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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Immigration and acculturation are an integral part of America’s history. From the

pilgrims to European immigrants to today’s most recent immigrants, the United States has drawn

people from all over the world for a myriad of reasons. Due to this, America has rich, vast

multicultural diversity. Indeed, our school population has seen a sharp increase in the enrollment

number of various ethnic populations since 1993 [California Department of Education, Education

Demographics Units (CBEDS), 2009; Education Data Partnership, 2009]. When two cultures

come into contact, such as an immigrating family with the host country, the process of

acculturation takes place. Acculturation is the complex interaction between these two cultures.

This interaction and its consequences on families, education and mental health has been the focal

point of many sociological, psychological, and anthropological studies (Berry, 2003; 2006;

Castro, 2003; Padilla, 1980) as well as this project.

Purpose of the Study

The present project examines the various models of acculturation, the process or steps of

acculturation, how to measure acculturation, and the effects of acculturation on individuals and

their families. Specifically we are focusing on various ethnic groups within the state of

California and creating a handbook for school psychologists and school counselors that aids in

measuring the acculturation level of a student and lists various community resources to help these

educators with referrals and to learn more about immigrant cultures.

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Statement of Collaboration

On this project Ted Flores worked with Jaspreet Kaler to create a handbook for school

psychologists and school counselors that address the issues of acculturation within the school

system. Ted Flores examined the history of acculturation, theories of acculturation, and affects of

acculturation on mental health. Jaspreet Kaler reviewed various acculturation scales, factors that

affect the rate of acculturation, and how acculturation affects emotional development. Both

collaborators researched how acculturation affects educational performance as well as complying

a list of local community resources.

Definition of Terms

Ethnic/Minority Group: A group of people ethnically different from the majority Caucasian

culture (e.g., those of European ancestry). These groups include African Americans (people of

African descent), Hispanics (people of Spanish speaking countries such as Mexico and Latin

American), Asian Americans (people who trace ancestry to China, Japan, Korea, Thailand,

Cambodia) and Pacific Islanders (Philippines, Sonoma, and Guam), and Asian Indians (those who

descend from India; O’Hare & Felt, 1991).

Racial Identity: A term that refers to a person’s awareness of him or herself as being a “member

of a particular racial group” such as African American/Black or Asian American (Aponte &

Johnson, 2000, p.22).

Ethnic Identity: Terminology that refers to a person’s “identification with a particular group

defined by geographic location, national origin, religious affiliation, or language (Aponte &

Johnson, 2000, p. 22).”

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Acculturation: A process by which one cultural or ethnic group comes into contact with a

different cultural or ethnic group via immigration and its psychosocial and emotional changes that

result from this interaction with the second (host) culture (Aponte & Johnson, 2000).

Enculturation: A process that occurs when a person is “socialized into his or her own cultural

group” (Aponte & Johnson, 2000, p. 20).

Linear Model of Acculturation: Process in which immigrating people are absorbed into the

dominant culture by changing their values, attitudes, and behaviors to fit more with the dominant

culture than their own group of reference. Assimilation is seen as the goal for the linear model of

acculturation (Castro, 2003).

Bi-dimensional Model of Acculturation: A process in which an immigrant can maintain their

ethnic identity as well as develop a positive identification with the dominant society (Castro,

2003)

Acculturation Strategies: A person’s attitudes or preference toward acculturating as well as his or

her behaviors. Four acculturation strategies have been identified: integration, assimilation,

separation, and marginalization (Berry, 2006).

Integration: Immigrant’s preference to maintain both ethnic identity while interacting with other

groups (Berry, 2006).

Assimilation: When a person does not wish to maintain his or her cultural identity and take up the

cultural identity of the dominant society (Berry, 2006).

Separation: When an individual does not become involved in the dominant culture and instead

focuses on his or her own cultural heritage (Berry, 2006).

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Marginalization: When the individual has little interest to keep his or her own cultural heritage as

well as take up the dominant cultural identity (Berry, 2006).

Limitations of the Study

While research tends to show some universality in some aspects of acculturation, the

acculturation strategies described in this handbook do not generalize to every ethnic or cultural

group’s own acculturation process. Furthermore, this project focused on the state of California,

more specifically the city of Sacramento, and any findings contained in this project may not be

generalized to other states and regions.

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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

The influx of students from various countries into the U.S. school system has been

increasing steadily. U.S. Census data estimates that by 2010 the majority culture (i.e., Caucasians)

will be the minority culture and persons of Hispanic origin will be the new majority in the U.S.

(California Department of Education, 2009). As of 2003, Hispanics have edged out African

Americans as the largest minority (Clemetson, 2003). Since California is a very diverse state in

ethnic background, cultures, and languages, school personnel such as school psychologists and

school counselors need to be familiar with the concept of acculturation and the affect it can have

immigrating student entering an unfamiliar culture, let alone school system. The following

sections will give the reader an in depth review of acculturation background (its definitions and

models), the factors of acculturation, the mental health implications of acculturation, including

acculturative stress, and ways that a school counselor and school psychologist can assist an

immigrating student with social-emotional factors due to acculturative stress.

Defining Acculturation

Acculturation is a concept that spans the numerous social science domains such as

anthropology, sociology, and psychology. The phrase acculturation was initially coined by

anthropologists in the late 1930s. Its definition was later refined by various entities such as the

Social Science Research Council in 1954 as well as various other fields such as psychology

(Castro, 2003). Different researchers such as Graves (1967) have additionally made further

distinctions, parsing acculturation into two types: acculturation on a population level and

acculturation on an individual level; the latter being known as psychological acculturation. Trying

to define acculturation has lead to different theoretical concepts or models of acculturation that
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have been refined as more information has become available via research. The purpose of this

section is to review the various definitions and models of acculturation. In knowing the

background of acculturation and acculturation strategies, a questionnaire will be part of the

manual (see Appendix) that will ascertain what type of acculturation strategy that the immigrating

students are using.

Essentially acculturation is the cultural interaction between an immigrating person or

family and the new host country that the person or family is immigrating to (Berry, 2003; Castro,

2003). This interaction is felt both on a societal level, such as the effect on the host country, and

the individual, i.e., the immigrating individual. The contact between how the immigrant is

received in the host country and how the immigrant perceives his or her new host country is the

process of acculturation. For instance, an immigrant might be warmly received into the new

country and the transition to the new country’s way of life might be easier. In contrast, the

immigrant might be expected to adopt the traditions and values of the new host culture and

neglect their traditional culture and values. Outcomes such as the latter can make the process of

acculturation a difficult one, as well as the added stressors of how the immigrant migrated into

the host country (e.g., political prosecution or religious intolerance, genocide). The process and

the end result of acculturation is an important factor in our multicultural society, especially in

such an ethnically and culturally heterogeneous state as California.

Models of Acculturation

This part of this section will review and contrast the various theoretical models of

acculturation. In doing so, the reader will become more familiar with the conceptual theories

derived to explain the process of acculturation. The models reviewed are the unidimensional
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model, the bimodal model/multidimensional model, and the interactive acculturation model.

Additionally Berry’s (2003) concept of acculturation strategies is further discussed.

The conceptual models of acculturation are divided into two theoretical camps. The first

positions itself on the older view of acculturation, in that the immigrating group or person would

eventually assimilate into the customs and traditions of the host society. The goal of this uni-

dimensional model of acculturation is assimilation; that is melting or blending into the host

society and forfeiting one’s traditional culture. In this perception of acculturation, assimilation

and acculturation are virtually synonymous with one another. A prime example of the first school

of thought is Gordon’s Model of Assimilation (Gordon, 1978). Gordon’s model formulated in

1978, examines the effects of acculturation on the macro-level, in other words how the incoming

immigrants affect the larger society. Gordon theorized that there were stages that the immigrating

person goes through: (a) cultural assimilation, (b) structural assimilation, (c) marital assimilation,

(d) identificational assimilation, (e) attitude receptional assimilation, (f) behavioral assimilation,

and (g) civic assimilation. Throughout each step, the immigrating person is assimilated more and

more into the host society. Another example of uni-dimensional model is Szapocznik’s model

(Szapocznik, Scopetta, Kurtines, & Aranalde, 1978). Here acculturation is conceived as a parallel

function measured by the amount of time that a person interacts with the host country. This

function is also affected by the age and gender of the acculturating individual. For instance it was

found that males tended to acculturate at a faster rate than females, but only on behavioral level.

This level includes adopting the more overt customs and habits of the host country. The other

branch of acculturation is the bi-modal conceptualization.

The most well known bi-modal concept of acculturation was posited by John Berry. Here,

assimilation is not seen as the end target, and may actually be seen as somewhat of a hindrance.
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Berry’s (2003) model focuses on two main interactions. First, the cultural aspect of acculturation;

such as when culture Z comes into contact with culture X and the ensuing changes that affect

both cultures due to this interaction. The second aspect of acculturation is examined on a

psychological/individual plane. Here, the person or group must decide how much they want to

participate in the new host society and how much they want to maintain and carry on their own

traditions. For instance, a person who feels “forced” to change their customs to the host country

will experience acculturative stress. Acculturative stress can be challenging and lead to such

problems as anxiety and depression. The nature of acculturative stress will be furthered explained

in the section on acculturation and mental health. In dealing with effects of acculturation, a

person or group may decide to use acculturation adaptations or strategies.

There are four hypothesized acculturation strategies: (a) assimilation, (b) separation, (c)

integration, and (d) marginalization (Berry, 2003). Assimilation is the process of the acculturating

group to forgo their traditional customs and immerse themselves in the culture of the host

country. In contrast, when the acculturating minority group seeks to maintain their

culture/traditions and avoid interacting with the host culture, the group is enacting the separation

strategy. The integration strategy is a medium between the two strategy extremes. Here, the

immigrant maintains their traditional culture and also interacts with the host culture.

Marginalization involves an immigrant disinterest in not maintaining his own culture and as well

as interacting with the host culture. Marginalization may be caused by missed opportunities at

assimilation or may be due to discriminatory attitudes/practices by the dominant host culture.

Research shows that the integration strategy is the preferred strategy by both adults and

adolescents as well as being the most adaptive strategy. In contrast, literature suggests that

marginalization is the least adaptive strategy; while assimilation and separation are viewed as
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transitional strategies. While Berry’s model has been one of the most dominant models of the

acculturation, there have been criticisms regarding it; such as conceptual issues, uses of different

methodology to measure acculturation strategies, and differences in terminology (Castro, 2003).

Bourhis, Moïse, Perreault, and Senéca’s (1997) Interactive Acculturation Model (IAM)

further examines the relationship between the host culture and the immigrant’s acculturation

strategies. The IAM is founded on three elements: (a) immigrants’ acculturation strategies, (b)

host country’s attitude toward the immigrant(s), and (c) the product of these interactions created

by the immigrant’s acculturation strategies and the host country’s attitudes. The Bourhis et al.

(1997) model using similar acculturation strategies to Berry’s (2003) list of strategy, except for

one. The difference between the two acculturation strategies ideologies in these two multi-

dimensional models is the issue of marginalization.

In IAM, marginalization is conceived as being divided into two parts: anomie and

individualism. In Bourhis et al. (1997) terminology, anomie occurs when the immigrant reject

both their heritage culture as well as the culture of the host society. Anomie can cause

ethnocultural identification confusion, acculturative stress, and negatively affect self-esteem.

Individualism exists when the immigrant also distances him or herself from their heritage and the

host society’s traditions, but does so not to marginalization by the host/dominant culture. Instead

the immigrant does these because he or she prefers to think of themselves as an individualist.

