Micro Electro Mechanical Systems PDF

S.K.P.
Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai VII SEM
SKP Engineering College

Tiruvannamalai – 606611
A Course Material
on
Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
By
V.K.Dinesh Prabu
Assistant Professor
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 1 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

S.K.P. Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai VII SEM
Quality Certificate
This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material
Subject Code:EE 6007
Subject Name: Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
Year/Sem:IV/VII
Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University

curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: V.K.Dinesh Prabu
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr. V.K.Dinesh Prabu is of
the adequate quality. He has referred more than five books and one among them is
from abroad author.
Signature of HD Signature of the Principal
Name: Mrs.R.Sridevi Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi
Seal: Seal:

EE6007 MICRO ELECTRO MECHANICAL SYSTEMS LT P C3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
To provide knowledge of semiconductors and solid mechanics to fabricate MEMS
devices.
To educate on the rudiments of Micro fabrication techniques.
To introduce various sensors and actuators
To introduce different materials used for MEMS
To educate on the applications of MEMS to disciplines beyond Electrical and
Mechanical engineering.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Intrinsic Characteristics of MEMS – Energy Domains and Transducers- Sensors and
Actuators –Introduction to Micro fabrication - Silicon based MEMS processes – New
Materials – Review of Electrical and Mechanical concepts in MEMS – Semiconductor
devices – Stress and strain analysis –Flexural beam bending- Torsional deflection.
UNIT II SENSORS AND ACTUATORS-I 9
Electrostatic sensors – Parallel plate capacitors – Applications – Interdigitated Finger
capacitor –Comb drive devices – Micro Grippers – Micro Motors - Thermal Sensing and
Actuation – Thermal expansion – Thermal couples – Thermal resistors – Thermal
Bimorph - Applications – Magnetic Actuators – Micromagnetic components – Case
studies of MEMS in magnetic actuators- Actuation using Shape Memory Alloys.
UNIT III SENSORS AND ACTUATORS-II 9
Piezoresistive sensors – Piezoresistive sensor materials - Stress analysis of mechanical
elements – Applications to Inertia, Pressure, Tactile and Flow sensors – Piezoelectric
sensors and actuators – piezoelectric effects – piezoelectric materials – Applications to
Inertia , Acoustic, Tactile and Flow sensors.
UNIT IV MICROMACHINING 9
Silicon Anisotropic Etching – Anisotrophic Wet Etching – Dry Etching of Silicon –
Plasma Etching – Deep Reaction Ion Etching (DRIE) – Isotropic Wet Etching – Gas
Phase Etchants – Case studies – 97 Basic surface micro machining processes –
Structural and Sacrificial Materials – Acceleration of sacrificial Etch – Striction and
Antistriction methods – LIGA Process - Assembly of 3D MEMS – Foundry process.
UNIT V POLYMER AND OPTICAL MEMS 9
Polymers in MEMS– Polimide - SU-8 - Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) – PDMS – PMMA
– Parylene – Fluorocarbon - Application to Acceleration, Pressure, Flow and Tactile
sensors- Optical MEMS – Lenses and Mirrors – Actuators for Active Optical MEMS.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:
Ability to understand the operation of micro devices, micro systems and their
applications.
Ability to design the micro devices, micro systems using the MEMS fabrication
process.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Chang Liu, ‘Foundations of MEMS’, Pearson Education Inc., 2012.
2. Stephen D Senturia, ‘Microsystem Design’, Springer Publication, 2000.
3. Tai Ran Hsu, “MEMS & Micro systems Design and Manufacture” Tata McGraw Hill,
New Delhi, 2002.
REFERENCES:
1. Nadim Maluf,“ An Introduction to Micro Electro Mechanical System Design”, Artech
House, 2000.
2. Mohamed Gad-el-Hak, editor, “ The MEMS Handbook”, CRC press Baco Raton,
2001.
3. Julian w. Gardner, Vijay K. Varadan, Osama O.Awadelkarim, Micro Sensors MEMS
and Smart Devices, John Wiley & Son LTD, 2002.
4. James J.Allen, Micro Electro Mechanical System Design, CRC Press Publisher,
2005.
5. Thomas M.Adams and Richard A.Layton, “Introduction MEMS, Fabrication and
Application,”Springer, 2010.

CONTENTS
S.No Particulars Page
1 Unit – I 6
2 Unit – II 27
3 Unit – III 70
4 Unit – IV 81
5 Unit – V 99

UNIT 1
PART A
1. What is MEMS?(CO1-L1)
Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS, also written as micro-electro-
mechanical, MicroElectroMechanical or microelectronic and microelectromechanical
systems and the related micromechatronics) is the technology of microscopic devices,
particularly those with moving parts.
2. Write any two applications of MEMS. (CO1-L1)
3.What is MICRO Machining? (CO1-L1)
4. Name some special materials used in MEMS. (CO1-L1)
1. Silicon Carbide.
2. Gallium Arsenide.
3. Germanium

5.What is meant by semiconducting devices? (CO1-L1)
Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic

properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have
replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most applications. They use electronic
conduction in the solid state as opposed to the gaseous state or thermionic
emission in a high vacuum.
6.What is meant by residual stress? (CO1-L1)
Residual stress in films can be either compressive or tensile. If the stress is large
enough, it could lead to fracture of the substrate, film or substrate/film interface.
According to the theorem of minimum energy, the equilibrium state of an elastic solid
body is when the potential energy of the system is at a minimum.In extreme cases
tensile residual stress may lead to film cracking and peeling away from the substrate
and compressive residual stress may lead to film buckling and delamination from the
substrate. Besides the extreme cases just mentioned, residual stresses may also lead
to the generation of crystalline defects, imperfection of epitaxial layers and the
formation of film surface features such as hillocks and whiskers .These less obvious
results of residual stress may affect material properties such as magnetization,
reflectivity and electrical conductivity.
7.What is flexural beam bending? (CO1-L1)
A beam is a structural member whose length is large compared to its cross sectional
area which is loaded and supported in the direction transverse to its axis. Lateral
loads acting on the beam cause the beam to bend or flex, thereby deforming the axis
of the beam into a curved line.
8.What is meant by Torsional Deflection? (CO1-L1)
When a beam is transversely loaded in such a manner that the resultant force
passes through the longitudinal shear centre axis, the beam only bends and no

torsion will occur. When the resultant acts away from the shear centre axis, then the
beam will not only bend but also twist.
UNIT–I
PART B
1.What is MEMS? Mention its applications. (CO1-L2)
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS, also written as micro-electro-

mechanical, MicroElectroMechanical or microelectronic and microelectromechanical
systems and the related micromechatronics) is the technology of microscopic devices,
particularly those with moving parts. It merges at the nano-scale
intonanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and nanotechnology. MEMS are also
referred to as micromachines in Japan, or micro systems technology (MST) in
Europe.


2.Which material is widely used in MEMS technology and why? (CO1-L2)

3.Descibe in detail about sensors and actuators? (CO1-L2)


3.Write short notes on Micro Fabrication. (CO2-L2)

4.Write short notes on Silicon based MEMS.(CO2-L2).



5.What are the materials used in MEMS Technology? (CO2-L1)


SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES:
Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic

properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have
replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most applications. They use
electronic conduction in the solid state as opposed to the gaseous state or
thermionic emission in a high vacuum.
Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as
integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a number—from a few (as low as two) to
billions—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor
substrate, or wafer.
Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily
manipulated by the addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor
conductivity can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by
exposure to light or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped
monocrystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current
conduction in a semiconductor occurs via mobile or "free" electrons and holes,
collectively known as charge. Doping a semiconductor such as silicon with a small
amount of impurity atoms, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly increases the
number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped
semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains
excess free electrons it is known as "n-type", where p(positive for holes) or n
(negative for electrons) is the sign of the charge of the majority mobile charge
carriers. The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly
controlled conditions in a fabrication facility, or fab, to control precisely the location
and concentration of p- and n- type dopants. The junctions which form where n-type
and p-type semiconductors join together are called p–n junctions.
A semiconductor diode is a device typically made from a single p–n junction. At the
junction of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor there forms a depletion region
where current conduction is inhibited by the lack of mobile charge carriers. When the
device is forward biased (connected with the p-side at higher electric potential than
the n-side), this depletion region is diminished,allowing for significant conduction,

while only very small current can be achieved when the diode is reverse biased and
thus the depletion region expanded.
Exposing a semiconductor to light can generate electron–hole pairs, which increases
the number of free carriers and thereby the conductivity. Diodes optimized to take
advantage of this phenomenon are known as photodiodes. Compound
semiconductor diodes can also be used to generate light, as in light-emitting diodes
and laser diodes.
Bipolar junction transistors are formed from two p–n junctions, in either n–p–n or p–
n–p configuration. The middle, or base, region between the junctions is typically very
narrow. The other regions, and their associated terminals, are known as the emitter
and the collector. A small current injected through the junction between the base and
the emitter changes the properties of the base-collector junction so that it can
conduct current even though it is reverse biased. This creates a much larger current
between the collector and emitter, controlled by the base-emitter current.
Another type of transistor, the field-effect transistor, operates on the principle that
semiconductor conductivity can be increased or decreased by the presence of an
electric. An electric field can increase the number of free electrons and holes in a
semiconductor, thereby changing its conductivity. The field may be applied by a
reverse-biased p–n junction, forming a junction field-effect transistor (JFET) or by an
electrode insulated from the bulk material by an oxide layer, forming a metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).
The MOSFET, a solid-state device, is the most used semiconductor device
today. The gate electrode is charged to produce an electric field that controls the
conductivity of a "channel" between two terminals, called the source and drain.
Depending on the type of carrier in the channel, the device may be an n-channel (for
electrons) or a p-channel (for holes) MOSFET. Although the MOSFET is named
in part for its "metal" gate, in modern devices polysilicon is typically used
instead.
Semiconductor device materials

Silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices. Its
combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a useful

temperature range makes it currently the best compromise among the various
competing materials. Silicon used in semiconductor device manufacturing is
currently fabricated into boules that are large enough in diameter to allow the
production of 300 mm (12 in.) wafers.
Germanium (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its thermal
sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is often alloyed with
silicon for use in very- high-speed SiGe devices; IBM is a major producer of such
devices.
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has
been difficult to form large-diameter boules of this material, limiting the wafer
diameter to sizes significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass
production of GaAs devices significantly more expensive than silicon.
Other less common materials are also in use or under investigation.
Silicon carbide (SiC) has found some application as the raw material for blue light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices
that could withstand very high operating temperatures and environments with the
presence of significant levels of ionizing radiation. IMPATT diodes have
also been fabricated from SiC.Various indium compounds (indium arsenide,
indium antimonite, and indium phosphate) are also being used in LEDs and solid
state laser diodes. Selenium sulfide is being studied in the manufacture of
photovoltaic solar cells.The most common use for organic semiconductors is
Organic light-emitting diodes.
6.Discuss about the stress and strain in MEMS. (CO1-L2)
Thin Film Residual Stress Desirable or not, internal or residual stress is almost
always going to be present in thin films. Stress may be present in thin films whether
or not external loads are applied and may be due to a variety of reasons that are
introduced during film deposition, which include: differential thermal expansion of the
film/substrate, mismatches between the lattice parameter of the film and the
substrate, atomic peening, incorporation of foreign atoms, microscopic voids,
variation of interatomic spacing with crystal size, recrystallization processes,
crystallite coalescence at grain boundaries and phase transformations .To clarify
between commonly used terms when discussing stress in thin films, residual stress,
σr, will be used as a more inclusive term. It will include the contributions of both

thermal stress, σ (T), and intrinsic stress, σi. Thermal stress in thin films will develop
because of differential thermal expansion of a substrate/film system. Differential
thermal expansion of the film and the substrate is due to a mismatch in coefficients
of thermal expansion (CTE). When a film/substrate composite experiences a change
in temperature, the two different materials are going to expand or contract by
different amounts. However, continuity of strain must be preserved, which means
that both materials will be constrained, resulting in thermal stress. Intrinsic stress is
defined as the internal stress created as a result of the growth processes during film
deposition. Therefore, the residual stress can be defined as the sum of
the two types of internal stresses.
Residual stress in films can be either compressive or tensile. If the stress is large
enough, it could lead to fracture of the substrate, film or substrate/film interface.
According to the theorem of minimum energy, the equilibrium state of an elastic solid
body is when the potential energy of the system is at a minimum. For a system that
is experiencing externally applied forces or residual stress, the system may find an
equilibrium position if rupture has occurred reducing the potential energy of the
system .Summarizing the theorem of minimum energy, the strain energy caused by
residual stress may be reduced by the rupture or delamination of the film. In extreme
cases tensile residual stress may lead to film cracking and peeling away from the
substrate and compressive residual stress may lead to film buckling and
delamination from the substrate.
Besides the extreme cases just mentioned, residual stresses may also lead to the
generation of crystalline defects, imperfection of epitaxial layers and the formation of
film surface features such as hillocks and whiskers .These less obvious results of
residual stress may affect material properties such as magnetization, reflectivity and
electrical conductivity.
MEASURING RESIDUAL STRESS:
Completely avoiding residual stresses in thin films is impossible to do. For many
applications small amounts of residual stress may be tolerable and may not have
any significant effects on the operation and reliability of the device. For ensuring
device operation and for optimizing deposition parameters, it is necessary to
measure the amount of residual stress in thin films. Techniques for measuring
residual stress will be different from the techniques used for measuring the stress as
the result of externally applied forces. For externally applied loads there will be a
direct cause and effect that is in general, easily measured. For example, if an
external force is uniaxially applied to an arbitrary body, the result will be a
deformation of the body that is proportional to the applied force.

If the strain is kept within elastic limits, the body will return to its initial shape
upon unloading and the material is said to be perfectly elastic. In most cases the
strain 54 can be directly measured during loading and unloading by the use of
extensometers or strain gages. By the use of Hooke’s law, which defines stress as
being proportional to strain, the stress can then be calculated. For residual stress in
thin films, a simple measurement of the strain produced during deposition is not as
straight forward. Residual stress produced during sputter deposition is an example
where strain gages and extensometers cannot be used to get a direct measurement
of strain. One tell-tale sign of having large amounts of residual stress in a film is by
observing the effects it has on its substrate. In extreme cases the film will
spontaneously delaminate from the substrate, where in other cases there may be
apparent bending of the film/substrate. In the mid 1800s to early 1900s, many
scientists observed these unwanted results when electrolytically depositing metallic
films [55, 56]. Since those early observations, calculating residual stress in films by
measuring the change in curvature of the substrate before and after film deposition
has been a popular method. The use of X-ray diffractometry has also become an
accepted technique for determining residual stress in crystalline films where a direct
determination of elastic strain is possible.
Curvature Method:
The majority of formulas used in the determination of thin film residual stress by
curvature techniques are variations of an equation first given by G. Stoney in 1909
[56]. The derivation of the formula is relatively straight forward and is based on a
mechanics of materials approach. Hypothetically starting with a film under
compressive residual stress, an exaggerated film/substrate pair would appear as
shown in Figure 26. The compressive stress is the result of the film wanting to
expand, but it is being constrained 55 by the substrate. Therefore, the system would
be concave downward with a negative curvature.
STRESS CALCULATION ASSUMING UNIFORM CURVATURE AND FILM

THICKNESS:
There are many tools that work well for calculating residual stress in thin films
based on the curvature method previously discussed. For many of the tools
available, the assumptions used when deriving the Stoney formula are also made for
the stress calculation. For example, the user will be asked to input the substrate and
film thicknesses and the substrate mechanical properties E and . From there it is
assumed that materials are isotropic and homogeneous and that the thicknesses are

uniform. The only measurement that is taken by the equipment will be the curvature
before and after film deposition. The method used for measuring the curvature will
vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and include optical, mechanical, magnetic
and electrical methods. A Flexus 2-300 is one of the tools used here, which utilizes
an optical method for measuring the curvature in order to calculate the thin film
residual stress. It uses a single laser and a series of mirrors and optics to split the
beam into two parts and direct them down at the sample surface. If the sample
surface is optically smooth, the two beams will be reflected off the sample surface
and detected by two light sensors that record the beams’ position. As the curvature
of the sample changes, the position of the reflected light beam on the light sensor
will also change. By knowing the geometry of the system, presented in Figure 29, the
curvature can be calculated for the sample. The curvature is straightforward to
calculate by knowing two distances: 1) the distance between the wafer 60 and light
detectors and 2) the distance between the two points where the laser beam hits the
wafer. From there, the angles α and β in can be determined, which can be
related to the slope of the wafer at the two points. This geometric proof
is only valid for small angles Φ, where the straight line D can be assumed to be
equal to the arc length. Geometry of the Flexus 2-300 curvature calculation. The
sample holder for the Flexus 2-300 requires 4” or 6” wafers and it can be rotated in
45º increments. It also has a heating table built into the sample holder so that
thermal stress can be calculated.
FLEXURAL BEAM BENDING:
A beam is a structural member whose length is large compared to its cross sectional
area which is loaded and supported in the direction transverse to its axis. Lateral
loads acting on the beam cause the beam to bend or flex, thereby deforming the axis
of the beam into a curved line. We shall now consider the stresses and
strains associated with bending moments. Pure Bending Assumptions: 1.
Beam is straight before loads are applied and has a constant cross- sectional area.
2. Beam has a longitudinal plane of symmetry and the bending moment lies within
this plane. 3. Beam is subjected to pure bending (bending moment does not change
along the length). 4. Beam material is homogeneous and isotropic. Experiments show that
beams subjected to pure bending (see above) deform is such a way that plane
sections remain plane. In other words, planes perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis before loading remain plane and
perpendicular to the axis after loading. Beam sections rotate relative to one another
when the beam deforms. Consider the following rubber beam with grid lines
subjected to pure bending.
Strain – Deformation Relationship: Now let’s consider a beam subjected to an

arbitrary transverse load. The deformations can be related to the strains by

considering a small element of the beam ∆x. It is helpful to of the beam as consisting
of a number of longitudinal fibers, or line elements, laid side by side. As shown
above, before bending: AB = CD = EF = ∆x After bending (deformations greatly
exaggerated for clarity) line segment AB shortened, line segment CD lengthened
and line segment EF does not change. Line segment EF is the edge of the surface
extending over the width and length of the beam and is referred to as the neutral
surface. The intersection of the neutral surface with the longitudinal plane of
symmetry is called the neutral axis and coincides with the centroidal axis of the cross
section.
7.Write in detail about the Torsional deflection. (CO1-L2)
INTRODUCTION:
When a beam is transversely loaded in such a manner that the resultant force
passes through the longitudinal shear centre axis, the beam only bends and no
torsion will occur. When the resultant acts away from the shear centre axis, then the
beam will not only bend but also twist. When a beam is subjected to a pure bending
moment, originally plane transverse sections before the load was applied, remain
plane after the member is loaded. Even in the presence of shear, the modification of
stress distribution in most practical cases is very small so that the Engineer’s Theory
of Bending is sufficiently accurate. If a beam is subjected to a twisting moment, the
assumption of planarity is simply incorrect except for solid circular sections and for
hollow circular sections with constant thickness. Any other section will warp when
twisted. Computation of stress distribution based on the assumption of planarity will
give misleading results. Torsional stiffness is also seriously affected by this warping.
If originally plane sections remained plane after twist, the torsional rigidity could be
calculated simply as the product of the polar moment of inertia (Ip = Ixx + Iyy)
multiplied by (G), the shear modulus, viz. G. (Ixx + Iyy). It should be emphasized
that the end sections of a member subjected to warping may be modified by
constraints. If the central section remains plane, for example, due to symmetry of
design and loading, the stresses at this section will differ from those based on free
warping.
Uniform and Non Uniform Torsion:
Shear Centre is defined as the point in the cross-section through which the
lateral (or transverse) loads must pass to produce bending without twisting. It is also
the centre of rotation, when only pure torque is applied. The shear centre
and the centroid of the cross section will coincide, when section has
two axes of symmetry. The shear centre will be on the axis of symmetry,

when the cross section has one axis of symmetry.
If the loads are applied away from the shear centre axis, torsion besides flexure will
be the evident result. The beam will be subjected to stresses due to torsion, as well
as due to bending. The effect of torsional loading can be further split into two parts,
the first part causing twist and the second, warping. These are discussed in detail in
the next section. Warping of the section does not allow a plane section to remain as
plane after twisting. This phenomenon is predominant in Thin Walled Sections,
although consideration will have to be given to warping occasionally in hot rolled
sections. An added characteristic associated with torsion of non- circular sections is
the in-plane distortion of the cross-section, which can usually be prevented by the
provision of a stiff diaphragm. Distortion as a phenomenon is not covered herein, as
it is beyond the scope of this chapter. Methods of calculating the position of the
shear centre of a cross section are found in standard textbooks on Strength of
Materials.
Classification of Torsion as Uniform and Non-uniform :
As explained above when torsion is applied to a structural member, its cross section
may warp in addition to twisting. If the member is allowed to warp freely, then the
applied torque is resisted entirely by torsional shear stresses (called St. Venant's
torsional shear stress). If the member is not allowed to warp freely, the applied
torque is resisted by St. Venant's torsional shear stress and warping torsion. This
behaviour is called nonuniform torsion. Hence (as stated above), the effect of torsion
can be further split into two parts: • Uniform or Pure Torsion (called St. Venant's
torsion) - Tsv • Non-Uniform Torsion, consisting of St.Venant's torsion (Tsv) and
warping torsion (Tw).
Uniform Torsion in a Circular Cross Section:

Let us consider a bar of constant circular cross section subjected to torsion as shown
in Fig. 1. In this case, plane cross sections normal to the axis of the member remain
plane after twisting, i.e. there is no warping. The torque is solely resisted by
circumferential shear stresses caused by St. Venant's torsion. Its magnitude varies as
its distance from the centroid.

