Grinding Process Achievements and their Consequences on Machine Tools

Challenges and Opportunities

H.K.Tonshoff (11, B. Karpuschewski, T. Mandrysch,
Institute for Productions Engineering and Machine Tools, University of Hannover
1. lnasaki (1). Department of System Design Engineering, Keio University

Abstract

In industrial practice substitution processes aie going on from abrasive processes to cutting and vice versa.
To judge the future of grinding the prqcess and machine developments have to be taken into account. The
paper shows the interdependence between process and machine innovations. The machine tool
developments relevant to grinding processes are investigated on a component and a system level. Process
developments and their relevance to new demands on or to new design features of machines are pointed
out. Research activities give an insight into future potentials and into the challenges of machine tool design.

Keywords:
Grinding, machine, component

drilling summarised only to 67 % in total. The machine

0 Acknowledgments park distribution in the manufacturing plants showed an
even greater dominance of grinding as a major production
The authors would like to acknowledge all who have process; 42 YO of the installed machine tools are grinding
contributed to this paper with suggestions, discussions machines.
and documents of their work. Special thank are given to
Prof. Brinksmeier and his coworkers Dip1.-lng. C. Heinzel
spreading of machining procasses type of machines for machining processes
and T. Brockhoff, IWT Bremen; Prof. D.A. Dornfeld, UC
Berkeley; Dr. M. Kaiser, Dr. Kaiser Diamant- und Bor-
nitridwerkzeuge; Prof. F. Klocke and his coworker Dipl.-
Ing. J. Muckli, WZL Aachen; Mr. V. v. Mackensen. Peter
Wolters Werkzeugmaschinen GmbH; Dip1.-lng. R.
SchBnfeld, Hyprostatic SchBnfeld GmbH; Prof. G. Spur,
Prof. E. Uhlmann, IWF Berlin.

1 General overview

The increase of quality and accuracy is a general .oyu - D d a E Y O ' I 4rw. 64- 328mrnIQLFW

tendency that can be observed in manufacturing.

Grinding, as an important finishing process, is of great Fig. 1: Industrial position of machining technology
practical relevance with respect to this trend. That seems to be the situation today. The questions
Nevertheless, there are questions whether abrasive arising from the academic side show doubts as to
processes will loose their position amongst accuracy whether this position of grinding technology can be kept
oriented manufacturing technologies, because of in future. The answer depends to a great extent on the
ecological and economical reasons. Especially in development of processes and machines. Some of the
academic domains, some publications prognose the challenges and opportunities, which can be derived from
decline of abrasive technologies and its substitution by the innovations in the field of grinding systems and
cutting processes. 'It is dark in front of a grinding grain" or technologies, shall be presented in this paper.
"Grinding is a deep dark mystery" foster considerations in One of the often asked questions for hardened materials
the mentioned direction. These statements do not take is: will milling and turning substitute the abrasive
into account the profound achievements in grinding processes? And indeed there are basic differences in
induced both by process and machine development. cutting processes on one hand and grinding on the other
To see that grinding technologies still play a major role in (Fig. 2) (72,80). Apart from the obvious fact that cutting
production, one can analyse the opinion and estimation of processes are more flexible, as far as the generation of
future trends in the manufacturing industry (15). Fig. 1 complex shapes is concerned, these processes have
shows the results of an inquiry made during the machine other advantages especially in small and medium lot size
tool exhibition EM0 '97. Answering the question about manufacturing. The productivity, measured in metal
the application of cutting and abrasive processes, the removal rate, depends on the machining task and can not
manufacturing companies nominated grinding as the be determined without knowing the shapes and materials
most important technology with 25 %. Turning, milling and to be machined.

Annals of the ClRP Vol. 47/2/7998 651

 conditioning measuring

cooling handling
grinding machine
7 -
\
....

1 shear 3 separation
2 friction, shear 4 friction, shear
5 friction
01101575 0 IFW 0030 ORy& 0 IFW

Fig. 4: Functional modules of a grinding machine

Fig. 2: Cutting and grinding
One of the major differences lies in the fact that for
turning and milling, under normal conditions (i.e. not ultra 2.1 .I Linear direct infeed drives
precision-cutting), a minimal cutting depth is required, and
in connection with this, an unavoidable normal force limits Position and path controlled feed drives are essential
the catalogue of machinable workpieces. Especially work- parts of numerical controlled machine tools. Their feed
pieces with limited stiffness are difficult to machine with rate, axis acceleration and dynamic characteristics
the necessary accuracy. Abrasive processes on the other therefore determine the productivity and accuracy of the
hand can work with minimal normal forces. This is machining unit. Due to the high requirements of feed
because the forces can be reduced by spark-out rates, path and positioning accuracy, the accelerating
operations. There is no minimal cutting depth. Therefore power, available statiddynamic load stiffness are
the question of a complete substitution of one method by continuously rising (74, 61; 55). Consequently feed drives
the other can not be answered generally, and we can see and motion controls are in permanent development. A
replacements in both directions i.e. the substitution of prominent example for the rising demands on the
grinding by cutting and vice versa. performance of feed drives and their control systems can
be observed in the grinding of cams or off-axis rotational
trends substitutionof pmcesses surfaces such as crankshafts.
In recent years, more and more linear direct drives have
been implemented in high performance systems such as
computer numerically controlled machine tools.
Compared to conventional feed drives, using a rotary
motor and a ball screw, the linear motor has a
significantly reduced number of moving components. It
actually consists only of the primary "stator and
secondary "rotor". . The thrust is directly applied to the
slide or to the object to be moved (Fig. 5).
~ ~ : ~ p r m ~ o l . n ~ ~ o 9 7 ~ 1 ~ ~ , m ~ ~P BaR M S O I F W

Fig. 3: Trends in grinding technology

In this respect the development of both technologies is of
utmost interest. Fig. 3 shows the impression which was
collected from the before mentioned inquiry during the
EM0 '97 (16). The industrial experts see substitutions of
cutting processes by grinding rather than the opposite.
This paper shows that with the further introduction of
innovative components and the development of new or
improved processes, the grinding technology still shows a
high potential in keeping its leading position.
- WUVSS M F E I
.secondary part
4 m 4 7 u 0 IFW

Linear direct drive technology

2 New components and processes
The potentials of linear motors have been well described
This part of the paper will discuss interesting new by Pritschow and Weck (6, 54, 90). But certain problems
machine components, process ideas, grinding tools and still remain. The application of a direct force and the
sensor concepts that improve grinding technology. installation of the motor in the region of the guide ways
determining the geometrical accuracy has some negative
effect. It is therefore important to minimise the power loss
2.1 Components of machines in thermal energy. One measure is to leave a smaller air
gap between the primary and the secondary component
The main functional modules of a machine tool - here a of the motor. Until recently this contradicted the
grinding machine - are listed in. The modules which shall requirements to reach an undisturbed and constant feed
be looked at in details are the drives and controls. speed in spite of magnetic influences. To suppress the

652
 Keynote Papers

disturbances from external forces from the grinding the fluid interface, and can be built with high stiffness
process, inertial forces (or cogging) and friction forces, (Fig. 7).
newly developed control systems may be applied (Fig. 6)
(6).
2.1.3 Full digital control and drive systems

