LECTURER: C.M.

MATARA
COURSE CODE: EECI 4146
COURSE: HIGHWAY PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
COURSE OUTLINE

 Lecture 1; Pavement Materials: Manufacturing, origin, properties, types, storage, standards,

classification, cost and testing of: natural gravel, crushed stone, cement, lime, slag, pulverized
fuel ash (PFA), concrete admixtures, bitumen, tars, and asphalts.

 Lecture 2: Stabilization, methods of stabilization, feasibility and selection of suitable agents for
cases, mechanical modification, methods of modification, feasibility

 Lecture 3: Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation: condition surveys; definition and concepts
of condition, PSI Index, skid resistance, Economics; maintenance cost versus rehabilitation,
Methods of measuring Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP)

 Lecture 4: Highway Maintenance; routine maintenance, cracks sealing, patchwork, minor

rehabilitation, rejuvenating, texture treatment, resealing, chip and spray, premix overlay,
major rehabilitation-recycling and rebuilding

 Lecture 5: Pavement Management: work programs, maintenance, budgeting

 Lecture 6: Environmental Impact Control: Environmental Monitoring, Coordinating

Agency(EMCA), National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), Landscape, noise,
air pollution;

REFERENCES

1. Bent Thegasen, Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries

2. Martin Rogers, Highway Engineering
1.0 LECTURE 1 PART 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PAVEMENTS AND PAVEMENT COURSES

A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from traffic moving over it.
Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the environment. It should be strong enough to
resists the stresses imposed on it and it should be thick enough to distribute the external loads on the
earthen subgrade, so that the subgrade itself can safely bear it. For satisfactorily performing the
above functions, the pavement should have many desirable characteristics. These are:

1. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.

2. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value on the
subgrade soil.
3. It should provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrasion action of
wheels (pneumatic and iron-tired) does not damage the surface.
4. it should be dust-proof so that traffic safety is not impaired.
5. Its riding quality should be good. It should be smooth enough to provide comfort to the
road users at the high speeds at which modern vehicles are driven.
6. The surface of the pavement should develop as low a friction with the tyres as
possible. This will enable the energy consumption of the vehicles to be low.
7. The surface of the pavement should have a texture and adequate roughness to
prevent skidding of vehicles.
8. The surface should not produce excessive levels of sound when travelling.
9. The surface should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower layers of
the pavement and the subgrade and cause deterioration.
10. The pavement should have long life and the cost of maintaining it annually should be
low.
Some of the requirements enumerated above are conflicting. A good pavement should be a
compromise among such conflicting needs

1.1.1 Pavement Courses and Types

A pavement consists of one or more layers. The topmost layer is the surfacing the purpose of which
is to provide a smooth, abrasion resistant, dust-proof and strong layer. The base, which comes
immediately next below, is the medium through which the stresses imposed are distributed evenly.
Additional help in distributing the loads is provided by the sub-base layer. The subgrade is the
compacted natural earth immediately below the pavement layers. The top of the sub-grade is also
known as the formation level.

In a concrete road, the concrete slab itself acts as the wearing surface and distributes the load. The
slab may be directly placed on the subgrade, or, in case of weak soils, a base and sub sub-base may
be interposed between the slab and the subgrade.
c) British Practice

d) Kenyan Practice: Road Design Manual part III

Fig. 1-1. Pavement layers.

In American practice, the top course in a flexible pavement is itself composed of the surface course
and a binder course beneath it. In U.K. practice, the surfacing is similarly composed of the wearing
course at top and a base course beneath it. Kenya Road Design manual adopted the American
standard.

1.4.1 Flexible Pavement Courses

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat,
binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-
grade
Figure 1.1 Typical layers of a Flexible Pavement

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.

Tack Coat:: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with
water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly
cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface
like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike
tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface

Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the
entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-
grade,

 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid- resistant
riding surface,

 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening effect of
water.

 To perform as a structural portion of the pavement, To resist the abrasive forces of traffic.

Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less
asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may
be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials. In
summary, the functions of the base course are :

(i) To act as the structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute the loads.

(ii) If constructed directly over the sub-grade„ to prevent intrusion of sub-base soils
into the pavement.

(iii) Contributes to the sub-surface drainage

Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-
base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course A sub-
base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality,
stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations,
sub-base course may not be provided. In summary, the functions of the sub-base layer are:

(i) To provide additional help to the base and surface courses in distributing the loads.

(ii) To prevent intrusion of fine-grained road-bed soils into base courses.