UNIT 2
PART A
1. What is Electrostatic Capacitor /parallel plate Capacitor? (CO1-L1)
Parallel Plate Capacitor. k = relative permittivity of the dielectric material
between the plates. k=1 for free space, k>1 for all media, approximately =1
for air. The Farad, F, is the SI unit for capacitance, and from the definition of
capacitance is seen to be equal to a Coulomb/Volt.
2. What is Interdigited Capacitor? (CO1-L1)

The interdigital (or interdigitated) capacitor is an element for producing acapacitor-
like, high pass characteristic using microstrip lines. The shape of conductors is
defined by the parameters shown in Figure 1. Notice that the long conductors or
“fingers”provide coupling between the input and output ports across the gaps.
Typically, the gaps(G) between fingers and at the end of the fingers (GE) are the
same. The length (L) andwidth (W) of the fingers are also specified. Since the
conductors are mounted on a substrate, its characteristics will also affect
performance. Of particular importance are the height of the substrate (h) and its
dielectric constant ( r). In addition, the thickness of the conductor (t) and its
resistivity ( ) will also impact the electrical characteristics.
3. What is Comb Drive? (CO1-L1)
Comb-drives are actuators, often used as linear actuators electrostatic forces that
act between two electrically conductive combs. Comb drive actuators typically
operate at the micro- or nanometer scale and are generally manufactured by bulk

micromachining or surface micromachining a silicon wafer substrate.
4. What is micro gripper and mention its applications? (CO1-L1)

Micro grippers are miniaturized tools specifically designed for handling objects
ranging from nanometers up to 400 µm in width/diameter. FT-G grippers are ideal for
a variety applications
including: sample handling, micro assembly, micro-factories, biological and

biomedical research, and the handling of parts in scanning electron microscopes.
The closing & opening of the gripper arms can be controlled with nanometer
precision and the model FT-G32 and FT- G102 grippers feature an integrated force
sensor (an industry first) for determining gripping force. Unlike other
grippers/tweezers that are actuated by thermal expansion, grippers are electrostatic
and do not heat up during operation.
5. What is micro motor and mention its applications? (CO1-L1)
Micromotors are very small particles (measured in microns) that can move
themselves. These micromotors actually propel themselves in a specific direction
autonomously when placed in a chemical solution. A set of oxidation-reduction
reactions produce a stream of bubbles that then propels these micromotors through
the chemical media. Spherical micromotors are called Janus spheres, because they
are composed of two different materials, like the two-faced Roman god of change
Janus.
Micrometers may have applications in medicine since they have been shown to be
able to deliver materials to living cells within an organism. They also have been
shown to be effective in degrading certain chemical and biological warfare agents.

6. What is sensors and mention its applications? (CO1-L1)

Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon (temperature,
displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional output signal (electrical,
mechanical, magnetic, etc.). The term transducer is often used synonymously with
sensors. However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a change in the
physical phenomenon. On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts one
form of energy into another form of energy. Sensors are transducers when they
sense one form of energy input and output in a different form of energy. For
example, a thermocouple responds to a temperature change (thermal energy) and
outputs a proportional change in electromotive force (electrical energy). Therefore, a
thermocouple can be called a sensor and or transducer.
7. Write short notes on flow sensors? (CO1-L1)
Flow sensing is relatively a difficult task. The fluid medium can be liquid, gas, or a
mixture of the two. Furthermore, the flow could be laminar or turbulent and
can be a time-varying phenomenon. The venturi meter and orifice plate restrict
the flow and use the pressure difference to determine the flow rate. The pivot tube
pressure probe is another popular method of measuring flow rate. When positioned
against the flow, they measure the total and static pressures. The flow velocity and in
turn the flow rate can then be determined. The rotameter and the turbine meters
when placed in the flow path, rotate at a speed proportional to the flow rate. The
electromagnetic flow meters use noncontact method. Magnetic field is applied in the
transverse direction of the flow and the fluid acts as the conductor to induce voltage
proportional to the flow rate.
8. Write short notes on temperature sensors? (CO1-L1)
Temperature Sensors A variety of devices are available to measure temperature, the
most common of which are thermocouples, thermisters, resistance temperature
detectors (RTD), and infrared types. Thermocouples are the most versatile,

inexpensive, and have a wide range (up to 1200∞C typical). A thermocouple simply
consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at the ends to create the sensing
junction. When used in conjunction with a reference junction, the temperature
difference between the reference junction and the actual temperature shows up as a
voltage potential. Thermisters are semiconductor devices whose resistance changes
as the temperature changes. They are good for very high sensitivity measurements
in a limited range of up to 100∞C. The relationship between the temperature and the
resistance is nonlinear. The RTDs use the phenomenon that the resistance of a
metal changes with temperature. They are, however, linear over a wide range and
most stable.
9. What is actuators? (CO1-L1)
Actuators are basically the muscle behind a mechatronics system that accepts a
control command (mostly in the form of an electrical signal) and produces a change
in the physical system by generating force, motion, heat, flow, etc. Normally, the
actuators are used in conjunction with the power supply and a coupling mechanism
as shown in Fig. 16.7. The power unit provides either AC or DC power at the rated
voltage and current. The coupling mechanism acts as the interface between the
actuator and the physical system. Typical mechanisms include rack and pinion, gear
drive, belt drive, lead screw and nut, piston, and linkages.
10. How are actuators selected for the desired applications? (CO1-L2)
Continuous power output—The maximum force/torque attainable continuously
without exceeding the temperature limits
Range of motion—The range of linear/rotary motion Resolution—The minimum

increment of force/torque attainable
Accuracy—Linearity of the relationship between the input and output Peak
force/torque—The force/torque at which the actuator stalls
Heat dissipation—Maximum wattage of heat dissipation in continuous operation

Speed characteristics—Force/torque versus speed relationship

No load speed—Typical operating speed/velocity with no external load
Frequency response—The range of frequency over which the output follows the
input faithfully, applicable to linear actuators
Power requirement—Type of power (AC or DC), number of phases, voltage level,
and current capacity.
11. What is meant by Thermocouple? (CO1-L1)

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two different conductors
forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces
a temperature- dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and
this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely
used type of temperature sensor.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include
temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel, and other industrial
processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the
temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety devices for
gas-powered major appliances.
12. What is meant by Thermal Biomorph? (CO1-L2)
A bimorph is a cantilever used for actuation or sensing which consists of two active
layers. It can also have a passive layer between the two active layers. In
contrast, a piezoelectric unimorph has only one active (i.e. piezoelectric) layer and
one passive (i.e. non- piezoelectric) layer.
The term is most commonly used with piezoelectric bimorphs. In actuator

applications, one active layer contracts and the other expand if voltage is
applied, thus the bimorph bends. In sensing applications, bending the bimorph
produces voltage which can for example be used to measure displacement or

acceleration. This mode can also be used for energy harvesting.[1]
A bimetal could be regarded as a thermally activated bimorph. The first theory about
the bending of thermally activated bimorphs was given by Stoney. Newer
developments also enabled electrostatically activated bimorphs for the use in
Microelectromechanical systems
13. What are magnetic actuators? (CO1-L2)
Electromagnetic Actuators
The solenoid is the most common electromagnetic actuator. A DC solenoid actuator
consists of a soft iron core enclosed within a current carrying coil. When the coil is
energized, a magnetic field is established that provides the force to push or pull the
iron core. AC solenoid devices are also encountered, such as AC excitation relay.
Normally, due to the spring force, the soft iron core is pushed to the extreme left
position as shown. When the solenoid is excited, the soft iron core will move to the
right extreme position thus providing the electromagnetic actuation. Another
important type is the electromagnet. The electromagnets are used extensively in
applications that require large forces.

UNIT -2
PART B
1.Write a detail notes on Electrostatic sensor. (CO2-L2)









2.Discuss in detail about Comb Drive Actuator. (CO2-L2)






3.Write a short notes on Micro Grippers. (CO2-L2)




4.Explain the Interdigitated Finger Capacitor with neat Diagram. (CO2-L2)



5.Write the brief notes on Micro Motor. (CO2-L2)






7.Discuss about the thermal sensing element of MEMS. (CO2-L2)






A MEMS magnetic actuator is a device that uses the microelectromechanical

systems (MEMS) to convert an electric current into a mechanical output by employing
the well-known Lorentz Force Equation or the theory of Magnetism.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) technology is a process technology in

which mechanical and electro-mechanical devices or structures are constructed using
special microfabrication techniques. These techniques include: bulk micro-
machining, surface micromachining, LIGA, wafer bonding, etc.
A device is considered to be a MEMS device if it satisfies the following:
If its feature size is between 0.1 µm and hundreds of micrometers. (below this
range, it becomes a nano device and above the range, it is considered a

mesosystem)
If it has some electrical functionality in its operation. This could include the
generation of voltage by electromagnetic induction, by changing the gap
between 2 electrodes or by a piezoelectric material.
If the device has some mechanical functionality such as the deformation of a
beam or diaphragm due to stress or strain.
If it has a system-like functionality. The device must be integrable to other
circuitries to form a system. This would be the interfacing circuitry and packaging
for the device to become useful.
For the analysis of every MEMS device, the Lumped assumption is made: that if the
size of the device is far less than the characteristic length scale of the phenomenon
(wave or diffusion), then there would be no spatial variations across the entire
device. Modelling becomes easy under this assumption.[2]
The principle of magnetic actuation is based on the Lorentz Force Equation.

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a static magnetic field, the field
produced around the conductor interacts with the static field to produce a force.
This force can be used to cause the displacement of a mechanical structure.
Magnetic actuation is not limited to the use of Lorentz force to cause a mechanical
displacement. Magnetostrictive actuators can also use the theory of magnetism to
bring about displacement. Materials that change their shapes when exposed to
magnetic fields can now be used to drive high-reliability linear
motors and actuators.. An example is a nickel rod that tends to deform
when it is placed in an external magnetic field. Another example is wrapping a series
of electromagnetic induction coils around a metal tube in which a Terfenol-D material
is placed. The coils generate a moving magnetic field that courses wavelike down
the successive windings along the stator tube. As the traveling magnetic field causes
each succeeding cross section of Terfenol-D to elongate, then contract when the
field is removed, the rod will actually "crawl" down the stator tube like an inchworm.
Repeated propagating waves of magnetic flux will translate the rod down the tube's
length, producing a useful stroke and force output. The amount of motion generated
by the material is proportional to the magnetic field provided by the coil system,
which is a function of the electric current. This type of motive device, which features
a single moving part, is called an elastic-wave or peristaltic linear motor

Advantages of magnetic actuators
High actuation force and stroke (displacement)

Direct, fully linear transduction (in the case of electrodynamics actuation)
Bi-directional actuation
Contactless remote actuation
Low-voltage actuation
A figure of merit for actuators is the density of field energy that can be
stored in the gap between the rotor and stator. Magnetic actuation has a
potentially high energy density.


UNIT 3
PART A
1. What is meant by Piezo resistor? (CO1-L1)
Piezoresistors are resistors made from a piezoresistive material and are usually
used for measurement of mechanical stress. They are the simplest form of
piezoresistive devices.
Piezoresistors can be fabricated using wide variety of piezoresistive materials.
The simplest form of piezoresistive silicon sensors are diffused resistors.
Piezoresistors consist of a simple two contact diffused n- or p-wells within a p- or n-
substrate. As the typical square resistances of these devices are in the range of
several hundred ohms, additional p+ or n+ plus diffusions are necessary to facilitate
ohmic contacts to the device.
2. What is meant by Piezo electric effect? (CO1-L1)
The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction
between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no
inversion symmetry.[4] The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that

materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical
charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse
piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical strain resulting from an
applied electrical field). For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate
measurable piezoelectricity when their static structure is deformed by about 0.1% of
the original dimension. Conversely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of
their static dimension when an external electric field is applied to the material. The
inverse piezoelectric effect is used in production of ultrasonic sound waves.
3. Mention the type of materials used in Piezo Electric. (CO1-L1)

Quartz
Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz

Sucrose (table sugar)

Rochelle salt
Topaz
Tourmaline-group minerals
Lead titanate
What is meant by Inertia Sensor?
Inertial sensors are sensors based on inertia. These range from MEMS inertial
sensors, measuring only a few square mm, up to ring laser gyroscopes which are
extremely accurate but can measure 50 cm in diameter.
4.What is meant by Acoustic Sensor? (CO1-L1)
An acoustic wave sensor is an electronic device that can measure sound levels.
They are called acoustic wave sensors because their detection mechanism is a
mechanical (or acoustic) wave.
5.What is meant by Tactile Sensor? (CO1-L1)
A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical

interaction with its environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after the
biological sense of cutaneous touch which is capable of detecting stimuli resulting
from mechanical stimulation, temperature, and pain (although pain sensing is not
common in artificial tactile sensors). Tactile sensors are used in robotics, computer
hardware and security systems. A common application of tactile sensors is in
touchscreen devices on mobile phones and computing.
6.What is meant by Flow sensors? (CO1-L1)
A flow sensor is a device for sensing the rate of fluid flow. Typically a flow
sensoris the sensing element used in a flow meter, or flow logger, to record the flow
of fluids. As is true for all sensors, absolute accuracy of a measurement requires a
functionality for calibration.