Drive systems for numerically controlled machine tools

typically have a cascaded control loop structure for
position or path, speed and current control. The inner
control loops, for current and speed are typically
constructed using analogue hardware. The controller
parameter optimisation is performed during the initiation
phase of the machine tool. The parameters have to be
adjusted by hand, which leads to inflexibility when
considering the variable machining conditions. The rapid
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 development in the semiconductor technology has
time
) 2 M 5 o u c 0 IFW
brought about a generation of microprocessors, which
allow a digital control of current and speed with the same
Fig. 6: Comparison of cascaded motion controller and performance as its purely analogue counterpart.
optimised state-space control The purely digital control structure furthermore allows a
One of the most efficient measures for reducing the decentralisation of the signal processing tasks. For
negative effects of disturbances is to use a compensation example, digital servo axis amplifier are equipped with an
method within state-space-control strategies: an own microprocessor; as a consequence, the position
approach which uses the model based compensation of control is decentralised from the central control unit to the
existing non-linearities. In order to determine a reliable servo amplifier. Besides the control functionality, the
model of the motor, a linearization of non-linear intelligent servo axis amplifier allows further signal
influences is necessary. Elements for friction and cogging processing, for example for the evaluation of critical
compensation within the controller have to be based on process conditions (Fig. 8).
reasonably accurate models which can be obtained by
off-line experiments, (20, 97). The combination of linear
direct drives with compensation module within the motion Download: Upload:
control offers new possibilities to improve the dynamic
Process adapted Machining
behaviour of high speed precision feed drives (6). These control loop parameters parameters
drives can be developed in such ways to fulfil the - optimised control loop - produdivily data for
dynamicsfor varying quality control.
requirements for high precision machining by grinding. process conditions (e.g. documentation
workpiece mass, -tool life monitoring
material) - peak values (eg. feed
2.1.2 Hydrostatic nut and spindle
- limit values (e.g. first drive current, contouring
cut detection from feed error)
drive current level)

High feed speeds and accelerations may bring the

conventional ball screw, that transforms rotational to 121,25813 0 IFW

linear motion, to its limits. Especially the previously

mentioned non rotational grinding applications, such as Fig. 8: Potentials of digital control systems
for cams and crankshafts, bring detrimental loading Based on intelligent servo amplifiers and extended
conditions to these machine elements (93). Therefore communication facilities, process dependent parameter
hydrostatic nut and spindle systems may be introduced sets to configure the control loops may be downloaded
into grinding machines to solve this problem (25). from the master unit of the machine tool control to the
individual control loops of the servo drives. This feature
permits a process optimal control loop parameter choice
and consequently supports the multi-process ability of a
machine tool. Furthermore, drive systems with
decentralised intelligence may improve the personal and
machine safety, as critical machine conditions can be
supervised closely to the process while warning or error
messages may be sent to other control modules (82).

2.1.4 High speed spindle with magnetic bearings

High grinding velocities for internal grinding and other

processes with smaller wheel diameters require .high
Fig. 7: Hydrostatic nut rotational speeds. One solution for achieving these
These mechanisms are known for milling machines that speeds is offered by implementing magnetic bearings
have long travels and high feed, there the hydrostatic nut (Fig. 9). Rotors with such bearings were first introduced
and spindle system has to reduce friction and thermal for centrifuges and later for high speed milling purposes
loading. These systems can also be implemented in fast in machine tools. Magnetic bearings have features, which
and accurate grinding machines. They work without also make them attractive for grinding machines.
backlash, generate only little thermal losses because of

653
 For these equations the workpiece speed vw, the cutting
axial magnetic speed vs, the number of cutting edges on the unit area of
(mnt radial beanng rear radial the wheel surface NA, the depth of cut ae, the wheel
magnetic beanng high fiquency magneflc beanng radial sensor
\ dnw radius rs and the workpiece radius rw are required. The
radial and h 1 I -,.I^..
pluslminus sign corresponds to cylindrical external and
internal grinding, respectively (42).
The average chip cross section has a decisive influence
on the cutting force acting upon each cutting edge or
abrasive grain (38,40). Thus, it can control the wear
mechanism of the active grinding wheel surface. Larger
U
chip cross sections and higher forces on the cutting edge
promotes grain breakage and even grain dislodgement.
MtOtCOiFW This may lead to self sharpening effects, but also to
greater roughness on the generated surfaces. Low chip
Fig. 9: High speed spindle with magnetic bearings cross sections on the other hand may foster flattening of
Contactless operation: It ensures a virtually-endless the grains and finally lead to grazing effects and
operational life of the spindle and the rotational accuracy overheating.
of the spindle can be kept over a long time due to the As can bee seen from equation (1) the wheel surface
wear-free operation. The precondition is that the bearing speed vs can be used to control the chip cross section.
control does not fail. The forces per cutting edge and thus the wear
Auto-balancing: In the case of conventional bearing, a mechanism and the total force between tool and
spindle is rotating around the geometric centre. workpiece are also influenced.
Therefore, if the spindle has an unbalance, it causes an The advantages of high speed grinding are summarised
oscillation of the mechanical structure. To the contrary, in Fig. lO(1eft). For constant material removal rates, the
the spindle can be rotated around the centre of inertia in wheel wear, the surface roughness and also the grinding
the magnetic bearing. This is made possible by forces decrease proportionally to an increase in cutting
significantly reducing the bearing stiffness at the speeds (91).
frequency of the spindle rotation. Thanks to this control In the second case, an increase of the workpiece speeds
strategy, most of the problems related to the forced in proportion to the elevated cutting speeds can be
vibration due to a spindle unbalance can be solved. recognised. In this way, the chip cross section does not
Monitoring ability of the operational state: External force
acting upon the spindle can be detected by monitoring the vw +=constant Ap= constant
electric current. Therefore, both the normal and the
tangential machining force components can be measured t material
during the machining processes. removalrate
Actuation: Spindle position in the bearing can be wheel wear grinding force
controlled within the range of clearance. This surface
roughness surface
characteristic can be, for example, fully utilized to control roughness
grindingfww
the depth of cut with high accuracy and repeatability.
.
material wheel wear
Grinding machines, which are required to meet high
machining accuracy, can possibly take full advantage of
wheel surface speed vs Wheel surfaut speed vs
the above mentioned performance of magnetic bearings.
A problem in practical use of magnetic bearing is, on the -a *rull 3.lm~OIFw

other hand, its high price. If the investment in justifiable, it

has to be calculated according to given conditions. Fig. 10: Effect of high-speed grinding
change; the cutting force acting on each cutting edge as
2.2 Processes well as the resultant grinding force is kept constant. The
latter is interesting when trying to improve the size and
form accuracy of the workpiece when the stiffness of the
2.2.1 High speed grinding mechanical structure on the workpiece or the tool side (or
on both) is low. Typical examples of this are internal
The effects of high speed grinding (HSG), the effect of the grinding with limited diameter of the grinding arbour of the
elevated wheel surface speed on the grinding spindle or the grinding of slender workpieces.
performance, can be described in terms of the average One can conclude that high speed grinding provides both
chip cross section Ag by the following equations (69). an improvement of grinding accuracy and an increase of
the material removal rate.

The advantages of high speed grinding can only be

utilised in an effective and premeditated manner if the
machine concept is adapted to the requirements of this
high performance grinding technology. While working with
with high rotational speeds the grinding wheellspindlelmotor
system must run extremely accurately and with minimum
vibrations. For this reason, a high level of rigidity is
required for the entire machine system. Additionally,
precise balancing of the grinding wheel is necessary. In
that case, a suitable stabilising system in terms of
balancing capacity and balance quality is required.

