1.

BUBBLE DECK SLAB

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the 1950s, hollow-core slab were invented. The voided or hollow core
system was created to reduce the weight of the concrete from the system. This
concept removes and replaces concrete from center of the slab, where it is less
useful with lighter material in order to decreases the dead weight of concrete floor.
However, these hollow cavities significantly decrease the slab resistance to shear
and fire, thus reduce its structural integrity.

Bubble deck slab is a method of virtually eliminating all concrete from the
middle of a floor slab, which is not performing any structural function, thereby
dramatically reducing structural dead weight. High density polyethylene hollow
spheres replace the in-effective concrete in the centre of the slab, thus decreasing
the dead weight and increasing the efficiency of the floor. The advantages are less
energy consumption - both in production, transport and carrying out, less emission
- exhaust gases from production and transport, especially CO2 and reduce the
material, the load, lower the cost and it is also a green technology.

Bubble deck slab is the slab in which some amount of the concrete is
replaced by the plastic bubbles or ellipsoid which are made by the waste plastic
material, which reduces the self-weight of the structure.

In the bubble deck technology reduce the concrete volume by replacing the
spherical bubbles, these are locally available which is called as PEPSI balls, these
balls are made up of HDPE (High Density polyethylene). Bubble deck slab are cast
with various bubbles arrangement which is continuous arrangement of bubbles

1
within whole slab and two types of alternative bubbles arrangement in the slab and
trying to enhance the increasing strength of that slab. This implies the realization of
a monolithic slab element, which will be subjected to static gravitational loadings
in order to determine the deformation (deflection), cracking and failing
characteristics.

Fig 1.1 construction of bubble deck slab

Fig 1.2 Cross sectional view of bubble deck slab

2
1.2 MATERIALS
Cement
Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade was used. The test were carried out according
to the IS 456-2000 standard.
Aggregate
Fine aggregates Those fractions from 4.75 mm to 150 micron are termed as fine
aggregate. The river sand and crushed Sand is being used as fine aggregate
conforming to the requirements of IS: 383.
Coarse aggregate
The fractions from 10 mm to 4.75 mm are used as coarse aggregate. The Coarse
Aggregates from 10 mm are used conforming to IS: 383 is being use.
Water
Potable water is used for mixing and curing as per IS 456:2000.
From durability consideration water cement ratio should be restricted as in case of
normal concrete and it should preferably be less than 0.45.
Concrete
The concrete used for joint filling in the Bubble Deck floor system. Usually
conventional concrete is used, for the casting of bubble deck slab. The nominal
maximum size of the aggregate is the function of thickness of the slab. The size
should be less than12mm. .
Reinforcement bars
The reinforcement of the plates is made of two meshes, one at the bottom part and
one at the upper part that can be tied by binding wire. The distance between the
bars is corresponding to the dimensions of the bubbles that are to be used in the
slab.

3
Hollow bubbles
The bubbles are made using high density polyethylene materials. These are usually
made with nonporous material that does not react chemically with the concrete or
reinforcement bars. The bubbles have enough strength and stiffness to support
safely the applied loads in the phases before and during concrete pouring. The
diameter of bubble is 62 mm and the distance between bubbles is 12 mm. The
bubbles are spherical in shape.

1.3 FORMS OF BUBBLE DECK

1. Filigree elements (Type A)-A concrete layer that acts as both the formwork and
part of the finished depth is precast and brought on site with the bubbles and steel
reinforcement unattached. The bubbles are then supported by temporary stands on
top of the precast layer and held in place by a honeycomb of interconnected steel
mesh.
2. Reinforcement modules (Type B)-consists of a preassembled sandwich of steel
mesh and plastic bubbles, or bubble lattice. These components are brought to the
site, laid on traditional formwork, connected with any additional shear or edge
reinforcement, and then concreted in 2 stages to the full slab depth by traditional
methods.
3. Finished planks (Type C)-It is a shop fabricated module that includes the
plastic spheres, reinforcement mesh, and concrete in its form. This module is
manufactured to the final depth in the form of a plank and is brought to site.
According to the tests carried out in various countries as per ISO 140-4:1998, ISO-
7:1998, ISO 717- 1:1997 by measuring impact and airborne sound.

4
1.4 TYPES OF BUBBLE DECK SLAB
Continuous Bubble deck
The reinforcement mesh is placed both side of the bubbles and bubbles are arrange
in continuous manner. Requirement of reinforcement is only straight shape of bar
in the slab as per the design. Reinforcement is 6mm @ 62mm c/c spacing and 6mm
@ 12mm c/c spacing also provided in alternative manner. Total length of bars is
960mm. In the bubble deck slab only 10mm aggregate is used because 12mm
alternative spacing is provided. Reinforcement mesh is placed in the formwork and
maintains the cover by cover block.

Alternative bubble deck slab (type I)

The reinforcement mesh is placed both side of the bubble and bubbles are placed in
alternative manner. Requirement of reinforcement is only straight shape of bar in
the slab. Reinforcement is 6mm @ 62mm c/c spacing and 6mm @ 12mm c/c
spacing also provided in alternative manner. Total length of bars is
960mm.Reinforcement is properly bind by binding wire. in the bubble deck slab
only 10mm aggregate is used because 12mm alternative is provided. Reinforcement
mesh is placed in the formwork and maintains the cover by cover block.
Alternative bubble deck slab (type II)
The reinforcement mesh is placed both side of the bubble and bubbles are placed in
alternative manner (type2). Requirement of reinforcement is only straight shape of
bar in the slab. Reinforcement is 6mm @ 62mm c/c spacing and 6mm @
12mm c/c spacing also provided in alternative manner. Total length of bars is
960mm.Reinforcement is properly bind by binding wire in the bubble deck slab
only.

5
1.5 BUBBLEDECK CAN BE SUPPLIED IN 2 TYPES OF
MANUFACTURED ELEMENTS:

Precast Half Slab Version

Where the bottom of the bubble-reinforcement sandwich includes a 60 mm

thick pre-cast concrete layer acting as permanent formwork within part of the
finished slab depth replacing the need for temporary formwork.

The elements are placed on temporary propping, loose joint, shear & edge
reinforcement added, perimeter and tolerance joints shuttered and then the
remaining slab concreted. Most commonly specified being suitable for the majority
of new-build projects. Requires fixed or mobile crane to lift into position due to the
weight of manufactured elements as delivered to site.

Cast In-Situ Version

Reinforcement Modules comprising pre-fabricated ‘bubble-reinforcement’

sandwich elements. The modules are placed on traditional site formwork, loose
joint, shear & edge reinforcement added and then concreted in 2 stages to the full
slab depth. Suitable for suspended ground floor slab and alteration / refurbishment
projects, particularly where site access is extremely restricted. Can be manually
lifted into position.

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Fig 1.3The Millennium Tower in Holland was one of the first structure to use
bubble deck slab system

1.6 BENEFITS OF BUBBLE DECK SLAB SYSTEM

 Saves 30 to 50 % weight compared to a corresponding solid slab –

equal stiffness.
 20% concrete reduction in other components.
 The reduced weight of the slab will typical result in a change in design
to longer spans and/or reduced deck thickness.
 It is also seismic friendly as it lowers the total weight of the building.
 Reduced concrete usage – 1 kg recycled plastic replaces 100 kg of
concrete.

7
  The company estimates that building costs are reduced by 8 to 10 %.

1.7 CONCLUSION

From the foregoing it was evident from tests conducted that though the
bubble deck slabs were not as efficient as the conventional slab, (having lesser load
bearing capacity), they are very much satisfactory in slab construction considering
the negligible difference in load bearing capacity between them and the
conventional. It is however interesting to note a weight reduction of 10.55% & 17%
in the bubble deck slabs compared to the conventional slab which is an added
advantage for the bubble deck slabs especially in structures where load is an issue.
The bubble deck technology is environmentally green and sustainable; avoiding the
cement production allows reducing global CO2 emissions.Cost and time saving by
using bubbles in the slab like weight of slab, concrete volume indirectly load on the
beam and walls also decrease/ less so that building foundations can be designed for
smaller dead loads.

8
 2. GREEN CONCRETE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the recycling of waste product is necessary to produce new

product suitable for the environment. Infrastructure department is the second
largest sector after agriculture in India. Concrete is the world's most widely used
construction material. The continuously growing demand for concrete to meet the
“exploding” infrastructure development worldwide is not without any negative
impacts on the environment and on our future capacity for development. The
management of construction and demolition waste is a major concern due to
increased quantities of demolition rubble, the continuing shortage of dumping sites,
increase in the cost of disposal and transportation and above all the concern about
environmental degradation. The global construction industry uses billions tons of
cement and billionstons of sand, gravel, and crushed rock every year. The use of
waste materials as a source of aggregate in new construction materials has become
more common in recent decades. The depletion of the existing landfills and the
scarcity of natural resources for aggregates encourage the use of construction and
demolition waste as a source of aggregates in the production of new concrete.
Aggregate is important material for the strength of concrete. The strength of
concrete is depending on quality, shape and size of aggregates used in concrete.
The natural recourses are decrease in short period. The use of demolished waste
material as the basic material of new construction is more economic and
ecofriendly.

Today the word green is not just limited to colour, it represents the
environment, which is surrounding us.

9
 Concrete which is made from concrete wastes that are eco-friendly are called
as “Green concrete”. The other name for green concrete is resource saving
structures with reduced environmental impact for e.g. Energy saving, CO2
emissions, waste water.
“Green concrete” is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry.
This was first invented in Denmark in the year 1998 by Dr.WG.

Green Concrete is a term given to a concrete that has had extra steps taken in
the mix design and placement to insure a sustainable structure and a long life cycle
with a low maintenance surface. e.g. Energy saving, CO2 emissions, waste water.

2.2 MATERIALS FOR GREEN CONCRETE

Concrete wastes like slag, power plant wastes, recycled concrete, mining and
quarrying wastes, waste glass, incinerator residue, red mud, burnt clay, sawdust,
combustor ash and foundry sand.

Fig 2.1 local aggregate and recycled demolition waste aggregate

10
 Fig 2.2 blast furnace slag and fly ash

2.3 NEED FOR GREEN CONCRETE

Green Concrete is a term given to a concrete that has had extra steps taken in
the mix design and placement to insure a sustainable structure and a long life cycle
with a low maintenance surface. e.g. Energy saving, CO2 emissions, waste water.

The goal of the Centre for Green Concrete is to reduce the environmental
impact of concrete. To enable this, new technology is developed. The technology
considers all phases of a concrete construction’s life cycle, i.e. structural design,
specification, manufacturing and maintenance, and it includes all aspects of
performance, i.e.

1) Mechanical properties (strength, shrinkage, creep, static behaviour etc.)

2) Fire resistance (spalling, heat transfer etc.)

3) Workmanship (workability, strength development, curing etc.)

4) Durability (corrosion protection, frost, new deterioration mechanisms etc.)

5) Thermodynamic properties (input to the other properties)

11
 6) Environmental aspects (CO2-emission, energy, recycling etc.)

There are a number of alternative environmental requirements with which

green concrete structures must comply:

 CO2 emissions shall be reduced by at least 30 %.

 At least 20 % of the concrete shall be residual products used as aggregate.

 Use of concrete industries own residual products.

 Use of new types of residual products, previously land filled or disposed of in other
ways.

 CO2-neutral, waste-derived fuels shall substitute fossil fuels in the cement

production by at least 10 %.

2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL INTENSIONS

Most important are:
To avoid the use of materials which contain substances on the Environmental
Protection Agency’s list of unwanted materials, not to reduce the recycling ability
of green concrete compared with conventional concrete and not to increase the
content of hazardous substances in the wastewater from concrete production
compared with wastewater from production of existing concrete types.

Different concrete types are tested for workability, changes in workability

after 30 min., air-content, compressive strength development, E-modulus, heat
development, homogeneity, water separation, setting time, density and pumpability.
Furthermore, frost testing, chloride penetration and an air void analysis are carried
out for the concretes in the aggressive environmental class.

12
 The water/cement ratio, water/binder ratio and the chloride content are
calculated from the mixing report of the precise mixture proportions and from the
chloride content in the different raw materials.