(iii) To minimise the damaging effects of frost action.

(iv) To facilitate drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the pavement.

Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from
the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted
to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content

1.1.2 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider area
below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown below.
Figure 1.2 Typical cross section of a rigid pavement

Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade
or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material
between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base course.

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an elastic
plate resting on a viscous medium

. Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by
plate theory instead of layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate
theory is a simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate
which is plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel
load and temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.
LECTURE 1 PART 2
PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated properties, and
their interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement. Thus, a good understanding
of these materials, how they are characterized, and how they perform is fundamental to
understanding pavement. The materials which are used in the construction of highway are of
intense interest to the highway engineer. This requires not only a thorough understanding of the
soil and aggregate properties which affect pavement stability and durability, but also the binding
materials which may be added to improve these pavement features. In the following section we
shall study pavement materials in detail.

1.1 SOILS OVERVIEW

The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it obligatory on
the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils. Soil types such as gravel,
marram and naturally occurring soft aggregates, which can be used in road construction. Broadly, the
soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Murram / red soil, Desert sands, Alluvial soil, Clay
including Black cotton soil.

 Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no fines
contributing to cohesion of materials.

 Murram: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually
these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.

 Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, and exhibit little
cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a
shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is a specific property of such soil.

 Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry, and
show no dilatancy. Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage
properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves stain, which is not
observed for silts.

AASHTO soil terminology comes from AASHTO M 145, “Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes”. Aggregate terminology comes from AASHTO M 147,
“Materials for Aggregate and Soil-Aggregate Subbase, Base and Surface Courses”. Basic terms
include:

 Boulders & Cobbles: Material retained on a 75-mm (3-inch) sieve.

 Gravel: Material passing a 75-mm (3-inch) sieve and retained on a 2.00-mm (No. 10) sieve.
 Coarse Sand: Material passing a 2.00-mm sieve (No. 10) and retained on a 0.475-mm (No.
40) sieve.
  Fine Sand: Material passing a 0.475-mm (No. 40) sieve and retained on a 0.075-mm (No. 200)
sieve.
 Silt-Clay: Material passing a 0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve.
 Silt Fraction: Material passing the 0.075 mm and larger than 0.002 mm.
 Clay Fraction: Material smaller than 0.002 mm.
 Silty: Material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve with a PI ≤ 10
 Clayey: Material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve with a PI ≥ 11
 Coarse Aggregate: Aggregate retained on the 2.00 mm sieve and consisting of hard, durable
particles or fragments of stone, gravel or slag. A wear requirement (AASHTO T 96) is
normally required.
 Fine Aggregate: Aggregate passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve and consisting of natural or
crushed sand, and fine material particles passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. The fraction
passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than two-thirds of the fraction
passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve. The portion passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall
have a LL ≤ 25 and a PI ≤ 6. Fine aggregate shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or
balls of clay.

Note that these definitions are AASHTO definitions and are slightly different than those of the Unified
Soil Classification system (ASTM).

1.1.1 SUB GRADE SOIL

Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of
rocks or decay of vegetation,that can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field or
disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath pavement
and its special under courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is
called natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of
heavy compactors. The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are
i. Stability
ii. Incompressibility
iii. Permanency of strength
iv. Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground
water
v. Good drainage, and
vi. Ease of compaction

1.1.1.1 Classification of Kenyan Soils

For a rational approach to pavement design/ the most important characteristic of the subgrade
is its elastic modulus. However, the measurement of this modulus requires fairly
complicated and time-consuming tests.However, it has been proved that there is good
correlation between the California Bearing Ratio and the elastic modulus of Kenyan soils. Since
the CBR test is a fairly easy and widely used test, it has been decided to retain it as the
quantitative means of evaluating the subgrade bearing strength. A survey of Kenyan subgrade
soils, described in Materials Branch Report No. 345, has shown that they can be grouped into the
following 6 bearing strength classes.

Subgrade Bearing Strength Classes

The above CBR ranges correspond to the results actually obtained on materials of the same type
along sections of road considered homogeneous. They reflect both the variations of the
characteristics of the soil which inevitably occur, even at small intervals, and the normal scatter of
test results.

The following points should be noted:

(i) No allowance for CBR's below 2 has been made, because it is, technically and economically,
out of the question to lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity. Such weak soils are
saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or compressible (swampy) soils, e.g. mud, soft clay,
etc. Moreover, the measurement of the bearing strength of such soft soils is most uncertain and
CBR's below 2 are of little significance.