654
 Keynote Papers

When working with high cutting speeds, the coolant the effects of elevated wheel speeds on the general
supply has to be taken into account. Sufficient coolant grinding performance using the computer (29).
lubricants for the cooling and the lubrication of the
grinding process is required, on the other hand, a large
amount of coolant causes large hydrodynamic forces 2.2.2 Speed stroke grinding
when increasing cutting speeds. Additionally, it is
important that the coolant breaks through the air film, As can be seen from equation (1) the speed ratio vs/vw is
which surrounds the grinding wheel surface, on the a powerful way to control the average chip thickness, the
operation point. In this case, a free-flow-nozzle or a shoe derived process parameters and their effects. Having the
nozzle with an adapted coolant supply is favourable possibility to gain high grinding speeds (vs) the work
(83, 86, 92). speed (vw) should be adapted accordingly. Furthermore
To prevent health hazards for the machine tool operator, there are materials and conditions were grinding with very
it is important to work with an encapsulation and powerful low speed ratios is advantageous. This process is called
suction. Furthermore, it is necessary to implement safety speed stroke grinding (SSG). Under these circumstances
devices according to given safety standards that avoid an the conventional drives using ball-screws offen reach
endangering of the worker in the event of tool breakage. their technical limits. In this case linear drives, as
explained above, are more appropriate motors. They can
In order to achieve high speed grinding, improvement of provide high feed speeds as well as high oscillation
the grinding wheel performance is required. The wheel frequencies.
used for high speed grinding should be strong enough With SSG, the average chip cross section can be
that the centrifugal force does not lead to a breakage in enlarged considerably. This is favourable especially when
the high speed operation range. Although most of the grinding hard and brittle materials such as ceramics (26).
practically used super abrasive wheels have a core made The mechanical loads between the workpiece and
of metal, the use of other lighter materials such as grinding wheel, namely the high normal forces, which
composite materials, for example CFRP, is conceivable. springloads the machine, can be reduced. In Fig. 12 the
For example a CBN wheel which has a CFRP core and a tendencies of process quantities and their effects are
practical operational speed of 200mls has already been shown. From kinematic calculations, the average chip
developed (51). cross section and the geometric contact length can be
A comparison of the material properties between steel derived. These quantities directly influence important
and CFRP, which are relevant for the use in a grinding parameters of the process as shown in Fig. 12.
wheel, is shown in Fig. 11. Although the modulus of weepfeed 6 speedstroke
grinding grinding
elasticity of CFRP is lower than that of steel, its extremely
low value in the specific weight results in a higher value \ compressive 6 higher chip thickriess
of the E/y ratio. This makes it a better choice for the residual
strBsses 0 reduced contact length
grinding wheel application. In fact the radial expansion of
the wheel can be decreased significantly by using 0 redwedhidion
roughness
materials which possess high value of E/y ratio. The 0 brittle material removal
extremely low value in the coefficient of linear expansion brces 6 reducedfones
of CFRP is yet another argument for applying this
6 less grinding energy
particular material to the grinding wheel core. thermal
load 6 reduced thermal load

t material properties workfeedspeed

"1 oRYs(lc0 IFW

Fig. 12: Effect of speed stroke grinding (SSG)

steel

! 2.3
CFRP
Conditioning and cooling

strength 650 470 Following E. Saljk grinding is a two-step process

abrasive layer R, [MPa]
consisting of the conditioning of the grinding wheel and
vs = 200 m/s 12 1 the actual grinding process itself. The conditioning of
expansion
d, = 380 mm superhard-abrasivewheels is still a not yet fully controlled
r1o6w
.OM hYb process. For this reason the boron nitride grinding
technology (CBNgrinding) has not yet been introduced to
Fig. 11: Radial expansion of the grinding wheel a much wider range of applications.
In addition to the practical development in high speed Conditioning aims at keeping the active grinding surface
grinding, it is furthermore necessary to conduct in a predefined topography by implementing a controlled
fundamental research for a better understanding of the tool material removal (84). For CBN tools only a limited
effects that occur when elevated wheel speeds are number of conditioning processes exist because of the
achieved. One of the powerful tools for the investigation difficult to remove abrasive material (39, 56, 57, 59).
of high speed grinding processes is the use of computer Because of the high tool material costs it is important to
simulation. By assuming the cutting edge distribution on take off only a thin layer of the active surface of the
the wheel surface and by applying the coordinate wheel. Consequently a conditioning process called "touch
transformation matrices it is possible to establish the dressing" was developed. When using this procedure an
mathematical model of the cutting edge-workpiece optimised motion, in the pm range between the dressing
interaction. With this method it is possible to investigate diamond and the grinding wheel, is required.
Consequently a better use of the superabrasive material

655
CBN and a fine, uniform wheel topography is achievable freezing
(65, 71). main line type neatless
filter A,,,~ air dryer

emsure < 0.05 d I

CE6 grinding wheel

.&
'
d : grain diameter
-
grinding timet

conditioning
-. M

interval Fig. 14: Cooling-air CBN grinding system

-Hhtr M7113b 0 IFW

Fundamental cylindrical grinding tests were carried out to

Fig. 13: Influence of the feed rate to the grinding
evaluate the reduction of the grinding fluids. Grinding
wheel topography
performances with the two different methods i.e. grinding
The main problems in touch-dressing are to determine with solid lubricant and with an extremely small amount of
the initial contact between the dressing tool and the vegetable oil, were compared using an air cooled system.
grinding wheel and to achieve the small infeed required. As shown in Fig. 15, application of solid lubricant is quite
Special problems are posed by the tolerances of the effective to suppress the temperature rise. A
dressing tool infeed and by the high rigidity demanded of measurement of residual stresses on the ground surface
the dressing system, comprising of the dressing tool and shows that compressive stresses of about 450-600 MPa
the grinding wheel spindle. Fig. 13 shows a comparison are generated by grinding with cooled air. Through a
between conventional and touch-dressing. By using series of grinding tests; it has been confirmed that
sensor systems to control the contact between the wheel grinding with cooled air supply is to some extent possible
and dressing tool, this dressing technique offers the although there are still some technical problems to be
possibility to run stable and economically efficient solved: Because of the supply of pressurised air through
grinding processes with these relatively costly CBN- a nozzle, noise, oil mist and grinding swarf are generated.
grinding wheels. Thermal deformations of the machine and of the
In the last several years environmental aspects in workpiece may cause geometric errors. These technical
production have attracted quite some interest (78). The difficulties may be minimised to a certain extent. But still
aims are to reduce material and energy consumption for the problem of high energy consumption for the
products and production processes and implementing a pressurisation and cooling of the air generate a non
clean and emission free process. Among various negligible economic cost.
environmental problems, waste machining fluids are key
issues. From the viewpoint of health hazard and
increasing disposal cost of machining fluids, there is a wheel temperature pressure quantity grinding roughness rise
'C MPa Vmin fone R,[,,,l 'C
strong demand to decrease the amount of machining tUmm
fluids used or even completely avoid the use of machining
fluids. In grinding normally fluids are needed to cool, to
lubricate and to transport chips and abrasive particles.
Considering the afore mentioned demands dry grinding
and grinding with minimal quantities of fluid are becoming
CON (typel)
120/140K175
MGHPS
(with solid lubricant)
o.28 330 1 1 1
2.5 2.1 8