Further, Bourhis et al. (1997) break down the host country’s orientations towards the

immigrants. Again, the results are similar to Berry’s (2003) in regards to integration, assimilation,

and segregation. However, as in the immigrant’s acculturation orientations, the area of

marginalization is broken down into two separate parts: exclusion and individualism. In

exclusion, the host country members are intolerant of the immigrant’s traditions or culture and
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also do not want the immigrant to adopt the host country’s culture (Bourhis et al., 1997). The

individualist view in regards to the host culture is not bogged down by labels such as

host/dominant or immigrant/minority and instead describes their beliefs as individual beliefs

rather than belonging to one group or the other. Host country members who describe themselves

as individualists demote the significance of maintaining the immigrant culture or adopting the

host culture’s traditions as a rubric of successful acculturation (Bourhis, et al., 1997).

According to Bourhis et al. (1997), when creating a matrix of the host community

possible orientations (integration, assimilation, segregation, exclusion, and individualism) versus

the immigrant community’s strategies (integration, assimilation, separation, anomie, and

individualism), three main relational outcomes are produced: consensual, problematic, and

conflictual. Consensual is defined as when both the host and immigrant group members fall under

the integration, assimilation, or individual acculturation orientation/strategies. The result of

consensual relation outcome is a positive relationship between the host country and the

immigrant. Disagreement between the host and immigrant acculturation strategies result in two

relational outcomes: problematic or conflictual. Problematic relationships are derived when both

the host and immigrant have partial disagreements and partial agreements in their acculturation

strategies. These divergent attitudes can cause communication difficulties between the two

groups, which can further lead to negative intergroup stereotypes and discriminatory behaviors.

Conflictual relationships are produced when the immigrant embraces a separation strategy, while

the host country embraces either a segregationist or exclusionist agenda. Bourhis and his

colleagues (1997) maintain that most intergroup conflict occurs when the host community

endorses an exclusionist orientation while the immigrant endorses a separatist strategy.

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Choosing the Right Acculturation Model

With the various differences within the two theoretical constructs of uni-dimensional and

bi/multi-dimensional acculturation models, the path to decide which acculturation model to

adhere to is complex. In brief summary, the uni-dimensional model adheres to a simple linear

model in which the goal of acculturation is to be fully assimilated into the host culture. The multi-

dimensional view believes that immigrants can maintain positive relationship with the host

culture while maintaining their own unique ethnic culture and traditions. Indeed the study of

acculturation alone overlaps many academic disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, and

psychology, just to name a few, which can make the task of “choosing” a model even more

daunting. Recent studies in regards to acculturation reflect an increase in the area of bi-modal or

multi-dimensional model research (Castro, 2003) and that is where the paradigm appears to be

leaning towards. While certain theories such as Berry’s (1997, 2003) have been extensively

researched, other newer and intriguing theories, such as Bourhis et al. (1997) need further

empirical verification. At the heart of the acculturation model question, lies an even more

important part that forms the acculturation process: the variables that affect acculturation. These

variables (such as ethnic discrimination or socioeconomic status) are vastly integral to the

acculturating immigrant experience and can either have a positive or negative effect. The effect of

these acculturation variables is our next area of study.

This section has reviewed the definitions and models of acculturation as well as Berry’s

(2003) acculturation strategies. These acculturation strategies were used in a questionnaire to

ascertain the acculturation level of the immigrating student (see Appendix). The questionnaire

and referral checklist (see Appendix) can be used to match various intervention methods used to
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help immigrant students. The next section will review the various factors and the process of

acculturation.

Acculturation Factors

This section will address the different factors related to acculturation rate for an

individual. Since there is a wide variety of research in regards to this topic, it is beyond the scope

of this section to review all that is known about factors which affect acculturation. However,

there were ten consistent factors discovered in the research. These factors are not listed according

to any order. These factors are: the reason for migration, motivation, age, education, cultural

distance, attitude of host culture, racism, generation, language, and social support. Several of the

factors are inter-related, and will be discussed in different areas. This section is provided to give

only a general outlook on affecting factors, therefore recognizing that the acculturation process is

unique for every individual.

Reasons for Migration

One of the first steps involved in acculturation is an individual’s decision to move to

another country. “Without contact, there is no acculturation; so this condition is centrally

important” (Padilla, 1980, p. 11). The reason for the migration is highly important, and often

determines the rate as well as motivation toward the acculturation process. For most adults, their

reason for immigration may be to improve their economic situation, flee political or ethnic

persecution, or for the motivation of adventure (Bornstein & Cote, 2006). According to Bhugra

(2003) migrants must decide whether or not to leave their country of origin, which is a personal

choice. They leave a society behind either for economic, inspirational, or forced purposes. There

is a certain push or pull factor behind this migration, and this often leads to the type of response
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an individual will have to a new society. Whether the migration was voluntary or forced is a

significant factor to understand when assessing the impact of the migration.

Forced migration. Those that left because of forced purposes will often have the most

difficult time with acculturation. Recently arrived refugees often share an experience of trauma,

exposure to political terror, massacre, or even torture. If a migration is forced then other pre-

migration factors, such as level of education, may become a source of difficulty and ultimately

affect the adjustment to the new country. For example, if an individual is highly educated and is

forced to migrate, he/she will likely end up doing a lower qualification job. This will likely affect

self-esteem and affect the overall adjustment to the new society (Bhurgra, 2003). Gibson (2001)

concludes that refugees are likely to believe that their stay is temporary. They will have less

motivation to be economically driven, learn the new language, or even adopt the ways of the new

society. For these migrants, their anticipation is primarily for a speedy return to their country of

origin. However, if an immigrant voluntary leaves a society, those individuals are more likely to

take up the ways of the new society. They may also encourage their offspring to do the same,

with rapid acculturation being a strategy for achieving their goals.

Voluntary migration. The degree of voluntariness behind the migration is often

correlated to the degree of motivation to acculturate. The more voluntary a migration, the more

motivated an individual is towards acculturating to the new host society. A combination of the

demographic, economic, and political circumstances faced in the society of origin should be

assessed to determine the level of voluntariness in the migration motivation for acculturating

individuals (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002). Migrants can be arrayed on a continuum

between reactive and proactive. The former is motivated by factors that are exclusionary and

generally negative in character, while the latter is motivated by factors that are enabling and
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generally positive in character. These contrasting factors on migration motivation have also been

referred as the push-pull factors in the earliest literature. For most individuals the ‘pull’ factors,

such as wanting to achieve a better life elsewhere, are stronger than the ‘push’ factors in which

they are pressured to leave (Bornstein & Cote, 2006). “Among involuntary migrants, refugees

and asylum seekers (now often called collectively ‘forced migrants,’ Ager, 1999) have the

greatest hurdles to face…” (Berry et al., 2002, p. 348). These individuals frequently do not want

to leave their society of origin, and if they do it is not always possible for them to be granted

permission to stay in the host society. This group often has unresolved feelings about their native

culture and has a lower sense of attachment to their native culture than other types of immigrants.

These migrants leave with the knowledge that ‘push’ factors led them to flee their society of

origin (Bornstein & Cote, 2006).

Motivation

For those individuals that migrate due to ‘pull’ factors, Berry (2001) states that

individuals motivated to migrate possess certain personality characteristics. They are deemed to

be higher in achievement, power motivation, and work centrality compared to individuals that do

not desire to migrate. Achievers are always looking for another challenge, and become mobile

under circumstances that limit their striving. An example of achievers are Korean immigrants,

categorized as Asian Americans according to DeVos and his colleagues (1983), who have been

found to adapt fairly quickly to American life. This quick adaptation is attributed to their high

achievement motivation, which is characterized by an internalized need for accomplishment.

Individuals characterized as high in power motivation want to impress others and are more

willing to take risks. They are often described as more energetic and enterprising than those left

in the country of origin. In a study by Frieze et al. (2000), 2,754 college students from Croatia,
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Russia, the Czech Republic, and Slovenia were assessed in 1997 through 2000. The students that

wanted to leave their country of origin scored significantly higher on work centrality, compared

to those individuals that did not want to leave. These personality characteristics are based on the

notion that personality is a fairly stable structure. Dispositional motives that are formed in early

childhood do not usually change significantly later in life. Environmental factors create the

conditions for wanting to leave the country of origin, but desires to do so are based on the

personality of the individual. Research indirectly supports the idea that some individuals are

‘predisposed’ to migrate. This suggests that individuals are not simply responding to certain

circumstances, but there is something specific about the personality of those who desire to leave

their country of origin (Boneva & Frieze, 2001).

Age at Time of Migration

Once an individual does leave their country of origin, his/her age at immigration is also

an important element related to acculturation rate. Immigrants usually arrive to a new country

with a strong sense of cultural origin, but vary with their degree of willingness to adapt to the new

country (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001). The younger the age of an individual

at immigration, the easier the adaptation process to the new host country. For example,

immigrant parents may never have sufficient comfort with the new culture while the children

adapt rather quickly to the norms of their peer group. An ethnic language is unlikely to change,

particularly among adult immigrants, but children may loose their language facility if it is not

reinforced at home (Bornstein & Cote, 2006). The younger immigrants, particularly school-age,

have an opportunity to socialize with Western peers and therefore become acquainted with the

Western culture. Their parents, on the other hand, have fewer experiences in the Western culture.

This disparity then affects their English proficiency, which is also compounded by age (Nghe,
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Mahalik, & Lowe, 2003). An individuals mastery of a second language declines with increased

age, which will affect acculturation. According to their study on learning potential, which used

data collected from the 1990 U.S. Census that involved 2.3 million immigrants with Chinese or

Spanish language backgrounds, age affected an individuals learning potential. The degree of

success in acquiring a second-language steadily decreased throughout the life span. Further

investigation revealed that this decline is also affected by social factors, which can affect learning

potential. Immigrants that arrive at different ages have different experiences, and also distinctly

different opportunities for study of a language through direct or educational content. Younger

learners will most likely have an opportunity for learning a language through education, and have

increased learning potential due to their young age (Hakuta, Bialystok, & Wiley, 2003).

Educational Level

Padilla (1980) maintains that education is related to the level of acculturation. In general,

it appears that individuals with higher education are better adjusted to a new society. The more

education an individual had attained, the lower their predictive stress. Three different reasons

have been suggested for this association. The first is that formal education helps to instill a

personal resource in an individual, specifically related to problem solving and problem analysis.

The second reason is that education can correlate to the other resources, such as income and

occupational status. The third is that education can help individuals become familiar with the

new society even before migration. Individuals can become acquainted with the history,

language, norms, and even the values of the new society. Overall, education is related to the

economic world. A high status due to education is a resource, but can become a status loss if

emerging into a vastly different host society (Berry et al., 2002).

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Cultural Distance

The distance between two cultures, the country of origin and the host culture, has been

referred to as cultural distance. It has been found that the greater the difference, the more difficult

it is for an individual to acculturate. Differences between cultures, among many examples, may

include language and religion. The greater the cultural distance between two societies, the more

likely that an individual will experience acculturative stress. Consistent findings reveal that the

greater the cultural differences, the less positive the adaptation is for an individual (Berry et al.,

2002). For example, an individual that comes from a primarily collectivistic background may

experience confusion in an individualistic society. The individual may prioritize close

relationships and may feel confused in an American environment, where independence and self-

reliance is valued (Yeh & Inose, 2003).