(ii) The use of Class SI soils (CBR 2-5) as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as
much as possible. Wherever practicable, such poor quality soils should be excavated and replaced,
or covered with an improved subgrade

(iii) The CBR range of Class S5 is fairly wide. This is because Class S5 is either gravelly material
or unsoaked soil, the CBR's of which always show considerable scatter. Furthermore, the
difference in the pavement thickness required is comparatively small when the subgrade bearing
strength varies from the lower to the upper limit of this class.

(iv) Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a CBR over 30 and which comply with the
plasticity requirements for natural materials for subbase (See Chart SB1). In such cases, no
subbase is required. No class of higher bearing capacity has been considered as such subgrade
materials are extremely rare and as a roadbase is always necessary to provide a homogeneous
and uniform layer.
(v) It will be noted that the subgrade categories overlap. For any one section of a road the average
(CBR should be higher or equal to the mean of the subgrade class selected for design, and no
individual result shall be below the lowest valve of the range for that subgrade class. Where the
subgrade CBR values are very variable the designer should balance the cost of having very short
sections of different subgrade categories against a conservative design taking account of the worst
conditions encountered over longer sections.

The following should be noted:

• In order to minimize construction costs, natural materials should be used as much as possible.
Every endeavor should be made to use the cheap local materials before considering the
importation of material from some distance. It is therefore of prime importance to make a
complete inventory of all available roadmaking materials, such as stone, gravel, sand and
clayey sand at the investigation stage.
• Kenya has abundant resources of hard stone. Detailed information regarding the various
types of stone available and their roadmaking characteristics can be found in Materials
Branch Report No. 336.
• Many different sorts of gravels exist in Kenya: lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels, calcareous
gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag, etc. Various types of sand and
silty or clayey sands are also found. Detailed information concerning these materials and their
engineering properties can be found in Materials Branch Reports No. 343 and 344.
• It will be useful for the design engineer to consult all relevant documents, such as materials
reports, geological and pedological maps and reports
Chart SB1 KDM Part 3
1.1.1.2 Classification of Most Kenyan Subgrade Soils

The following materials cover almost all the subgrade materials encountered in Kenya, and they
may be classified on the basis of bearing strength, as shown in Table 1.2.

1.1.2 Tests on soil

Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the support to the
pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the design of
pavement structure. The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the
pavement and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and
loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting tests.
1.1.2.1 Grading Test
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The geometric properties of a grading curve are
called grading characteristics.

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight
The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:
1. Effective size = D10
2. Uniformity coefficient,

3.Curvature coefficient,

Both Cuand Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution of particles over a wide size
range.
Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.

1.1.2.2 Tests to Determine the Subgrade Strength:

The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided into three groups:
a) Shear tests
b) Bearing tests
c) Penetration tests
Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory. In order to find
out the strength properties of soil, a number of representative samples from different locations are
tested. Some of the commonly known shear tests are direct shear test, triaxial compression test,
and unconfined compression test.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in-situ with a load bearing area. The
results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the stressed soil
mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed could be
studied.

Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded
area is relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much
greater than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the
laboratory.

Unless a more accurate estimation of the ultimate subgrade moisture content can be made and
backed by factual data, the subgrade strength shall be determined as follows:
(i) In areas where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm, the determination of the subgrade
strength shall be based on CBR‟ s measured after 4 days soak.
(ii) In dry areas, where the mean annual rainfall is less than 500 mm, the subgrade strength may be
evaluated in terms of CBR's measured at Optimum Moisture Content (Standard Compaction).
However, a design based on such unsoaked CBR's will be permitted only where it has been
established that no prolonged soaking may occur. For this purpose, consideration shall be given to
factors such as permeability of the natural ground and topography (in other words, to the ability of
water to drain rapidly under all circumstances)

1.1.2.2.1 CBR TEST

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a
method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible
pavements. CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties for
pavement design. Empirical tests measure the strength of the material and are not a true
representation of the resilient modulus. It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston, having an
area of 3in2 (or 50 mm diameter), is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25
mm/minute. The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5 mm and it‟s ratio to the bearing value of a
standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR.
In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is
used as the CBR. In some case, the ratio at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this
occurs, the ratio at 5 mm should be used. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to
penetration of standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. The test
procedure should be strictly adhered if high degree of reproducibility is desired. The CBR test may
be conducted in re-moulded or undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test is simple and has
been extensively investigated for field correlations of flexible pavement thickness requirement.