an issue. In cutting like turning, milling and drilling

remarkable progress has been made in reducing fluids wheel speed 1800 m/min grinding wheel: CEN (type 1)
work speed: 23.5 mhnin
(41). Because of friction effects and general power stock removal rate: 900 mm2 /min wotkpieca: 8SCM
0 /1 0
435H
0W2w)~4
(HRC SO)
transformation to thermal energy the problems in grinding w ~ c . . l ~ u k i 3?BR5279SOlW
are different and difficult to solve. Nevertheless there are
approaches on how to reduce fluids in grinding. Fig. 15: Grinding results
In CBN grinding advantage can be taken of two effects:
the lower heat generation in general and the higher heat
conductivity of CBN compared to corundum or silicon 2.4 Tools
carbide leading to less thermal loading of the work
surface, which is one major problem when reducing the Because of the recent development of the
coolant supply requirements, (13, 95). microcrystalline aluminum oxide grain, also known as
One method is to use an air cooled approach, since it has seeded gel (SG) grain, a new material for grinding of steel
the advantage of not generating any environmental harm. is now available. The productive capacity of the SG-grain
Fig. 14 shows the air cooling and supply system. can be positioned between corundum and CBN (24).
Compressed air is lead via a filter, a dryer and a heat Compared with conventional grinding materials the SG-
exchanger to the working spot. This system was grain has a higher hardness and a better toughness.
combined with two different methods for solving the Under special machining conditions it is possible to
friction problem by lubrication; a solid lubricant and a fluid generate sharp secondary cutting edges making it self-
lubricant. sharpening during the grinding process (85). This way,
the cutting forces and the heat generation can be reduced
and also tool wear can be diminished (3). Additionally it is
possible to obtain higher material removal rates leading to

656
 Keynote Papers

longer dressing intervals and a comparatively cool 2.5 Sensors

grinding.
Compared to CBN grinding, SG has some additional
2.5.1 Acoustic emission sensor systems
advantages. The wheel costs are much lower and there
are lower requirements on the grinding machine: The
conditioning system is similar to conventional ones. The The recording of acoustic emissions (AE) is a powerful
same is true for the cooling system whereas for CBN method for monitoring and diagnosing machining
grinding oil coolant with powerful aggregates and processes (11). The machining process produces elastic
encapsulations are needed. stress waves which propagate through the workpiece, the
Tests on internal grinding show that SG leads to a 15- tool and the machine structure. These stress waves are
30 % higher specific material removal rate and 40-80 % generated by different sources, such as friction, crack
higher G-ratios with the same surface roughness and the formation, the impacts of cutting edges or chips and
same thermal influence on the subsurface of the particles separation. It seems that in grinding ductile
workpiece. materials, the AE signal comes predominantly from
Investigations in machining tempered steel with cutting friction events. Quite a number of sensors have been
speeds of up to 125 m/s lead to specific material removal developed based on the AE principle. These were used
rates of about 100 mm3/mms. These results show that mainly to detect the contact between wheel and
special SG specifications can also be used for high speed workpiece (or the dressing tool and wheel). These
operations (50). devices are well accepted by the industry and have been
For the optimised use of SG-grinding wheels an adapted integrated in the control loop of grinding machines. shows
dressing process is important. Because of the higher different types of sensor concepts and evaluates them
hardness and toughness of the SG-grain, a higher tool (17, 35, 46, 73). Research is still being done on how to
wear of the dressing tool is generated. It therefore is use such devices for other functions. This research aims
necessary to apply rotating dressing tools (33). to get information about the material removal rate, the
Additionally stationary dressing tools with diamonds that acting forces and the power transmitted onto the
have a high hardness and a high wear resistance can be workpiece (48, 53, 68). Reliable signals can give the
applied for dressing SG grinding wheels. opportunity to monitor and to optimise the grinding
process by an adaptive control system, leading to
dressing; Microcrvstalline fmcl lwnina conditions: considerable economic advantages. Currently in the
development and testing phase, there is another system
for detecting overheating and burn whilst grinding (58).

lransrmssion

Fig. 16: Cleavage on SG abrasive grain

3 readjustment
When working with SG abrasives, two strategies may be
pursued. If it is possible to reach the critical initial force zmmm 1
that causes the microchipage, the process then works in Fig. 17: Sensor concepts for acoustic emission
the area of the self-sharpening effects. In this case
significantly higher specific material removal rates
compared to a conventional co,mndum tool can be 2.5.2 Micromagnetic Sensor Systems
obtained. Furthermore the G-ratio is higher. On the other
hand when working with lower cutting forces, it is Due to the high added value to a part in the finishing
necessary to produce the microchipage of the grains by stages of production, workpiece monitoring and surface
implementing a dressing process. Thus a sharp and integrity are of great importance (22, 34, 49,44, 45, 60,
cutable topography can be generated. With this 70, 77, 94). The direct quality control of ground
topography it is possible to achieve a visible increase of workpieces is possible with the use of micromagnetic
the dressing interval, rather than conventional grinding analysis systems. Based on the generation of Blochwall-
operations. It is clear that the best grinding results with motions in ferromagnetic materials, a Barkhausen noise-
SG can be obtained while working in the region of signal is used to describe the surface integrity after the
microchipage ( grinding process (2). The actual sensor hardware
The further developments of the SG-grain concentrates measures the Barkhausen noise and the field strength.
itself mainly on the production of new grain forms. On the The amplitude of the Barkhausen noise correlates with
EMO-fair in 1997, a new microcrystalline aluminum oxide the residual stresses in the surface layers, while the
grain was presented. The form of the grits resembles coercivity correlates with the workpiece hardness. Fig. 18
interconnected worms. The grinding material promises an presents the results of an industrial application using this
increase in removal rates combined with higher G-ratios. sensor system. With the increasing wear of the grinding
This new grain is recommended for grinding steels with 4 wheel (a wear that is proportional to the number of
hardness over 60 HRC (52). ground workpieces), the energy in the zone of contact is
significantly influenced. The increasing amount of heat

657
 penetration in the workpiece leads to an increase of A newly developed speed-stroke surface grinding
residual stresses within the workpiece. The Barkhausen machine equipped with a linear motor for the table feed is
amplitudes were found to be proportional to the number illustrated in Fig. 19. The two motors face each other so
of workpieces machined. All gears without thermal that the attraction forces acting on the guide can be
damage (thermal damage which can also be detected by compensated. The main specifications of the table feed
etching tests), lead to low Barkhausen amplitudes. The system are:
thermal damage was checked using an etching test. An
advantage of the Barkhausen system is the depth of Maximum table speed: 60 m/min
penetration; damages in a range of 20 wn beneath the Maximum acceleration: 10 mls2
surface can be detected. However, the. etching test is Thrust: 1000 N
limited to surface damage. Table stroke: 300 mm