7.What is meant by pressure sensor? (CO1-L1)
A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure is an

expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in
terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it
generates a signal as afunction of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this
article, such a signal is electrical.
Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday
applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables
such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can
alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure
senders, pressure indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other
names.

UNIT 3
PART B
1.Discuss about the piezo Electric Effect with neat diagram. (CO2-L2)


2.Explain about the Piezo Electric Transducer. (CO2-L2)


3. Explain about the Capacitive Transducer. (CO2-L1)

4.Discuss about the various types of sensors in MEMS. (CO2-L2)
A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical

interaction with its environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after the
biological sense of cutaneous touch which is capable of detecting stimuli resulting
from mechanical stimulation, temperature, and pain (although pain sensing is not
common in artificial tactile sensors). Tactile sensors are used in robotics,
computer hardware and security systems. A common application of tactile sensors is
intouchscreen devices on mobile phones and computing.
Tactile sensors may be of different types including piezoresistive, piezoelectric,

capacitive and elastoresistive sensors.[2]
A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure is an

expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated
in terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it
generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this
article, such a signal is electrical.
Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday
applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other
variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors
can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters,
pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers
and manometers, among other names.
Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance,

application suitability and cost. A conservative estimate would be that there may be
over 50 technologies and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors
worldwide.

There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a

dynamic mode for capturing very high speed changes in pressure. Example
applications for this type of sensor would be in the measuring of combustion
pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These sensors are commonly
manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.
Some pressure sensors, such as those found in some traffic enforcement cameras,
function in a binary (off/on) manner, i.e., when pressure is applied to a pressure sensor,
the sensor acts to complete or break an electrical circuit. These types of sensors are
also known as a pressure switch
Absolute pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum.
Gauge pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure
gauge is an example of gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then
the pressure it is measuring is the same as the ambient pressure.
Vacuum pressure sensor
This term can cause confusion. It may be used to describe a sensor that measures
pressures below atmospheric pressure, showing the difference between that low
pressure and atmospheric pressure (i.e. negative gauge pressure), but it may also
be used to describe a sensor that measures low pressure relative to perfect vacuum
(i.e. absolute pressure).
Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected to each
side of the sensor. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many
properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels (by
comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the
change in pressure across a restriction). Technically speaking, most pressure
sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure
sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is open to the
ambient atmosphere.
Sealed pressure sensor
This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure
relative to some fixed pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which
varies according to the location and the weather).
A flow sensor is a device for sensing the rate of fluid flow. Typically a flow sensor is
the sensing element used in a flow meter, or flow logger, to record the flow of fluids.
As is true for all sensors, absolute accuracy of a measurement requires a
functionality for calibration.
There are various kinds of flow sensors and flow meters, including some that have a
vane that is pushed by the fluid, and can drive a potentiometer, or similar devices.
Other flow sensors are based on sensors which measure the transfer of heat caused
by the moving medium (Thermal mass flow meter). This principle is common for
microsensors to measure flow.
Flow meters are related to devices called velocimeters that measure velocity of fluids
flowing through them. Laser-basedinterferometry is often used for air flow
measurement, but for liquids, it is often easier to measure the flow. Another
approach is Doppler-based methods for flow.

UNIT 4
PART A
1. What is Etching? (CO2-L1)
Etching is used in microfabrication to chemically remove layers from the
surface of a wafer during manufacturing. Etching is a critically important process
module, and every wafer undergoes many etching steps before it is complete.
For many etch steps, part of the wafer is protected from the etchant by a "masking"
material which resists etching. In some cases, the masking material is a photoresist
which has been patterned using photolithography. Other situations require a more
durable mask, such as silicon nitride.
2. What is Silicon Anisotropic Etching? (CO2-L2)
Some wet etchants etch crystalline materials at very different rates depending upon
which crystal face is exposed. In single-crystal materials (e.g. silicon wafers), this
effect can allow very high anisotropy, as shown in the figure. The term
"crystallographic etching" is synonymous with "anisotropic etching along crystal
planes".
3. What is meant by Wet Etching? (CO2-L2)
The first etching processes used liquid-phase ("wet") etchants. The wafer can be
immersed in a bath of etchant, which must be agitated to achieve good process
control. For instance, buffered hydrofluoric acid (BHF) is used commonly to etch
silicon dioxide over a silicon substrate.
Different specialized etchants can be used to characterize the surface etched.
Wet etchants are usually isotropic, which leads to large bias when etching thick films.
They also require the disposal of large amounts of toxic waste. For these reasons,
they are seldom used in state-of-the-art processes. However, the photographic
developer used for photoresist resembles wet etching.
4. What is meant by Plasma Etching? (CO2-L2)
Plasma etching is a form of plasma processing used to fabricate integrated circuits.
It involves a high-speed stream of glow discharge (plasma) of an appropriate gas

mixture being shot (in pulses) at a sample. The plasma source, known as etch
species, can be either charged (ions) or neutral (atoms and radicals). During the
process, the plasma will generate volatile etch products at room temperature from
the chemical reactions between the elements of the material etched and the reactive
species generated by the plasma. Eventually the atoms of the shot element
embed themselves at or just below the surface of the target, thus modifying the
physical properties of the target.
5. What is meant by Deep reactive-ion etching ? (CO2-L1)
Deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) is a highly anisotropic etch process used to
create deep penetration, steep-sided holes and trenches in wafers/substrates,
typically with highaspect ratios . It was developed for microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS), which require these features, but is also used to excavate
trenches for high-density capacitors forDRAM and more recently for creating through
silicon vias (TSVs) in advanced 3D wafer level packaging technology .
6. What is meant by Isotropic etching ? (CO2-L2)
Isotropic etching (e.g. wet etching or chemical etching) is a method commonly
used in semiconductor technology to remove material from a substrate via a
chemical process using an etchant substance. The etchant may be a corrosive
liquid or a chemically active ionized gas, known as a plasma. Unlike dry etching,
isotropic etching does not etch in a single direction, but rather etches horizontally as
well as vertically into the surface of the substrate. The horizontal etching may result
in undercutting of patterned areas and significant changes in device characteristics.
Isotropic etching may occur unavoidably, or it may be desirable for process reasons.
7. What is meant by Thermochemical nanolithography ? (CO2-L3)
Thermochemical nanolithography (TCNL) or thermochemical scanning probe
lithography (tc- SPL) is a scanning probe microscopy-based nanolithography
technique which triggers thermally activated chemical reactions to change the

chemical functionality or the phase of surfaces. Chemical changes can be written

very quickly through rapid probe scanning, since no mass is transferred from the tip
to the surface, and writing speed is limited only by the heat transfer rate TCNL was
invented in 2007 by a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology. [1] Riedo and
collaborators demonstrated that TCNL can produce local chemical changes with
feature sizes down to 12 nm at scan speeds up to 1 mm/s.[1]

8. What is LIGA? (CO2-L2)
LIGA isa German acronym for Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung
(Lithography, Electroplating, and Molding) that describes a fabrication technology used
to create high-aspect-ratio microstructures.

UNIT 4
PART B
1. Describe about the Anisotropic Etching Process. (CO2-L2)

Anisotropic etching of silicon has become an important technology in silicon
semiconductor processing during the past ten years. It will continue to gain stature and
acceptance as standard processing technology in the next few years. Anisotropic
etching of (100) orientation silicon is being widely used today and (110) orientation
technology is emerging. This paper discusses both orientation-dependent and
concentration-dependent etching of (100) and (110) silicon. Very exact process
control steps may be designed into a process by use of (100) anisotropic and
concentration-dependent etching. Also, methods of oxide or nitride pin hole detection
in (100) silicon are pre-sented. Mask alignments to obtain different etch front
termination in both (100) and (110) silicon are shown. Very high packing density
structures, less than 1 pm, are obtained in the (110) technology, and extremely high
etching ratios of greater than 650 tu 1 are obtained in (110) orientation-dependent
etching. Some of the many applications for anisotropic and concentration-dependent
etching are described.
ORIENTATION:
WET CHEMICAL ETCHING has been used in silicon semiconductor processing
since its beginning in the early 1950’s. Isotropic etches, Le. etches that etch in all
crystallographic direction at the same rate, consisting of hydro-fluoric, nitric, and
acetic acid (HF, HN03, and CH300H) were used for etching and chemically polishing
in the early w:9rk [ l ] -141. In the more recent past, people have become interested
in anisotropic or orientation-dependent etches [5] .-I71 (ODE). This paper will
discuss primarily wet chemical, orientation- dependent, and concentration-
dependent etching; however, vapor phase and plasma orientation-dependent etching
are also of current interest and many of the same masking ;!nd alignment
technologies apply. We will describe etch solutioos, masking materials, mask
alignments, and impurity condemnation etch dependence for both.
Etches and Masks
Table I gives some of the etches used in both planar End orientation-dependent
etching.
Planar etch is an etch consistingof hydrofluoric, nitric, and acetic acid (HF- 8 percent,
HN03 - 75 percent, CH300H - 17 percent). This solut on etches silicon at about 5
pm/min at 25°C. The etch rat( is approximately equal in all crystalographic directions

as 1he name planar indicates. The ratios of the constituents of plaa1,ar etch may be
altered to change the etch rate drastically. ]:':x example "B" etch is a mixture
consisting of 1 part HF, parts HN03, and 15 parts CH300H which etches (1 11)
silicon very slowly, -0.15 pm/min, and (100) at -0.20 pm/min at 25°C (approximately
& the rate of planar).
Another etch made up of these same chemicals is Dash etch [3], [6], [8]. This etch is
somewhat orientation-dependent and is used for crystal defect delineation or
definition in (1 1 i ) silicon. It etches p or n silicon in the (100) direction :kt -1300
A/min, at 25"C, and at 46 A/min in the (101) discretion at this same temperature.
However, this etch also attacks heavily doped silicon (p+- or n+-type greater than 5
X 10") much faster (-2.5 pm) than lightly doped p- or n-type silicon. (See Table I.)
Therefore, it becomes concentration-defender:.
An even more orientation-dependent etch used for etching (100) silicon is 250-g
potassium hydroxide, 200-g norm1 propanol, and 800-g deionized water [9]. This
etch can :le masked by photo resist for shallow 25°C etching or by use :INf SiO2 or
Si3N4 for deep (>20 pm) etching at 80°C. The etch rate in the (100) direction is at
least one hundred times faslcr than in the (1 1 ) direction if the mask is properly
aligned with the trace of the ( 11 1 ) plane at the (100) surface, see Figs. . 5and 16.
This alignment is also parallel and perpendicular with
the (1 10) direction or the flat on the (100) slice. This etch attacks oxide at -28 A/min,
however, Si3N4 is not measurably attacked even ater 5-hours etching at 80°C.
Another orientation-dependent etch that may be used for (100) direction etching to
advantage is ethylenediamine
255 cm3, pyrocatechol 45 g, and water 120 cm3, hereafter referred to as EDA [7] ,
[9] -[11] , [21] . This solution etches (100) silicon at 1.1 pm/min at 100°C and SiOz at
-8 A/rnin.
The slow etch rate of SiOz and the non-sodium or potassium nature of this etch
makes it desirable for polysilicon etching in MOS-type device processing. This etch
is also concentration and/or type sensitive and stops or greatly reduces in etch rate
at a pt interface or junction. This etch may also be used for (110) direction etching,
hydrazine may also be added to this solution for faster etching. Another etch solution
whicihs very orientation-dependent in the (1 10) direction etching is potassium
hydroxide and water (KOH -35 percent by weight, and HzO) at 80°C. This solution
etches silicon six hundred times faster in the (1I O) direction than in the (1 11)d
irection when the mask is properly aligned with the trace of the (1 11) plane at the
(110) surface or 35.26" off from the (110) flat. (Not parallel and perpendicular to the