The actual strength of the subgrade and its actual CBR depend on the type of material, its density
and its moisture content. For each type of material, it is therefore necessary to determine the
relative compaction that should be obtained in-situ and the maximum moisture content likely to
occur in the subgrade. In order to obtain a complete knowledge of the relationship between density,
 moisture content and CBR, a "6 point" CBR test should be carried out on a representative sample
of each type of subgrade material encountered. The tests are conducted in the following way:
• The material shall be compacted at 3 different levels of compaction. The samples shall be
moulded at the moisture content which is expected at the time of in-situ compaction (in
general, at the Optimum Moisture Content). At each level of compaction, one CBR shall be
measured immediately on one soaked specimen. The time of soaking will depend on the
anticipated subgrade conditions. The amount of water absorbed during soaking and the
eventual swell shall also be measured. The above method enables an estimate to be made
of the subgrade CBR at different densities and thus helps in deciding the relative
compaction required. It also indicates the loss of strength which soaking may cause. A full
particle size analysis should also be done on each representative sample.

CBR Test

Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0 mm
penetration, the former is adopted. If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration is
higher than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking. If the check test again gives
similar results, then higher value obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is reported as the CBR value. The
average CBR value of three test specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.

Standard force-penetration relationship (CBR = 100%)

2.5mm penetration

Aggregate with 100% CBR=13.02KN

5.0mm penetration

Aggregate with 100% CBR = 19.9 kN

CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or
5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above. Therefore,

CBR=

1.1.2.2.2 Plate Bearing Test

Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-grades, bases and in some
cases, complete pavement. Data from the tests are applicable for the design of both flexible and
rigid pavements. In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer
through rigid plates relatively large size and the deflections are measured for various stress values.
The deflection level is generally limited to a low value, in the order of 1.25 to 5 mm and so the
deformation caused may be partly elastic and partly plastic due to compaction of the stressed
mass with negligible plastic deformation. The plate-bearing test has been devised to evaluate
the supporting power of sub grades or any other pavement layer by using plates of larger
diameter. The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade reaction in
the Westergaard‟s analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavements.

Test Procedure

1. The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75
cm diameter plate rests horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-
grade. The plate is seated accurately and then a seating load
equivalent to a pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320 kg for 75 cm diameter
plate) is applied and released after a few seconds. The settlement dial
gauge is now set corresponding to zero load.
2. A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an average
settlement of about 0.25 cm. When there is no perceptible increase in
settlement or when the rate of settlement is less than 0.025 mm per
minute (in the case of soils with high moisture content or in clayey
soils) the load dial reading and the settlement dial readings are noted.
3. Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection dials;
 placed usually at one-third points of the plate near it‟s outer edge.
4. To minimize bending, a series of stacked plates should be used.
5. Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the
settlement of the plate corresponding to the applied load. Load is then
increased till the average settlement increase to a further amount of
about 0.25 mm, and the load and average settlement readings are
noted as before. The procedure is repeated till the settlement is about
1.75 mm or more.
6. Allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small plate
size should be dealt properly. Calculation A graph is plotted with the
mean settlement versus bearing pressure (load per unit area) as
shown below. The pressure corresponding to a settlement is obtained
from this graph. The modulus of subgrade reaction is calculated from
the relation

Figure Plate load test

Load settlement curve of a plate load experiment

1.1.2.3 Estimating the Subgrade Moisture Content
The actual moisture content of the subgrade soil under the road pavement will depend on many
factors, principally:
• Local climate
• Depth of the water table
• Type of soil
• Topography and the drainage
• Permeability of the pavement materials
• Permeability of the shoulders
The study of Kenyan subgrade moisture conditions, as described in Materials Branch Report No.
345, has revealed the general relationships between mean annual rainfall, soil type, drainage
conditions and subgrade moisture content.

TABLE 1.3 Subgrade Moisture Contents

Notes 1. OMC is measured with Standard Compactive Effort.