.coolant ,coil

[ ~ N S t
table stroke
;iFrn;1
(XI* h d X6r25224c 0 IFW

Fig. 18: Correlation of Barkhausen noise amplitude and Fig. 19: Speed stroke grinding machine with linear motor
etching results driven table
Currently the micromagnetic sensor system can not be In comparison, conventional drives with ball-screws set in
implemented in-process whilst grinding. The workpiece a special arrangement can reach maximum table speeds
has to be tested in a separate measuring rig. Further of 60 mlmin, when working at their technical limits. On the
developments should make it possible to install the other hand as can be seen from the figure, an additional
sensor in the grinding machine. water cooling system for the moving part has to be
provided. Basic performance tests with this machine are
still being currently performed.
3 Progressive state of the art
3.2 Internal grinding machine
Innovation is a time dependent process. Some of the
newest developments and processes presented here Magnetic bearings supporting a fast running spindle are
have already been introduced or are just in the state of amongst the newest features of centerless internal
introduction into industrial grinding machine tools. grinding machines (99). They are equipped with two
radial and one double sided axial magnetic bearing. The
1.3 kW motor is directly integrated in the spindle system.
3.1 Linear direct infeed drives The maximum rotational speed is 1 1 0.000 rpm. The load
capacity of the bearings is 140 N in radial and 120 N in
A jig grinding machine with a linear direct motor driven Z- axial direction, with a corresponding static stiffness of 66
axis was recently developed. The feed mechanism of the N/pm and 500 N/pm (measured at the end of the spindle).
Z-axis is designed with the magnet located on the
By taking advantage of the functional performance of the
movable component, while the coil assemblies are magnetic bearing, the following advanced grinding
located on the stationary component. The results of features can be implementedwith this machine.
grinding with such a system compared to a conventional 1. The contact detection of the grinding wheel and the
grinding machine are shown in Table 1. As can be seen workpiece as well as the contact of the grinding wheel
from the table, the total grinding time is reduced by and the dressing tool.
almost 50 % when using this new machine concept. A 2. The monitoring of the normal and tangential
time reduction can be achieved by increased oscillation grinding force components, which can contribute to
frequencies in cycle/minutes from 180 to 380 and 180 to control of the grinding cycle. This can be used in
250 for roughing and finishing, respectively. controlled force grinding and for determining the wheel
life.
I Grinding machine I Conventional
I with linear motor I machine 3. The implementation of oscillation grinding for
achieving a better surface roughness. The wheel spindle
I I
Spindle oscillation
[Hz] I 6,3 (roughing)
4,l (finishing) I 3,O (roughing)
3,O (finishing) is oscillating with a small amplitude (0-100 pm) within the
magnetic bearing clearance in the axial direction. The
Grinding time [h] 1 5 (roughing) 3.1 (roughing) frequency can be increased up to 100 Hz. This method is
3,7 (finishing) 6,9 (finishing) quite different from conventional oscillation grinding,
I I where the wheel spindle head oscillated. The large mass
Total time [h] I 52 I 10,o of the head induces a significant forced vibration.
Table 1 : Comparison of grinding performance

658
 Keynote Papers

4. The grinding of non-rotational parts. By controlling required contour. Especially with the introduction of super
the spindle position and synchronizing its motion to the abrasive materials, this type of cylindrical grinding
rotational motion of the workpiece, the spindle can grind process has gained importance (14). The CBN abrasive
non-rotational surfaces such as ellipsoidal parts. additionally allows smaller wheel diameters compared to
conventional abrasives. This is advantageous for the
design of the grinding machine, for the tool costs and
3.3 Milling type conditioning system
especially for the contact length between tool and work
(66). The reduced contact length generates less friction
A new conditioning process named "milling type
and less thermal loading on the workpiece surface.
conditioning" has been recently developed. It can be
applied to conventional grinding tools made of aluminium
oxide and silicon carbide and is suited for vitreous and ,, z 2:l , ,
metal bcnd CBN
resin bond systems (62, 88). The principle is illustrated in grinding wheel
Fig 20.
(.@.\

initial state '.....__-'

,I
n

'' grinding
ofrough .- , I
wheel
wheel profile

Fig. 21: Quickpoint technology

form roller \I Another approach for reducing the contact area is to tilt
w 322n5281cQ IFW
the axis of the wheel relative to the axis of the workpiece
Fig. 20: Principle of milling type conditioning
(Fig. 21). The so called "quickpoint" grinding technology
For profiling, a diamond form roll,er with circumferential was developed by E. Junker in the eighties, (30). It had
slots comparable to a stone grinding tool respectively the effect of reducing the contact area and decreasing the
milling cutter is used. The diamond grits are bond in a tangential force such, that - according to the machine tool
metal matrix. This rough profiling tool design ensures a manufacturer - the workpiece may be rotationally driven
sufficient removal of grinding wheel material and an only by the friction torque of the centres and therefore no
effective coolant supply (27). The discontinuous cut additional positive driving device is needed. In the quick
allows high material removal rates during the truing point mode, the tool wear is concentrated only on a
process and decreases conditioning time. The profiling narrow band, making a high wear resistance a necessity.
. - tool is applied similarly to a peripheral milling tool during a It is claimed that by reducing the contact area, the cooling
circular milling process, thereby giving the process its mechanisms are much more favourable than in
name. conventional grinding, yielding to an obvious
The desired profile of the grinding wheel is generated by improvement of the surface integrity, (31,40).
NC-controlled movement of the axes. The maximum Furthermore this process grinds workpieces clamped in a
depth of cut is currently 2mm, giving the opportunity to single setting, including surface shoulders, recesses,
quickly generate a complex profile into an initially draw-in bolt threads, surface, and multiple edges .if the
cylindrical grinding wheel, Fig. 20 right (5). angle aK is set to 0".
Due to this enormous removal of grinding wheel material
this technology is only suitable for conventional
abrasives, because the loss of CBN or diamond grits 3.5 Finegrinding with lapping kinematics
would be much too expensive, despite the problems of
tool wear. A contrary strategy for reducing the contact area is to use
After the rough profiling procedure the wheel micro- the double sided surface grinding process; a
topography is generated using a conventional diamond kinematically identical motion as a lapping process. The
form roller. To adapt this technology to a grinding whole surface of the work to be machined is contacted by
machine, a dressing unit with two seperate drives and the the grinding material and the grinding speed is
dressing wheels facing each other is necessary (5). considerably slower than conventional machining (81).
The whole equipment is interesting for small and medium Fine grinding using this method is a grinding process
ideally suited for the high precision machining of
scale production, where a change of the grinding wheel is
workpieces with high requirements on the surface
likely to occur. If the costs for storage of different shaped
roughness and geometrical accuracy. Fine grinding has
grinding wheels are higher than the reprofiling of a
been developed as a substitution process for lapping and
comparatively low-priced tool, which can be estimated in
is characterised by significantly lower disposal costs of
many cases, this technology offers a fast and
economically attractive solution. the process medium, a lower cleaning expenditure of the
workpieces, a potential for process-automation and high
material removal rates (1, 19, 23). Due to the specific
3.4 Grinding with reduced contact area kinematics, high geometrical accuracies can be achieved
(21, 76). The principle of the process is shown in Fig. 22.
Longitudinal grinding of NC controlled contours is known
as being a more flexible process compared to plunge
grinding, where the grinding wheel has to follow the