2.5 COMPARISON OF RECYCLED AND NATURAL AGGREGATE:

Texture: Recycled aggregate has the rough – textured, angular and elongated
particles where natural aggregate is smooth and rounded compact aggregate. The
properties of the freshly mixed concrete will be affected by the particle shape and
surface texture of the aggregate. The rough – texture, angular and elongated
particles require much water than the smooth and rounded compact aggregate when
producing the workable concrete. The void content will increase with the angular
aggregate where the larger sizes of well and improved grading aggregate will
decrease the void content.

Quality: The quality is different between recycled aggregate and natural aggregate.
The quality of natural International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology
(IJETT) - Volume4 Issue7- July 2013 ISSN: 2231-5381 aggregate is based on the
physical and chemical properties of sources sites, where the recycled aggregate is
depended on contamination of debris sources. It also stated that natural resources
have suitable for multiple product and higher product larger marketing area, but
recycled aggregate have limited product mixes and the lower product mixes may
restrain the market.

Density :The density of the recycled concrete aggregate is lower than natural
aggregate. Density of recycled aggregate is lower than the fresh aggregate because
of the porous and less dense residual mortar lumps that is adhering to the surfaces.

13
When the particle size is increased, the volume percentage of residual mortar will
increase too.

Strength: The strength of recycled aggregate is lower than natural aggregate

because of the weight of recycled aggregate is lighter than natural aggregate. This
is the general effect that will reduce the strength of reinforced concrete

2.6 ADVANTAGES
 Reduction of the concrete industry’s CO2-emmision by 30 %.
 Increased concrete industry’s use of waste products by 20%.
 NO environmental pollution and sustainable development.
 Green concrete requires less maintenance and repairs.
 Green concrete having better workability than conventional concrete.
 Good thermal resistant and fire resistant.
 Compressive strength behaviour of ceracrete with water cement ratio
is similar to conventional concrete.
 Flexural strength of green concrete is almost equal to that of
conventional concrete.

2.7 TECHNICAL BENEFITS

a) Higher ultimate strength

b) Increased durability

c) Improved workability

d) Reduced bleeding

e) Increased resistance to alkali-silica reactivity.

f) Reduced shrinkage.
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2.8 LIMITATION
 By using stainless steel, cost of reinforcement increases.
 Structures constructed with green concrete have comparatively less
life than structures with conventional concrete.
 Split tension of green concrete is less than that of conventional
concrete.

2.9 APPLICATIONS

1. It is used in the construction of bridges.

2. It is widely used in the building construction.

3. Used in the construction of columns.

4. Can be used in road construction

2.10 CONCLUSION

The utilization of waste demolition debris in new construction work is very

important due to the materials waste is gradually increasing with the increase of
population and urban development.

a) The experimental study on green concrete show that 0% to 40% replacement of

Recycled Coarse Aggregate with the Natural Coarse Aggregate give enough
compressive strength as per required.

b) Workability test of recycled coarse aggregate concrete is same as natural coarse

aggregate. In a compaction factor test at also the replacement of 0% to 40% of
Recycled Aggregate the compaction factor value is maximum; the highest
compacting factor ratio is 0.90. So we can say that at the replacement of 40%
recycled aggregate concrete is more workable.

15
c) A test result of compression test indicates an increasing trend of compressive
strength in the early age of the concrete specimens with 60% recycled aggregates.
However, it shows that the strength of recycled aggregate specimens were
gradually increased up to 40% replacement of recycled aggregate & then it
decreases at the 100% replacement of recycled aggregate after 28 days. The target
strength for M45 grade is 54.9 MPa that are achieved. The results also show that
the concrete specimens with 40% replacement of recycled aggregate get the highest
strength when compared to the concrete specimens with different percentage of
recycled aggregate. From the obtained result, it is possible to use 40% recycled
aggregate for a higher strength of concretes.

d) Hence the recycled aggregate can be used in concrete with 40% replacement of
natural coarse aggregates to make Green Concrete.

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 3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN CONSTRUCTION SITE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Safety means achieving proper operating conditions, prevention of

accidents, or mitigation of the consequences of accidents. A considerable number
of personnel get injured every year, seriously or fatally, while engaged in
construction work. Problems arise at the construction sites only when the safety
measures are bypassed. Therefore, it becomes the responsibility of the management
to safeguard the safety and welfare of everyone assigned to construction activities.

Effective health and safety management is founded on the provision of a safe

and healthy working environment with safe system of work at its core. The key to
success is to ensure that health and safety aspects are carefully planned, organized,
monitored, controlled, and reviewed.

3.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES ON SAFETY

Safety is inherent in right attitude. Individual safety depends on one’s

attitude and sense of overriding priority attached to safety. One with the proper
attitude would always return home safely on completion of day’s work in the same
way as one arrived without suffering from injury or health hazard during the course
of the day’s work .

 The management should follow ‘cradle to grave’ approach on the

safety.
 Ensuring the safety is inherent in design – the basis of design work is
‘safety first’.
 Selecting proper people.

17
 Training should be conducted at all levels, including managers, supervisors
and workers. Subcontractors and their workers may also need to be trained in site
safety procedures, because teams of specialist workers may mutually affect each
others’ safety.

 Construction and installation of safety signs.

 Safety provisions peculiar to each trade.
 Testing of lifting machinery such as cranes and goods hoists, and
lifting gear such as ropes and shackles.
 Inspection and rectification of access facilities such as scaffolds and
ladders

3.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Hazards exist in every workplace in many different forms: sharp edges, falling
objects, flying sparks, chemicals, noise and a myriad of other potentially dangerous
situations. The N.C. Department of Labour (NCDOL) Occupational Safety and
Health Division requires that employers protect their employees from workplace
hazards that can cause injury.

3.3.1 TRAINING EMPLOYEES

Employers are required to train each employee who must use PPE as shown in
figure. Employees must be trained to know at least the following:

 When PPE is necessary

 What PPE is necessary.
 How to properly put on, take off, adjust and wear the PPE.
 The limitations of the PPE.
 Proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of PPE.
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3.3.2 EYE AND FACE PROTECTION

 Dust, dirt, metal or wood chips entering the eye from activities such as
chipping, grinding, sawing, hammering, the use of power tools or even
strong wind force.
 Chemical splashes, mists and vapors from corrosive substances, hot liquids,
solvents or other hazardous solutions contacting the eye from activities such
as degreasing and electroplating.
 Objects swinging into the eye or face, such as tree limbs, chains, tools or
ropes.
 Radiant energy from welding, harmful rays from the use of lasers or other
radiant light (as well as heat, glare, sparks, splash and flying particles).

Types of Eye and Face Protection

 Safety spectacles/glasses- These protective eyeglasses have safety frames

constructed of metal or plastic and impact-resistant lenses as shown in figure
2.1. Side shields are available on some models. Safety glasses should not be
used for protection against chemical splashes, mists or vapours.
 Goggles- These are tight-fitting eye protection that completely covers the
eyes, eye sockets and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and
provide protection from impact, dust, mists, vapours and splashes. Goggles
with direct ventilation typically are used for impact hazards and dusts, not
for protection against chemical splashes or vapours. Goggles with indirect
ventilation are used for protection from dusts and splash hazards. Goggles
with no ventilation provide protection from dusts, splashes, mists and
vapours. Goggles with foam or cloth padding should not be used for
chemical splash protection. Some goggles will fit over corrective lenses.

19
 Welding shields- Welding shields protect eyes from burns caused by
infrared or intense radiant light they also protect both the eyes and face from
flying sparks, metal spatter and slag chips produced during welding, brazing,
soldering and cutting operations.
 Face shields- Face shields are typically used to provide protection from dust,
liquid splash and spray hazards. The face shield windows are available in a
variety of materials, shapes, thickness, shades and tints, depending on their
particular application. Commonly available windows are transparent sheets
of plastic or wire screen as shown in figure. Some are polarized for glare
protection. The face shield windows are designed to extend from the
eyebrows to below the chin and across the entire width of the employee’s
head.

Fig 3.1 Types of Eye and Face Protection

20
3.3.3 HEAD PROTECTION

Wearing a safety helmet or hard hat is one of the easiest ways to protect an
employee’s head from injury. Hard hats can protect employees from impact and
penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and burn hazards.

Employers must ensure that their employees wear head protection if any of the
following apply:

 Objects might fall from above and strike them on the head.
 They might bump their heads against fixed objects, such as exposed pipes or
beams.
 There is a possibility of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.

Some examples of occupations in which employees should be required to wear

head protection include construction workers, carpenters, electricians, linemen,
plumbers and pipe fitters, timber and log cutters, welders, among many others
shown in figure. Whenever there is a danger of objects falling from above, such as
working below others who are using tools or working under a conveyor belt, head
protection must be worn. Hard hats must be worn with the bill forward to protect
employees properly.

Types of Hard Hats

Hard hats are classified according to the specific impact (types) and electrical
performance requirements they are designed to meet (classes). All helmets will
meet either Type I or Type II requirements and then shall be further classified by
class.

Type I. Helmets intended to reduce the force of impact resulting from a blow only
to the top of the head (vertical impact).

21
Type II. Helmets intended to reduce the force of impact resulting from a blow that
may be received off centre (side impact) or to the top of the head.

Class G (General). Class G helmets are intended to reduce the danger of contact
exposure to low-voltage conductors. Test samples are proof-tested at 2,200 volts
(phase to ground).

Class E (Electrical). Class E helmets provide the highest level of protection against
electrical hazards, with high voltage shock and burn protection. Test samples are
proof-tested at 20,000 volts (phase to ground).

Class C (Conductive). Class C helmets are not intended to provide protection

against contact with electrical conductors.

Fig 3.2 Types of Hard Hats

3.3.4 FOOT AND LEG PROTECTION

Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling
objects or from crushing or penetrating materials must wear protective footwear.

22
Also, employees whose work involves exposure to hot substances or corrosive or
poisonous materials must have protective gear to cover exposed body parts,
including legs and feet. If an employee’s feet may be exposed to electrical hazards,
nonconductive footwear must be worn.

Examples of situations in which an employee may be required to wear foot and/or

leg protection include:

 When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on the
employee’s feet.
 Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles
or uppers of ordinary shoes.
 Exposure to molten metal that might splash on feet or legs.
 Working on or around hot, wet or slippery surfaces.
 Working when electrical hazards are present.

Special Purpose Shoes

 Electrically conductive shoes.

 Electrical hazard, safety-toe shoes.

3.3.5 HAND AND ARM PROTECTION

Potential hazards include skin absorption of harmful substances, chemical or

thermal burns, electrical dangers, bruises, abrasions, cuts, punctures, fractures and
amputations. Protective equipment includes gloves, finger guards, and arm
coverings or elbow-length gloves.

23
Leather, Synthetic Fiber or Metal Mesh Gloves

 Leather gloves protect against sparks, moderate heat, blows, chips and rough
objects. These gloves can be used for tasks such as welding.
 Aluminized gloves provide radiant heat protection by reflection and
insulate/reduce heat conduction with a liner or insert. Employees working
with molten materials would benefit from this type of glove.
 Aramid fiber gloves such as Kevlar, protect against heat, are cut- and
abrasion-resistant and wear well. Employees working in jobs such as fire
fighting, automotive work, metal fabrication, glass and ceramic handling
would benefit from this type of glove.
 Synthetic gloves of various materials offer protection against heat and cold,
are cut- and abrasion-resistant and may withstand some diluted acids. These
materials do not stand up against alkalis and solvents.
 Metal mesh hand, wrist, arm and finger protective wear protects against knife
cuts; however, it offers very little, if any, protection against punctures.
Plastic dots can be adhered to the metal mesh to facilitate gripping.

Chemical Protective Gloves

 Butyl glove.
 Natural (latex) rubber gloves.
 Neoprene gloves

3.3.6 BODY PROTECTION

Employers are required to ensure that their employees wear personal

protective equipment only for the parts of the body exposed to possible injury.
Examples of body protection include laboratory coats, coveralls, vests, jackets,

24
aprons, surgical gowns and full body suits. As with chemical protective gloves, the
selection of appropriate chemical protective clothing involves a variety of factors.

3.3.7 HEARING PROTECTION

For instance, employees may be exposed to a noise level of 90 dB for 8 hours per
before hearing protection is required. On the other hand, if the noise level reaches
115 dB, hearing protection is required if the anticipated exposure exceeds 15
minutes. Some types of hearing protection include:

 Earplugs-It is inserted into the ear canal to provide a seal against the canal
walls. Formable foam or “roll down” earplugs are rolled between the fingers
to compress them for proper fit. They can be made from polyvinyl chloride
or polyurethane.
 Earmuffs- enclose the entire external ears inside rigid cups. The inside of
the cup is filled with acoustic foam, and the perimeter of the cup is fitted
with a cushion that seals against the head around the ear by force of the
headband.

Fig 3.3 Types of Hear Protection

25
3.4 FIRE SAFETY.

3.4.1 BASICS OF FIRE

Fire is a chemical reaction which is initiated by the presence of heat energy in

which a substance combines with oxygen present in the air. The process is
accompanied by emission of energy in the form of heat, light and smoke.
Therefore, three elements essential for combustion i.e. before a fire can occur, are:

 A combustible substance i.e. fuel ( solid, liquid, gas)

 Oxygen (air)
 Source of heat (proper ignition temperature, i.e. applied heat, e.g. spark,
flame, etc.

3.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

This classification system helps to determine the type of hazard and selection of the
most effective type of extinguishing agent.

 CLASS A: Fires involve ordinary solid combustible materials: wood, paper

and cloth. Class A fires are usually slow in their initial development and
grow because the materials are solids and spread and growth of fire depends
on the specific gravity and surface area of the materials and hardness of their
surfaces.
 CLASS B: Fires involve flammable and combustible liquids such as diesel,
petrol, kerosene, etc. Class B fires are usually developed and grew very
rapidly. Since these materials are liquid, hence they flow and may result into
spread of fire very rapidly from one place to other place.

26
  CLASS C: Fires involve flammable gases under pressure. It is necessary to
isolate the burning gas at a fast rate to contain and subsequently extinguish
these fires.
 CLASS D: Fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, aluminum,
titanium and zirconium. These materials are usually difficult to ignite but
create intense heat once fire initiation takes place. These fires are very
difficult to extinguish.

3.4.3 FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

Whatever may be the equipment or the extinguishing media used for fire fighting,
they follow the following four basic mechanisms for fire extinction as shown in
figure. These are the commonly adopted methods of extinguishing fires:

 Starvation - Elimination of fuel

 Smothering - Limitation of Oxygen.
 Cooling - Removal of temperature (Ignition Source).
 Inhibition - Breaking the chain reactions.

3.4.4 EXTINGUISHING MEDIA

 Water: Water is the most commonly used and readily available

extinguishing agent. It is used in portable fire extinguishers and fixed and
moveable installed systems. Water works efficiently as it has a large capacity
for absorbing heat which cools the burning materials below its ignition
temperature, thus causing the fire to go out. Water absorbs the most heat
during its conversion to steam. For example 1 kg of water at a room
temperature of 210C will require 79 K. cals to raise its temperature to 1000c
i.e. the boiling point of water. When 1 Kg of water is vaporized into steam, it
absorbs approximately another 540 K cals.
27
 Foam: Foams are used for special applications on flammable liquid fires and
are used in portable fire extinguishers, wheeled extinguishers, fixed systems,
and fire tenders. Mixing water with a specific proportion of foam concentrate
creates the foam. Several types of proportionating devices are used.
Connection is made between foam concentrate tank and water flow line
through eductor. The passing water creates a venturi, which draws the foam
concentrate into the water stream. The metering valve controls the
percentage of concentrate to ensure a proper mixture. Air is introduced to the
foam solution at the nozzle in a process called aeration to form the finished
foam. The finished foam is a bubbly substance that is similar to soap suds in
appearance.
 Dry Chemical Powder (DCP): Dry Chemical powders are finely divided
powders of limited particle size range which are based on combinations of
several chemical compounds. These are available in two categories, both of
them function primarily by interrupting the chemical chain reaction.
 Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gaseous fire control agent that
is stored under pressure as a liquid. It is rated for Class B and C fires. The
major advantage of carbon dioxide is that it is non-conducting. Though it
does not possess as much fire extinguishing capability as Halon substitutes,
but it is more economical. The mechanism of extinguishment is by excluding
oxygen from the fire. The main disadvantage of carbon dioxide is that it can
create oxygen deficient environment in an enclosure where it has been used
thus posing a significant risk to working personnel. The agent is used in
portable extinguishers, trolley mounted extinguishers and fixed fire fighting
system.
 Halon: Halogenated hydrocarbon agents, usually referred to as Halon, are a
group of gaseous agents which are effective in fire control. The most
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 common halon agent which is used for the effective fire control is Bromo
Trifluro Methane (1301) which is normally used for total flooding
application in fixed fire-fighting system. Halon can be used for all types of
fire.

Fig.3.4 Parts of a Fire Extinguisher

3.5 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

3.5.1 BASIC RULES FOR SAFETY

Tidy up construction sites

 Keep passengers clear all the time.

 Sort out materials and pile them up safely.
 Beware of floor openings and ensure that they are fenced or covered.

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  Provide sufficient lightning.

Safety Measures

 Before you operate a machine, ensure that the dangerous part of the machine
has been installed with a guard.
 Avoid going to any area within sufficient lighting as there may become
dangerous places which have not been provided with fencing.
 Keep vigilant all the time and watch out for moving cranes, hooks or other
lifting equipment.
 Before you use any electrical installation or tool, check the condition of its
electric cables.
 Avoid dragging electric cables on the ground or allowing the cables to come
into contact with water.
 Use electrical tools installed with a near the leakage circuit breaker.
 Use and handle chemicals with care.

3.5.2 FALSEWORK

 Check whether the falsework is erected in accordance with the design as

shown in figure.
 Make sure that the falsework is securely erected.
 Check whether the struts of the falsework are secure.
 Ensure that the props are erected vertically and arranged at a suitable
distance in a row.
 Report to your supervisor when any unsafe situation is found.

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 Fig 3.5 False work

3.5.3 SCAFFOLDS

 Do not use scaffolds unless they have been erected by trained workmen and
under the supervision of a competent person.
 Do not use a scaffold unless it has been inspected and certified safe by a
competent person before use.
 Strictly follow the instructions of a competent person. Do not alter the
scaffold unless authorized to do so as shown in figure. Do not work on an
unfinished scaffold. When it is necessary to work on a mobile scaffold, lock
the wheels of the scaffold before you start working.
 Do not work on a scaffold unless it has been provided with a suitable
working platform.

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 Fig 3.6 Scaffolding

3.5.4 FENCING

 Do not work in a dangerous place unless its floor edges and openings have
been installed with secure fencing as shown in figure.
 If you notice any dangerous places that have not been installed with fencing
or the fencing has been damaged, reinstall or repair the fencing. If this is
beyond your capability, inform your supervisor at once.

Fig 3.7 Fencing

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3.5.5 LADDER

 Use a ladder which is of good construction, sound material and adequate

strength.
 Examine the ladder before using it and inspect it at regular intervals.
 Place the ladder on a level and firm footing.
 Place the ladder at an appropriate angle.
 Ensure that the ladder has a sufficient length. The upper end of the ladder
should be at least 1 metre above the landing against which the ladder leans as
shown in figure.
 Do not use a ladder unless its upper or lower end has been securely fixed or
secured by another worker.
 If there are electrical installations nearby, do not use metal ladders.
 If work is carried out 2 metres or more above the floor, use a suitable
working platform.

Fig 3. 8 Ladder

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3.6 CONCLUSION

Most accidents can be prevented by taking simple measures or adopting

proper working procedures. This book is intended to outline important issues on
safety and health that should be paid attention to on construction sites. For easy
reference by the workers. If we work carefully and take appropriate safety
measures, there will definitely be fewer work injury cases, and our sites will
become a safe and secure place to work in. On a construction site there are many
more “incidents” than injuries. Effective health and safety management is founded
on the provision of a safe and healthy working environment with safe system of
work at its core. The key to success is to ensure that health and safety aspects are
carefully planned, organized, monitored, controlled, and reviewed.

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