Attitude of Host Culture

A society in which cultural diversity is present, there appears to be less perceived stress

of acculturating individuals. When there are many cultural groups present in the host culture, the

new society, it is known as a plural society. When the cultural groups are actually valued, it is

known as a multicultural society. It is believed that migrants experience less stress in a

multicultural society because they can maintain supportive cultural traditions. In unicultural

societies, in which there is one dominant culture, there is a need to assimilate rather than

acculturate. With a clear set of standards, in a unicultural society, an individual must either adjust

or be in opposition of the host society (Padilla, 1980). A society that is supportive of cultural

pluralism provides a positive adjustment for two believed reasons. The first reason is that the

plural society is less likely to enforce assimilation (cultural change) or exclusion (segregation) on

immigrants. The second reason is that the society is more likely to provide support from both
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institutions (culturally sensitive health care) and the evolving ethnocultural communities that

usually make up the pluralistic societies (Bornstein & Cote, 2006). Ethnocultural groups usually

retain their cultural identity, but also participate in a shared norm (such as legal, economic,

political) with the host culture (Berry et al., 2002). Movement along the continuum of

acculturation requires drive from the acculturating group, but also lack of resistance by the host

society (Mettler, 1998).

Racism

Although a sufficient number of one’s ethnic group may want to maintain their cultural

heritage, other constraints may affect acculturation. For example, when an individual physically

appears different from those of the host society (such as Koreans in Canada), there may be a

reluctance to pursue assimilation in order to avoid being rejected (Berry et al., 2002). Vietnamese

men often experience stereotypes and experience racism in the United States. These stereotypes

often relate to masculinity messages in the United States. That is to say that masculinity is

viewed as physical ability. In the Vietnamese culture, intellectual ability is viewed as a highly

valued characteristic and is considered as the top of the social scale. Since there is a difference in

the United States and Vietnamese culture, Asian men are often depicted as nerds interested in

science and technology. Vietnamese men, similar to other Asian American men, are therefore

taught to emulate White men (Nghe et al., 2003).

Generation

However, culture of origin is secure for minorities for the first generation. It is unlikely

to change, and may or may not develop an ‘American’ identity. Generation is perhaps the widely

used marker of time. There is a broad picture of differences that are seen in the first, second, and

third generation of immigrants (Bornstein & Cote, 2006). For members of the second generation,
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an ‘American’ identity is generally secure. Reasons for this security range from citizenship in the

United States granted at birth, learning English, and developing social networks beyond their

culture of origin. The offspring of immigrant parents (first generation) are usually more

acculturated than their parents because of greater contact with the institutions of the host culture

and the members. Then the third generation is assumed to be even more acculturated because of

the socializing influences they receive both in home and from members of the host culture. It is

clearly indicated that generational level is an important predictor in determining extent of

acculturation.

Language

It is a common experience that with additional contacts with the host culture, a language

shift is likely to occur. This will likely lead a shift from the individuals own language to that of

the larger society. Language, similar to generation, has been shown to create a positive

relationship with acculturation. The greater the familiarity of language from the host culture, the

greater the acculturation (Padilla, 1980). Self-reported English language fluency is a predictor of

acculturative stress. For example, when international students reported higher English usage and

fluency, it was a predictor for lower levels of acculturative distress. This finding may be

associated with the fact that higher English usage is related to smoother interaction with the larger

society. This may lead to a feeling of greater adjustment. However, when a student cannot

express himself/herself in English, it can also affect academic ability. A student may have had

high academic ability in their home country, but may feel distressed due to the language barrier.

A lower level of English fluency is also predictive of higher levels of acculturative distress (Yeh

& Inose, 2003).

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Social Support

Another significant predictor of acculturative stress is social support. For example, if an

international student were to become deprived of social support, he/she may feel anxious or even

disoriented in their new host culture (Yeh & Inose, 2003). Social support is usually a ‘buffer’ for

individuals, since they can share information how to deal with various acculturation problems

(such as discrimination). Good relationships can reduce the stress perceived during the

acculturation process. Various studies have reported that relationships, particularly familial, were

strengthened during the process of acculturation. For example, Mexican Americans that adjusted

more to the majority culture revealed that their contacts and support among family members

increased (Bornstein & Cote, 2006). The family appears to be a protective shield, a vital part of

an individual’s existence, to ward off barriers that occur when an individual is caught between

two cultures (Padilla, 1980).

Conclusion

Overall, ten consistent factors that affected the rate of acculturation were discovered. The

acculturation process was influenced by: reason for migration, motivation, age, education,

cultural distance, attitude of host culture, racism, generation, language, and social support. Even

though there is a wide variety of research on the topic of acculturation, these factors were

established through the reviewed research. Some factors had more of an in-depth association

with acculturation, while others were linked by a general connection. However, all are prominent

in the process of acculturation. The purpose of this section is to share the understanding of

acculturation factors that may affect an individual that is acculturating or knows of an individual

that is going through the acculturation process. Although this section was provided for a brief
 21

overview of factors that affect the rate of acculturation, it should be noted that each individual

may encounter his/her own unique experience.

This section will address two primary topics. First it will explore how an individual may

be able to navigate in two cultures successfully, both original and host cultures. Second, it

addresses the ways in which acculturation affects psychological functioning.

Navigating Two Cultures

This section is focused on those individuals in the process of acculturation or those that

know of an individual(s) in the process of acculturation. It is important for an individual to be

aware of factors that may successfully aide in his or her acculturative experience. The current

research, which will be further addressed in this section, identifies four specific factors that

contribute to successful navigation between cultures. It is beyond the scope of this section to

review all that is known about acculturation and the associated psychological affects of the

process. However, three specific factors were found that aided individuals to acculturate

successfully between two cultures. These included selection of an acculturation strategy,

language, and social support. These factors are not listed according to any order. This section is

provided to present an outlook on how an individual can successfully navigate two cultures, and

which factors would allow them to do so successfully. Yet, this section is simply an overview and

the authors recognize, that acculturation is a process unique for every individual.

Acculturation Strategies

Acculturation strategies have been shown to have a significant relationship with positive

adaptation. Adaptation, in terms of acculturation, is the long term ways in which can change

their lives and settle down in a more or less satisfactory existence. It is more or less because
 22

adaptation can be arranged from very positive to very negative in the way of living in the new

cultural setting. There are four specific acculturation strategies, with which an immigrant can

choose to adapt. These include: integration, marginalization, assimilation, and separation. The

acculturation strategy, which is usually most successful for positive adaptation is integration.

Marginalization is the least successful, and assimilation and separation are intermediate.

Although there are numerous interpretations on why in the integration style is the most adaptive,

one notion is that it integrates many protective factors. The two main protective factors include

a willingness for accommodation (e.g., having two social support systems, one for the host and

original culture), and a flexibility in personality (Sam & Berry, 2006)

In contrast, marginalization rejects the host culture, combined with shedding of original

culture values. Separation also involves shedding of the host culture, and assimilation involves

shedding of the original cultural values. In simple terms, integration involves two positive

orientations, while marginalization involves two negative orientations. The separation style and

assimilation style both involve one positive and one negative relationship. Integration has been

found to be most adaptive in various studies as well (Sam & Berry, 2006).

Integration Strategy

A frequent indicator of successful psychological well being, especially in adolescents, has

been self-esteem. This is defined as “the level of regard on has for the self as a person” (Farver,

Bhadha, & Narang, 2002, p. 14). Current research has linked self-esteem with ethnic identity.

Overall, results show that that more committed adolescents of various backgrounds are to their

ethnic group, the higher their self esteem. La Fromboise, Coleman, and Gerton (1993) theorized

that integration leads to better psychological health. Two studies that were conducted with first

generation adolescents reported that those with a integrated acculturation style manifested better
 23

psychological adjustment than those with assimilated or separated styles. In an earlier study with

Cuban-American adolescents, Szapocznik, Kurtines, and Fernandez (1980) found that individuals

who were mono cultural (i.e., were separated and remained Cuban, or were completely

assimilated and gave up their Cuban culture), were rated as problem students. This meant that

they had poor grades, sporadic attendance, or difficulty functioning in school (Farver et al.,

2002).

In another study, Ying (1995) actually examined the link between the four acculturation

strategies and depression in a Chinese American sample in San Francisco. Participants that

endorsed the integration style in activities (e.g., enjoyed both American and Chinese activities

such as food, movies) reported less depression compared to those who endorsed separation

orientation. They also had higher life satisfaction than compared to those participants who

endorsed separation and marginalization orientation. Research on new families also revealed that

integration showed better adaptation. For example, Nguyen, Messe, and Stollak (1999) found

that bicultural Vietnamese American adolescents (e.g., equally involved in both Vietnamese and

American cultures) reported more family relationships compared with adolescents with less

bicultural involvement (Bornstein & Cote, 2006).

Language

There is no doubt that one of the most effective ways to communicate with members of

the host community, and one of the most central, is the ability to speak their language. If an

individual that makes a cross-cultural transition are to communicate successfully, they are

required to some extent to be able to speak the language of the receiving community. Language

skills are relevant to the performance of daily tasks and are important in establishing

interpersonal relationships in a foreign country. Language usage also affects the quality and
 24

quantity of intercultural actions. Studies have found that language has a direct relationship with

sociocultural adjustment. It is associated with increased interaction with members of the host

culture and a decrease in sociocultural adjustment problems (Sam & Berry, 2006).

Language usage provides access to the dominant (host) culture and may facilitate greater

cultural adjustment and academic performance. Poor English language fluency has been

identified as the greatest barrier in sojourner adjustment. Within the Chinese population,

language usage is a greater barrier than racial discrimination, social isolation, and even

homesickness. Lack of English language fluency is a source of stress in terms of experiences

among adult immigrants and adolescents, as well as a threat to one’s self-esteem. In contrast,

English fluency can alleviate communication difficulties, enhance interpersonal interactions,

promote self-esteem, and buffer against acculturative stress. Immigrant adolescents who are able

to operate across cultures may better adjust to the new cultural setting (Yeh Okubo, Ma, Shea,

Ou, & Pituc, 2008).

In a study with 286 Chinese immigrant high school students from a public school in New

York City, the adjustment process was assessed. The high school students’ English fluency, social

support, academic and career/college help-seeking, multidimensional acculturation, and family

responsibilities were invested as to whether there was an association with intercultural

competence. The mean age was 19.31, with an age range of 16-23 years of age. Intercultural

competence, in this particular study, referred to the challenges in relating to others, such as

Caucasians, one’s own ethnic group, and one’s family. Results indicated that participants that had

low English proficiency had higher intercultural competency concerns. Acculturation can be a

considered a time when an individual learns new norms and values, and also a process to grow

beyond the original culture. Therefore, communication is crucial to the adjustment process and
 25

language acquisition is fundamental in effective communication. This communication is an

important tool for social interaction and retrieving information in daily life (Yeh et al., 2008).

Although the acculturation process can be considered a chronic stressor, language

acculturation can open the doors of opportunity through greater communication. Language

acculturation can positively influence self-esteem by increasing communication opportunities

with others, particularly through increasing social support networks. Among all ages, U.S. born

Mexican American’s self-worth has been positively associated with a preference for English.

Language acculturation can play a positive role in health locus of control, or the source of

reinforcement when linked to communication abilities of individuals accessing Spanish and/or

English speaking health care practitioners. Among older Hispanics, greater levels of

acculturation can translate into fewer depressive symptoms. Overall, greater comfort with

English can buffer the consequences to mental health. Mexican American elders’ self-esteem

benefits from language acculturation, especially when experiencing high levels of depressive

symptoms (Meyler, Stimpson, & Peek, 2005).