659
 400

%
200
workpiece :
100
A1203
0
fine grinding:
0.80 stock allowance:

vm 10th machining cycle

coolant:
0.40 mineral oil

0.20

0
D20-30V+ D91V+ D107K+ lapping 32MsSb2c O l l w

Fig. 22: Principle of fine grinding Fig. 23: Results of fine grinding
As mentioned above the kinematics are equivalent to Fine grinding leads to significantly smoother surfaces
lapping with a restricted guidance. During fine grinding, than lapping. As can be seen the smallest grit size D20-
the workpieces are guided in a carrier system which is 30 produces the best surface roughness. Because of its
driven by an inner pin ring. The carrier system rolls off on lower material removal rates the use of the D91 wheel
the fixed outer pin ring so that the workpieces move in a resulted in smoother parts when used with a water based
cycloid motion relative to the rotating grinding wheels fluid.
(similar to a planetary gear motion).
Although the kinematic conditions of the workpiece
motion are equivalent in fine grinding and lapping, some 3.6 Continuous path controlled grinding of
important differences to lapping may be noticed. In camshafts and crankshafts
comparison to lapping, the effective principle during fine
grinding is not bound to the spatial area but bound to the Crankshafts are key components in an automotive
kinematically defined path of the grinding grains. engine. In the last two years considerable research and
Furthermore the main effective direction is not development has taken place to shorten the process
perpendicular but parallel to the workpiece surface. The chain and to improve quality. Extensive work has been
material is removed during lapping by exceeding the done in near net shape processes. Because of its
maximum compressive strength of the base material, requirements for a highly accurate finish, abrasive
whilst during fine grinding the maximum shear strength is processes are required. In this field innovative machine
exceeded (63). When analysing the process in detail one design is needed. Conventionally crankshafts have to be
can observe that the mechanisms of material removal, ground using several clamping operations because of the
during fine grinding, are similar to those encountered in differences in axes orientations of the journal and the pin
conventional grinding. Depending on the parameters and bearings (Fig. 24). These operations generate idle time,
the nature of the workpiece material, the material can be loss of accuracy, high tool costs, the necessity for large
removed by microcutting, microploughing, microgrooving wheel diameters and investment in special clamping
or due to the fatigue cracking of the surface. In general, devices as well as other efforts.
however, the material is removed by a combination of Drive and control developments have now made a new
these mechanisms, (36). As illustrated in Fig. 23 the fine machining concept possible. When grinding a 4 cylinder
ground surface is characterised by grinding grooves crankshaft traditionally, three broaching operations have
which intersect and are not oriented in any particular to be used for the rough machining of the crankshafts,
direction. subsequently followed by three grinding operations.
Figure 23 shows some typical results that can be Additionally, one broaching operation and one grinding
achieved in the fine grinding of aluminum oxide sealing operation are used on the journals. Furthermore, two
washers. Fine grinding is a force controlled manufacturing broaching operations and two grinding operations are
process, consequently the material removal rate depends used for the pins, with the pins being separately
on the wheel specification, the coolant and the grinding machined in pairs. For the machining of the pins, the
conditions. In comparison to lapping, significantly higher component is mounted eccentrically so that it rotates
material removal rates are achievable with fine grinding about the axis of one pair of pins. When using a new
irrelevant of the grinding wheel type and coolant used. cylindrical grinding machine the crankshaft is clamped
For example, with mineral oil, a vitreous-bonded D91 only once on its main axis. On this axis the main bearings
grinding wheel removes material at a higher rate than are ground and these generated surfaces serve later as
vitreous-bonded D20-30 and resin-bonded D107. Despite supports for steady rests. For machining the pins the
its larger grit size the D107 wheel produces significantly grinding wheel is moved back and forth, so that it
smaller material removal rates because of the self- generates cylindrical surfaces.
sharpening effect of the vitreous bond system.
Furthermore, mineral oil increases the material removal
rate of the D91 wheel but decreases those of the D20-30
and Dl07 wheels, (19, 37).

660
 Keynote Papers

convenlional off- axis 3.7 Intelligent grinding machine with monitoring

system
aXlS axis
The increasing use of super-abrasive wheels, such as
CBN and diamond wheels, is accelerating the need for
intelligent grinding machines. The investment costs of
such wheels are much higher than that of conventional
.. _. .
grinding wheels. Hence, an exact judgement of the wheel
msteaby rest
r&ting
axis L .ri life-expectancy through the use of intelligent monitoring
SSl

..rotation systems has become crucial for minimising the wheel

-- m t n c damping chucks
wheels up to 0 llCOnm
on crankshaft axu
interpolationof C and X axis
with 500 mm
consumption. To take full advantage of super-abrasive
several clampingoperations
use of multiple-wheel-sets .allCBN-WhNlS
* 0
bearings in one dampingmode wheels, the conditioning process, i.e., truing and
ouasdmudyubk~onl*l 37Ryu2s 0 IW dressing, should also be carefully performed using
intelligent monitoring systems (73). The shortage of
Fig. 24: Comparison of conventional and out-of-
skilled operators in recent years has generated a demand
roundness crankshaft grinding mode
for more intelligent machines with simpler maintenance.
The process is called continuous path controlled grinding A monitoring system in the intelligent grinding machine
because of the interpolated continuous path controlled could be capable of detecting any unexpected

.
motion of the X-axis (grinding wheel) and the C-axis malfunctions that occurred in the process accurately and
(workpiece), (Fig. 25) (12). This mode is then combined fast (20, 32). Another important task of a monitoring
with a traverse to generate profiles. This means all system is to provide useful information for optimising the
journals and pins of a crankshaft can be rough ground grinding process in terms of the total grinding time or the
and finished on one set-up, using a single wheel and one total grinding cost, as shown in Fig. 26.
machine. By operating in a traverse grinding mode, the algorithm for
+\optimization
different widths of journals and pins can be used.
Furthermore the process is flexible enough to be able to algorithm for
detecting wheel life
machine different sizes of crankshafts (75).

grinding wheel

tase
.OM-

Fig. 26: Tasks of monitoring system

In addition to the above mentioned capabilities, the
following features are important for a monitoring system
within an intelligent grinding machines:
Fig. 25: Kinematic of crankshaft grinding 1. Allowing a contact detection between the grinding
CBN-wheels are used instead of conventional wheels to wheel and the workpiece so as to minimise the
keep the moving mass as low as possible so as to approaching time.
guarantee the high-dynamic behaviour required for this 2. To provide the information which can be used for
process. establishing a grinding database. Such a database makes
In order to fulfil these dynamic and accuracy the documentation of parameters simple allowing for a
requirements, a high performance numerical control unit systematic storage of the experiences gained.
must be used. Additional programming and sensor Ideally an intelligent grinding machine should be able to
systems can optimise the roundness of the eccentric take effective actions based on the information provided
bearings by compensating for dynamic deviations thereby by the monitoring system, and thereby becoming a closed
obtaining a homogeneous surface finish. Tests confirmed loop system.
that the new machine concept could satisfy all The prerequisite for an intelligent grinding machine is that
expectations and demonstrated the potential of the the machine is equipped with a highly intelligent
approach. Circularity errors from merely 1,5pm to 2,6pm monitoring system. For this purpose the grinding wheel
were achieved. can be equipped, for example, with an AE sensor or other
Further research could reduce the number of process devices, so that the signal can be sent to a receiver
steps in the crankshaft production tremendously. This located outside of the wheel (46).
technology of the future will make it possible to perform There are of course other possible positions for attaching
all the machining operations, including heat treatment an AE sensor. For example, the tail-stock or the spindle
when required, in a single set-up on only one machine. head of the grinding machine making it easier to transmit
The potential benefits include a reduction of 60% in the the signal through cables. When comparing these
number of machines and handling systems required, a methods, the sensor integrated wheel has the following
lowering of the working area by 82% and a decrease of advantages, even though the system increases
the overall cycle times and costs of 30%. complexity:
1. The distance between the grinding point and the
sensor can be minimised.