(1 10) flat or direction in this case [20] .) The (1 10)si licon etch rate is -0.8 pmlmin
and the SiOz etch rate is -30 A/min. Silicon belongs to the diamond cubic crystal
structure. In the cubic structure the crystalographic directions are perpendicular to
the crystal planes.
There are several low-index planes that we may choose to work on in this diamond
cubic structure. Fig. 1 shows examples of some of these planes and their position in
the cubic structure. Numbers one, three, and seven are the three index planes most
commonly used for silicon device processing. Fig. 2 shows one of each of the low-
index planes in the cube, that is, the (loo), the (1 lo), and the (111). One of the
important parameters in orientationdependent etching of silicon is the atomic lattice
packing density and available bonds in the crystalographic plane.
In Fig. 3 we show photographs of the silicon diamond cubic structure model taken
from three different crystal directions. The (1 11)d irection shows a very high atomic
packing density in the (1 11) plane. The (100) direction photo is taken of the same
model but moved around 54.75" from the (1 11 ) direction, so we are now looking at
a (100) plane. It is readily evident that the atomic packing density is considerably
less dense. The (110) direction photo is taken by moving around 90" from the
original (1 11) direction.
The atomic packing density is very low in this plane when compared to the { 1 11 }
plane. From this information one would expect that the etch rate, or epitaxial
deposition growth rate, would be considerably faster in the (1 10) direction than in
the (100) direction and even more so than in the ( 11 1) direction.
When we examine the crystal projection of the silicon (100) plane, Fig. 4, we see that
the { 100) surface has four-fold symmetry. That is, the high atomic packing density {
11 1 } planes are equal distance out from the (100) surface plane at equal angles
and they are 90" to each other. Also we can determine that the { 1 11 } planes are
intersecting the {loo} plane at a rather steep angle, which is 54.74", and that they are
in (1 10) directions. (See the four { 110) planes at the periphery of the projection.
These are 90' to the (100) surface plane.)
When we grow an oxide, or deposit a silicon nitride masking film on the {loo} silicon
slices and then align a mask parallel and/or perpendicular to these ', 110) directions
(as indicated in open up narrow lines, through the mask material, which are aligned
parallel with the trace of the high atomic packed { 11 1) planes. When we place
these slices in an orientationdependent etch such as KOH, normal propanol, and
HzO,th e etching will proceed in the ( 100) direction (into the slice) until the etch front
hits the (11 1) planes, intersecting the (100) plane at the edge of the mask opening,
and .then the etching will stop as in Fig. 6. Also see data in Figs. 13 and 14. The

etch depth to oxide opening width ratiois 0.707. That is if we open an oxide pattern
line 10 pm wide it will etch 7.07 pm deep and then for practical purposes stop
etching. Due to this effect one can use ODE on (100) silicon as a method for
determining pin hole density in oxide films. When one uses ethylene diamine
pyrocatechol and water (EDA) (255 cm', 54 g, 120 cm3, respectively) at 100°C the
etch front will propagate into the (100) silicon to form a perfect square topped
inverted pyramid, through the pin hole.


ANISOTROPHIC WET ETCHING:
In order to form a functional MEMS structure on a substrate, it is necessary to etch

the thin films previously deposited and/or the substrate itself. In general, there are
two classes of etching processes:
1. Wet etching where the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical

solution
2. Dry etching where the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or
a vapor phase etchant
In the following, we will briefly discuss the most popular technologies for wet and dry
etching.
Wet etching
This is the simplest etching technology. All it requires is a container with a liquid
solution that will dissolve the material in question. Unfortunately, there are
complications since usually a mask is desired to selectively etch the material. One
must find a mask that will not dissolve or at least etches much slower than the
material to be patterned. Secondly, some single crystal materials, such as silicon,
exhibit anisotropic etching in certain chemicals. Anisotropic etching in contrast to
isotropic etching means different etches rates in different directions in the material.
The classic example of this is the <111> crystal plane sidewalls that appear when
etching a hole in a <100> silicon wafer in a chemical such as potassium hydroxide
(KOH). The result is a pyramid shaped hole instead of a hole with rounded sidewalls
with a isotropic etchant. This is a simple technology, which will give good results if
you can find the combination of etchant and mask material to suit your application.
Wet etching works very well for etching thin films on substrates, and can also be
used to etch the substrate itself. The problem with substrate etching is that isotropic
processes will cause undercutting of the mask layer by the same distance as the
etch depth. Anisotropic processes allow the etching to stop on certain crystal planes
in the substrate, but still results in a loss of space, since these planes cannot be
vertical to the surface when etching holes or cavities. If this is a limitation for you,
you should consider dry etching of the substrate instead. However, keep in mind that
the cost per wafer will be 1-2 orders of magnitude higher to perform the dry etching.

If you are making very small features in thin films (comparable to the film thickness),
you may also encounter problems with isotropic wet etching, since the undercutting
will be at least equal to the film thickness. With dry etching it is possible etch
almost straight down without
undercutting, which provides much higher resolution.
Dry etching
The dry etching technology can split in three separate classes called reactive ion
etching (RIE), sputter etching, and vapor phase etching.
In RIE, the substrate is placed inside a reactor in which several gases are
introduced. A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF power source,
breaking the gas molecules into ions. The ions are accelerated towards, and reacts
at, the surface of the material being etched, forming another gaseous material. This
is known as the chemical part of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part
which is similar in nature to the sputtering deposition process. If the ions have high
enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the material to be etched without a
chemical reaction. It is a very complex task to develop dry etch processes that
balance chemical and physical etching, since there are many parameters to adjust.
By changing the balance it is possible to influence the anisotropy of the etching,
since the chemical part is isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the
combination can form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical. A
schematic of a typical reactive ion etching system is shown in the figure below.
A special subclass of RIE which continues to grow rapidly in popularity is deep RIE
(DRIE). In this process, etch depths of hundreds of microns can be achieved with
almost vertical sidewalls. The primary technology is based on the so-called "Bosch
process", named after the German company Robert Bosch which filed the original
patent, where two different gas compositions are alternated in the reactor. The first
gas composition creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the second
gas composition etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately sputtered away
by the physical part of the etching, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not the

sidewalls. Since the polymer only dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the
etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and protects them from etching. As a result,
etching aspect ratios of 50 to 1 can be achieved. The process can easily be used to
etch completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are 3-4 times higher than
wet etching.
Sputter etching is essentially RIE without reactive ions. The systems used are very
similar in principle to sputtering deposition systems. The big difference is that
substrate is now subjected to the ion bombardment instead of the material target
used in sputter deposition.
Vapor phase etching is another dry etching method, which can be done with simpler
equipment than what RIE requires. In this process the wafer to be etched is placed
inside a chamber, in which one or more gases are introduced. The material to be
etched is dissolved at the surface in a chemical reaction with the gas molecules. The
two most common vapor phase etching technologies are silicon dioxide etching
using hydrogen fluoride (HF) and silicon etching using xenon diflouride (XeF2), both
of which are isotropic in nature. Usually, care must be taken in the design of a vapor
phase process to not have bi-products form in the chemical reaction that condense
on the surface and interfere with the etching process.
Uses of dry etching
The first thing you should note about this technology is that it is expensive to run
compared to wet etching. If you are concerned with feature resolution in thin film
structures or you need vertical sidewalls for deep etchings in the substrate, you have
to consider dry etching. If you are concerned about the price of your process and
device, you may want to minimize the use of dry etching. The IC industry has long
since adopted dry etching to achieve small features, but in many cases feature size
is not as critical in MEMS. Dry etching is an enabling technology, which
comes at a sometimes high cost.
Plasma etching is a form of plasma processing used to fabricate integrated circuits.

It involves a high-speed stream of glow discharge (plasma) of an appropriate gas

mixture being shot (in pulses) at a sample. The plasma source, known as etch
species, can be either charged (ions) or neutral (atoms and radicals). During the
process, the plasma will generate volatile etch products at room temperature from
the chemical reactions between the elements of the material etched and the reactive
species generated by the plasma. Eventually the atoms of the shot element embed
themselves at or just below the surface of the target, thus modifying the physical
properties of the target.
Mechanisms
Generation of the Plasma
A plasma is a high energetic condition in which a lot of processes can occur. These
processes happen because of electrons and atoms. To form the plasma electrons
have to be accelerated to gain energy. Highly energetic electrons transfer the energy
to atoms by collisions. Three different processes can occur because of this
collisions:[2][3]
 Excitation
 Dissociation
 Ionization
There are different species in the plasma present such as electrons, ions, radicals
and neutral particles. Those species are interacting with each other constantly.
Plasma etching itself can be divided into two main ways of interactions: [4]
 The generation of the chemical species

 The interaction with the surrounding surfaces
Without a plasma all those processes would occur at a higher temperature. There
are different ways to change the plasma chemistry and get different kinds of plasma
etching or plasma depositions. One of the excitation techniques to form a plasma is
by using RF excitation of a power source of 13.56 MHz.