Language acculturation and self-esteem for older Mexican Americans was revealed in a

study of 3050 Mexican Americans, from the ongoing Hispanic Established Populations for the

Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (H-EPESES). Interviews were conducted with up to four

Mexican origin members of each household aged 65 years and over yielding a response rate of

approximately 86%. Acculturation has been linked to depressive symptoms, but this study

implies that acculturation that acculturation impacts additional aspects of mental health. As an

individual ages, their self-esteem changes as fears about loneliness and/or the inability to care for

oneself increases. This research study reveals that high language acculturation could even buffer

against the psychological effects of aging (Meyler et al., 2005).

 26

When moving to another country for the first time, especially for international students,

there can be a sense of loss. As a consequence, there is a loss of confidence, a sense of tension,

and even confusion over how to have fun. Although these reactions can be quite normal, such

responses can also give rise to behavioral dysfunctions in new cultural contexts. Upon coming to

America, there is a sense of loss identity that comes from being with family and friends. There is

a need to develop new roles and relationships, which ultimately rebuild the social support system

(Hayes & Lin, 1994).

Not surprisingly, English proficiency has been found to be an important factor in

determining social interaction and adjustment. Various studies support the finding that the

inability to speak the host language fluently is a primary inhibitor with becoming socially

involved with the host society. It was reported that international students that reported that their

English fluency was adequate on arrival in the United States had significantly better adaptation

that those who did not (Hayes & Lin, 1994).

In the field of overall psychological well being, the variable of social support has been

noted. In the role of adaptation, some immigrants need links to one’s heritage culture and are

associated with lower stress. For other immigrants, links to members of the society of settlement

are more helpful and associated with lower stress. These relationships are particularly important

if they match one’s expectation, but in most studies, relationships with both cultures are most

predictive of successful adaptation (Sam & Berry, 2006).

Although there are numerous variables associated with the acculturation process, social

support has been prominently addressed in the literature. Of the biggest challenges, especially for

international students, is the experience of loss or lack of social support. Moving to a different

country suddenly deprives individuals of their established social support. In as study of 141
 27

international students from four universities in the United States, social support, demographic

variables, and acculturative stress were assessed. The age of the students ranged from 19 to 43

years of age. The students were given a questionnaire and acculturative stress scale inventory.

The results revealed that social support was negatively correlated with acculturative stress.

Furthermore, there was a significant negative correlation between English proficiency and

acculturative stress. These results indicate that students with higher English proficiency and

those with social support tend to experience lower levels of acculturative stress. These results

support previous findings that lack of English skill and social support are both unique

contributors to lower levels of adjustment (Poyrazil, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Timimi, 2004).

Conclusion

Overall, there are three main factors that aide an individual through the acculturation

process while learning how to navigate two different cultures. These include, in no specific

order: selection of integration as acculturation strategy, language usage, and social support.

These three factors were consistent findings throughout the research conducted. The purpose of

this section is to share, similar to the previous section, that acculturation strategies are important.

The selection of a particular strategy will affect how well an individual is able to adapt. It is also

important for an individual, who is in the process of acculturation, to understand how important

language usage is in the host culture. Not only does it have a correlation to self-esteem, but also

affects the quality of communication with the host culture. This communication may also affect

another factor, which is social support. Social support is highly important throughout the

acculturation process, since it gives an individual as sense of identity through family and friends.

With the combination of the three factors, an individual should be able to successfully navigate in
 28

both cultures. It should be noted however, that this is a general outlook, and each individual may

have their own unique experience.

The Process of Acculturation

This section is focused on those individuals in the process of acculturation or those that

know of an individual(s) in the process of acculturation. It is important for an individual to be

aware of the different modes of acculturation and the psychological benefits associated with each

method. The current research, which will be further addressed in this section, identifies four

specific strategies of acculturation. Similar to the prior section, it is beyond the scope of this

section to review all that is known about acculturation and the associated psychological affects of

the process. However, four specific acculturation methods were found consistently throughout

the research conducted. These included assimilation, marginalization, separation, and integration.

These methods are not listed according to any order. This section is provided to present an

outlook on the different acculturation strategies, and an awareness of which best psychologically

aids an individual through the process of acculturation. Yet, this section is simply an overview

and the authors recognize, similar to chapter one, that acculturation is a process unique for every

individual.

Acculturation

Immigration, as whole, can be a very painful experience. An immigrant has to move to

an entirely new country, which is set with entirely new values. The values that the immigrant

already has, from their home country, may be in conflict with the values of the new country.

These values can be included in different levels, such language, social norms, and even role

expectations. The process of adapting to a new country is defined as acculturation (Yeh et al.
 29

2005). More recently acculturation has been defined as, “the extent to which individuals have

maintained their culture of origin or adapted to the larger society” (Farver et al., 2002, p. 12).

According to Hernandez, Cohen, and Garcia (2007), the nature of acculturation requires

the contact between at least two autonomous cultural groups. This contact will also create

subsequent change. This process of change is often asymmetrical, with one group often having

greater cultural change over the other group. In the United States (U.S.), the European American

middle class constitutes the dominant cultural group. An example of a cultural group that would

then be most influenced, or be the weaker group, would be U.S. Hispanics. Their adaptation

would occur according to the European American middle class cultural group.

Once contact has occurred between two groups, acculturation is processed into three

phases. These phases include contact, conflict, and adaptation. Conflict often occurs because

groups do not lightly give up their cultural values. Adaptation is the change intended to reduce

the conflict. This adaptation can follow a variety of ways. According to Sam (2000), Berry and

his colleagues have identified four acculturation strategies. These include assimilation,

integration, marginalization, and separation. These four strategies have been found to be

significantly related to mental health of immigrants.

Acculturative Stress

According to Crocket et al. (2007), general models of stress reveal that when an

individual perceives a situation to be beyond one’s coping resources, the situation can cause stress

and lead to negative affect. When there is pressure to assimilate, or a lack of intercultural

competence, which is perceived as beyond one’s coping resources, this should lead to a

perception of stress and negative emotions. When problems arise from the acculturation process,

it is defined as acculturative stress. When there are incongruent values from the two autonomous
 30

cultural groups, such as language difficulties, immigrants are most likely to form this type of

stress.

More formally, acculturative stress refers to “psychocultural stress due to cultural

differences found between a host culture and an incoming culture marked by reduction in the

physical and mental health status or groups undergoing acculturation” (Kim & Omizo, 2005, p.

414). Acculturative stress is the stress with adjusting to a new cultural environment (Hwang &

Ting, 2008). According to Kim and Omizo (2005), in a meta-analytic study by Moyerman and

Forman (1992) that involved 49 studies of acculturation found that acculturative stress is

positively correlated with psychosocial and health problems. The challenges associated with

acculturative stress can include linguistic challenges, loss of social support systems, and even

disruptions in the family dynamics. This stress is usually moderate, but can interact with an

individual’s overall stress burden and act as an acute stressor. The impact of acculturative stress

can be moderated by a number of factors. This includes the nature of the host culture, the nature

of the acculturating group, and the individual’s mode of acculturation (i.e., assimilation,

separation, marginalization, or integration).

Organista, Organista, and Karasaki (2003) define acculturative stress as “the process of

adjusting to lifestyle changes” (p. 139). These changes focus on such issues as described in the

above scenario (new language, social customs/norms, unfamiliar laws, etc.). Suarez-Morales,

Dillion, and Szapocznik (2007) describe acculturative stress as the “tension” experienced by the

immigrating person who encounters the dominant culture. Suarez-Morales and colleagues also

state that acculturative stress is derived from “attempts by individuals at resolving the differences

between their culture of origin and the dominant culture” (p. 216). A greater degree of

acculturative stress leads to a greater possibility for mental health implications (Organista et al.,

2003). The connection between acculturation and mental health implications are dependent upon
 31

migration variables, such as method of migration (e.g., voluntary or forced), friendliness of host

culture (e.g., discrimination), the resemblance of the culture of origin to the host culture

(Organista et al., 2003).

Organista et al. (2003) researched the role of acculturation and mental health in four

distinct cultures: African-Americans, American Indians, Asian Americans (including Chinese and

Southeast Asian), and Latinos (including Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Mexican Americans). For

American Indians, Organista et al. (2003) reviewed the work of Choney, Berryhill-Paapke, and

Robbins (1995). Choney et al. state that analyses of studies that involved American Indians,

acculturation, and mental health tended to view positive acculturation via the uni-dimensional

approach (i.e., the goal of acculturation was to assimilate to mainstream culture). Hoffman,

Dana, and Bolton (1985) looked at American Indians, acculturation, and mental health by giving

respondents an abridged form of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Hoffman et al.

(1985) did find that lower acculturation levels (especially in the area of education/occupational

development) resulted in higher scores for mental health problems in the areas of “depression,

psychopathic deviate (significant for men only), psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and social

introversion” (Organista et al, 2003, p. 141). However, the inconsistent; negative models of

acculturation (i.e., assimilation) appeared to color the results. Organista et al. (2003) recommends

that further examination of American Indians and mental health needs to be explored, especially

through different acculturation models.

In regards to African Americans, Organista et al. (2003) examined the studies of Landrine

and Klonoff (1994; 1996). Landrine and Klonoff (1994) created the African American

Acculturation Scale. Results included that acculturation did have a significant influence on

psychiatric symptoms. In particular, acculturated African Americans (e.g., adopting cultural

aspects of the dominant mainstream society) tended to take responsibility for problems on
 32

themselves, while in contrast traditional African American tended to use denial as a copying

strategy. Reviews of Asian Americans and mental health studies by Organista et al. (2003)

generally focused on Chinese immigrants and Southeast Asian immigrants. Zheng and Berry

(1991) found a relationship that as acculturation increased, acculturative stress decreased, and

therefore mental health improved. Initial immigration showed increased levels of acculturation

stress and mental health issues. Furthermore Ying (1995) in examining Chinese Americans found

that those that adopted the bicultural/integrated acculturation orientation tended to have lower

depression and better life satisfaction, whereas the marginal orientation resulted in poorer mental

health outcomes. Assimilated and separatist orientations also had better mental health outcomes

than marginal orientation.

For Southeast Asians, acculturative stress forecasted lower negative health, even after

four years after immigrating. The reason for the high level of acculturative stress mainly dealt

with learning English and seeking employment. The psychological symptoms that Southeast

Asians exhibited were generally higher posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression.

Adding to the level of acculturative stress was how the pre-migration traumas (war time bombing

and fires, witnessing people being wounded or killed, experiencing torture, rape, shootings,

robbery, and dealing with inadequate supplies of food and water). Acculturative stress can have

lingering effects even years post-migration. For instance, Westermeyer, Neider, and Vang (1984)

state that loss of one previous social role was related to increased mental health issues, three and

half years after migration.

Latinos are the most studied ethnic group in regards to acculturation and mental health

(Organista et al., 2003). Organista et al. (2003) examine Rogler, Cortés, and Malgady (1991)

analysis of 30 empirical studies. Rogler et al. (1991) as did Choney et al. (1995) for American

Indians, found some methodological discrepancies in the measure of acculturation used as well as
 33

mental health measures. Despite these inconsistencies, Rogler et al. (1991) was able to draw some

conclusions, such as second and later generation Latinos making negative social comparisons to

the dominant American culture due to instances of injustice via discrimination, prejudice, and

devalued ethnic status. Furthermore, Rogler et al. (1991) found a positive relationship between

acculturation and alcohol and substance abuse. In parsing the different ethnic groups that

comprise the Latino identity label, Moscicki, Rae, Reiger, and Locke (1987) found that highest

rates of major depression symptoms in Puerto Ricans and lowest in Mexican Americans and

Cuban Americans.