2. Permeable pavements include pavements constructed with open-textured materials and, mostly,
deteriorated pavements exhibiting surfacing and/or base cracks.
1.1.2.3.1 PROCTOR TESTS
Procedure to Determine the Maximum Dry Density and the Optimum Moisture Content of
Soil:
A) Soil not susceptible to crushing during compaction –
i) A 5kg sample of air-dried soil passing through the 19mm IS Sieve should be taken. The sample
should be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of water depending on the soil type (for sandy
and gravelly soil – 3 to 5% and for cohesive soil – 12 to 16% below the plastic limit). The soil
sample should be stored in a sealed container for a minimum period of 16hrs.
ii) The mould of 1000cc capacity with base plate attached, should be weighed to the nearest 1g
(W1 ). The mould should be placed on a solid base, such as a concrete floor or plinth and the moist
soil should be compacted into the mould, with the extension attached, in five layers of
approximately equal mass, each layer being given 25 blows from the 4.9kg rammer dropped from
a height of 450mm above the soil. The blows should be distributed uniformly over the surface of
each layer. The amount of soil used should be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than
about 6mm to be struck off when the extension is removed. The extension should be removed and
the compacted soil should be levelled off carefully to the top of the mould by means of the straight
edge. The mould and soil should then be weighed to the nearest gram (W2).
iii) The compacted soil specimen should be removed from the mould and placed onto the mixing
tray. The water content (w) of a representative sample of the specimen should be determined.
iv) The remaining soil specimen should be broken up, rubbed through 19mm IS Sieve and then
mixed with the remaining original sample. Suitable increments of water should be added
successively and mixed into the sample, and the above operations i.e. ii) to iv) should be repeated
for each increment of water added. The total number of determinations made should be at least
five and the moisture contents should be such that the optimum moisture content at which the
maximum dry density occurs, lies within that range.
B) Soil susceptible to crushing during compaction –
Five or more 2.5kg samples of air-dried soil passing through the 19mm IS Sieve, should be taken.
The samples should each be mixed thoroughly with different amounts of water and stored in a
sealed container as mentioned in Part A)
C) Compaction in large size mould –
For compacting soil containing coarse material upto 37.5mm size, the 2250cc mould should be
used. A sample weighing about 30kg and passing through the 37.5mm IS Sieve is used for the test.
Soil is compacted in five layers, each layer being given 55 blows of the 4.9kg rammer. The rest of
the procedure is same as above.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
Bulk density Y(gamma) in g/cc of each compacted specimen should be
calculated from the equation,
Y(gamma) = (W2-W1)/ V
where, V = volume in cc of the mould.
The dry density Yd in g/cc
Yd = 100Y/(100+w)
QUESTION
The following results were obtained from a standard compaction test on a soil:

.
a) Plot the dry density-water content curve
b) Give the compaction characteristics of the soil
1.1.2.4 SOIL CONSISTENCY LIMITS; ATTERBERG TESTS
The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness, and it varies with the water content of
the soil.
A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change from solid to semi-
solid to plastic to liquid states. The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state
to the other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (WS), plastic limit (WP), and liquid limit (WL) as
shown. The values of these limits can be obtained from laboratory tests.

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:

1.1.2.4.1 Liquid limit

The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil in question passes from the plastic to the
liquid state. It is derived using the cone penetrometer test. In it, a needle of a set shape and weight is
applied to the surface of a soil sample placed in a standard metal cup and allowed to bear on it for a
total of 5 seconds. The penetration of the needle into the sample is measured to the nearest tenth of
a millimetre. The moisture content of the sample is then determined. The process is repeated four
more times, on each occasion with a sample of differing moisture content. A relationship between
cone penetration and moisture content can then be established, allowing the moisture content
corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm to be determined. This moisture content is termed the
liquid limit of the soil under examination.

Determination of Liquid Limit

1.1.2.4.2 Plastic limit
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which the soil in question becomes too dry to be
in a plastic condition. The plastic limit test, as defined by BS 1377, involves taking a 15g soil sample,
mixing it with water, and rolling it into a 3mm diameter thread. (The rolling process will reduce the
moisture content of the sample.) This process is done repeatedly for different samples until the point
is reached when the sample just crumples when rolled into a 3mm diameter thread. The moisture
content of the sample in question can be taken as the plastic limit of that soil.

1.1.2.4.3 Plasticity index

The plasticity index of a soil is defined as the liquid limit of a soil minus its plastic limit:
Plasticity index (PI) = Liquid limit (LL) - Plastic limit (PL)
It denotes the moisture content range over which the soil is in a plastic state.

Using plasticity index to derive CBR

Where it is not possible to determine the CBR of a given soil directly, an alternative methodology
involving use of the soils plasticity index and a knowledge of certain service conditions can be used
to derive a CBR valuation for cohesive soils (Black & Lister, 1979). In order to derive the plasticity
index of a soil, its liquid and plastic limit must be obtained.