661
2. The AE signal is not contaminated with mechanical
noise generated at the bearing.
3. The monitoring of both the grinding and I grinding database
0 grinding lheoly
0 decision table

-
conditioning processes are possible with the same 4
Inputdata wndtion Out utof
sensor. * determination op8mal
Qrlndlng
Owrkpieu,
allribules engine condition

0 wheel
attributes andion o infeed rate
* adaptation +
oinfeed
O~uiremenl engine wmdion by
amount
skilled operator
I

Fig. 28: Functional diagram for optimisation of grinding

conditions

.(uuw U M S ~o C
IFW
3.8 MUM station gear grinding
Fig. 27: Intelligent grinding system
From the investigations of grinding processes, it is known
Fig. 27 shows the conceptual design of an intelligent
that for roughing and finishing operations different
grinding system based on a sensor integrated grinding
microtopographies of the wheel are needed. Very often
wheel and a power sensor (28). The system is capable of
this is achieved by applying the conditioning process
detecting chatter vibration and estimating the surface
using the same grinding tool for both operations.
roughness, from which the wheel life can be automatically
Unfortunately, in this approach, the degrees of freedom
determined. In addition, the grinding cycle time is
which are given by the structure of the wheel are not well
automatically minimised, thereby achieving the required
used. A newly developed gear grinder for large scale
surface roughness.
production employs optimally adapted tools for roughing
Although many attempts have been made to develop
and finishing operations (Fig. 29).
intelligent grinding machines, none of them are being
practically implemented in industry. Therefore more
research and development is required to optimise the
features of such a system. The following design is an
example of the primary features that an "intelligent" CNC
controller found on the market, should have. The
controller should have the capability to learn the decision
making processes taken by skilled operators for
optimising the grinding conditions (96).
The system consists of two inference engines; the
condition determination engine and the condition
adaptation engine, both based on a neural network
architecture. As shown in Fig. 28, the standard grinding
conditions are automatically determined by the condition
determination engine in accordance with universal Fig. 29: Machine structure and axes
theoretical or empirical formulae and machining rules,
which are applicable in any manufacturing environment. Additionally it uses the principal of parallel machining by
The standard grinding conditions determined in this using different workstations and thus enables the
manner are a rough guide, therefore correction and simultaneous roughing and finishing and
compensations are made by the skilled operators. The loading/unloading of the grinding stones and workpiece.
strategy of the system is such that the condition The parts are placed in clamping devices on workpiece
adaptation engine, based on the neural network, makes spindles, which are built in an indexing drum. The two
the corrections to the standard conditions. machining stations are equipped with three linear and one
The neural network employed for learning the results of rotational axes. The machine can work in four different
correction made by the skilled operators, is based on a modes. These are full cycle profile grinding, hob grinding,
three-layer back-propagation model. The input data to the profile hob grinding and gear honing - the so called
network are the fixed conditions concerning the grinding coroning mode.
wheel and workpiece while the output are the correction
values with respect to the various grinding conditions. 3.9 Coroning
In addition to its learning capability, with respect to the
condition correction, the controller is capable of This process is the new version of what was previously
automatically adjusting the wheel in-feed speed by using known as a gear honing process with corundum honing
fuzzy algorithms. Because of this functionality, total tools. For coroning electroplated tools super-abrasives
grinding time can be significantly reduced. are used. The kinematic considerations are similar to the
gear honing process. The difference to conventional gear
honing is that after the heat treatment no grinding is
necessary. The cutting speed for honing, which is
generated by crossing the axis of the internal toothed tool

662
 Keynote Papers

against the axis of the external toothed workpiece under a 4 Research activities
small angle, is considerably lower than in grinding. On
average, it is 1 m/s. In this case the abrasive can be
diamond, even though steel has to be machined. The rule 4.1 Grinding of nickel base alloys
of thumb, that when machining steel, diamond is not a
suitable material, due to chemical reactions between As was pointed out before, increasing the workpiece feed
carbon and iron and the catastrophic wear it induces, is rate can significantly influence the chip formation. Its
not true in this case. This is because of the low cutting successful application in grinding brittle materials has
already been demonstrated. In this case the average chip
speed and the short contact time between tool and
workpiece. For this reason, the internal toothed tool, for cross section was enlarged so that the high normal forces
roughing and finishing, is electroplated with a single layer could be decreased. This strategy has been tested on
nickel based alloys, i.e. tough material with high heat
of diamond abrasives of the specifications D54 and D25.
resistance capabilities. It is known that such metals are
During tool life, no dressing operations are therefore
typically ground with small feed rates in the domain of 1
necessary. When the tools are worn, the abrasives are
removed from the metallic body and a new layer of m/min. The limiting factors are thermal damage and
diamond grits is applied. wheel wear. Ever since surface grinders with high feed
rates were available, research activities aimed at
decreasing the forces and energy consumption of the
friction whilst working with a high feed rate; a
characteristic problem of nickel base alloys. As can be
seen from Fig. 31, the feed rate could be increased to 60
m/min. Furthermore a material rate of 40 mm3/mms,
without any thermal damage, could be obtained. In
addition the wear of the grinding tool was considered
tolerable. This technology offers great potential for further
development and research.

250

Fig. 30: Gear honing; residual stresses

Investigations of gear honing have shown that the
process has beneficial properties on the tooth flanks and
on the material near the surface. Residual stresses were
measured by an X-ray diffractometer using C r b -
wlreous bond
radiation. To obtain depth profiles of residual stresses,
surface near layers were removed by electrolytical
polishing before a subsequent stress measurement was related wning rate Q',
-
mms
31emm3 a IFW
carried out. The effects of gear honing on residual
stresses are described in Fig. 30. Directly at the surface Fig. 31: Grinding forces at different speeds and material
of the flank, high compressive residual stresses were removal
obsetved. The values measured in tangential direction
amounts to almost -1400 MPa while in axial direction, a
value of almost -1000 MPa was found. Even below the 4.2 Ultrasonic assisted grinding
surface, an increase of compressive residual stress could
be seen. Its influence can be found down to depths of The grinding of difficult to machine materials, particularly
approximately 20 pm. ceramic materials, can be assisted by superimposing
High compressive residual stresses can be explained by vibrations onto the grinding motion.
a combination of high mechanical and low thermal
loading in the contact area. From grinding, it is known that
the high cutting forces of super-hard abrasives can cause
high compressive residual stresses. On the other hand,
high temperatures can shift the residual stresses to the
tensile domain. This effect is not present in gear honing
because of the very low cutting speeds that are being
used. The high compressive residual stresses induced by
gear honing have an enhancing effect on fatigue strength
and therefore the overall lifetime of the end-product.
Looking at structural modifications and hardness in the oscillatingwolkpiew oscillating tool
material near the surface of honed gear teeth, one can
see that no modifications of hardness and structure
occurs as a consequence of the machining process.
Thermal damage, rehardening zones or annealed zones Fig. 32: Ultrasonic assisted grinding
which are known effects from grinding in unfavourable For a surface finishing process ultrasonic vibrations (US)
conditions, do not occur in gear honing. This can also be are used. The amplitudes are usually between 1 pm to 20
explained by the very low cutting speeds of about 1 m/s pm and the frequencies go up to 25 kHz. There are
resulting in low process temperatures.