In a follow-up study in 1989; Moscicki et al. did find that the Mexican Americans that

rated highest in the depression index was related to higher assimilation orientation (being born in

the U.S., preferring English over Spanish, and identifying themselves as Mexican Americans

instead of Chicanos). Kaplan and Marks (1990) found that there was a positive correlation

between younger Mexican Americans (aged 20 to 30 years old) and depression symptoms. It was

hypothesized that the younger generation may experience more mental health issues due to

increased “social stress” (e.g., workplace stress) and distance from their culture of origin. Lee,

Markides, and Ray (1997) also found a greater pervasiveness of alcohol abuse (described as

heavy drinking) in Mexican American and Puerto Rican men than Cuban American men.

Additional studies that further examined acculturation and mental health issues within the

Mexican American community found an interesting result. Generally U.S. born Mexican

Americans had a higher rate of mental health problems (depression, alcohol abuse, dysthymia and

phobia) than their immigrant Mexican born counterparts (Burnam, Hough, Escobar, Karno, &

Telles, 1987). The reason hypothesized for this variance was the effect of the “social stress

model:” that the American born Mexican Americans may have a more stressful experience due to

being diminished and discriminated against.

 34

Psychological Functioning

Generally, the greater the difference between the new and original culture, the more the

acculturative stress, and therefore the more difficulty individuals experience with psychological

functioning (Farver et al., 2002). According to Sam (2000) mental health among cultural groups

is affected by the stress identified throughout the acculturation process. Researchers in this area,

of acculturation, often find that depression, and anxiety is common mental health consequences

for individuals that are in the process of acculturation. Self-esteem, which is often correlated

with mental health as a whole, is considered a measure of psychological well-being. Self-esteem

is defined as “the level of regard one has for the self as a person.” Therefore, self-esteem is

positively correlated with mental health and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety.

Successful acculturation has been defined in terms of mental and physical health, and

high self-esteem. Thus, psychological adaptation involves one’s physical and mental well-being

(Phinney et al., 2001). According to Grusec and Hastings (2007), psychological problems often

increase after contact with the new culture group, and then after adaptation, begin to decrease

over time. Psychological adaptation is composed of few psychological problems and high self-

esteem. This deems an overall high life satisfaction.

Acculturation Strategies

There are large variations to the way individuals cope to acculturation. These variations

are deemed acculturation strategies. There is a relation to how people choose to acculturate and

how well they adapt to a new environment (Bornstein & Cote, 2006).

At the individual level, psychological changes begin to occur for all cultural groups.

According to Bornstein and Cote (2006), not all individuals undergo the process of acculturation

in the same way. There are variations in the way that acculturation may occur, and these

variations are termed acculturation strategies. At the individual level, the long-term outcome
 35

(i.e., psychological adaptation) often corresponds to the strategic goals. These strategic goals, in

which four strategies have been identified, are for all individuals in the acculturation process.

According to Sam (2000), the decision to choose a certain strategy depends on how an

individual copes simultaneously with two elements. The first is cultural maintenance and the

second is contact participation. Cultural maintenance is the extent to which an individual will

consider cultural characteristics important and strive to keep them in his/her life. Contact

participation, which is the extent to which an individual will consider contact with the host

society important and participate in its ways of life. On the basis of these issues, Berry and his

colleagues have identified four acculturation strategies.

Types of Acculturation Strategies

According to Ferver et al. (2002), assimilation, separation, marginalization, and

integration are the four acculturation strategies. These four specific strategies have been found to

be significantly related to mental health among immigrants.

Assimilation. Assimilation, briefly defined, is a strategy in which an individual places

devalues maintenance of their original culture and instead seeks interaction with members of the

host society. For example, Asian Americans in this status typically maintain cultural values that

are important in the European American culture. However, they have no interest in adhering to

Asian cultural values. Asian Americans in this status could function well in a European-

American dominated social context, but problems may arise if these individuals have daily

interactions with Asian American communities (Sam, 2000).

Separation. According to Sam (2000) separation, briefly defined, is a strategy in which

an individual places a higher value on maintenance of his/her original culture and seeks minimal

contact with other cultural groups, particularly that of the host society. This strategy, separation,

is contradictory to the assimilation strategy. For example, Asian Americans in this status typically
 36

have no interest in the European American cultural values. Asian Americans in this status could

do well if he/she were immersed in the Asian American communities, but may experience

difficulties if they have to interact with European Americans.

Marginalization. Marginalization, briefly defined, is a strategy involves rejections of

one’s own original culture and avoidance of interaction with members of the host society. For

example, an individual in this status is not interested in either their original or host culture (Sam,

2000).

Integration. Integration, briefly defined, entails a positive attitude toward maintenance of

the original culture and as well as interaction with members of the host society (Sam, 2000).

Acculturation Strategies and Psychological Functioning

According to Grusec and Hastings (2007), research that relates to the acculturation

strategies does allow for some generalizations. In terms of successful and mentally healthy

adaptation, integration appears to be for better adaptation outcomes, while marginalization is

related to least well adaptation. The other two strategies, separation and marginalization, are

associated with intermediate adaptation outcomes.

Integration and Psychological Functioning. According to Ferver et al. (2002), current

research on acculturation attitudes and psychological functioning suggest that integration is the

most adaptive strategy in the acculturation process. In several studies assessing acculturation

strategies in various immigrant groups in North America, Berry and others have found the

integration was the preferred mode of acculturation. This mode was followed by either

assimilation or separation, with marginalization as the least preferred mode. Integrated

individuals experienced the least amount of acculturative stress and anxiety, and manifested fewer

psychological problems when compared with those who were marginalized, separated, or

assimilated.
 37

In a study conducted by La Fromboise et al. (1993), it was theorized that integration leads

to better psychological well being. In an early study of Cuban-American adolescents, it was

found that individuals who were mono-cultural (i.e., were separated and remained in the Cuban

culture, or were totally assimilated and gave up their Cuban culture), were rated by their teachers

as ‘problem students’. These students had poor grades, difficulty functioning in school, and

sporadic attendance.

According to Kim and Omizo (2005), integration or biculturalism may also be the

healthiest for Asian American. The literature on biculturalism proposes that individuals that can

effectively function in both the dominant and original cultures may exhibit increased cognitive

functioning. LaFromboise et al. (1993) used the term bicultural competence to describe the

process in which individuals can successfully meet the demands of two distinct cultures. There

are six elements to being bicultural and include: (a) knowledge of cultural beliefs for both

cultures, (b) positive attitudes toward both cultures, (c) belief that one can live in a satisfactory

manner in both cultures without having to sacrifice one’s cultural identity, (d) ability to

communicate in both cultures, (e) knowledge of the culturally appropriate behaviors, (f) sense of

being grounded in both cultures. Although individuals may experience difficulties in adjusting to

the different and sometimes even opposing demands of both cultures, if they are able to adjust,

one benefit is increased performance in vocational and academic endeavors.

Conclusion

Overall, there are four main strategies for the process of acculturation. These include, in

no specific order: assimilation, integration, marginalization, and separation. The research

conducted by the authors reveals that integration is the healthiest adaptation strategy. According

to Grusec and Hastings (2007), there is a confirmed relationship between how an individual

decides to adapt and how well that individual adapts. The purpose of this section is to share the
 38

understanding that not only is acculturation strategies important, but the understanding that these

strategies will actually affect how well an individual is able to acculturate. The more individuals

are aware of this dynamic, the more they will hopefully choose the integration strategy as their

acculturation choice. As stated in the introduction, this section is important for not only those

that are in the process of acculturation but also that that know of an individual in the process of

acculturation. Although this section was provided for recognition of acculturation strategies and

the association with psychological functioning, the authors do note that each individual may have

their own unique experience.

Acculturation and Mental Health in the Schools

The preceding sections examined the different aspects of acculturation; the definition of

acculturation, as well as the various models or theories of acculturation and the factors of

acculturation. The previous section focused the journey immigrants partake unto coming to the

United States and the effects the acculturation can have on the immigrant. This particular section

will focus on acculturation and mental health, particularly in the issue of acculturative stress

within school-aged adolescents. It will also review ways of how to cope with acculturative stress

via various school based interventions. To fully appreciate the magnitude of arriving in a new

country, it is best to perceive it through the eyes of the immigrant. Imagine arriving in a foreign

country, knowing little of the host country’s language, having little family support (i.e., no nearby

relatives), and struggling to find work. Also envision that the host country’s policies dictate that

you assimilate to its customs and traditions and that clinging to your traditional ways of your

homeland will only exude discriminatory reactions from your new host country. Visualizing this

scenario conjures up feelings of stress for anyone. Now that we have defined what acculturative

stress is (see previous section), the next step is to see specifically how acculturative stress affects

students in the schools.

 39

Studies looking at minority groups, acculturation, and schools have focused on different

areas. Some examined the areas of acculturation, social support, and academic achievement,

while other studies focused on acculturation and personal and collective self esteem. Additional

studies looked at the acculturative stress effects of being a “language” or “culture” broker. The

following will review these studies. A study by López, Ehly, and García-Vásquez (2002) focused

on acculturation, social support and academic achievement of Mexican American high school

students in the southwest United States. Lopez et al. (2002) found that “highly integrated”

students had “higher academic success” (as measured by their GPA). The integrated students were

able to take up the dominant/mainstream culture, but were also able to maintain various aspects

of their native culture. These students also stated that they had perceived social support for all

four sources (parent, teacher, classroom peers, and close friends). Furthermore, Mexican

American females tended to perform better than Mexican American males academically, and the

males tended to be more acculturated (e.g., Westernized) than their female counterparts.

Giang and Wittig (2006) also examined acculturation within adolescent high school

students in California. In Giang and Wittig’s study they focused on the aspects of personal and

collective self esteem within Berry, Timble, and Olmedo’s (1986) acculturation strategies

framework. The students came from various ethnic backgrounds (Caucasian, Asian, Latino,

African American, and Other/Mixed). The majority of the students in the sample were born in the

United States (76%), while 21% were foreign born, and 3% was unknown. Students were

assessed in their acculturation, personal, and collective self esteem. Results were that students

that adhered to the integration strategy (interact with other ethnic groups and explore their own

ethnic roots) had the highest personal self esteem. In personal self esteem, integrationists were

“only significantly higher than separationists and marginalizationists (but not assimilationists) (p.

733).” In collective social esteem, integrationists were not statistically significant from
 40

assimilationists or separationists. Marginalizationists had significantly lower personal and

collective self esteem. People who adopt the marginalization strategy neither identify with their

own ethnic identity nor reach out to other groups.

Two other studies looked at the effect of students have to act as “language” and “cultural”

brokers in their interactions between their families and their schools. Jones and Trickett (2005)

examined the effect of “cultural brokering” in immigrant adolescents with families from the

former Soviet Union. Cultural brokering is operationally defined as when “children mediate the

new culture for their family” (p. 405). Demographics were obtained from the students, their

mothers, their methods of cultural brokering (e.g., answering telephones, translating, going to

appointments), acculturation measures, psychological distress, school adaptation, social and peer

support, and family conflict. Findings were that generally older mothers and less educated parents

were most likely to use their children as culture brokers. The immediate effects was that culture

brokering for the students did have costs in the areas of “increased emotional distress, decreased

feelings of school membership, problems with friends, and reports of family disagreements at

home” (p. 422). However there did not appear to be an effect between culture brokering and GPA.

Acoach and Webb (2004) examined language brokering and acculturation and its effects

on academic performance, and nonverbal decoding skills in Latino teenagers. Acoach and Webb

used Tse’s (1995) definition of language brokering: “interpretation and translation between

linguistic and culturally different parties “(p. 2). Acoach and Webb’s (2004) findings were that

students in the early stages of adolescence (junior high students) who use language brokering

tended to be associated with biculturalism and greater academic self-efficacy and higher GPA. In

high school students language brokering was not associated with biculturalism but was associated

with academic self efficacy.

 41

The next step after learning how the factors of acculturation and acculturative stress of

immigration affects the mental health of individuals is to ascertain some methods of how to help

these refugees/immigrants cope with acculturation and the stressors it may cause in their lives and

the lives of their families. The following section will detail some specific interventions that both

school counselors and school psychologists can use to facilitate social support for the

immigrating students.

School Interventions to Use with Immigrating Students

In the previous sections, we have discussed the various implications of acculturative

stress and acculturation in various ethnic groups in general and its effects on various ethnic

groups within the schools, we now turn our attention in how we can best serve these immigrating

students. For the aforementioned studies it appears that social support, through the students’

family, peers, and teacher, is important to the student’s emotional well being, as well as the

acculturation strategy that the students used (integration having the most positive benefits,

marginalization the most negative benefits). del Valle (2002) reviews strategies that school

psychologists and others can use in working with immigrating students. In particular, del Valle’s

(2002) focuses on traumatized refugee children. These children can come from various different

countries such as Cuba, Cambodia, Bosnia, Tibet, Haiti, or many other countries that are dealing

with various issues such as war or religious persecution. del Valle (2002) reviews the stages of

resettlement (Pre-immigration, Migration, Arrival, Decompensation and Transgeneration) and the

factors/variables that can critical such as refugee’s legal status, number of relatives living in their

new adopted country, institutional support, and age of the children to summarize a few points. del

Valle (2002) also discusses the psychological symptoms that the children and their families

experience (apathy, anxiety, depression, eating, and sleeping problems, and somatic complaints

(e.g., stomachaches). del Valle also states that acculturative stress as mentioned in the
 42

aforementioned section often surfaces in the area of language difficulties (e.g., learning the new

host country’s language). Barriers to language comprehension can lead to distress and academic

difficulties for children (especially in the area of Language Arts and reading) and their social

interactions with their peers (e.g., making friends, etc.). At the heart of del Valle’s (2002) chapter

is how school psychologists and other professionals can help these children.

The first area to address is assembling a “school support team.” del Valle (2002)

recommends that the team consists of an administrator, school psychologist, counselor, social

worker, school nurse, and teachers of the refugee students. The support team should meet on a

regular basis and focus on areas such as assessing the difficulties the refugee children and their

families and school staff face, identifying strengths of the students, and creating interventions for

the specific students, as well as evaluating the results of the interventions. Furthermore school

wide training of personnel may be needed (such as office staff, and other teachers) to familiarize

themselves with the culture of the refugee students as well as hiring of translators and

consultants. Additionally, del Valle (2002) suggests that collaboration is needed between the

school staff, parents/guardians, and community resources/agencies in areas of need such as job

training, free meals, legal aid, medical services, language classes, etc. Further for those that are

interacting with these students (crisis interveners and school personnel) may need their own

support group to talk about their experiences as well as conducting a needs assessment which will

aid in assisting the crisis intervener in types and severities of the challenges that the family and

the student is facing. Finally, del Valle (2002) offers different types of interventions/therapies

that may be used with refugee students. These interventions include expressive art (drawing

pictures of migration, flags of their homeland, homeland school, new school, or illustrating a

story about their journey); expressive writing (creative writing or poetry, where students can write

letters to loved ones in their homeland country); bibliotherapy (reading and discussing texts
 43

related to similar problems/situations), group counseling, and play therapy (drawing, storytelling,

and games).

Expressive Writing therapy, specifically narrative therapy has been researched by

Pennebaker and Segal (1999) and Pennebaker (1993). Pennebaker and Segal (1999) did their

study with undergraduate students. The control group was assigned a topic and was directed to

write freely on it, disregarding spelling, grammar, etc. In contrast, the experimental group was

asked to write about their most traumatic experience. Both had to write for 15 minutes a day

without stopping for four consecutive days. The results of the study found that students who

wrote about a personal traumatic event found the writing to therapeutic, valuable, and

meaningful. Ninety eight percent of the experimental group stated that would want to participate

in the study again. The students’ use of university health center after the experiment was

evaluated. Students who were in the experimental group reduced their visits to the health center

when compared to the control group. Further analysis of the student’s essays in similar

experiment (Pennebaker & Francis, 1996) revealed the word usage (negative versus positive

emotion words and causal versus insight words) also showed some interesting results. The

experiment also involved students writing about their college experience, prisoners in a maximum

security prison, and professionals who were recently laid off. Those participants who used a

higher rate of positive emotion words showed their health appeared to improve (as measured by

blood immune), as did people who used a moderate number of negative words. Writing does

appear to aid in the therapeutic process of people who suffer traumatic experiences, whether it be

immigrating to a new country, suffering a traumatic experience, or job loss. Pennebaker and

Seagal (1999) also note that the health benefits of narrative writing may not help all groups. For

instance, they stated that people with “disordered cognitive processing or relatively severe

depression” may not show improvements (p. 1245). Pennebaker and Segal reference a study by
 44

Gidron, Peri, Connolly, and Shalev (1996) where severe Post traumatic Stress Syndrome (PTSD)

showed that their health state actually worsened somewhat with the writing therapy intervention.

Cárdenas, Taylor, and Adelman (1993) focus on creating a transition support group for

adolescent Latino immigrant students. The transition support group consisted of group

counseling sessions that used “basic group therapy techniques” as well as “didactic presentations”

(p. 205). The group’s main issues were centered on acculturation dilemmas, general adolescence

problems that may have been exacerbated by the student’s immigrant status, and pre-immigrant

problems. Students generally stated they enjoyed the group process, but results of post-group data

suggest that the group sessions did not show a statistically significant difference in the following

areas: school dropout rate, GPA, days absent, and visits to the health center. The group results

were compared to two control groups: Latino immigrant students who arrived at the same time as

the immigrant students in the group but did not participate in the transition groups, as well as an

U.S. born Latino group. Despite the less than stellar results, it appears that given more research,

transition support groups could offer a valuable resource for the immigrant student.

Yeh, Ching, Okubo, and Luthar (2007) examined the use of peer mentoring support

groups among Chinese immigrant adolescents. Four high students served as peer mentors for 23

high student mentees; each mentor was assigned five to six mentees. The peer mentoring program

consisted of weekly group sessions, mentors meeting with the mentees individually at least once a

week during school, weekly lunch table discussions on topics of interest (college applications,

family conflicts), and monthly/bimonthly social events. The mentor also gave the mentees

information about the school’s resources as well as how to access help (teachers, counselors,

other staff). The program lasted for an entire semester. The results showed that after the

mentoring group the mentee students had a statistically significant higher peer attachment trust

scores as well as a stronger need for closeness with their peers after the eight week program.
 45

However there was not a significant difference in the “overall social connectedness” at the end of

the program (p. 741). Yeh et al. (2007) state that increased level of peer closeness and trust is

important in adolescence because “a stronger attachment with peers than with parents to achieve

psychological well-being” (p. 740). The authors state that future research is important such as

using larger sample sizes and increasing the length of the program to see if it affects academic,

college, and career self-efficacy.

A study by Yeh (2006) focuses on social support through ethnic online social groups for

Chinese international students at universities in the southeastern United States. The overall results

that students in the study used the groups, but mainly used the online groups for informative type

of support instead of emotional type of support. Thomas and Choi’s (2006) study that examined

social support and acculturative stress in Koreans and Indian immigrant adolescents students

found that student who did not have social support (via friends, parents, or religious activities)

were “more likely to experience stress in acculturation situations” and the “availability of social

support from parents and organizational activities serves as a buffer to reduce acculturative stress

in adolescents” (p. 135).

Goh, Wahl, McDonald, Brissett, and Yoon (2007) give advice to how school counselors

can address the needs of immigrant students within the schools. School counselors can educate

the student and teacher regarding the resources available within the school and letting teachers

now the associated stigmas for students seeking help in their particular culture. Another useful

suggestion is for school counselors (or other staff) to create diversity awareness/cultural

awareness through a culture appreciation week or month. Examples of student clothing, language,

and customs can be used within the classroom as well as decorated in the hallways, cafeteria, and

other areas. During the appreciation sessions, the counselor can conduct “classroom multicultural

guidance lessons” or group sessions addressing cultural shock (p. 71). Teachers are also
 46

encouraged to offer assignments that give immigrant students the chance to present their culture

to their respective class. Individual and support counseling groups are also recommended as well

as facilitating cross-cultural simulations. The cross-cultural simulations need special care, for if

done improperly the results can cause more “tension” in the school (p.73). It is recommended that

school counselors receive additional “training, supervision, co-leading experience; as well as

observe experts” in conducting these cross-cultural simulations (p.73).

Tatman (2004) also gives advice in counseling the Hmong population, that is also fruitful

for both school counselor and school psychologists for counseling with these specific ethnic

group, but also outlines multi-cultural disciplines that a school counselor and psychologist should

adhere to. First, is to know the group you are counseling; such as the group’s view of mental

health problems and counseling, any commonly misunderstood action/communication (such as

“yes” statements in Hmong culture and other Asian cultures which can have a myriad of subtle

meanings); acknowledging the cultural values of the particular ethnic group, including the

spiritual/religious realm (such as the coining healing practice in Hmong culture). For instance,

Tatman (2004) states that the “counseling process should include support from traditional healing

methods” as well as considering having joint sessions with a shaman (p. 231).

This section reviewed the elements of acculturative stress and acculturation. We first

described acculturative stress and showed how it generally had a negative effect on different

minority groups, such as leading to increased mental health problems (e.g., depression) and

substance abuse issues (e.g., alcoholism). We next discussed how acculturation affects self esteem

and academic achievement within the schools, as well as how acting as a cultural broker (when

looking at former Russian families) could cause increased stress in the students. Finally we

reviewed what steps a school can take in helping individual students cope with the process of

acculturation through the use of student support teams and various interventions such as
 47

therapeutic art/writing/play sessions and group counseling through the use of transition support

groups, online support groups, and peer mentoring. Further, cultural awareness and other

suggestions were given for school counselors as well as some important multicultural

considerations to adhere to when addressing/counseling a person from another cultural or ethnic

background.
 48

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

The contributors that collaborated for all parts of this project were Jaspreet Kaler and Ted

Flores. The project information was obtained from variety of resources. These resources generally

included peer reviewed journal articles, books, and websites such as California Department of

Education; as well as personal experiences. The procedure method was as followed. A specific

personal interest in acculturating students and the difficulties that these students face were shared

by both researchers due to their specific background, Jaspreet Kaler, as well personal peer

friendship experiences of immigrating students, Ted Flores. An interest in doing this project was

brought about from Website data research from the U.S. Census and the California Department of

Education shows a continuing growth in student coming from various countries (Mexico, South

America, Asia, etc.) as well personal experience noting the growth in diversity in the schools that

we have been privileged to fieldwork and intern at.

A literature review was conducted that focused on the acculturation, acculturation

models/theories, factors of acculturation, mental health issues due to acculturation and

acculturative stress, as well as interventions or ways to assist immigrant students in dealing with

their social emotional health. The literature review was assisted through the use of the California

State University Sacramento (CSUS) library website. The EUREKA library collection webpage

was searched using the keyword acculturation with limits to books within the University’s

collection. Journal articles were found through the use of the CSUS library’s journal and database

webpage. The databases used were primarily PsycINFO and ERIC. The search terms used were

acculturation, acculturation theories, acculturation and mental health, acculturation and

multicultural counseling, and acculturation and schools. Limits were put on the database to

include English language, peer-reviewed journals, pdf full text-links if applicable, and a 10 year
 49

restriction on articles selected. The hits off the database searches were reviewed for articles that

best fit within the scope of our project material interest factors (e.g., acculturation

definitions/theories; acculturation and mental health; acculturation and schools).

Given the information taken from the literature review a handbook was created as a tool

in helping school counselors and school psychologists in regards to understanding acculturation,

how acculturation affects mental health in general and within the school age population, as well

as specific interventions that school psychologists and counselors could use to help these students

(support groups, peer groups, expressive writing groups, etc.). A referral checklist, questionnaire,

intervention checklist, post intervention checklist, and community resources are included in the

handbook. The community resources list was complied via the internet. Various search engines

were used (Yahoo, Google, etc.) as well as some school district websites (Elk Grove Unified

School District and Sacramento City Unified School District, etc.) along with certain key phrases

such as “Southeast Asian community resources, Sacramento, CA;” “Mexican American Refugee

Resources Sacramento, CA.” The search engine “hits” were narrowed by searching to see what

best fit the parameters of the search. Websites for the community organizations were reviewed for

the various services that they offer to immigrants/refugees. Organizations that were felt by the

collaborators to be a good fit (such as offering cultural orientation, mental health counseling, etc.)

were included in the resource list.

 50

Chapter 4

RESULTS

The results of our literature review and research produced a handbook that reviews acculturation

and its impact on immigrating/refugee students. The handbook is a user-friendly guide to help

school counselors and school psychologists in dealing with students who have recently

immigrated to their school site from another country. Research from the U.S. Census Bureau and

the California Department of Education shows that California is a very diverse state with a wealth

of ethnic backgrounds, cultures, and languages. Immigrating to a new country and having to

navigate unfamiliar culture roles, traditions, as well as language can be daunting for an

immigrating student and her or his family. Therefore this project was created to help school

counselors and psychologist understand the process of acculturation and its effect on school self

esteem, and mental health. The handbook is a brief summary of some informative data about the

acculturation as well as outlining the process of acculturation (strategies, factors) as well as other

useful tools in helping a school psychologist and/or school counselor deal with particular issues

of an immigrating student.

For the handbook, a referral checklist/background data was created by Ted Flores in order

in aiding school counselors and school psychologists in getting important background

information about the student as well as screening for important factors, reason for referral (i.e.

behavioral, social skills, academic), social support, and other issues. A questionnaire was created

by Jaspreet Kaler that could be given to ascertain the level of acculturation that the student was

currently at. Once given, the counselor or psychologist could use this questionnaire to see what

acculturation strategy the student may be using. From there, the counselor or psychologist could

try and match an intervention from the intervention list that could be used in helping the student,

a summary of information obtained from the literature review. A list of community resources for
 51

various ethnic groups (Hispanic/Latino; Asian/Southeast Asian, Pacific Islander, Asian Indian,

etc.) was complied as a community outreach tool for school psychologists and school counselors

for possible information gathering about an unfamiliar culture as well as a resource contact for

immigrating student families. The community resources portion of the handbook is

geographically limited to generally being within the Sacramento area; however some community

resources are given for locations outside of the Sacramento County area.
 52

APPENDIX

An Acculturation Handbook
 53

The Diversity of California Schools

The United States has long been dubbed the melting pot of the world due to our diverse

ethnicity. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, California, however, remains a very diverse state

of unique cultures and languages. The California Department of Education states that enrollment

has continued to increase for approximately 15 years, while recently some enrollment is leveling

off and declining in some areas. The Hispanic/Latino population continues to increase in

California and this once minority ethnic group is expected to supplant Caucasians as the majority

in 2009-2010 (California Department of Education, 2009).

The ethnicity of California students for 2007-2008 school year is comprised in the

following manner: Hispanic, 48.7%; White/Caucasian, 28.5%; Asian, 8.2%; African American,

7.4%; Multiple/No Response, 3%; Filipino, 2.7%; American Indian, 0.8%; Pacific Islander, 0.6%

(CA Dept. of Education, 2009). Rates for American Indian, Asian, Pacific Islander have been

relatively stable since 1993-1994. There have been increases in Hispanic population from 37.1%

in 1993/1994 to 48.7% in 2007/2008; and Filipinos from 2.4% from 1993/1994 to 2.7% in

2007/2008. In contrast, there have been decreases in population in the African American (8.7% in

1993/1994 to 7.4% in 2007/2008) and White/Caucasian (42.3% in 1993/1994 to 28.5% in

2007/2008). According to the 2007-2008 data, English Language Learners (ELL) account for

24.7% of the California school population (or 1,533,091 students). The composite of languages

that the ELL students speak is quite diverse: Spanish, 21%; All other, 2.1%; Vietnamese, 0.6%;

Filipino (Pilipino or Tagalong), 0.4%; Cantonese and Hmong, 0.3%.

In narrowing the various counties of California by just focusing on the school districts in

Sacramento County, the districts are still quite diverse. According to the 2007-2008 school data

from the California Department of Education (2009), Sacramento County is comprised of 16

 54

school districts, including the Sacramento County Office of Education: Arcohe Union

Elementary, Center Joint Unified, Del Paso Heights Elementary; Elk Grove Unified; Elverta Joint

Elementary; Folsom Cordova Unified; Galt Union Elementary; Galt Joint Union High; Grant

Joint Union High; Natomas Unified; North Sacramento Elementary; Rio Linda Union

Elementary; River City Delta Joint Unified; Robla Elementary; Sacramento City Unified; and

San Juan Unified. It should be noted, as of 2008-2009 school year, a new school district was

created in Sacramento County, Twin Rivers Unified School District. The Twin River Unified

School District merges four districts into one district (North Sacramento Elementary, Del Paso

Heights School District, Rio Linda School District, and Grant Joint Union High). Strictly

adhering to 2007-2008 data, Elk Grove Unified is the largest school district with over 62,000

students, while Arcohe Union Elementary is the smallest with a little over 500 students. The

second largest school district is Sacramento City Unified with almost 48, 500 students. Despite

the variance in school populations, each district does have some diversity.

Summarization of Literature Review

Acculturation

Acculturation involves the interplay between two cultures that come in contact with one

another. Various theories and models of acculturation have been hypothesized and researched.

Current research tends to support the newer acculturation models: bimodal or multi-dimensional

models (Castro, 2003). Immigrants and refugees may migrate to a new country for a myriad of

reasons. Their migration may voluntary (i.e. moving for a better way of life) or it may be

involuntary (e.g. war, religious persecution.). This migration experience, whether voluntary or

involuntary can have lasting implications for the individual and his or her family. For instance, in

a forced migration, refugees tend to have a difficult transition to adjusting to the new culture.
 55

Other important factors for acculturation include motivation, age at time of migration, education,

cultural distance (i.e., how similar the country of origin traditions are to the host country’s),

attitude of host culture (i.e., welcoming or discriminatory toward refugees), racism, generation,

language, and social support.

Acculturation Strategies

When a person has to acculturate to a new culture, he or she can use a variety of

acculturation strategies to aid them in the acculturation process. Berry (2003) hypothesized four

strategies: (a) assimilation, (b) separation, (c) integration, and (d) marginalization. Briefly,

assimilation is where one forfeits his or her traditional culture and values, and instead adopts the

host country’s traditions/values; separation is when a person maintains his culture but does not

engage in the host country’s culture/tradition/values; marginalization is when a person shuns both

his or her traditional culture and the host country’s culture. Research reflects that the most

positive strategy for emotional and psychological well being is the integration strategy; where a

person keeps his or her own culture but also adopts the culture of his or her new country.

Acculturative Stress

Adapting to a new culture can be a stressful event. One important barrier is the

acquisition of the host country’s language. Language barriers can be a formidable challenge,

creating obstacles to employment and educational success. For instance, students who have to act

as language or cultural brokers for the parents within the school and other areas (e.g., doctors’

appointments) may feel additional stressors. Acculturative stress refers to “psychocultural stress

due to cultural differences found between the host culture and an incoming culture marked by

reduction in the physical and mental health status or groups undergoing acculturation” (Kim &

Omizo, 2005, p. 414). Difficulties associated with acculturative stress can include linguistic
 56

challenges, loss of social support systems, and disruptions in family dynamics. The greater the

amount of acculturative stress, the more debilitating the stress can be on a person’s mental health.

Research shows in various cultures and ethnic groups that acculturative stress can lead to various

problems such as depression, social introversion (Hoffman, 1985), post traumatic stress

(Westermeyer, Neider, and Vang (1984), and alcohol and drug abuse (Rogler et al., 1991).

How to Help Students Cope

As school counselors and school psychologists, our main goal is the mental and

emotional health of our students. Since acculturation can account for many challenges and mental

health difficulties, research has investigated various ways of helping these immigrant/refugee

students. de Valle (2002) suggests various interventions such as expressive artwork, expressive

writing, bibliotherapy, group counseling and play therapy. Other interventions include transition

support groups (Cárdnas, Taylor, & Adelman, 1993), peer mentoring support groups (Yeh, Ching,

Okubo, & Luthar, 2007), and online social groups (Yeh, 2006). School-wide interventions

included cultural diversity appreciation week/month; hanging up examples of traditional clothing,

language, customs, can be used in the classroom, or decorate the hallways or cafeteria (Goh,

Wahl, McDonald, Brissett, & Yoon, 2007). Additionally, a school counselor and school

psychologist should be familiar with a various customs and traditions of the school’s population

before engaging in counseling (Tatman, 2004).

How to Use the Handbook

The handbook is comprised of a referral checklist, an acculturation questionnaire, list of

possible interventions, notes for post intervention data collection, and a list of community

resources for both within and outside of Sacramento County. The Referral Checklist is a where

the school psychologist or counselor can ascertain why the student is being referred as well as

compile important background information about the student (e.g., length of stay in the U.S.,
 57

level of social supports, education level in home country). The questionnaire is used to ascertain

the acculturation level of the student. The more fives (5s) the student scores on the questionnaire,

the higher their level of acculturation. Once screened via the referral and questionnaire, the

Intervention checklist is used to aid in picking an appropriate intervention for the student’s

situation. Once the intervention(s) are chosen, data can be collected on the student pre-

intervention and post-intervention. This information is entered in the Intervention Data page. The

data page consists of entries for academic information, behavioral/disciplinary history, and social

emotional concerns before and after the intervention. A summary section is at the end of the

Intervention Data page that asks if the intervention is successful. For instance, if the student was

having behavioral problems at school (e.g., on campus suspensions), a successful intervention

would entail a lower number of suspensions post intervention than pre intervention.

The community resources are a complied list of various ethnic community resources in

and outside Sacramento County. The resources offer a variety of services, such as visa

information, mental health counseling, and cultural orientation, just to name a few. The list is

there for the school psychologists and school counselors to get more information about a

particular culture, as well as referrals for any additional resources/services for the refugee family.
 58

XYZ School District

1234 School Street

School City, CA Zip Code

Immigrant/Refugee Student Referral Checklist

Date of Referral: ____________________

Student Name: _______________________________ Date of Birth: ___/___/______

School: _____________________________________ Teacher: __________________

Grade: ______

Person making the referral (please check):

Principal Vice Principal

Teacher Parent/Guardian

Other (Please Specify): _____________

Person referred to:

School Counselor School Psychologist

Reason for Referral:

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
 59

Additional Referral Considerations (if not listed in Reason for Referral)

Acting out behavior (Defiance, Physical Altercations)

Appears Withdrawn, Sad

Poor Attendance

Social Skills (Poor Peer Relationships)

Parent/Guardian Contact Information

Parent/Guardian Names: ___________________________________________________

Address: ________________________________________________________________

Contact Phone: ______________________ Home Phone:

_______________________

English Fluent: Yes No Interpreter Needed: Yes No

Education Level (Highest level completed; please check):

High School Some College Community College or

Equivalent

4 year University Professional/Graduate School (Business, Medical, Law, etc.)

Other: _____________________

Background Information

Immigration Experience

Country of Origin: ___________________ Age arrived in U.S.: __________________

Reason for family immigrating to the U.S.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
 60

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

Did the student experience any trauma during immigration experience: Yes No

If Yes, please explain:

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

Did the entire family immigrate together? Yes No

If not, please specify the order and date of each family member arriving to the U.S.:

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

How long has the person/family lived in the U.S.: ________________________________

What other states has the family lived (list years):

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
 61

Siblings

Name Age Grade School Name

Previous Schooling in Country of Origin? Yes No

If yes, please specify highest grade completed: __________________________________

Language

Primary Language (Please check):

Spanish Hmong Lao Mein/Yao Filipino/Tagalong

Cantonese Mandarin Russian Ukrainian Vietnamese

Hindi Punjabi Urdu Other:

_______________________________

Fluent in Primary Language? Yes No

Fluent in English? Yes No

If not fluent in English, what is the student’s CELDT level?

Listening _______________ Speaking _____________ Reading ______________

Writing _______________ Overall _____________

Social Supports

What social supports, if applicable, did the student have in his/her native country?

___________________________________________________________________________
 62

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

What social support systems does the family have currently?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Has the student made friends at school? Yes No

If yes, approximately how many: ________________________________________________

If no, hypothesized reason why:

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Are there any other students of similar ethnic and/or immigration background on campus?

Yes No

Additional Stressors

Other than recent immigration experience, has the student/family experienced any additional
stressors (e.g. loved one in native country ill; parents having difficulty finding employment,
etc.)

__________________________________________________________________________
 63

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Additional Needs

What sort of things does the student and the family need?

Employment Resources Health Resources Parenting

Resources

Social Support/Community Resources Food/Shelter Other

If other, please list: __________________________________________________________

QUESTIONNAIRE

Please answer the following questions regarding acculturation according to the following scale.
If a question does not apply, please circle not applicable (NA).

False Somewhat False Neutral Somewhat True True Not Applicable

1 2 3 4 5 NA

1. I immigrated to the United States due to voluntary circumstances.

1 2 3 4 5 NA
2. I was younger than 12 when I immigrated.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
3. I am a third or older generation of immigrants in my family.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
4. I am fluent in English.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
5. I am currently attaining an education.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
 64

6. I have finished college.

1 2 3 4 5 NA
7. I have a Masters degree or beyond.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
8. My culture is not significantly different than the American culture.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
9. My culture is also individualistic, similar to the American culture.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
10. I currently live in a culture willing to accept differences between cultures.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
11. I have not suffered from racism in the United States.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
12. I have been educated, even if partially, in the United States.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
13. I can read and write in English.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
14. I am close with my family.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
15. I am close with my friends.
1 2 3 4 5 NA

16. I have at least one person I can count on in times of need.

1 2 3 4 5 NA
17. I believe in both the values of the American and my original culture.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
18. I can speak both English and my primary language.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
19. I have decided to integrate the American culture into my life.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
20. My culture of origin is important to me.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
21. I not the first one in my family to migrate to the United States.
1 2 3 4 5 NA

22. In my viewpoint, my culture is very similar to the American culture.

1 2 3 4 5 NA
23. I have never been discriminated against in the United States.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
24. I am not the first generation in my family to migrate to the United Sates.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
25. I have good/healthy relationships in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 NA
 65

Informal Scoring: The more 5’s an individual circles, or the more towards the right of the
assessment, the higher their level of acculturation.

Intervention Checklist

School Wide Support

Cultural/Diversity Awareness addressed throughout the school (Multicultural Fair, etc.)

Cultural Awareness addressed in classroom

School Support Team Developed Case Discussed

Needs Assessment Conducted

Student Specific Oriented Support

What services does the student appear eligible for?

Individual Counseling

Small Group Counseling/Transition Support Groups

Peer mentor

School mentor/buddy (Specific teacher/staff member:

___________________________)

Specific Intervention Tool(s) Used

 66

Please check all that apply

Art therapy

Play therapy

Writing therapy/Bibliotherapy

Transition Groups/Small Groups

Other: _________________________________________________________________

Length of Intervention

Entire Trimester

Entire Semester

Other (please specify):

____________________________________________________

Intervention Data

Pre Intervention

Academics (write down grades or attach grade report print out):

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Behavior/Disciplinary Concerns (print out & attach disciplinary report or write in the
following):

# of Referrals # of On Campus Suspensions # of Home Suspensions

Social Emotional Concerns (if applicable)

 67

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Post Intervention

Academics (write down grades or attach grade report print out):

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Behavior/Disciplinary Concerns (print out & attach disciplinary report or write in the
following):

# of Referrals # of On Campus Suspensions # of Home Suspensions

Social Emotional Concerns (if applicable)

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Has the intervention(s) been successful? Yes No

If no, what else can be done?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
 68

________________________________________________________________________

INSERT SCHOOL LOGO HERE

School Address
School City, CA Zip
School Phone: (xxx) xxx-xxxx
School Fax: (xxx) xxx-xxxx

Date

Dear Parent/Guardian:

Your son/daughter, ______, has been recommended for a small/individual counseling group by
his/her teacher. The individual/group sessions will occur in a private and comfortable setting on
campus once a week. The sessions will last thirty (30) minutes.

Additionally, the confidentiality of your child’s experiences will be honored in accordance with
the [Insert School Name] School Student Handbook.

Please fill out the bottom portion of the form and give it to _____’s teacher, _______ by
________.

Sincerely,

School Psychologist/School Counselor

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Please mark one of the boxes below with an X stating if you consent or do not consent.

I consent to my son/daughter attending skill group sessions

 69

I do not consent to my son/daughter attending skill group skills sessions

List of Community Resources

Sacramento County
Refugee Services (California Department of Social Services, 2004).
http://www.dss.cahwnet.gov/refugeeprogram/Res/pdf/ResourceDirectory/2004/ResourcesDirec
tory_082004.pdf
 70

Organization Address Phone/ Services

Name Fax
Bach Viet 5777 Madison 916-344-2197 Employment; Elder Services
Association, Avenue, Suite 715 916-344-2199
Inc. Sacramento, CA
95841

Jewish Family 2862 Arden Way, 916-484-4400 Counseling, Elder Services,

Service of Suite 103 916-484-4401 Refugee Resettlement
Sacramento Sacramento, CA
95825
www.jfssac.org

Liberian 4320 Stockton 916-454-4013 Citizenship Preparation,

Community Blvd. Sacramento, 916-454-5013 Counseling, Cultural Orientation
Foundation CA 95820

Old Marshall 2718 G Street 916-264-3373 Citizenship Preparation,

School Refugee Sacramento, CA 916-264-3377 Employment Services, Vocational
Program 95816 Training, Youth Services

Sacramento Lao 5840 Franklin 916-424-0864 Citizenship Preparation,

Family Blvd. Sacramento, 916-424-1861 Employment Services, Youth
Community CA 95816 Services
www.saclaofamily.
org

Sacramento 2118 K Street 916-492-2591 Counseling, Cultural Orientation,

Refugee Sacramento, CA 916-492-2628 Micro-Enterprise, Refugee
Ministry 95816 www.map- Resettlement
srm.org

Southeast Asian 5625 24th Street 916-421-1036 Cultural Orientation, Elder

Assistance Sacramento, CA 916-421-6731 Services, Emergency Assistance,
Center 95822 Mental Health,
Translator/Interpreter Services

Vietnamese 5412 47th Avenue, 916-391-5277 Preservation of Vietnamese culture

International #25 Sacramento, and language
Poetry Society CA 95824

World Relief 4748 Engle Road, 916-978-2657 Cultural Orientation, Family

Suite 103 916-978-2658 Strengthening, Refugee
Carmichael, CA Resettlement
95608 www.wr.org
 71

Sacramento County
Multicultural Support Services

Organization Address Phone/ Services

Name Fax
Asian Pacific 7273 14th Avenue, Suite 715 916-383-9783
Community Sacramento, CA 916-383-8488
Counseling http://www.apccounseling.org/
Asian 5709 Stockton Blvd. Sacramento, CA 916-454-1892
Resources 95824 www.asianresources.net 916-454-1895
California 3512 Stockton Blvd. 916-451-7151 Family Visas,
Hispanic Sacramento, CA 95820 Social Service
Resource www.chrcsacramento.org/services Referrals and
Council Information
(Concilio de
Recursos
Hispanos de
California)
Matriculation 2401 Florin Road 916-433-5320
and Sacramento, CA 95822 916-433-5494
Orientation www.scusd.edu/multilingual/MOC.htm
Center
(Sacramento
City Unified
School
District)
South County 539 N. Lincoln Way 209-745-9174
Services Galt, CA 95632 209-745-2158
www.southcountyservices.org

Sacramento 420 I Street, Suite 5 916-442-4228

Chinese Sacramento, CA 95814 916-442-4281
Community www.sccsc.org
Service Center

Counties Outside of Sacramento

Southeast Asian Community Resources (Southeast Asian Resource Action Center, 2009)
www.searac.org/maa/index.html

Organization Address Phone/Fax

Name
Cambodian 1909 International Blvd. Suite 3 510-535-5022
Community Oakland, CA 94606
Development, http://www.cambodiancommunity.org/aboutus.as
Inc. px
Fresno Center for 4879 East Kings Canyon Road 559-255-8395 559-
New Americans Fresno, CA 93727 255-1656
 72

www.fresnocenter.com
Hmong Women’s 2251 Florin Road, Suite 104 916-394-1405 916-
Heritage Sacramento, CA 95822 392-9326
Association
Lao Iu Mien 3100 Birmingham Drive 510-223-7100 510-
American Richmond, CA 94806 223-1218
Veterans, Inc.
Lao Khmu 1044 N. Dorado Street 209-463-3410 209-
Association, Inc. Stockton, CA 95202 463-7148
Lao Lanexang 208 Camilita Way 209-576-2751
Association of Modesto, CA 95354
Modesto
Lao Iu Mien 485 105th Ave. 510-333-7229
Cultural Oakland, CA 94603
Association
Lao Senior 220 25th Street, # A 510-237-4064 510-
Association, Inc. Richmond, CA 94804 236-4572
Southeast Asian 5625 24th Street 916-421-1036 916-
Assistance Center Sacramento, CA 95822 421-6731
Southeast Asian 875 O’ Farrell Street 415-885-2743 415-
Community San Francisco, CA 94109 885-3253
Center
United 2338 E. Anaheim Street, Suite 200 562-433-2490 562-
Cambodian Long Beach, CA 433-0564
Community, Inc.
Vietnamese 2319 International Blvd. 510-436-5391 510-
Community Oakland, CA 94601 436-5289
Development,
Inc.
Vietnamese 150 Eddy Street 415-771-2600 415-
Youth San Francisco, CA 94102 771-3917
Development
Center

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Southeast Asian Resource Action Center (2009, August). Online directory of Southeast Asian

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