2.Discuss about the LIGA process in MEMS. (CO2-L2)

LIGA is a German acronym for Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung
(Lithography, Electroplating, and Molding) that describes a fabrication technology used
to create high-aspect- ratio microstructures.
The LIGA consists of three main processing steps; lithography, electroplating and
molding. There are two main LIGA-fabrication technologies, X-Ray LIGA, which uses
X-rays produced by a synchrotron to create high-aspect ratio structures, and UV
LIGA, a more accessible method which uses ultraviolet light to create structures with
relatively low aspect ratios.
The notable characteristics of X-ray LIGA-fabricated structures include:
 high aspect ratios on the order of 100:1

 parallel side walls with a flank angle on the order of 89.95°
 smooth side walls with = 10 nm, suitable for optical mirrors

 structural heights from tens of micrometers to several millimeters
 structural details on the order of micrometers over distances of centimeters
X-Ray LIGA
X-Ray LIGA is a fabrication process in microtechnology that was developed in the

early 1980s [1] by a team under the leadership of Erwin Willy Becker and Wolfgang
Ehrfeld at the Institute for Nuclear Process Engineering (Institut für
Kernverfahrenstechnik, IKVT) at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center, since
renamed to the Institute for Microstructure Technology (Institut für
Mikrostrukturtechnik, IMT) at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT). LIGA was
one of the first major techniques to allow on-demand manufacturing of high-aspect-
ratio structures (structures that are much taller than wide) with lateral precision below
one micrometer.
In the process, an X-ray sensitive polymer photoresist, typically PMMA, bonded to an

electrically conductive substrate, is exposed to parallel beams of high-energy X-rays
from a synchrotron radiation source through a mask partly covered with a strong X-ray

absorbing material. Chemical removal of exposed (or unexposed) photoresist results

in a three-dimensional structure, which can be filled by the electrodeposition of metal.
The resist is chemically stripped away to produce a metallic mold insert. The mold
insert can be used to produce parts in polymers or ceramics through injection molding.
The LIGA technique's unique value is the precision obtained by the use of deep X-ray
lithography (DXRL). The technique enables microstructures with high aspect ratios
and high precision to be fabricated in a variety of materials (metals, plastics, and
ceramics). Many of its practitioners and users are associated with or are located close
to synchrotron facilities.
UV LIGA
UV LIGA utilizes an inexpensive ultraviolet light source, like a mercury lamp, to expose
a polymer photoresist, typically SU-8. Because heating and transmittance are not an
issue in optical masks, a simple chromium mask can be substituted for the technically
sophisticated X- ray mask. These reductions in complexity make UV LIGA much
cheaper and more accessible than its X-ray counterpart. However, UV LIGA is not as
effective at producing precision molds and is thus used when cost must be kept low
and very high aspect ratios are not required.
Mask

X-ray masks are composed of a transparent, low-Z carrier, a patterned high-Z

absorber, and a metallic ring for alignment and heat removal. Due to extreme
temperature variations induced by the X-ray exposure, carriers are fabricated from
materials with high thermal conductivity to reduce thermal gradients. Currently,
vitreous carbon and graphite are considered the best material, as their use
significantly reduces side-wall roughness. Silicon, silicon nitride, titanium, and
diamond are also in use as carrier substrates but not preferred, as the required thin
membranes are comparatively fragile and titanium masks tend to round sharp
features due to edge fluorescence. Absorbers are gold, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and
other X-ray absorbing metals.
Masks can be fabricated in several fashions. The most accurate and expensive
masks are those created by electron beam lithography, which provides resolutions
as fine as 0.1 µm in resist 4 µm thick and 3 µm features in resist 20 µm thick. An
intermediate method is the plated photomask which provides 3 µm resolution and
can be outsourced at a cost on the order of $1000 per mask. The least expensive
method is a direct photomask, which provides 15 µm resolution in resist 80
µm thick. In summary, masks can cost between $1000 and $20,000 and take
between two weeks and three months for delivery. Due to the small size of the
market, each LIGA group typically has its own mask-making capability. Future
trends in mask creation include larger formats, from a diameter of 100 mm to 150
mm, and smaller feature sizes.
Substrate
The starting material is a flat substrate, such as a silicon wafer or a polished disc of
beryllium, copper, titanium, or other material. The substrate, if not already electrically
conductive, is covered with a conductive plating base, typically through sputtering or
evaporation.
The fabrication of high-aspect-ratio structures requires the use of a photoresist able

to form a mold with vertical sidewalls. Thus the photoresist must have a high
selectivity and be relatively free from stress when applied in thick layers. The typical
choice, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is applied to the substrate by a glue-down
process in which a precast, high-molecular- weight sheet of PMMA is attached to the

plating base on the substrate. The applied photoresist is then milled down to the
precise height by a fly cutter prior to pattern transfer by X-ray exposure. Because the
layer must be relatively free from stress, this glue-down process is preferred over
alternative methods such as casting. Further, the cutting of the PMMA sheet by the
fly cutter requires specific operating conditions and tools to avoid introducing any
stress and crazing of the photoresist.
Exposure
A key enabling technology of LIGA is the synchrotron, capable of emitting high-
power, highly collimated X-rays. This high collimation permits relatively large
distances between the mask and the substrate without the penumbral blurring that
occurs from other X-ray sources. In the electron storage ring or synchrotron, a
magnetic field constrains electrons to follow a circular path and the radial
acceleration of the electrons causes electromagnetic radiation to be emitted forward.
The radiation is thus strongly collimated in the forward direction and can be assumed
to be parallel for lithographic purposes. Because of the much higher flux of usable
collimated X- rays, shorter exposure times become possible. Photon energies for a
LIGA exposure are approximately distributed between 2.5 and 15 keV.
Unlike optical lithography, there are multiple exposure limits, identified as the top
dose, bottom dose, and critical dose, whose values must be determined
experimentally for a proper exposure. The exposure must be sufficient to meet the
requirements of the bottom dose, the exposure under which a photoresist residue
will remain, and the top dose, the exposure over which the photoresist will foam. The
critical dose is the exposure at which unexposed resist begins to be attacked. Due to
the insensitivity of PMMA, a typical exposure time for a 500 µm thick PMMA is six
hours. During exposure, secondary radiation effects such as Fresnel diffraction,
mask and substrate fluorescence, and the generation of Auger electrons and
photoelectrons can lead to overexposure.
During exposure the X-ray mask and the mask holder are heated directly by X-ray
absorption and cooled by forced convection from nitrogen jets. Temperature rise in
PMMA resist is mainly from heat conducted from the substrate backward into the
resist and from the mask plate through the inner cavity air forward to the resist, with
X-ray absorption being tertiary. Thermal effects include chemistry variations due to

resist heating and geometry-dependent mask deformation.
Development
For high-aspect-ratio structures the resist-developer system is required to have a

ratio of dissolution rates in the exposed and unexposed areas of 1000:1. The
standard, empirically optimized developer is a mixture of tetrahydro-1,4-oxazine (20
%), 2-aminoethanol-1 (5 %), 2- (2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol (60 %), and water (15 %).
This developer provides the required ratio of dissolution rates and reduces stress-
related cracking from swelling in comparison to conventional PMMA developers.
After development, the substrate is rinsed with deionized water and dried either in a
vacuum or by spinning. At this stage, the PMMA structures can be released as the
final product (e.g., optical components) or can be used as molds for subsequent
metal deposition.
Electroplating
In the electroplating step, nickel, copper, or gold is plated upward from the metalized
substrate into the voids left by the removed photoresist. Taking place in an
electrolytic cell, the current density, temperature, and solution are carefully controlled
to ensure proper plating. In the case of nickel deposition from NiCl2 in a KCl solution,
Ni is deposited on the cathode (metalized substrate) and Cl2 evolves at the anode.
Difficulties associated with plating into PMMA molds include voids, where hydrogen
bubbles nucleate on contaminates; chemical incompatibility, where the plating
solution attacks the photoresist; and mechanical incompatibility, where film stress
causes the plated layer to lose adhesion. These difficulties can be overcome through
the empirical optimization of the plating chemistry and environment for a given
layout.
Stripping
After exposure, development, and electroplating, the resist is stripped. One method
for removing the remaining PMMA is to flood expose the substrate and use the
developing solution to cleanly remove the resist. Alternatively, chemical solvents can

be used. Stripping of a thick resist chemically is a lengthy process, taking two to

three hours in acetone at room temperature. In multilayer structures, it is common
practice to protect metal layers against corrosion by backfilling the structure with a
polymer-based encapsulant. At this stage, metal structures can be left on the
substrate (e.g., microwave circuitry) or released as the final product (e.g., gears).
Replication
After stripping, the released metallic components can be used for mass replication
through standard means of replication such as stamping or injection molding.
Commercialization
In the 1990s, LIGA was a cutting-edge MEMS fabrication technology, resulting in the
design of components showcasing the technique's unique versatility. Several
companies that begin using the LIGA process later changed their business model
(e.g., Steag microParts becoming Boehringer Ingelheim microParts, Mezzo
Technologies). Currently, only two companies, HTmicro and microworks, continue
their work in LIGA, benefiting from limitations of other competing fabrication
technologies. UV LIGA, due to its lower production cost, is employed more broadly
by several companies, such as Tecan, Temicon, and Mimotec in Switzerland, who
supply the Swiss watch market with metal parts made of Nickel and Nickel-
Phosphorus
Assembly of 3D MEMS
In the past decade the need of automated microassembly systems i.e. (systems that
fit together crometric devices like: MEMS, MOEMS or BioMEMS (Biomedical Micro
Electro Mechanical Systems) become more and more necessary because of the
growing interest in such products.Consequently, an active and intensive research
area appeared.Pursuit of the minimization of the devices, fabrication of new 3D
complex products and the assembly of hybrid microsystemsconstituted of
incompatible materials and produced using various technologies.

UNIT V
PART A
1. What is Polymer? (CO1-L1)
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated
subunits. Because of their broad range of properties, both synthetic and natural
polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range
from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as
DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function.
Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of
many small molecules, known asmonomers. Their consequently large
molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds produces unique physical
properties, including toughness,
2. What is SU-8 ? (CO1-L1)
SU-8 is a commonly used epoxy-based negative photoresist. Negative refers to a
photoresist whereby the parts exposed to UV become cross-linked, while the
remainder of the film remains soluble and can be washed away during development.
It can be made into a viscous polymer that can be spun or spread over a thickness
ranging from below 1 micrometer up to above 300 micrometers, or Thick Film Dry
Sheets (TFDS) for lamination up to above 1 millimetre thick. Up to 500µm the resist
can be processed with standard contact lithography.[1] Above 500µm absorption

leads to increasing sidewall undercuts and poor curing at the substrate interface. It
can be used to pattern high aspect ratio structures.
3. What is Liquid-crystal polymers? (CO1-L1)
Liquid-crystal polymers (LCPs) are a class of aromatic polymers. They
are extremely unreactive and inert, and highly resistant to fire.
4. What is PDMS? (CO1-L1)