663
 different methods for generating a relative motion
between the grinding wheel and the workpiece (Fig. 32).
Principally, the vibration can be directed normally or
tangentially to the workpiece surface. By using a normal
US-motion, the grinding forces are remarkably small. This
is especially useful for machining brittle materials such as
ceramics (89).
Investigations on aluminium oxide (AI203) and sintered
silicon nitride (SSN) under creep feed grinding conditions
showed a reduction of the normal forces by more than
200% (64). The surface quality and the wear were hardly
affected. In scratch tests, the cutting edges of a grinding
tool showed that they were not permanently engaged, but .OM IWT-Bnmn 32(v25427s 0 IFW
Fig. 33: Applications of grind-hardening
that they occasionally lost contact. Similarly to a
hammering effect, the cutting edges generate Surface strengthening by advanced grinding processes
miorocracks in the brittle materials and consequently can especially be used for components which are
accelerate the material removal process. On the other subjected to medium or low operating loadings and just
hand the wear mechanism of the grinding tool changes need a hardness penetration of a few tenths of a
considerably compared to conventional grinding; the millimeter to improve their wear resistance, such as
abrasive rounding of diamond grains is almost inexistent. grooves for locking rings, guide ways and treads for
The microchipping of the grains generates new cutting packing rings. By adopting grind hardening as a new heat
edges. This is the reason why especially the normal treatment method, heat treatment and hard machining
grinding forces are reduced to such an extent. This can be combined in one set-up which leads to shortened
results in a more stable and stationary process e.g. in process sequences and less transportation efforts,
conventional grinding under equal conditions, forces, Fig 33.
worksurface and wear typically change or are in transient
states.
4.4 lnprocess Measurement of Residual Stresses
The vibration assisted grinding process offers great
in the Subsurface
potential for the surface finishing operations of brittle
materials. To integrate an US-device into a grinding
Recent investigations are concentrating on a multi-
machine, the great accelerations induced have to be
frequency multi-sensor system to detect grinding burn,
taken into account. US vibrations must be implemented
surface hardness and depth of hardness continuously.
using sonotrodes with restricted masses, having the
This new system is based on an existing hardware which
ability to transform mechanical deformations into relevant
amplitudes. Nevertheless for workpieces of limited mass, uses multi-frequency eddy current for non destructive
evaluation of hardness and depth of hardness. In
this method is just waiting to be implemented in an
addition, high-frequency Barkhausen noise and
industrial environment.
incremental permeability is integrated to detect grinding
burn. Furthermore, a Hall probe is used to monitor the
4.3 Hardening during grinding quality of measurement which is mainly influenced by the
sensor to workpiece contact. The Hall probe enables the
During grinding the generation of imperfections on the evaluation of coercitive strength and distortion factor to
workpiece surface due to overheating is a well known have additional quantities for the detection of hardness
problem. Recent research results indicate that the and rehardening due to grinding burn. This multi-sensor
thermal energy generated during grinding can be utilised system has multifunctional abilities due to its, different
for heat treatment operations. By doing so, process quantities which are independent from each other. This
sequences can be significantly shortened (4, 7, 8, 10). gives the possibility to extract the effects from changes of
In order to increase fatigue strength and wear resistance, heat treatment and portion of austenite on the signals. In
many structural parts have to be subjected to a hardening the past, these effects often caused failures on
heat treatment operation of the surface layer. In industry, production lines in the micromagnetic monitoring
several heat treatment methods, such as induction, flame systems.
and case hardening, are used for generating specific
surface layer properties. During grinding almost the whole
mechanical energy introduced at the interface of wheel
and workpiece, dissipates into thermal energy. The
recently developed grind-hardening method takes
advantage of the generated thermal energy by using it to
induce a martensitic phase transition, in order to harden
the workpiece shell. The duration of austeniting during
grinding is normally less than 1 second and the heating
rate was calculated to be 107 - 108 KIS (4). The grind-
hardening process can therefore be classified as a rapid,
surface strengthening process.
Grind-hardening is basically a dry process. The addition
of cooling lubricants as chilling element is not essential. Fig. 34: Micromagnetic inprocess measurement
In grind-hardening processes, the critical cooling rate is Fig. 34 shows the set-up and the measuring position,
already reached by the effects of heat treatment and the Fig. 35 the results of the in-process measurement.
self-quenching nature of the material.

664
 Keynote Papers

u) 400 proc.rr for the desired contour is performed. These data are
axiernal prindinp
t transmitted into the control, where they are transferred to
MPa -
CBN tool
the axes motion controls by three modules. The given
u) M 126VR 1W N

t 200 speed profile is corrected by means of a force control.

3 prlndlnp This force control guarantees that during grinding the
E
Y
0
loo
0
V.'

v;
1w mls

- 2 - 45 m J / m
too d i m
normal forces are kept constant and thereby a more
regular chip removal rate is achieved. The axis
0
c
q = -150 transformation transfers the infeed spiral as well as the
p -100 wor(cpl.e. corrected speed profile into the axis coordinates while
ball beirinp ateel.
E
.Y -200
hardened. 65 HRC taking into account the actual tool diameter. The deviation
E coolant error correction finally compensates for the dynamic
minerahil
-300 behaviour of the axes, whereby both predictive and path
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 MPa 400
X-ray determined residual stresses
error compensation methods are used.
319mDl7.2 0 IFW
This concept for process control in contour grinding offers
substantial advantages with respect to the conventional
Fig. 35: Correlation of micromagnetic and X-ray method; improved workpiece characteristics are obtained
determined residual stresses at reduced machining times.
This new method of inspection enables design,
adaptation and optimisation of the grinding processes 5 Conclusion
with respect to the surface integrity.
As demonstrated throughout this paper, grinding is still in
4.5 Non rotational and off-axis grinding a vivid development phase. The impacts for innovations
are generated by researching the process and tool type
As was mentioned before, the grinding of non rotational as well as from the machine tool itself and their
and off-axis surfaces is generating more and more components used. New drive systems and intelligent
industrial interest. The kinematic programming is done by control systems enlarge the catalogue of shapes which
using table interpolation (43,47). With an offline can be generated by grinding considerably. The principle
programming system the desired workpiece shape and of replacing hardware components with software
the information concerning the grinding cycles (roughing, solutions increases the flexibility and potential of such
finishing and spark out) as well as the tool diameter is machines. High speed and speed stroke grinding has
converted in the necessary relative motions between the only been possible because high speed spindle systems
workpiece rotational axis and the infeed axis. These and fast moving feed drives have been introduced. The
numbers are the main components of the interpolation installation of reliable sensor systems has increased the
table which is then transferred into the numerical control functionality of grinding machines and its overall
codes. productivity. Several examples of innovations, developed
This method has severe disadvantages. No separation by researching the grinding processes, that have been
between geometrical and technological information is subsequently been transferred to the machine tool, and
possible. Setting a single quality criteria threshold for a vice versa, have been shown. This paper has
workpiece is impossible, Furthermore, the calculation of demonstrated that developments made in the grinding
the interpolation data is done for discrete tool diameters. processes will guarantee that the grinding process will
Consequently, actual diameter deviations from the keep its position and possibly expand its role in
discrete values produces additional contour errors. No manufacturing.
information from the grinding forces are taken into
account. The deflection of machine, tool and workpiece
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