If it is not possible to derive the CBR of a soil using the standard test, its plasticity index can be used
as a means of assessing it(Black & Lister, 1979). This method determines the long-term CBR of
various subgrades, as shown in Table 1.3.
Notes to Table 1.3:
(1) A high water table is one situated less than 300mm below formation level
(2) A low water table is one situated more than 1m below formation level
(3) Poor conditions denote the situation where the lowest layer of the pavement is laid on weak soil in
heavy rain
(4) Average conditions denote the situation where the formation is protected during adverse weather
(5) Good conditions denote the situation where the soil is drier than its likely service conditions during
construction
Table 1.3 CBR values for different soil types and conditions

Table 1.4 CBR estimates where information is poor

(6) „A‟ denotes the situation where the pavement is 300mm thick (thin pavement construction)

(7) „B‟denotes the situation where the pavement is 1.2m thick (thick pavement construction)
1.1.2.5 Field Density Test
The field density test of soil is conducted in the field to know whether the specified compaction is
achieved or not. Normally Sand Replacement Method is adopted for this purpose. Sand
Replacement Method is also known as Sand Cone Method.
The apparatus used in this field density test consists of a sand pouring cylinder, with pouring cone at
its base. There is a shutter between the cylinder and the cone. The cylinder is first calibrated to
determine the unit Weight of sand. For good results, the sand used should be uniform, dry and clean
passing a 1.0 mm sieve and retained on a 600-micron sieve

Calibration
The cylinder is filled with sand weighed. A calibrating container is placed below the pouring cylinder,
and the shutter is opened. The sand fills the calibrating container and the cone. The weight of the
sand in the container and the cone is equal to the difference between the two observations.

The pouring cylinder is again filled to the initial weight.

The sand is allowed to run out of the cylinder, equal to the volume of the container and the shutter is
closed. The cylinder is then placed over a plain surface, and the shutter is opened, the sand runs out
of the of the cylinder and fills the cone. The shutter is closed when no further movement of sand
takes place. The cylinder is removed and the sand formerly filling the cone is collected and weighed.
The unit weight of the sand is determined as under:
γ = (w1-w2)-w3 / Vc
Where,
w1 = initial weight of cylinder, with sand.
w2 = weight of sand in the cone only.
w3 = weight of cylinder after pouring sand into the cone and the container.
Vc= Volume of the container.
(b) Measurement of volume of the hole.
A tray with a central hole is placed on the prepared ground surface which had been cleaned and
properly leveled. A hole about 100 mm diameter and 150 mm deep is excavated in the ground, using
the hole in the tray as a pattern. The soil removed, is carefully collected and weighed (w). The sand
pouring cylinder is placed over the excavated hole. The shutter is opened, and the sand is filled in the
cone and the hole. When the sand stops running out, the shutter is closed. The cylinder is removed
and weighed.
The volume of the hole is determined by the weight of sand filled in the hole and the unit weight of
sand.
γs = (w1-w2)-w3 / Vc.
Where,
w1 = weight of cylinder and sand before pouring into the hole.
w2 = weight of sand in the cone only.
w3= weight of cylinder after pouring sand into the hole.
γs= unit weight of sand, as found from calibration.
The bulk unit in-situ soil is determined from the weight of soil excavated and the volume of the hole.
The Wet density or bulk density of soil is computed as:
γ = W/V
After determining the water content (mc) of soil, the dry density of soil is computed as:
γd = γ/1+m.c

1.1.2.6 Other Subgrade Requirements

a)Subgrade Compaction
The compaction requirements are generally as follows:
• The upper 300 mm of the subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD
(Standard Compaction) in cuttings where there is no improved subgrade and on all fills.
• In cuttings where an improved subgrade is to be placed, the upper 150 mm of the subgrade, prior to
placing the improved subgrade layer(s), shall be compacted to at least 100% MDD (Standard
Compaction) and the lower 150 mm to at least 95% MDD (Standard Compaction).
• All improved subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD (Standard
Compaction).
• The maximum compacted thickness which shall be paid, processed and compacted at one time is
generally 300 mm.
• The moisture content shall be adjusted in order that the required relative compaction is obtained,
but the moisture content at the time of compaction shall not exceed 105% of the Optimum Moisture
Content (Standard Compaction).
• If it proves feasible, dry compaction may be accepted, especially in dry areas. In some cases, it is
advantageous to obtain relative compactions higher than the above figures, since compaction not
only improves the subgrade bearing strength, but also reduces permeability. This applies, in
particular, to clayey sands, silty sands and granular materials, the coarse particles of which are hard
enough not to crumble under heavy compaction.
 b) Materials Suitable for Pavement Support
Materials forming the direct support of the pavement shall normally comply with the following
requirements:
• CBR at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak : more than 5
• Swell at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak : less than 2%
• Organic matter (percentage by weight) : less than 3%
This means that no pavement should be placed directly on Class SI soil and that an improved
subgrade is required on such soil.

