malware - software that is intended to damage or disable computers and computer systems.
2. Cyber Crime – criminal activities carried out by means of computers or the internet.
3. Trojan Horse – malicious computer program which misleads users of its true intent.
4. Spyware – software that is installed on a computer device without the end user’s knowledge.
5. Phishing – attempt to obtain sensitive information such as usernames, passwords and etc.

Presented by:

CLARISE M. CRUZ