NAMA : MUHAMMAD IRWAN PHONOLOGY

NIM : 17111024210002

1. The difference between vowels and consonants

A vowel is a speech sound made with your mouth fairly open, the nucleus of a
spoken syllable.
A consonant is a sound made with your mouth fairly closed.
When we talk, consonants break up the stream of vowels (functioning as syllable
onsets and codas), so that we don’t sound like we’ve just been to the dentist for
four fillings and the anaesthetic hasn’t worn off yet.
Consonants require more precise articulation than vowels, which is why children
find them harder to learn, and often end up in speech therapy after having
become so cross at not being understood that they’ve started hitting people.

2. The main difference between vowels and diphthongs, without being too
technical, is that diphthongs are exclusively sounds whereas vowels, although
they are also sounds, are also specific letters of the alphabet from which those
familiar sound combinations originate.

3. ENGLISH VOWELS CLASSIFICATION.

Vowels are made without an obstruction in the vocal tract, so they are quite
sonorous. The body of the tongue moves in the mouth to shape each vowel, and
for some vowels, the lips are rounded as well. Linguists classify vowels
according to four pieces of information: tongue height, tongue backness, lip
rounding, and tenseness.

4. The relation between phonetics and phonology. ... The phonetic data are neutral
with respect to the unitary or complex status of such segments, suggesting that
the decision is more properly a phonological one. Phonetic evidence for the
phonological process of neutralization is reviewed.

5. In producing bilabial consonants, both lips are involved, as exemplified in the

[m] of /mute/; such consonants restrict the airflow to a greater or lesser extent.

Labiodental articulation takes place when the top teeth and the bottom lip come
into contact, producing sounds such as [v] as in /vase/ and [f] found in /face/.

Dental articulation is where the tongue may protrude between the teeth in order
to produce dental sounds, which in English are heard as /th/; represented by
phonemes [θ] found in /thing/ and [ð̠] as in /those/.

Alveolar articulation or sounds is where sounds are produced when the blade of
the tongue is placed against the alveolar bridge; the bony platform right behind
the teeth. In English this includes sounds like [d] for instance in /dance/, [z] as in
/zoo/ and [n] found in /new/.

Post Alveolar articulation or consonants is where sounds are produced further

backwards, halfway between the alveolar ridge and hard palate. Articulation of
these consonants involves the body of the tongue being raised towards the front
of the palate. In English, these include [ ʃ ] and [ʒ], known respectively as /sh/
and /zj/, for instance in /fish/ and /pleasure/.
NAMA : MUHAMMAD IRWAN PHONOLOGY
NIM : 17111024210002

Uvular and pharyngeal articulation is not found in English, but is present in other
languages and varieties of English.

Retroflex describes when consonants are articulated between the alveolar ridge
and hard palate with a tongue positioned in a backward or curled shape, often
with the tip raised. This curling back process involves the tip of the tongue
being placed in a position further back in the mouth; a key feature that
distinguishes these types of consonants from the alveolar ones which reflect the
same orthographic unit. Note though, that although retroflex consonants are not
found in RP English for example, they do occur in other English accents, like
Ulster Irish.

Palatal sounds are those which involve the body of the tongue rising towards the
most domed part of the palate. In English, the only palatal sound is [j] which
corresponds to the letter /y/, as shown in the word /yacht/.

Velar sounds (also known as velum) involve the back of the tongue moving
towards the soft palate that lies behind the palate itself (ref4). In English, three
velar phonemes exist, including [k] as in /kite/, [g] like in /gang/, and [ŋ]; the
latter sounds like, and is orthographically represented as /ng/, occurring at the
end of syllables, for instance in /dancing/.

Glottal sounds are produced by putting pressure on the airflow in the glottis by
closing and pivoting vocal cords. In English, two glottal sounds are present; the
glottal stop [ʔ] which replaces the /t/ phoneme in words such as /that/ found
some accents like cockney, and the voiceless glottal fricative [h], whose sound is
indicated in words like /hat/.

6. - voiced and unvoiced. Many consonant sounds come in pairs. For example, P
and B are produced in the same place in the mouth with the tongue in the same
position. The only difference is that P is an unvoiced sound (no vibration of the
vocal cords) while B is a voiced sound (vocal cords vibrate).
- the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is the point of
contact where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an articulatory
gesture, an active articulator (typically some part of the tongue), and a passive
location (typically some part of the roof of the mouth). Along with the manner
of articulation and the phonation, it gives the consonant its distinctive sound.
- the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators
(speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech
sound. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech
organs approach one another.

7. The aspects of connected speech are elements we take for granted in everyday
life, but which are actually fundamental to our understanding of the spoken
word.

Rhythm is defined as a sound that happens at regular intervals. In the context of

speech, the rhythm of speech is the pattern of beats, or the intervals at which
syllables are stressed in a sentence. This is particularly notable in poetry, where
NAMA : MUHAMMAD IRWAN PHONOLOGY
NIM : 17111024210002

the "feet" of a line (iambs) helps it contribute to the cohesion of the poem as a
whole. For example, with the stressed syllables in capital letters, we can see
how the rhythms of these two lines are identical:

HE inVENted MODern LIFE

THEN he FOUND it FULL of STRIFE

Assimilation is when a phoneme takes on certain characteristics based on the

sounds occurring on either side of it. This can happen either way around in a
word. For example, "Th" is pronounced differently in "That" to in "thin." It is
affected by the sounds following it (regressive assimilation.) In progressive
assimilation, a phoneme is affected by the sounds preceding it. For example, the
"s" sound in "those" is different to that in "this."