c) Improved Subgrade
Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct support of the
pavement, but also
• Protects the upper layers of earthworks against adverse weather conditions (protection against
soaking and shrinkage),
• Facilitates the movement of construction traffic,
• Permits proper compaction of the pavement layers,
• Reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength, and
• Prevents pollution of open-textured subbases by plastic fines from the natural subgrade.
It may prove technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade not only on SI,
but also on S2 and S3 Class soils. The decision will generally depend on the respective costs of
subbase and improved subgrade materials. An improved subgrade would generally not be
economically justified on Class S4 soils. An improved subgrade placed on soils of any particular
class must obviously be made of a material of a higher class (up to Class S5, since Class S6 is
subbase quality).

d) Lime Treated Subgrade

Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime may be considered in the following cases:
(i) Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically available,
their treatment with hydrated lime may be the cheapest solution.
(ii) Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of adverse weather
conditions, their treatment with quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide a markedly
stronger subgrade.
The treated soils will be classified in accordance with their CBR range and the final bearing strength
class of the pavement support will be determined as indicated above.
1.2 Aggregates

Overview

Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone
that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to
form compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete). By
volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70
to 80 percent of Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base
courses for both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured.
Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open
excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often a bye product of other manufacturing industries. The
requirements of the aggregates in pavement are also discussed in this chapter.

The maximum nominal aggregate size is determined from both the required thickness of the
material when put in place and the surface texture called for. The following are typical nominal
aggregate sizes used at different levels within a bituminous pavement:

Wearing course

 14mm dense wearing course macadam

 10mm or 6mm pervious macadam

Base course

 40, 28 or 20mm dense macadam

Roadbase

 40 or 28mm dense macadam.

The size of aggregate must not be greater than the required layer thickness. The layer thickness
should be approximately 2 1/2 times the nominal maximum aggregate size, with a minimum
layer thickness of 1 1/2 times the nominal maximum aggregate size in order to minimize the
likelihood of the larger stones being crushed during rolling

1.2.1 Desirable properties

1.2.1.1 Strength

The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii)
Wear and tear, (iii) crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should posses high
resistance to crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
1.2.1.2 Hardness

The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by
the movements of traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over
the aggregates exposed at the top surface.

1.2.1.3 Toughness

Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the

pavement should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels
from one particle to another at different levels causes severe impact on the aggregates

1.2.1.4 Shape of aggregates

Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less
strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same
aggregate. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as
possible.

1.2.1.5 Adhesion with bitumen

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be
stripped off in presence of water.

1.2.1.6 Durability

The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water,
impurities there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used
in the construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action

1.2.1.7 Freedom from deleterious particles

Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be
clean, tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces,
dust, clay balls and other objectionable material. Similarly aggregates used in Portland cement
concrete mixes must be clean and free from deleterious substances such as clay lumps, chert,
silt and other organic impurities.
 1.2.2 Aggregate tests

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:

• Crushing test
• Abrasion test
• Impact test
• Soundness test
• Shape test
• Specific gravity and water absorption test
• Bitumen adhesion test

1.2.2.1 Crushing test

One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress.
A test is standardized by IS:2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of
aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing
under gradually applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of
aggregate in standard mould to a compression test under standard load conditions as shown
below:

Crushing Test Set up

Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a
cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is
tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the

test cylinder in three layers each layer being tampered again. The specimen is subjected to a
compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then
crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W1)
is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W2) which is the aggregate
crushing value.
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would
normally be regarded as weak aggregates

1.2.2.2 Abrasion test

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether
they are suitable for different pavement construction works. The principle of Los Angeles
abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the
aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.

Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated as shown.

Los Angeles abrasion test setup

An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-
445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres
varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends
upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at
the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of
aggregates.

After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value.

A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course. For bituminous
concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.
1.2.2.3 Impact test

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel
cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows.
Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical
guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The crushed aggregate is
allowed to pass through 2.36 mm sieve. And the impact value is measured as percentage of
aggregates passing sieve (W1) to the total weight of the sample (W2).