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) belongs to a group of polymeric organosilicon

compounds that are commonly referred to assilicones.[1] PDMS is the most

widely used silicon- based organic polymer, and is particularly known for its
unusual rheological (or flow) properties. PDMS is optically clear, and, in general,
inert, non-toxic, and non-flammable. It is also called dimethicone and is one of
several types of silicone oil (polymerized siloxane). Its applications range from
contact lenses and medical devices toelastomers; it is also present in shampoos
(as dimethicone makes hair shiny and slippery), food (antifoaming
agent), caulking,lubricants, kinetic sand, and heat-resistant tiles.
5. What is PMMA? (CO1-L1)
Para-Methoxy-N-methylamphetamine (also known as PMMA, Red Mitsubishi),
chemically known as methyl-MA, 4-methoxy-N-methylamphetamine,
PMMA is the 4- methoxy analog of methamphetamine. Little is
potential to cause harmful side effects or death in overdose. [1] In the early 2010s, a
number of deaths in users of the drug MDMA were linked to misrepresented tablets
and capsules of PMMA.
6. What is Parylene? (CO1-L1)
Parylene is the trade name for a variety of chemical vapor deposited

poly(p- xylylene) polymers used as moisture and dielectric barriers. Among them,
Parylene C is the most popular due to its combination of barrier properties, cost, and
other processing advantages.
Parylene is green polymer chemistry. It is self-initiated (no initiator needed) and un-
terminated (no termination group needed) with no solvent or catalyst required. The
commonly used precursor, [2.2]paracyclophane, yields 100% monomer above 550
°C in vacuum [1] and does not yield any by-products (Gorham Process). There is
very little concern that parylene N will be 'over-cracked', meaning
[2.2]paracyclophane is converted to p-xylylene cleanly with no side- reactions
occurring. However, the same cannot be said for parylene C. The aryl-chlorine bond
in dichloro[2.2]paracyclophane readily breaks at 680 °C (standard pyrolysis
temperature); and therefore it is desirable to optimize each parylene tool in terms of

its pyrolysis temperature using a mass spectrometer.
7. What is Fluorocarbons? (CO1-L1)
Fluorocarbons, sometimes referred to as perfluorocarbons or PFCs, are,
strictly speaking, organofluorine compounds with the formula CxFy, i.e. they contain
only carbon and fluorine,[1] though the terminology is not strictly followed. [2]
Compounds with the prefix perfluoro- are hydrocarbons, including those with
heteroatoms, wherein all C-H bonds have been replaced by C-F bonds.[3]
Fluorocarbons and their derivatives are useful fluoropolymers, refrigerants,
solvents, and anesthetics.
8. What is MOEMS? (CO1-L1)

Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MOEMS) are not a special class of
Micro-Electro- Mechanical Systems (MEMS) but rather the combination of MEMS
merged with Micro-optics; this involves sensing or manipulating optical signals on a
very small size scale using integrated mechanical, optical, and electrical systems.
MOEMS includes a wide variety of devices including optical switch, optical cross-
connect, tunable VCSEL, microbolometers amongst others. These devices are
usually fabricated using micro-optics and standard micromachining technologies
using materials like silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride and gallium arsenide.
UNIT- 5
PART B
1.What is Polymer? Discuss in detail about the various types of polymers used in
MEMS. (CO2-L2)
Polymer MEMS refers to MEMS technology using polymers of acrylic,

polycarbonate, silicon rubber, photo resist and similar materials. This enables the
fabrication of devices with functions not available to traditional silicon MEMS, and
they are expected to have applications to optical, medical/biological and similar
fields. TOWA is developing technology for manufacturing polymer micro-devices with
a movable structure based on ultra-precision/micro-fabrication technology.
Polymer MEMS devices with a movable structure can be fabricated using
simple processes There are four main processes used: molding, bonding, residual
film removal and electrode forming. Additionally, micro channels and through-holes
can be formed at the same time as the movable structure.
LowEnvironmentalLoad Polymers are materials for which recycling technology has

become quite advanced. In recent years, biodegradable, plant-origin and similar
polymers have been developed, making them easy to break down after disposal, and
they are useful also for reducing the emission of carbon dioxide.
・Wide Range of Applicable Materials

They can be applied to processes where materials such as thermoplastic and
thermoset polymers can be used for molding and machining.
・Low Cost
Polymers are lower in cost than silicon materials, and can also reduce costs by the
application of high mass-production molding technologies.
・Safe and Secure Processes

Dangerous chemicals such as hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids used in processes such
as silicon cleaning are not necessary.
Polymer MEMS can be applied to optical, fluid, medical/biological and similar devices.
The following table shows polymer features and some examples of applications using
the features
Polyimide
Polyimide (sometimes abbreviated PI) is a polymer of imide monomers. Polyimides

have been in mass production since 1955. With their high heat-resistance,
polyimides enjoy diverse applications in applications demanding rugged organic
materials, e.g. high temperature fuel cells, displays, and various military roles. A
classic polyimide is Kapton, which is produced by condensation of pyromellitic
dianhydride and 4,4'-oxydianiline.[
Classification
According to the composition of their main chain, polyimides can be:
 Aliphatic (linear polyimides),

 Semi-aromatic,
 Aromatic: these are the most used polyimides because of their thermostability.
According to the type of interactions between the main chains, polyimides can be:
 Thermoplastic: very often called pseudothermoplastic.

 Thermosetting: commercially available as uncured resins, polyimide solutions,
stock shapes, thin sheets, laminates and machined parts.
Synthesis
Several methods are possible to prepare polyimides, among them:
 The reaction between a dianhydride and a diamine (the most used method).
 The reaction between a dianhydride and a diisocyanate.
Dianhydrides used as precursors to these materials include pyromellitic dianhydride,

benzoquinonetetracarboxylic dianhydride and naphthalene tetracarboxylic
dianhydride. Common diamine building blocks include 4,4'-diaminodiphenyl ether
("DAPE"), meta-phenylenediamine ("MDA"), and 3,3-diaminodiphenylmethane.
Hundreds of diamines and dianhydrides have been examined to tune the physical
and especially the processing properties of these materials. These materials they
tend to be insoluble and have high softening temperatures, arising from charge-
transfer interactions between the planar subunits.
Properties
Thermosetting polyimides are known for thermal stability, good chemical resistance,
excellent mechanical properties, and characteristic orange/yellow color. Polyimides
compounded with graphite or glass fiber reinforcements have flexural strengths of up
to 50,000 psi (340 MPa) and flexural moduli of 3,000,000 psi (21,000 MPa).
Thermoset polyimides exhibit very low creep and high tensile strength. These
properties are maintained during continuous use to temperatures of up to 452 °C
(846 °F) and for short excursions, as high as 704 °C (1,299 °F).[3] Molded polyimide
parts and laminates have very good heat resistance. Normal operating temperatures
for such parts and laminates range from cryogenic to those exceeding 260 °C (500
°F). Polyimides are also inherently resistant to flame combustion and do not usually
need to be mixed with flameretardants. Most carry a UL rating of VTM-0. Polyimide
laminates have a flexural strength half life at 249 °C (480 °F) of 400 hours.
Typical polyimide parts are not affected by commonly used solvents and oils —
including hydrocarbons, esters, ethers, alcohols and freons. They also resist weak
acids but are not recommended for use in environments that contain alkalis or
inorganic acids. Some polyimides, such as CP1 and CORIN XLS, are solvent-
soluble and exhibit high optical clarity. The solubility properties lend them towards
spray and low temperature cure applications.
Applications
Polyimide materials are lightweight, flexible, resistant to heat and chemicals.

Therefore, they are used in the electronics industry for flexible cables, as an
insulating film on magnet wire and for medical tubing. For example, in a laptop
computer, the cable that connects the main logic board to the display (which must
flex every time the laptop is opened or closed) is often a polyimide base with copper
conductors. Examples of polyimide films include Apical, Kapton, UPILEX, VTEC PI,
Norton TH and Kaptrex.
Structure of poly-oxydiphenylene-pyromellitimide, "Kapton".
The semiconductor industry uses polyimide as a high-temperature adhesive; it is

also used as a mechanical stress buffer. Some polyimide can be used like a
photoresist; both "positive" and "negative" types of photoresist-like polyimide exist in
the market.
An additional use of polyimide resin is as an insulating and passivation[4] layer in the

manufacture of digital semiconductor and MEMS chips. The polyimide layers have
good mechanical elongation and tensile strength, which also helps the adhesion
between the polyimide layers or between polyimide layer and deposited metal layer.
The minimum interaction between the gold film and the polyimide film, coupled with
high temperature stability of the polyimide film, results in a system that provides
reliable insulation when subjected to various types of environmental stresses.[5][6]
Polyimide powder can be used to produce parts and shapes by sintering

technologies (hot compression molding, direct forming, and isostatic pressing).
Because of their high mechanical stability even at elevated temperatures they are
used as bushings, bearings, sockets or constructive parts in demanding applications.
To improve tribological properties compounds with solid lubricants like graphite,
PTFE or molybdenum sulfide are common. Polyimide parts and shapes include P84
NT, VTEC PI, Meldin,[7] Vespel and Plavis.
In coal-fired power plants, waste incinerators or cement plants, polyimide fibres are
used to filter hot gases. In this application, a polyimide needle felt separates dust
and particulate matter from the exhaust gas.
Polyimide is also the most common material used for the reverse osmotic film in
purification of water, or the concentration of dilute materials from water, such as
maple syrup production.[8][9]
Multi-layer insulation used on spacecraft is usually made of polyimide coated with

thin layers of aluminum. The gold-like material often seen on the outside of
spacecraft is actually single aluminized polyimide, with the single layer of aluminum
facing in.[10] The yellowish-brown polyimide gives the surface its gold-like color.
The IKAROS solar sailing spacecraft uses polyimide resin sails to operate without
rocket engines
Introduction
The SU-8 is a negative, epoxy-type, near-UV photoresist based on EPON SU-8

epoxy resin (from Shell Chemical) that has been originally developed, and patented
(US Patent No. 4882245
(1989) and others) by IBM.
This photoresist can be as thick as 2 mm and aspect ratio >20 and higher have been
demonstrated with a standard contact lithography equipment (picture courtesy of R.
Yang).
These astounding results are due to the low optical absorption in the UV range which
only limits the thickness to 2 mm for the 365nm-wavelength where the photo-resist is
the most sensitive (i.e., for this thickness very little UV light reach the bottom of the
structure).
Of course LIGA still yield better results but low-cost application will undoubtedly
benefit from this resist that is well suited for acting as a mold for electroplating
because of its relatively high thermal stability (Tg>200°C for the cross-linked (i.e.,
exposed) resist).
MEMS Portable Electret Microphones - Such electronic consumer products as
Bluetooth headsets, digital still / video cameras, notebook PCs, security /
surveillance systems, smartphones, tablets, and teleconferencing systems use
MEMS portable microphones. As in other industrial applications, parylene's
electrical, thermal, surface, and mechanical properties offer superior protection,
without limiting product functionality. Parylene conformal coatings provide structural
reinforcement to the microphone's back plate membrane, which improves both its
rigor and yield-return. Thus reinforced, the back plate's open sensitivity and
bandwidth capabilities and performance are measurably enhanced. Of the
parylenes, Parylene C is most suitable for these purposes, because of its:
 good mechanical properties,

 ability to be etched,
 inertness with respect to micro-machining's other reagenting agents, and
 superior adhesion characteristics, featuring
 uniform layers adhering to desired thickness.
Further Applications of Industrial MEMS and Parylene Coatings
For many industrial purposes, parylene provides an effective combination of

adhesion, electrical conductivity, high strength, flexibility and durability in comparison
to other conformal coatings.
Other MEMS devices benefiting from parylene coatings include inkjet printers, and
such consumer electronics uses as accelerometers for cell phones / digital cameras
and interferometric modulator display (IMOD) applications. Differentiated sensor /
component parylene packaging requirements are developed according to each
particular MEMS application.
Parylene is adaptable to most uses, even if specialized processes and treatments