Liaison, or linking, is the phenomenon by which the end of one word is

naturally connected to the beginning of the next. An excellent example is the
way the phrase "law and order" is generally pronounced as one word,
"laanorder." Other examples might be "first time" (usually pronounced
"firstime") or "this song" ("thissong.") Effectively, in liaison, a consonant does
double duty between two words, although theoretically it should be repeated.

8. A fricative is a consonant sound that is created by constricting the vocal tract,

causing friction as the air passes through it. The nine English fricative sounds:
a. v sound /v/
b. f sound /f/
c. voiced th sound /ð/
d. unvoiced th sound /θ/
e. z sound /z/
f. s sound /s/
g. zh sound /ʒ/
h. sh sound /ʃ/
i. h sound /h/

9. a nasal, also called a nasal occlusive, nasal stop in contrast with a nasal
fricative, or nasal continuant, is an occlusive consonant produced with a
lowered velum, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. The vast
majority of consonants are oral consonants. Examples of nasals in English are
[n], [ŋ] and [m], in words such as nose, bring and mouth. Nasal occlusives are
nearly universal in human languages. There are also other kinds of nasal
consonants in some languages
a. Nearly all nasal consonants are nasal occlusives, in which air escapes through
the nose but not through the mouth, as it is blocked (occluded) by the lips or
tongue. The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound. Rarely,
non-occlusive consonants may be nasalized.
b. Most nasals are voiced, and in fact, the nasal sounds [n] and [m] are among
the most common sounds cross-linguistically. Voiceless nasals occur in a few
languages such as Burmese, Welsh, Icelandic and Guaraní. (Compare oral
NAMA : MUHAMMAD IRWAN PHONOLOGY
NIM : 17111024210002

stops, which block off the air completely, and fricatives, which obstruct the air
with a narrow channel. Both stops and fricatives are more commonly voiceless
than voiced, and are known as obstruents.)
c. In terms of acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which means that they do not
significantly restrict the escape of air (as it can freely escape out the nose).
However, nasals are also obstruents in their articulation because the flow of air
through the mouth is blocked. This duality, a sonorant airflow through the
nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, means that nasal occlusives
behave both like sonorants and like obstruents. For example, nasals tend to
pattern with other sonorants such as [r] and [l], but in many languages, they
may develop from or into stops.

10. - consonant cluster in a word is a group of consonants with no

vowelsbetween them. The longest possible cluster in English is three
consonant sounds at the start, such as 'splash', and four at the end, as in
'twelfths'.

Example
The tongue twister 'The sixth twisty crisp' has several consonant clusters in
it, making it difficult to pronounce.

In the classroom
Consonant clusters cause problems for learners whose first language does not
allow so many consonants together without intervening vowel sounds.
Examples of this are Spanish and Arabic.

- A syllabic consonant or vocalic consonant is a consonant which either forms

a syllable on its own, like the m, n and l in the English words rhythm, button
and bottle, or is the nucleus of a syllable, such as the r sound in the American
pronunciation of work. The diacritic for this in the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) is the under-stroke, ⟨U+0329  ̩ COMBINING VERTICAL
LINE BELOW⟩. It may be represented by an over-stroke, ⟨U+030D  ̍
COMBINING VERTICAL LINE ABOVE⟩, if the symbol that it modifies
has a descender, such as in [ŋ̍].[1]

Most languages that have syllabic consonants have syllabic sonorants such as
nasals and liquids. A very few have syllabic obstruents such as stops and
fricatives in normal words, though English has syllabic fricatives in
paralinguistic words like shh! and zzz.

- Connected speech means that when we speak a language, words have some
effect on each other. ... In fact, many words affect each other when you put
them into phrases and sentences. The end sound of one word often affects the
beginning of the next word.

11. As with any other language, English language is dynamic, it is not only about
being able to pronounce words properly: it is about making sense, and
expressing the right ideas. This can be achieved by using both the right stress
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NIM : 17111024210002

and intonation as you speak.

Many languages are syllabic languages (syllables have their own length),
when it comes to English things are different since it is a stressed language:
stress and intonation are particularly important in order to make sense while
communicating.

Pay attention to intonation if your native language has different intonation

patterns from English, and especially if you normally use a flat intonation - in
English, this tends to signify boredom or sarcasm!

Don´t get frustrated if, at first hand, you do not get the right stress on words, it
takes time to manage this. One of the best trips to learn to stress and intone is
to look for the words that other speakers intone and stress as they talk.
Listening will help you a lot as well as not paying too much attention to every
word you pronounce, just focus on the stressed words.

Intonation is the name given to sentence stress, or what is sometimes called

the "music of the language". Just as words have stressed syllables, sentences
contain regular patterns of stressed words. In addition, the voice tends to rise,
fall or remain flat in various different types of phrases and sentences.

12. In phonetics and phonology, free variation is an alternative pronunciation of a

word (or of a phoneme in a word) that doesn't affect the word's meaning.

Free variation is "free" in the sense that it doesn't result in a different word. As
William B. McGregor observes, "Absolutely free variation is rare. Usually,
there are reasons for it, perhaps the speaker's dialect, perhaps the emphasis the
speaker wants to put on the word"

13. The letter H’h is a consonant. In phonetic it is described as a voicless

pharyngeal fricative. All consonants have sounds the H’h sound is produced
by a quick expirations of air from the lungs through an open throat and mouth
and without vibrating the vocal cords, like the hu sound in the word hut in the
english languange the letter h can occur in any position, e.g. bath, enough, hah,
heh, laugh, wish,. However, in every case the h sound is not pronounced. It is
either silent, or combined with another letter to make a different sound