Impact Test Setup

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30 percent.
For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound
macadam base courses the maximum permissible value normally defined as 40 percent

1.2.2.4 Soundness test

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by

conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing
and thawing are likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates,
they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS:2386 part-V. Aggregates
of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either
sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then
dried in oven at105-110 oC to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of
aggregates is determined by sieving out all undersized particles and weighing. And the loss in
weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium sulphate and 18 percent
with magnesium sulphate solution.

1.2.2.5 Shape tests

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and
elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher
workability and stability of mixes. The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of
aggregate particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size.

Flakiness gauge

Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest

dimension (length) is greater than one and four-fifth times (1.8 times or 9/5 times) their mean
dimension. It is measured on particles passing through mesh size of 63mm and retained on
mesh size of 6.3mm This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm

Elongation gauge

Maximum Flakiness Index of asphaltic/bituminous concrete is 25% and BS-1241

specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of the aggregate size

Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate sizes 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1
½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
1.2.2.5 Specific Gravity and water absorption

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are
required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is
the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified
temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of
specific gravity of aggregates are used: apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.

Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates
i.e the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus

where,MD is the dry mass of the aggregate, is VN the net volume of the aggregates
excluding the volume of the absorbed matter, W is the density of water.

Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids.Thus

where, VB, is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed
water.

Water absorption, The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing but
the water-permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by
weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated, surface dry condition, with all permeable voids
filled with water. The difference of the above two is Mw. Mw is the weight of dry aggregates
minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition. Thus

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about
2.5 to 2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates
normally used in road surfacing.
1.2.2.6 Bitumen adhesion test

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from
dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous
construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can
be dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing
temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated
aggregates. This problems occur when bitumen mixture is permeable to water. Several
laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an
aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one of the tests use whose
principle to test adhesion by immersing aggregates fully coated with binder in water maintained
at 400C temperature for 24 hours. The maximum stripping value of aggregates should not
exceed 5%.

1.2.3 Stone Quarries

(a) General

Information obtained at the Preliminary Design stage will enable a selection of the most suitable
quarry sites to be made, on the basis of stone quality, location, access and ease of working.

(b) Investigations, drilling and sampling

Each selected potential quarry site shall be investigated as follows:

 Trial holes shall be dug or drilled on a 30 m grid to prove overburden.

 Boreholes shall be drilled to prove quantity and quality of stone. It is recommended that,
normally, the cores diameter be 76 mm (Coring bits required: HWG, formerly HX). In any
case, the minimum coring diameter shall be 55 mm (NWG, formerly NX), so as to
recover stone in sufficient quantity for testing. The log of each borehole shall be
accurately recorded, drawn and included in the Materials Report.
 Consideration should be given to the use of a bulldozer or other mechanical excavator
to prove the availability of solid rock. Such an excavation may also be shown to
tenderers during a conducted site visit.
 Samples of fresh rock shall be obtained by hand, or pneumatic drilling from existing
faces and outcrops. Great care shall be taken to avoid sampling from a superficial
horizon of weathered rock and to ensure the samples are representative of the stone to
be used.
 In addition, whenever possible, deeper samples shall be obtained by blasting.

Depending on the consistency of the stone and whether it is an existing or a new quarry, 5 to 10
samples are required per quarry. A site plan of each potential quarry shall be prepared, showing
the characteristic features of the site (outcrops, existing faces, etc.) and the means of access
and location. The position and level of each borehole and each sampling point shall be
accurately determined and recorded on the site plan, after the quarries have been drilled.

(c) Testing
Each sample shall contain sufficient material to carry out the following tests:
• Los Angeles Abrasion
• Aggregate Crushing Value
• Sodium Sulphate Soundness
• Plasticity Index on L.A.A. fines & Plasticity Index on Material passing the 425 micron sieve
• Specific Gravity (oven-dry method)
• Bitumen Affinity (for stone proposed for use with bitumen).

Moreover, one large sample shall be obtained from each quarry, so as to be representative of
the stone to be used.

This large sample shall be crushed with a small crusher (and not broken by hand), to a
maximum size depending on the proposed use of the stone (usually ranging from 20 to 40 mm).
The crushed stone shall be submitted to the above tests and, in addition, to the following tests:
• Grading to 0.075 mm sieve
• Flakiness Index
• Sand Equivalent
• Compaction test (Vibrating Hammer method), when appropriate