must be devised to assure appropriate conformal coating of the particular MEMS
device. Ongoing developments in both MEMS and parylene technologies are
establishing a mutually beneficial evolution, that will engender a wider range and
distribution of industrial and consumer products in the near future.
2.Describe about the MEMS accelerometer. (CO2-L2)
There are many different ways to make an accelerometer. Some accelerometers use
the piezoelectric effect - they contain microscopic crystal structures that get stressed
by accelerative forces, which causes a voltage to be generated. Another way to do it
is by sensing changes in capacitance [3]. This seminar is focused on the latter.
Capacitive interfaces have several attractive features. In most micromachining
technologies no or minimal additional processing is needed. Capacitors can operate
both as sensors and actuators. They have excellent sensitivity and the transduction
mechanism is intrinsically insensitive to temperature. Capacitive sensing is
independent of the base material and relies on the variation of capacitance when the
geometry of a capacitor is changing. Neglecting the fringing effect near the edges, the
parallel-plate capacitance is [4]:
where _A = _0_A and A is the area of the electrodes, d the distance between them and
_ the permittivity of the material separating them. A change in any of these parameters
will be measured as a change of capacitance and variation of each of the three
variables has been used in MEMS sensing. For example, whereas chemical or
humidity sensor may be based on a change of _, accelerometers have been based on
a change in d or in A. If the dielectric in the capacitor is air, capacitive sensing is
essentially independent of temperature but contrary to piezoresitivity, capacitive
sensing requires complex readout electronics. Still the sensitivity of the method can be
very large and, for example, Analog Device used for his range of accelerometer a comb
capacitor having a suspended electrode with varying gap. Measurement showed that
the integrated electronics circuit could resolve a change of the gap distance of only
20pm, a mere 1=5th of the silicon inter-atomic distance [2].
Typical MEMS accelerometer is composed of movable proof mass with plates that is
attached through a mechanical suspension system to a reference frame, as shown in
Figure 3.1.
Movable plates and fixed outer plates represent capacitors. The deflection of proof
mass is measured using the capacitance difference [4]. The free-space (air)
capacitances between the movable plate and two stationary outer plates C1 and C2
are functions of the corresponding displacements x1 and x2:
If the acceleration is zero, the capacitances C1 and C2 are equal because x1 = x2.
The proof mass displacement x results due to acceleration. If x 6= 0, the
capacitance difference is found to be
Measuring _C, one finds the displacement x by solving the nonlinear algebraic
equation
This equation can be simplified. For small displacements, the term _Cx2 is
negligible.
Thus,
_Cx2 can be omitted. Then, from
one concludes that the displacement is approximately proportional to the

capacitance difference C Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), as the name
implies, are miniature devices composed of mechanical (springs, deformable
membranes, vibrating structures) and electrical (resistors, capacitors, inductors)
components that, together, are able to sense and report on physical properties of the
environment in which they are deployed, or, when signaled to do so, are able to
perform some kind of controlled actuation.
3.Explain the thermal flow sensor in detail. (CO2-L1)
Flow measurement is critical in many applications, including semiconductor

manufacturing processes, chemical processes, medical devices and natural gas
metering, etc.
MEMS thermal mass flow sensors have been explored extensively for their simple
structure and implementation. MEMS technology is amenable to creating micro-
heaters and thermal sensors with no moving parts, thus simplifying fabrication and
operational requirements. Other advantages of thermal mass flow sensors is small
size, short response time, low power consumption, higher sensitivity to low flow
rates.
The thermal mass flow sensor typically consists of upstream and downstream
temperature sensors (thermopiles) and a heater located between the two temperature
sensors as shown below
The flow rate is detected by the MEMS thermal mass flow sensor. The sensor chip,
produced in MEMSIC proprietary CMOS compatible technology, is composed of a
central heater source (micro heater) and two temperature sensors (thermopiles),
which are placed symmetrically upstream and downstream of the micro-heater. If no
gas flows over the sensor surface, the symmetric thermopiles measure the same
rise in temperature, resulting in the same output voltage of the two thermopiles. If a
non-zero gas flows from the inlet to the outlet of the meter, the velocity of a fully-
developed laminar air flow unbalances the temperature profile around the heater
and heat is transferred from upstream thermopiles to the downstream thermopiles,
causing a change in the voltages of the thermopiles. Larger gas flow rates result in
larger asymmetry in the temperature profile.
Ideally, sensors are thermally isolated so only heat transfer due to flow can occur.
Other heat transfer pathways such as through substrate or electrical leads result in
thermal losses that degrade sensor performance and is minimized in the device
design.
4.Descibe about MOEMS. (CO2-L2)

Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MOEMS) are not a special class of Micro-
Electro- Mechanical Systems (MEMS) but rather the combination of MEMS merged
with Micro-optics; this involves sensing or manipulating optical signals on a very small
size scale using integrated mechanical, optical, and electrical systems. MOEMS
includes a wide variety of devices including optical switch, optical cross-connect,
tunable VCSEL, microbolometers amongst others. These devices are usually
fabricated using micro-optics and standard micromachining technologies using
materials like silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride and gallium arsenide.
MOEMS includes two major technologies, MEMS and Micro-optics. Both these two
technologies independently involve in batch processing similar to integrated circuits,
and micromachining similar to fabrication of microsensor.
MEMS offers inherently device miniaturization and wide applications in sensors and
actuators, robotics, accelerometers, microvalves, flow controllers, global positioning
systems (GPS) component miniaturization; and a host of other sensors and actuators
for applications to space, air, land, and sea vehicles, as well as industrial,
biotechnology, and consumer electronics
During the 1980s the acronym of MEMS created a fortune for publication, getting
government contracts and publicity. DARPA assigned a program manager for this field
and significantly soon MEMS is promoted to be the king of the technology. Several
high tech journals that were originated were attached to MEMS by supporting
miniaturization and low cost manufacturing. Many private companies which did not
have sufficient knowledge about MEMS also started jumping on the bandwagon.
Parallel with MEMS developments and even earlier, sensor technology advanced to
microsensors and joining with microactuators. Development of microsensors and
microactuators were also due to a mother technology of micromachining.
Micromachining is the root of everything we have today in high technology. This
technology was never credited in history as it deserved. It was commercially used
during the 1960s in Switzerland, for micromachining[disambiguation needed] quartz
orders of magnitudes harder than micromachining silicon. MEMS acronym was so
powerful during the 1980s, that with no choice microsensors and microactuators that
included micromachining, all joined MEMS by a soft landing. As a result, the MEMS
acronym was more attractive for publicity and even today MEMS, is dominating in
microtechnologies without giving credit to its real parents.
During the MEMS era, and before that time frame, Rockwell International was
involved in commercial MEMS development under government contracts. During
early 1980s Rockwell successfully built the first CMOS MEMS high performance and
high G accelerometer chip for space applications.[1] The wafer was processed inside
Rockwell VLSI lab in Anaheim, CA. This was a breakthrough in MEMS technology,
but it did not appear in literature until 1988.
During the early 1990s, Rockwell Science Center, through internal research and
commercial programs with government sponsors, contributed to the development of
micro-optics technology Teamed with MIT/Lincoln-Lab. During 1992, Rockwell
applied micro-optics to the system development of several industrial applications,
including, microlenses for silicon focal planes,[2] high speed binary microlens in
GaAs,[3] antireflection surfaces in silicon,[4] thin film microlens arrays,[5] beam
steering device,[6] microlens integration with focal plane arrays,[7] and optical
transformer and collimator.[8] Rockwell Science Center also developed refractive
microlens technology, including gray scale photolithography.[9] Diffractive
microlenses based on binary optic structures are typically fabricated in bulk material
by multiple sequential layers of photoresist patterning and reactive ion etching (RIE),
to form a multi-step phase profile. This profile approximates the ideal kinoform lens
surface. A special staircase process, called binary optics, is used to fabricate
diffractive components.
With so many successes in Micro-optics and MEMS, Rockwell researchers who

were involved in both MEMS and Micro-optics, initiate development of several of
innovative photonics ideas combing both technologies. This was behind the acronym
of MOEMS, when both MEMS and Micro-optics were merged in one single IC
processing lab.
MOEMS is a promising multi technology for miniaturization of critical optical systems.

The acronym is defined of three high tech fields of micro-optics, micromechanics,
and microelectronics. MOEMS indirectly could merge in micromachining,
microsensors and microactuators if their processes are compatible with integrated
circuits.
Merging all these multi technologies, made MOEMS an ideal knowhow for many
industrial demonstrations of commercial devices, such as optical switches, digital
micromirror devices or DMD (see DLP), bistable mirrors, laser scanners, optical
shutters, and dynamic micromirror displays. All technologies of MOEMS have the
potential of batch processing and embossed replication which, again, makes them
highly attractive and necessary for commercial applications. MOEMS is an enabling
technology for applications that cannot be addressed, using micro-optics alone and
is currently playing a significant role in numerous optical applications. The trend
toward miniaturization and integration of conventional optical systems will accelerate
the adoption of MOEMS technology in commercialization of many industrial
components which are today’s most desirable elements of optical communication.
History of MOEMS
During 1991-1993, Dr. M. Edward Motamedi, a former Rockwell International

innovator in the areas of both Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and Micro-
optics, used internally the acronym of MOEMS for Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical
Systems. This was to distinguish between Optical MEMS and MOEMS, where
Optical MEMS could include bulk optics but MOEMS is truly based on
microtechnology where MOEMS devices are batched processed exactly like
integrated circuits, but this is not true in most cases for Optical MEMS.
In 1993, Dr. Motamedi officially introduced MOEMS for the first time, as the powerful
combination of MEMS and Micro-optics, in an invited talk at the SPIE Critical Reviews
of Optical Science and Technology conference in San Diego. In this talk Dr. Motamedi
introduced the figure below, for showing that MOEMS is the interaction of three major
microtechnologies; namely Micro-optics, Micromechanics, and Microelectronics
Central ideas of the MiniFaros project:

• development of a sensor with almost unidirectional view
• compact size
•mass-producible at low cost
• => MEMS scanning mirror technology + replicable plastic optics
•
5.Explain in detail about Mirror MEMS. (CO2-L3)
MEMS mirror requirements
1. large mirror aperture size of 7mm

2. circular scan pattern => two axes of identical scan

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S.K.P.

Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai VII SEM

SKP Engineering College

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 1 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material

Subject Code:EE 6007

Subject Name: Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University

Signature of the Author

Name: V.K.Dinesh Prabu

Designation: Assistant Professor

Signature of HD Signature of the Principal

Name: Mrs.R.Sridevi Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 2 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

EE6007 MICRO ELECTRO MECHANICAL SYSTEMS LT P C3 0 0 3

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 3 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 4 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

S.No Particulars Page

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 5 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

3.What is MICRO Machining? (CO1-L1)

4. Name some special materials used in MEMS. (CO1-L1)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 6 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

5.What is meant by semiconducting devices? (CO1-L1)

Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 7 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS, also written as micro-electro-

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 8 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 9 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

2.Which material is widely used in MEMS technology and why? (CO1-L2)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 10 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

3.Descibe in detail about sensors and actuators? (CO1-L2)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 11 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 12 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

3.Write short notes on Micro Fabrication. (CO2-L2)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 13 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

4.Write short notes on Silicon based MEMS.(CO2-L2).

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 14 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 15 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 16 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

5.What are the materials used in MEMS Technology? (CO2-L1)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 17 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 18 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 19 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Semiconductor device materials

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 20 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 21 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

MEASURING RESIDUAL STRESS:

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 22 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

STRESS CALCULATION ASSUMING UNIFORM CURVATURE AND FILM

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 23 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

FLEXURAL BEAM BENDING:

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 24 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

arbitrary transverse load. The deformations can be related to the strains by

7.Write in detail about the Torsional deflection. (CO1-L2)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department 25 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

when the cross section has one axis of symmetry.

Classification of Torsion as Uniform and Non-uniform :

Uniform Torsion in a Circular Cross Section: