Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)

Guidelines
Swiss Red Cross
Rainmattstrasse 10/P.O. Box
CH-3001 Berne
Phone 031 387 71 11
www.redcross.ch

July 2014

Picture cover page:

Haiti, ©SRC, Florian Kopp

Pictures last page:

South Sudan, ©SRC, Remo Nägeli
Cambodia, ©SRC, Florian Kopp
Latrine ring production, ©SRC, Florian Kopp
Bangladesh, ©SRC, Chandan Robert Rebeiro
Content
Abbreviations 1
1. Introduction 2
2. Purpose of these guidelines 3
3. Areas of Intervention 4
3.1. Intervention in Different Phases 4
3.2. Intervention Criteria 5
4. Key Principles of SRC WASH Interventions 5
4.1. Empower communities and individuals to take self-determined action and
reinforce self-help capacity 5
4.2. Cooperate in Partnership 5
4.3. Promote gender equality 6
4.4. Ensure Sustainability 6
4.5. Recognise Integrated Water Resource Management 6
4.6. Meet Water Quality Standards 6
5. Objectives and Indicators 7
5.1. Strategic Objectives 7
5.2. WASH indicators 7
6. WASH Project Cycle Management 7
6.1. Identification and Assessment 7
6.2. Planning and Preparation 9
6.3. Implementation 10
6.3.1. Design criteria for WASH 10
6.3.2. Water Supply 11
6.3.3. Sanitation 16
6.3.4. Hygiene Promotion 19
6.3.5. Cross cutting issues 23
7. Monitoring and Evaluation 24
8. Phase Out 25

Annex 1: SRC Impact Model 26

Annex 2: Checklist for WASH Projects 27
Annex 3: Swiss Solidarity Minimum Standards Sanitation 30
Annex 4: Swiss Solidarity Minimum Standards Water 32
References to websites 35
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Abbreviations

ACF Action Contre le Faim (Action Against Hunger)

CHAST Child Hygiene and Sanitation Training
CLTS Community-Led Total Sanitation
CRS Catholic Relief Services
CSPM Conflict Sensitive Programme Management
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FOAM Focus on Opportunity, Ability and Motivation
HWTS Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage
IC International Cooperation
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
IFRCS International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
KAP Knowledge Attitude and Practice
LRRD Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development
PCM Project Cycle Management
PHAST Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation
PPPHW Public-Private Partnerships for Hand-washing with Soap
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
RMNCH Reproductive, Maternal, Neonatal Child Health
SaniFOAM Sanitation FOAM
SLTS School-Led Total Sanitation
VCA Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WSP Water Safety Plan

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1. Introduction
Clean drinking water and hygiene are essential factors of health, yet 800 million people
worldwide continue to live without access to drinking water and 2.6 billion without sanitary
facilities. These deficiencies account for 80 per cent of illnesses in developing countries.
Functioning and environmentally sound waste water management and garbage disposal
remain the exception in rural and poor urban areas.

Swiss Red Cross (SRC) recognises health to be a fundamental right and a prerequisite for
decent living conditions. The main mission of SRC International Cooperation is to foster
healthy living and improved disaster management capacities among particularly vulnerable
people and communities. Improving people’s access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene is
integral to the SRC’ overall mission to prevent and alleviate human suffering in Switzerland
and abroad, fostering healthy living and improved disaster management capacities among
particularly vulnerable people and communities (mission statement of the SRC International
Cooperation from the SRC Strategy 2020 for International Cooperation).

The SRC “Health Policy for International Cooperation 2012-2017” provides a guiding
framework for the health programs of the Department of International Cooperation (IC) over
the coming years. SRC acknowledges that access to safe water and sanitation and
improved hygiene are critical determinants of good health. Thus Water, Sanitation and
Hygiene (WASH) is one of the thematic priorities detailed in the health policy as well as in
the concept for disaster management.

SRC WASH programs aim to reduce poverty and vulnerability by improving the health status
of the population. The WASH programs are contributing to the attainment of the UN
Millennium Development Goal 7, Target 3; “halve the proportion of the population without
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation”. SRC WASH programs are based on
partnerships with the National Red Cross/Red Crescent Society and relevant agencies from
government and civil society in the country of operation. Capacity building of partners is a
key component. The fundamental importance of “software” to the success of a WASH
program is recognised; development of water and sanitation infrastructure is always
associated with hygiene promotion and capacity building.

SRC has significant experience in the implementation of WASH projects in communities as

part of health development programs and as part of rehabilitation programs. A number of
delegates and headquarter personnel have wide experience in WASH and can be contacted
in cooperation with the respective Program Coordinators. In addition, SRC has connections
– via platforms for exchange and learning on WASH – with other organisations, in
Switzerland and internationally and in particular with the Global Water and Sanitation
Initiative of the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
(IFRCS). A variety of approaches and methods are used and there are many kinds of tools
available in the broader WASH sector.

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2. Purpose of these guidelines

The purpose of this document is to provide basic knowledge about the SRC approach to
implementing WASH activities. It sets out a general context for working in the WASH sector
without seeking to diminish the flexibility necessary for implementing programs in varying
circumstances, cultural contexts and locations.

This document should be read in conjunction with the full range of SRC International
Cooperation strategy documents, including the SRC strategy 2020 for International
Cooperation, the Health Policy and the continental strategies and thematic concept papers
and fact sheets. All of these documents are available online as annexes to the SRC Field
Manual. An overview of their scope and interconnections is provided here.

Figure 1: SRC Policy framework for IC strategies and concepts

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3. Areas of Intervention
The activity of the SRC abroad concentrates on the poorest countries of the world and
particularly on areas which are the least provided for with goods and basic services.

3.1. Intervention in Different Phases

The continuum of international aid is generally divided into three stages; emergency relief,
reconstruction and rehabilitation, and development cooperation. In addition, SRC
endeavours to link the three intervention phases through its Linking Relief, Rehabilitation
and Development (LRRD) approach. WASH programs can play an important role in each of
them.

• Emergency Relief: Save lives and alleviate suffering by responding to the basic
health needs of vulnerable people affected by disasters. SRC aims at meeting the
basic needs of people in a crisis, for example in the aftermath of a disaster. The
needs for basic WASH-related services in this case can be urgent and profound,
such as addressing the available water quantity of the population or improving water
quality standards by distributing water purification tablets.
• Reconstruction and rehabilitation: Rebuild primary health care systems and
reduce vulnerability to future disasters. Empower vulnerable groups and communities
to claim their right to health and to act on the determinants of health. WASH activities
can be implemented by SRC as part of a broader reconstruction effort; providing
water and sanitation systems as part of a housing reconstruction program, for
example.
• Development Cooperation: Enable access to equitable quality health services for
vulnerable groups and communities. Empower vulnerable groups and communities to
claim their right to health, to act on the determinants of health, and to reduce their
vulnerability to future disasters. SRC strengthens local capacities to ensure
sustainability in WASH service delivery. SRC implements WASH programs in a
development cooperation context, such as the construction or rehabilitation of
community managed water systems, as part of its ongoing strategy to reduce poverty
and vulnerability by improving the health status of the supported population.

The WASH sector therefore provides a good illustration of the potential benefits of the LRRD
approach to humanitarian aid. Relief and development are interdependent and should be
considered as such when planning and implementing projects. Better development can
reduce the need for emergency relief and better rehabilitation can provide a basis for
successful development. In the WASH sector this means e.g. that the construction of flood
proofed toilets can reduce the risk of faecal contamination when the water level rises during
an emergency. Likewise the construction of toilets already during the reconstruction phase
should go hand in hand with hygiene education in order to secure a long term health impact.

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3.2. Intervention Criteria

SRC IC has a thorough quality management manual for field and headquarter staff that
includes Project Cycle Management (PCM) tools that should be consulted for further detail.
The following criteria should provide the basis for deciding upon a SRC WASH intervention:

• The proposed intervention will have a measureable impact on the health of the
targeted beneficiary population
• An adequate needs assessment has been carried out
• Potential partners have been identified and their skills and shortcomings assessed
• A risk assessment has been carried out to assess political and social constraints in
the operational area and to check for possible unintended negative consequences of
the WASH intervention (see also Conflict Sensitive Project Management and Do-no-
harm).
• Adequate financial and human resources are available
• The geographical location meets SRC’s need to restrict its activities to a limited
number of countries and, if applicable, meets the requirements of the individual
country program.
• Where applicable, the proposed intervention meets the requirements of a
coordinated multilateral approach in association with the International Federation,
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the local Red Cross / Red
Crescent society
• Appropriate local partners are willing and able (with suitable capacity building
activities, as required) to take ownership of the program

4. Key Principles of SRC WASH Interventions

4.1. Empower communities and individuals to take self-determined action and

reinforce self-help capacity
The sustainability of WASH interventions is dependent upon the degree of ownership felt by
the people in the community, which in turn depends on the level of community participation
in planning and implementation. Community groups should have meaningful involvement in
all stages of the project. The communities are to take responsibility for their WASH projects
beyond the project duration. Care should be taken to seek representative community voices
and not assume that a given individual necessarily speaks on behalf of his community.

4.2. Cooperate in Partnership

Capacity building refers to assistance that is provided to local partners to develop certain
skills or for general upgrading of performance ability. WASH programs are implemented with
local partners: the local Red Cross/Red Crescent National Society, relevant agencies of
local government, water supply authorities, community groups and other partners,
depending on the context. Capacity building for project partners should be considered at the
planning stage and should be aimed at strengthening their ability to contribute to ongoing
improvement and sustainability in the WASH sector (refer to the concept for partnership and
the field manual).

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4.3. Promote gender equality

Consideration of gender issues is essential for successful WASH interventions. ”Gender” in
WASH programs means ensuring that all people, regardless of gender, benefit from
improved water and sanitation services and hygiene practices. In most societies, women are
responsible for the majority of water-related tasks: collecting and storing water, cooking,
cleaning and maintaining sanitation in the home. Inadequate facilities for sanitation and
hygiene are especially detrimental to the dignity and social development of women and girls.
Women are most likely to be aware of and understand the WASH-related deficiencies in a
community and their active participation in the planning, design and implementation of
WASH programs is of utmost importance.

4.4. Ensure Sustainability

Sustainability of water and sanitation interventions is dependant on a) empowering
communities to continue their development in terms of health and hygiene on a longer term,
b) embedding them into existing country policies; c) engaging and staying engaged with the
Government stakeholders right from the project inception and on d) using appropriate
technology and functional operation and maintenance systems. Sustainability in healthy
behaviour related to WASH is essential to be achieved at community level. This should be
taken into consideration at the beginning of any intervention.
Technical solutions should be in conformance with national standards and local
maintenance capacities. Successful operation and maintenance depends not only on
technology but also on managerial, social, financial and institutional issues. If a committee of
users is to take responsibility for operation and maintenance of a system, adequate technical
and management training must be provided for them. Having users pay fees, however small,
in cash or in kind, to cover the costs of operation and maintenance, is almost always
necessary.

4.5. Recognise Integrated Water Resource Management

WASH interventions should include all three elements: water, sanitation and hygiene. The
concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM), in which the various uses of
finite water resources are recognised as being interdependent, should be applied during the
planning and implementation process. SRC WASH activities are mostly concerned with
water for drinking and household consumption, including the establishment of family gardens
for better nutrition. However, the use of water for other purposes (e.g. agricultural irrigation,
livestock, manufacturing, etc.) and the issue of drainage should equally be taken into
account. Recognising and applying good governance is essential for a successful IWRM.

4.6. Meet Water Quality Standards

Water quality should meet the requirements of the national standards in the relevant country.
The concept of a Water Safety Plan (WSP) should be applied in any water supply project. A
Water Safety Plan is a tool for consistently ensuring the safety and acceptability of a drinking
water supply through the use of a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management
approach that encompasses all steps in water supply from catchment to consumer.

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5. Objectives and Indicators

5.1. Strategic Objectives

According to the SRC International Cooperation’s Impact Model (see Annex 1), the specific
outcomes for WASH are identified as the following:
• Safe water and sanitation is used
• Health determining conditions are improved
• Hygiene (health) behaviour is improved
All of them are contributing to an improved health status to enable healthy and safe living for
vulnerable groups and communities.

The WASH interventions should focus on:

• Availability of water and sanitation
• Access to water and sanitation
• Appropriate use of water and sanitation
• Appropriate application of hygiene knowledge and skills

5.2. WASH indicators

SRC has defined an indicator tool box for WASH that needs to be referred to when
developing indicators for the logframe (see SRC Field Manual or available on request). The
toolbox contains recommended indicators, such as those in the UN Millennium Development
Goals. The number of indicators should be limited to the minimum amount necessary to
show whether the planned outputs and outcomes have been achieved.

For each indicator, the data source and collection method (when, by whom, etc.) must be
identified. This information is included in a column in the separate Monitoring Plan (see SRC
Field Manual) – in which each indicator is listed along with all the relevant information
related to it.

6. WASH Project Cycle Management

The use of Project Cycle Management in SRC is explained in detail in the SRC Field
Manual. A WASH project should follow the processes outlined there.

6.1. Identification and Assessment

The purpose of this step is to identify the existing situation in terms of the water and
sanitation-related needs of the population and the feasibility of a SRC WASH intervention to
address those needs. There are various tools available for use in assessments and those
most appropriate to the current context with regard to scale and duration should be
employed. A sample of the many resources available is given in table 1.

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Table 1: Assessment tools

Assessment tools Resources

VCA IFRC: How to do VCA 1
(Vulnerability and
IFRC: VCA toolbox 2
Capacity
Assessment) IFRC: VCA Guidelines 3
Catholic Relief Services (CRS) PRA Manual 4
PRA
(Participatory FAO: PRA Handbook 5
Rural Appraisal)
UNICEF Sanitation Handbook 6

KAP (Knowledge Action contre le Faim (ACF): Guidelines 7

Attitude and WHO/UNICEF: Core questions on drinking water and sanitation for
Practice) Survey household surveys 8

The time and resources to be invested in any assessment will depend on a number of
variable factors. However, essentially, the assessment of needs should yield approximate
but objective information on the following:
• National strategies with reference to water, sanitation and hygiene
• Population size
• Water sources (type and distance from households) for drinking, washing, cleaning,
etc.
• Water yield (availability and quantity of water yield during different seasons)
• Ownership of water source and land rights
• Water usage (quantity)
• Water quality (biological and chemical)
• Toilets: quality, availability and usage
• Hygiene knowledge and practices
• Presence of diarrhoea and other faecal-orally transmitted diseases
• Potential costs of water and sanitation at construction and long-term maintenance
and use (affordability)

It is very important to assess properly the issues related to land rights, ownership of water
sources and rights to water sources, before starting any WASH program. It is important to
check and assess all communities surrounded by or possibly benefitting from a particular
water source. Careful assessment with involvement of all stakeholders of the water source is
important to avoid conflicts right from the project’s start. Legal registration or documentation
of the rights to the water source may be an important first step to start off a WASH program.

Another important issue to consider is the water yield at different times of the year. One-off
assessments are not sufficient to assess the water yield throughout the year because it may
fluctuate according to season. Various seasonal assessments need to be conducted and
careful calculations of water yield done before settling for a certain type of water supply
system.

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When it comes to assessing the feasibility of a SRC WASH intervention, input should be
sought from potential partners, including:
• Donors (national and international)
• The local Red Cross / Red Crescent National Society
• Sector coordination bodies, e.g. the WASH Cluster
• Beneficiaries in the communities with particular emphasis to include women and girls
• Local government
• Local health Institutions
• Water and Sanitation Departments (and/or Rural Development Departments)

During this feasibility assessment the process of identifying the entities to which the
implemented project will be handed over should already be carried out. These will usually be
some combination of community groups, local government, service delivery authorities and
the private sector. Ideally these entities should be included in the planning phase.

The capacity of the entities to which the project is to be handed over must be taken into
account during the planning and design phases. For instance the long-term capacity and
willingness of a newly-formed village water committee to collect and manage funds in a
manner approved by the entire community should not be over-estimated. In this case, simple
water delivery systems such as boreholes with manual hand pumps may be more suitable
than a technically complex pumped/piped system.

6.2. Planning and Preparation

Joint Planning
Planning is the process of combining the findings of the assessment with the SRC WASH
objectives and available resources to work out the most suitable intervention. The output of
the planning process will include a project logical framework, as described above. It should
be developed in a joint planning process with representatives of all the project partners with
involvement of the most vulnerable and women and girls in the process. Decisions that have
to be made at this stage (if they haven’t already been made) include the following:
• In which location(s) will the interventions take place
• What type of interventions will be implemented
• What will be the objectives, outputs and activities

Baseline Information
It is important that information to describe the current (pre-intervention) situation be obtained
in order to allow comparisons to be made and progress to be assessed. Establishing a
baseline makes it possible to identify the achievements of the program and demonstrate the
extent to which the objectives have been accomplished. Measuring the objectives against a
baseline will also allow for lessons to be learned for future projects.

The indicators used in the program logical framework must be measured during the baseline
survey.

More information on the implementation of baseline surveys can be obtained from the health
advisor at SRC headquarters.

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6.3. Implementation
In this section, brief details are given on the implementation components of the WASH
program. Some of these components, e.g. selection of technical options, will be covered to
some extent during the planning and proposal writing stages but as they also constitute part
of the project implementation they are included here.

6.3.1. Design criteria for WASH

Apart from technical designs, there are several design criteria that should be taken into
consideration in any WASH project. The following examples are not exclusive.

Table 2: Technical design criteria

Design Criteria Details / Examples
• Users should be guided to recommend solutions
Input from users • Take into account local conditions and needs
• Potential for better solutions and acceptance
• Land rights and ownership is clarified and appropriate
• Avoid pollution of water source
• Security from harassment and dangerous animals
Appropriate locations for • Privacy (for toilet and washing facilities)
toilets and water points • All-weather access
• Accessible and safe for young children to use
• Minimise risk of vandalism
• Away from disaster prone area (DRR mainstreaming)
• Facilities close to houses
Encourage Hygienic
• Availability of water and soap for hand washing
Behaviour
• Sufficient water (or appropriate material) for cleansing
• Location of facilities: culturally appropriate and safe
Roles and needs of • Adequate facilities for menstrual hygiene
women • Adequate facilities for pregnant women (with handle
bars)
Appropriate dimensions • Height of taps, doorknobs, steps, hand washing facilities
for children • Size of squatting holes (avoid risk of falling in)
Needs of people with • Guiding systems for blind and poor-sighted people
disabilities or chronic • Elevated toilets, ramps, wide doors, handles etc. for
diseases people with disabilities
• Appropriate to the ability and willingness to pay
• O&M plans, including operational business plans,
Operation and developed and agreed before facilities are constructed
Maintenance (O&M) • Training and initial maintenance equipment provided as
required
• Involvement of male and female community members
• Consider possibility of soil and groundwater
contamination
Minimise harm to the
• Discharge of wastewater
environment
• Environmental sustainability in construction and
operation
Integrated Water • Consider all sources of water
Resource Management • Consider all uses of water

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Design Criteria Details / Examples

• Gender and WASH
• Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and WASH
Cross cutting themes • Conflict Sensitive Programme Management (CSPM) and
WASH
• Nutrition and WASH

A checklist for assessing the feasibility of a WASH project (adapted from the WHO
“Checklist for Rapid Assessments”) is included in the Annex 2.

Other helpful checklists for minimum standards in water and sanitation are developed by
Swiss Solidarity (see Annex 3 and Annex 4). If a WASH project is submitted to Swiss
Solidarity for funding, the application of these minimum standard checklists is compulsory!

6.3.2. Water Supply

Everybody needs water for drinking, food preparation, personal hygiene, cleaning and
laundry. Other requirements for water, depending on the context, include flushing toilets,
irrigation of gardens and drinking water for livestock. Every household uses an existing
source of water. The reasons for implementing the water supply program should be clearly
expressed before embarking on it. They should be reflected in the objectives of the
programme logical framework. Reasons for better water supply could be:
• The quality of the water from the existing source may be inadequate/unsafe
• The existing source of water may not function properly and needs to be
improved/repaired
• The existing source may provide an inadequate quantity of water
• The existing source may be inconvenient, e.g. it is too far away from the home.

The SPHERE standards9 (link to personal download) outline the basic principles of water
supplies from page 79 to 139.

Water Supply Technology

The type of water supply technology to be selected will depend on the hydro-geological
conditions, the existing situation, the resources available to the program and the willingness
of the community to contribute. Water sources can be divided into three categories:
groundwater, surface water and rainwater.

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Table 3: Water sources and relevant technology

Water Technology
Details / Examples
Source Collection Distribution
Outlet pipe from catchment
Spring
Tap-stand at catchment No pumping required
catchment
Piped distribution system
Susceptible to
Rope and bucket
contamination
Ground Shallow (hand-
Hand-pump
water dug) wells
Power pump (Possibility for
Ongoing operation costs
piped distribution system)
Boreholes: hand- Hand-pump
drilled or Power pump (Possibility for
machine-drilled Ongoing operation costs
piped distribution system)
No distribution system Requires water treatment
Direct collection
Surface Requires water
from rivers,
water Pumped storage/piped system treatment. Ongoing
lakes, etc.
operation costs
Direct collection from tank Feasibility dependant on
Rain Roof gutter and
amount and frequency of
water storage tank Pumped piped system rain; construction of roofs

Some links to resources for detailed technical designs are as follows:

• Sustainable technologies – water supply: WaterAid 10
• Rainwater Harvesting: Global Water Community 11
• Water supply options for arsenic affected areas 12
• Protection of spring sources: WaterAid 13

Water Quality and its testing

Water quality concerns three aspects:
• Microbiological: The most important aspect of water quality is freedom from
microbiological contamination, especially by pathogens of human and animal faeces
(Escherichia coli). Surface water sources are more likely to be contaminated than
ground water sources but with all systems there is a possibility of contamination of
the water before it is used. Contamination can occur at three key points: at the
source, during collection and transportation and during storage.
• Chemical: Chemical contamination of water can also be a health concern. Chemical
contamination can be natural (e.g. arsenic, fluoride), or can result from human
activity (e.g. pesticides, detergent, nitrate).
• Physical: Undesirable physical quality (e.g. colour, taste, temperature, odour) may
not make water unsafe but it may be unacceptable to users and result in them using
alternative water sources that may in fact be less safe. Further physical criteria are
turbidity, conductivity, pH and hardness.

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Table 4: Water testing procedures

Type of testing Test procedure Test kits Reliability and results
Microbiological Laboratory Most reliable. Sending
testing samples from the field to a
central Government
laboratory in universities or
public health institutions.
Field incubation Oxfam/DElAgua kit 14 False negative results can
Wagtech Potaflex be obtained easily, which
kit 15 bias the overall result.
Field rapid test H2S strip test 16 Simple and low cost.
Measures only presence
and absence of hydrogen
sulphide producing
organisms existing in
faeces. Does not conform
to the conventional
standards of
bacteriological testing of
water samples
Chemical Field testing Wagtech CP 1000 17 Most important is arsenic
testing and nitrate testing,
as this negatively affects
health.
Physical Conductivity meter 18
Turbidity meter 19
pH test strips

Test kits which do both biological and chemical testing are also available (see Wagtech
website). Before procuring water quality test kits, ensure that their costs are justified in the
WASH project and that field staff and communities are able to handle the test kit.
It is necessary to test water quality to identify contamination in existing water sources and to
check potential new sources during the initial assessment. In existing systems, testing
samples of water taken from the source and comparing the results with tests of samples
taken from the point of use (e.g. a household water container) can help to identify causes of
contamination during collection, transportation and storage of water.
In locations that are known to be arsenic endemic, the presence of arsenic must be tested
for before developing any proposed source. Relatively inexpensive and easy to use field test
kits are available for reliable and accurate arsenic testing.
Water quality tests need to be carried out in a regular interval. Ideally, the water quality
testing is performed by the local water authorities as part of their regular duty. However, in
settings where these authorities are not existing or not functional, the project has to
determine the time frame and the testing agent as part of the project plan. Furthermore a
sustainable community based testing model has to be developed in order to sustain water
quality testing beyond the project duration.

• Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: WHO 20

• Guidelines for Water Quality Assessment and Monitoring: UNICEF 21

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Water Treatment
For piped water distribution systems, water treatment is best implemented by the local
authority responsible for the system. Such treatment systems will typically involve filtration
and chlorination of the water. The system must be designed so that its level of complexity
and its running costs are within the capacity of the community to maintain.

When water is collected by the users directly from the source, e.g. wells, boreholes, it may
be necessary to implement some form of household water treatment.

Table 5: Water treatment

Advantages (A)/
Type of treatment Device used disadvantages (D) in a Remarks
nutshell
Boiling Boiling with A: fast Bringing water 3
firewood, D: environmental minutes to a boiling
kerosene, gas etc. damage; costs roll is sufficient for
safe water quality!
Solar cookers A: low cost;
D: acceptability; takes
longer time to get to
boiling roll
Filtering Sand filter A: biological filtering
D: requires space; slow
flow
Ceramic filters A: availability Regular
D: difficult for water with maintenance and
high turbidity cleaning are
essential for good
results.
Solar disinfection PET bottles A: low costs
(SODIS22) D: long term
acceptability; change of
PET bottles; sunshine
hours
Chemical Chlorine tablets A: low costs
disinfection D: availability and
(chlorine) sustainable supply; long
term affordability
Chlorine production A: Production in
(WATA 23) community; investment
costs high
D: Short shelf life;
requires electricity
Piped water A: Centrally done by Requires good and
chlorination Government or regular monitoring
community operator in of the water
water kiosk parameters.

Every system of water treatment has advantages and disadvantages and a range of
suitability to different situations. Advantages and disadvantages of different water treatment
options can be found here:

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IFRCS Household water treatment and safe storage manual (9 languages 24)
EAWAG presentation on water treatment options (available in SRC on request)
OXFAM 25

If water treatment is to be included in a WASH project, a comparative analysis of different

options should be conducted and documented and the reasons for selecting any form of
treatment should be made clear. Piloting different water treatment options in the community
is important to check for acceptance, suitability and user-friendliness. In the end the users
need to select the best possible treatment option.

Waste water and waste water disposal

Already during the planning of the water supply systems, the disposal of the waste water
must be taken into account considering that waste water can be a valuable resource.

Table 6: Use of waste water

Type of waste water Use of the waste water Details/remarks

Fresh water (e.g from water • Water for animals When used for animals, the
tank overflow or water taps • Irrigation drinking trough needs to be
overflow) • Kitchen gardening; fruit away from the water source
trees (homes or and fenced off the water
schools/Blue schools) reservoir or tap stand in
order to avoid
contamination.
Grey water (e.g. from • Kitchen gardening Needs to be carefully
handwashing; washing (homes or schools/blue assessed in each context.
dishes; shower and schools)
bathroom) • Flush water (toilet Detergents can be
flushing) only if toilet is detrimental to plants and
connected to a communal hamper the de-composting
drainage system of the faeces in the septic
tank!
Storm water (e.g. from • Water for animals Water from first and second
rainwater, rainwater • Irrigation flush can be used.
harvesting) • Kitchen gardening; fruit
trees (homes or schools/
Blue schools)
• Flush water
• Household water/drinking Water from second flush
water only!
Black water • Can not be used

Most importantly, waste water needs to be drained properly and should not stagnate, in
order not to become breeding places for vectors.

For the larger scale communal water and sanitation system, constructed wetlands may be
considered for the biological waste water treatment.

Waste Water Management: Water Aid 26

EAWAG compendium of sanitation systems and technologies 27

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Water system operation and maintenance

Since most of the SRC constructed water systems are small communal or individual water
systems, operation and maintenance is in most cases the responsibility of the community or
the individual household. In order to enhance responsible management and longevity of the
water systems, the following aspects are important:

• training of local water user committee, water caretakers or individual household

members in operation and maintenance of the water system
• developing the technical capacity and skills of the water system caretakers
• providing necessary equipment and spare parts to the water system caretaker to
ensure minimum time-lag between damage and repair.
• deciding and training the water user committee and community in the implementation
of a system on how to raise and collect funds to finance the operation and
maintenance. Options need to be discussed in a participatory manner and decisions
taken by the respective water system owners.

If water systems are handed over to the Government, the operation and maintenance of the
water system should be in the hands of the local Government, who will then be responsible
and pay for regular service and repair.

6.3.3. Sanitation
In a WASH program the term “sanitation” usually refers to human excreta disposal.
However, it should also take into account environmental sanitation issues such as solid
waste disposal, disposal of animal excreta, wastewater control and vector control. The
benefits of good sanitation can include convenience, dignity, status, but the most important
benefit from the point of view of a WASH program is health. The fundamental purpose of
sanitation is to block the faecal-oral route of disease transmission.

The emergency sanitation project, a consortium of the IFRCS, Waste and Oxfam UK, are
experimenting different sanitation options, sludge management, hygiene practises
particularly geared for emergency settings. However, their findings and innovations are
applicable in other settings too.

Emergency sanitation project 28 (IFRCS, WASTE and Oxfam)

Latrine designs and technology

There are various types of latrines with varying degrees of suitability for different
circumstances. The broad categories are shown in this table. Technical designs are
available from several resources. When constructing a sanitary latrine, an important criteria
is to opt for dry or water-sealed.

Table 7: Latrine designs and technology

Category Application Type of Latrine Details
Basic pit latrine. Should include a vent
Insufficient
pipe with insect screen. The sludge is not
water Direct single pit
Dry safe when the pit is emptied.
available for a
flush toilet Two pits, used alternately. Pits should be
Direct double pit
big enough to take at least a year to fill.

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Category Application Type of Latrine Details

Sludge is safe to use as fertiliser.
Separation of urine and faeces. Only
Ecological toilet
(ECOSAN) successful if socially acceptable.

Hygienic water Flexibility in location of pit. Toilet can be

seal Offset single pit inside the house.
incorporated.
Two pits, used alternately. Pits should be
Will only work
Water Offset double pit big enough to take at least a year to fill.
flush if water is Sludge is safe to use as fertiliser.
available for Septic tank with Effective but expensive. Secondary
flushing all secondary treatment can be leach field, wetland,
year round. treatment etc.

The major criterion regarding the choice of technology is the availability of water for flushing.
For flush latrines to function, water must be available (at least 2.5 litres per flush) all year
round. Some links to resources for detailed technical designs are provided here:
• Information on Improved Latrine Options: WSP-EAP 29
• Toilet Options – Pour Flush Toilets: The World Bank 30
• Low-cost Toilet Options: WEDC/WaterAid 31
• Pour-flush latrines factsheet: WHO 32
• Sanitation technology: WaterAid 33
• Technical Guidelines for School Latrines: UNICEF 34
• EAWAG compendium of sanitation systems and technologies 35
• Contemporary Toilet designs (WECD, EOOS) 36

Household latrines
For new latrines to be sustainable the users must feel ownership of them. The degree of
ownership felt by the users is generally dependant on the level of their input to the design
and construction process. Beneficiary participation is essential, and should be obtained via a
hygiene promotion and social mobilisation program. Having a latrine is not always seen as a
high priority. Households that could afford latrines often allocate their resources to things
that are considered more important. Creating demand can be an essential part of a
sanitation program.

There is an ongoing debate about the degree to which household sanitation should be
subsidised by aid agencies and by government. The possibilities range from 100% of
funding being provided, through various levels of beneficiary cost/labour sharing, to having
all the costs borne by the beneficiary households with only “software” input from the WASH
program. No one approach is suitable for all applications. Approaches require adaptation to
the local context and the most appropriate one must be selected for each set of
circumstances.

Farming households, which keep a substantial amount of animals in their vicinity may look at
the option to establish a biogas system. It is worth looking at the different country policies
and subsidies offered for biogas constructions.

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It is important that even before the toilet construction, households allocate a space for hand
washing with soap close to the toilet. During construction a hand washing basin and place
for the soap may be already installed alongside one toilet wall.

Public latrines and latrines in public facilities

In emergency settings and in urban areas, the construction of public latrines is an option to
meet sanitation needs for a larger size of population, or where the population density is high
and space limited. Other than household latrines, mostly public latrines and latrines in public
facilities such as schools and medical centers, are constructed by a company elicited
through a tender. During the planning, partners and stakeholders need to be clearly
identified and assigned their specific role. Furthermore access to water supply and
electricity, proper drainage and land rights need to be assured. In urban areas, urban
development plans need to be taken into account and responsibility for operation and
maintenance (particularly sludge management and regular cleaning) settled with a written
and signed Memorandum of Understanding. Public latrines can be either run by a contractor
or be community-managed through a sanitation committee charging user fees.

For latrines in public facilities, such as schools and in medical centers, maintenance and
cleaning requires to be regulated with the local health staff and school management
committees and/or the respective local authorities. The design of these latrines needs to
take user needs into account, e.g. including child friendly and disability friendly access and
use, catering for the disposal of sanitary pads in female toilets (particularly important in
schools) and meeting the needs of pregnant women. It is important not to forget the hand
washing facilities in the immediate vicinity of the toilet.

WASH in schools and school latrines (link to various resources on IFRCS WASH Mission
Assistant) 37

Sludge management
When designing and offering different toilet options to the individual households and public
stakeholders, the management of sludge needs to be discussed. This depends on the toilet
design (e.g. single-pit versus double pit; ECOSAN versus pour-flush latrines). In rural areas,
it is difficult however to practice sludge management in the community, as mostly the first
pits will require emptying long after the project has been completed. However, capacity
building and allocation of responsibility on how to do the sludge management and where and
when to dispose the sludge are helpful.
In urban areas, the sludge management should be discussed during the planning stage with
all the stakeholders. Local Governments and municipalities are responsible for waste
management. They also operate trucks for faecal collection. Depending on the environment,
the construction of different types of wetlands can be alternative for centralised biological
treatment of the black water.

The social and cultural habits in regards to sludge management are very important and need
to be assessed carefully in the local context in order to know what type of management is
appropriate and who will do it.

EAWAG: Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies 38 with guidelines on sludge

management from page 75 onwards.
IFRCS: WASH Mission Assistant for sludge management 39

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Latrine operation and maintenance

Similar to the water supply, operation and maintenance of latrines also requires capacity
building of individual household members and the “operators” of the public toilets.

It is important to emphasise the need of cleanliness, while hinting on the detrimental effects
of the use of detergents. Possibilities for securing necessary financial resources for the
operation and maintenance of public toilets, as well as the regular cleaning and incineration
of sanitary pads needs to be discussed and determined with the owners of the public toilets.

Sanitation marketing and supply chains

Creating demand for toilets is the main pillar of a successful sanitation initiative. In order to
meet this demand, the supply side in terms of material as well as construction skills needs to
be built up in the following manner:
• developing technical skills among already existing or new masons or small scale
providers in the community.
• supporting the set-up of their sanitation supply business to sustainably be able to
meet the demand of the local population. These businesses can be in permanent
locations or deliver material through so-called “mobile SaniMart shops” bringing
materials directly to the households to enhance access mostly in the rural areas.
• training these sanitation providers in management and business skills, such as cost
calculations, developing offers and material stock management profit.
The take-up of toilet construction as well as operation and maintenance increases, if
supplies are already available in the vicinity.

Tapping the market: Sanitation marketing for the poor: World Bank 40
SaniMarts 41

6.3.4. Hygiene Promotion

The purpose of Hygiene Promotion is to prevent the spread of water and sanitation-related
diseases by the adoption of safe hygiene practices. Hygiene promotion should have a
measurable impact on the target population. In general, a small number of hygiene-related
behaviours – the ones with the biggest overall health impact – should be identified and
targeted. Several studies have indicated that the element of WASH projects that contribute
most to a reduction of diarrhoea is not improvement in water quality or water quantity but is
actually improvement in hand washing practices 42. The act of washing hands with soap and
water at key times can have a profound impact on the rate of diarrhoeal disease in a
community where it wasn’t previously practiced. Thus all SRC WASH projects need to
ensure a strong promotion on behaviour change in favour of hand washing.

The “F-Diagram”, in its various formats, shows the faecal-oral transmission routes of
diseases and control barriers and gives a good overall view of the importance of hygiene
and sanitation.

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Figure 2: The F-Diagram: Routes of faecal disease transmission and protective barriers (Source: World Bank)

Clean water supply

Sanitation

Hygiene

There are several hygiene promotion tools that have been developed by various agencies
and used successfully in relief and development contexts. One important lesson that has
been learned is that for hygiene promotion to be successful, it must be a participatory
process. The beneficiary groups must be empowered to recognise any deficiencies in the
existing situation and to decide on what steps need to be taken to improve it.

The table below lists the most widely used software tools, divided into categories to show
their role in comparison to each other. This information is adapted from the “Water Supply
and Sanitation Collaborative Council’s” publication called “Hygiene and Sanitation Software;
an Overview of Approaches 43” which provides detailed comparable information on each of
these software tools.

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Table 8: Hygiene promotion tools

Category Full Name Resource

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) IRC Library 44
Self-esteem, Associative strengths,
Resourcefulness, Action-planning World Bank 45
Participatory
and Responsibility
Planning Tools
Methodology for Participatory
World Bank 46
Assessments
Community Action Planning
Participatory Hygiene and
PHAST Handbook (WHO) 47
Sanitation Transformation (PHAST)
Child Hygiene and Sanitation
IRC Library 48
Training (CHAST)
Inducing Community Health Clubs Africa AHEAD 49
Behaviour WASH in Schools IRC WASH Library 50
Change: Hygiene Child to Child Approach Child to Child 51
Promotion Saniya UNICEF 52
Public-Private Partnerships for
PPPHW website 53
Hand-washing with Soap (PPPHW)
Household Water Treatment and
WHO website 54
Safe Storage (HWTS)
Community-Led Total Sanitation
Creating Demand CLTS Approach 55
(CLTS)
and Supply
School-Led Total Sanitation (SLTS) WASH in schools 56
Chains:
Support to Small Scale
Sanitation WSP Report 57
Promotion Independent Providers
SaniMarts WaterAid website 58
Strategic Sanitation Approach /
IWA Water Wiki59
Strategic Sanitation Planning
Sanitation 21 Sanitation 21 60
Household Centred Environmental
Programming HCES 61
Sanitation
Frameworks
Hygiene Improvement Framework HIF 62
Focus on Opportunity, Ability and
Motivation (FOAM) and SaniFOAM WSP SaniFOAM paper 63
(Sanitation FOAM)

When deciding which tool to use, the local context is the most important thing to consider.
The target community’s current positions on the “sanitation and hygiene ladder” should be
central to the decision making process.

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Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Guidelines

Figure 3: The sanitation and hygiene ladder

Hygienic toilet with Maintenance of a fully

Sanitation Hygiene
treatment and disposal hygienic environment

Private, hygienic toilet Effective practice of all

key behaviours

Fixed-place defecation; Practice of a few key

private or shared behaviours

Open defecation No key hygiene

behaviours

The enabling environment, i.e. the prevailing conditions under which the program will
operate, is also critical in deciding which approach is most appropriate.

Hygiene and health: systematic review 64

Hand washing
Hand washing with soap is the most effective way to avoid diarrhoeal diseases and has the
highest impact to an improved health status. The promotion of hand washing should
encompass the following:
• practising the seven steps of hand-washing 65
• knowing and practising hand washing at the most crucial times (before meals, after
toilet, before feeding baby and after dealing with animals)
• producing soap from local material
• marketing of soap through hygiene promoters (social marketing of hygiene articles)

Hand washing is considered a central element of school hygiene, where students bring
home new habits and teach their family members as peers. Making the difference of clean
and dirty hands visible to others has a lasting impact (e.g. check colour of water before and
after hand wash; make bacteria visible).

The selection of hand washing places, including material to wash hands (e.g. jerry can,
water container with tap, water can, tippy tap) with soap stand needs to be integral part of
each WASH project. Because of its antibacterial effect, soap is the preferred element to be
used, followed by ashes.

Construction and use of Tippy Taps 66

Production of soap 67
Soap-making: Practical Action 68

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Menstrual hygiene
Menstrual hygiene should be an integral part of the hygiene promotion for females in the
community as well as in schools. Caring for menstrual hygiene needs is important to avoid
recurring chlamydia infections, pelvic inflammatory diseases and missing school days. The
use and safe disposal of sanitary pads is part of the hygiene promotion. In areas, where
disposable sanitary pads are not available or not affordable, safe alternatives need to be
propagated. Where possible, male members of the community should be involved to explain
the importance of good hygiene during menstruation, particularly since men are often the
budget holders in the family. Promotion to dry menstruation cloth in the open air and sun is
also an important element of menstrual hygiene which requires sensitisation of male and
female household members.

Menstrual hygiene: what’s the fuss? 69: IFRCS

Menstruational hygiene matters 70: Water Aid

Environmental hygiene
Keeping animals at distance from the household and particularly the kitchen of a family, as
well as disposing rubbish in safe place are other important hygiene messages in order to
avoid contamination. Applying the 4R’s (reducing, reusing, recycling, replacing) can reduce
rubbish significantly. Depending on the local context, the recyclables can be sold and turned
again into money.

Next to solid waste disposal, it is important to eliminate breeding places for mosquitoes,
which contract dengue, chikungunya or malaria. Drying the breeding places of these vectors
are other important measures of environmental hygiene, which help to significantly reduce
the cases of infectious diseases.

6.3.5. Cross cutting issues

When working in the WASH sector, there are different cross-cutting issues to consider.

Table 9: Cross-cutting themes

Cross-cutting issue Important considerations Guidelines

Disaster Risk • site selection with low disaster risks To be published
Reduction (DRR) and • choosing a design and construction
WASH which minimizes the impact of disaster
risks (such as constructing elevated
toilets in areas with regular flooding)
Gender and WASH • always involving women and girls in Checklist to check
planning, decision making and for gender equity in
implementation of WASH projects WASH programs:
• site selection in areas which are safe UNICEF 71
for women and safe from (sexual)
harassment Gender based
violence and
WASH Toolkit:
IBORO 72

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Cross-cutting issue Important considerations Guidelines

Social inclusion and • ensuring equal access to water points
HIV/AIDS and WASH and latrines for all strata of the
population, such as socially
marginalized, HIV positive people,
disabled persons etc.
Nutrition and WASH • creating awareness about the positive Under-nutrition and
impact of safe drinking water, WASH: Water
sanitation and in particular hand- Aid 73
washing on nutritional status of the
children.
• using waste water for kitchen gardens,
fruit tree plantations etc.
Reproductive, maternal • menstruational hygiene WASH and
and Newborn Child • access to water for clean delivery RMNCH 74
Health (RMNCH) and • improving infant excreta disposal
WASH • access to safe drinking water
decreases diarrhoea risk

7. Monitoring and Evaluation

The WASH projects require a regular monitoring based on the monitoring plan, which is
developed in line with the project logical framework and the selected indicators. Good
monitoring procedures are participative and include the beneficiaries and communities of the
project intervention into gathering the information and analysing the effects. Women, girls
and the most vulnerable and marginalized persons must be part of the monitoring and
evaluation process.

An evaluation should be done for every WASH project/program. There are various different
approaches to evaluations depending on the size and type of project or program. The
evaluation can be internal or it can be carried out by external evaluators. Its size and scope
should be proportional to the scale of the WASH program. An evaluation of a WASH
program should identify what impact the program has had, i.e. what has changed as a result
of implementing the program compared to what the situation would be if it hadn’t been
implemented. It should have the scope to identify unintended changes as well as planned
ones. It is important to use the same indicators in the evaluation than in the baseline survey
in order to make comparisons.

For the reliability of data and result verification, a quantitative and qualitative survey
approach for data triangulation is recommended. The findings of the impact evaluation
should inform decisions regarding expansion or modification of WASH programs, and
importantly, should generate information that will help the process of designing future
programs. Every WASH project or program should include an allowance in terms of cost,
resources and time, for a meaningful impact evaluation.

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8. Phase Out
The objective of phasing out from a WASH project is the complete independence of the
implemented systems from project funding. Most WASH project interventions – e.g. a water
supply system – will require an ongoing source of funding for operation and maintenance. It
is important to recognise this during the technical design phase. For example, a system of
measuring water usage might help to facilitate the process of fair and transparent cost
recovery.

The WASH project will be handed over to the entity (e.g. local authorities, community etc.)
as already identified in the assessment and planning phase taking into account the capacity
the entity has proven within the project implementation cycle.

Where possible, the phasing-out strategy should involve handing over the management of
the new systems to existing entities with proven ability. These should ideally be the local
water board or appropriate office of local government, or, where that isn’t possible, existing
community development committees. Other institutions such as schools or mosques will
usually have existing systems for collecting and managing funds too.

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Annex 1: SRC Impact Model

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Annex 2: Checklist for WASH Projects

1. Water

General:
1. Describe the current situation with regard to water supply.
2. What is the population being targeted? How are they distributed? Are they displaced?
3. What is the input from local authorities?
4. What is the input from other agencies?

Quantity:
1. How much water is available per person per day?
2. Is there equitable access to it?
3. How much water is available at the sources? Is it enough for long term needs?
4. Is the current water supply reliable? What may affect this (e.g. seasonality)?
5. Does a provision for drinking water for livestock need to be considered?

Quality:
1. What are the water sources?
2. Is the water source contaminated or at risk of contamination? By what?
3. Is treatment required? Is treatment possible? What type of treatment is necessary?
4. Is water likely to be contaminated during transportation and/or storage? If so, why?

Accessibility:
1. How far are water collection points from where people live?
2. Are there any problems of accessibility for vulnerable groups, e.g. elderly, disabled,
women?
3. Are there possible alternative sources? What? Where are they?
4. Are there any legal or other obstacles to using the existing or new sources? What are
they?

Storage:
1. What do people use to transport water? Do people have enough suitable water
containers?
2. Is there a possibility of contamination during transport and storage due the containers
currently in use?

Technical options:
1. Why is the existing water supply situation inadequate?
2. What do the local people believe is the best technical solution? Why?
3. Is there a piped network that can be expanded?
4. Is rain water harvesting feasible, in terms of rainfall abundance and cultural acceptance?
5. Are there any springs that can be used?
6. What other options are available?

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2. Sanitation

Excreta disposal

General Description:
1. What is the population being targeted? How are they distributed? Are they displaced?
2. Describe the current situation with regard to excreta disposal
3. What facilities already exist?
4. What is the local preferred method of anal cleansing?

Facilities:
1. Are there any existing facilities for excreta disposal? Are they functional and in use?
Can they be extended?
2. Is there equitable access to the existing facilities?
3. Are there facilities for hand-washing?
4. Are there any problems of accessibility for vulnerable groups, e.g. elderly, disabled,
women?
5. Are the current defecation practices a threat to health? If so, how?
6. Is there sufficient space for new facilities?

Practices:
1. What are the current beliefs and traditions concerning excreta disposal especially
regarding women’s habits and attitude towards child excreta?
2. What material/water is used for anal cleansing? Is it available?
3. Are both men and women prepared to use communal latrines or family latrines?
4. Are there any people familiar with the construction of latrines?
5. How do women deal with menstruation? Are there materials or facilities they need for
this?

Technical Aspects:
7. How does the land slope and what are the drainage patterns?
8. What is the depth and permeability of the soil, and can it be dug easily by hand?
9. What is the level of the groundwater table?
10. What local materials are available for constructing toilets?
11. When does the seasonal rainfall occur? Will it affect the construction or functionality of
new latrines?

Solid waste disposal:

1. Is solid waste a problem?
2. How do people dispose of their waste?
3. What type and quantity of solid waste is produced?
4. Can solid waste be disposed of on site, or does it need to be collected and disposed of
off site?
5. Are there medical facilities and activities producing waste? How is this being disposed
of? Who is responsible?

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Wastewater disposal

Drainage:
1. Does flooding occur? What impact does it have?
2. Do people have the means to protect their shelters and latrines from local flooding?
3. Are there any stagnant pools of standing water?
4. What are the existing methods of disposing of water from: water points, domestic waste
water from washing utensils, bathrooms, laundry etc, and livestock?
5. Is there enough slope or drainage facilities for disposal of storm water?

3. Hygiene and Public Health

1. What behaviors might be contributing to risks to public health?

2. What are the current practices on the key hygiene behaviors like:
• Washing hands after defecation.
• Method of disposal of children’s feces.
• Practices for storage and handling of water.
• Practices of storage and handling of food.
3. How do people dispose their solid waste?
4. Is there an understanding of the relationship between water/sanitation and disease?
5. Do the people have access to:
• Lidded water containers
• Cooking utensils
• Bathing facilities
• Soap
• Menstrual sanitary protection
• Mosquito nets
6. Are the users involved in the management and maintenance of water sources and
latrines?
7. What hygiene promotion media are available / accessible to the affected population?

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Annex 3: Swiss Solidarity Minimum Standards Sanitation

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Annex 4: Swiss Solidarity Minimum Standards Water

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References to websites
1
http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/vca/how-to-do-vca-en.pdf
2
http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/vca/vca-toolbox-en.pdf
3
http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/vca/Vca_en.pdf
4
http://www.crsprogramquality.org/storage/pubs/me/RRAPRA.pdf
5
http://www.fao.org/sd/dim_kn1/docs/y5793e00.pdf
6
http://www.unicef.org/wash/files/San_e.pdf
7
http://www.parkdatabase.org/files/documents/0000_Guidelines-for-Questionnaire-
making_ACF.pdf
8
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9789241563260_eng.pdf
9
http://www.sphereproject.org/resources/download-
publications/?search=1&keywords=&language=English&category=22
10
http://www.wateraid.org/uk/what_we_do/sustainable_technologies/default.asp
11

http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/RainwaterHarvesting_0#HLiteraturean
dlinks
12
http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/arsenic/conferences/Feroze_Ahmed/Sec_3.htm
13
http://www.wateraid.org/.../Protection-of-spring-sources.p
14
http://www.delagua.org/
15
http://www.wagtech.co.uk/products/water-and-environmental/water-test-
kits/potatest%C2%AE-emergency-rapid-response-kit-physico-chemical-microbiological
16
http://www.pacificwater.org/_resources/article/.../H2S.pdf
17
http://www.wagtech.co.uk/products/water-and-environmental/water-test-
kits/potatest%C2%AE-emergency-rapid-response-kit-physico-chemical-microbiological
18
http://hannainst.com/usa/subcat.cfm?id=003
19
http://www.hach.com/turbidityguide
20
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3rev/en/index.html
21
http://www.unicef.org/.../Water_Quality_Assessment_Mo...
22
http://www.sodis.ch/index
23
http://www.antenna.ch/en/research/safe-water/wata-devices
24
https://fednet.ifrc.org/en/resources/health-and-care/water-and-sanitation/global/water-
and-sanitation-tools-and-publications-ifrc/
25
http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/household-water-treatment-and-storage-
126715
26
https://www.google.com/#q=Waste+water+management+water+Aid
27
http://www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/compendium_e/index?clear_lang=1
28
http://www.emergencysanitationproject.org/
29
http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/improved_latrine_options.pdf
30
http://water.worldbank.org/shw-resource-guide/infrastructure/menu-technical-
options/water-flush-and-pour-flush-toilets

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31
http://www.wateraid.org/documents/low_cost_toilet_options_1.pdf
32
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/emergencies/fs3_6.pdf
33

http://www.wateraid.org/international/what_we_do/sustainable_technologies/technology_
notes/2064.asp
34
http://www.bsf-south-sudan.org/sites/default/files/SS+Tech+Guide--School+Latrines.pdf
35
http://www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/compendium_e/index?clear_lang=1
36
https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/details.html?id=21302
37
http://watsanmissionassistant.wikispaces.com/WASH+in+Schools
38
http://www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/compendium_e/index?clear_lang=1
39
http://watsanmissionassistant.wikispaces.com/Medical+%26+solid+waste+management
40
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/16538
41

http://www.google.ch/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CCcQFjAB&u
rl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sanitationmarketing.com%2F_literature_162878%2FEasy_acce
ss_to_sanitation_materials_in_rural_Nepal%2C_NEWAH%2C_2004&ei=WkS9U4XLLqm
b0wXNq4DADQ&usg=AFQjCNEtXwhBue2WfQIYwcXf_ASGEUiwdg&bvm=bv.70138588,
d.d2k
42
http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/hygiene-and-health-systematic-
review-handwashing-practices-worldwide-and-update-
health?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Community-
Led%20Total%20Sanitation%20newsletter
43

http://www.wsscc.org/sites/default/files/publications/wsscc_hygiene_and_sanitation_softw
are_2010.pdf
44
http://www.irc.nl/page/6167
45

http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTISPMA/0,,co
ntentMDK:20193714~menuPK:415131~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:38432
9,00.html
46

http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/328200785925_sustainplanninga
ndmonitoring.pdf
47
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/phastep/en/
48
http://www.irc.nl/page/13170
49
http://africaahead.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/
50
http://www.irc.nl/page/114
51
http://www.child-to-child.org/about/pdfs/C2C-Brochure.pdf
52
http://www.unicef.org/wash/files/hman.pdf
53
http://www.globalhandwashing.org/
54
http://www.who.int/household_water/network/tools/en/index.html

36
 Swiss Red Cross
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Guidelines

55
http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/page/clts-approach
56
http://www.washinschools.info/
57
http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/af_providers.pdf
58
http://www.wateraid.org/international/what_we_do/where_we_work/nepal/2601.asp
59
http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/Strategic+Sanitation+Approach
60
http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/Sanitation+21
61
http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/Household-
Centred+Environmental+Sanitation
62

http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/Hygiene+Improvement+Framework+%
28HIF%29
63
http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/GSP_sanifoam.pdf
64
http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/hygiene-and-health-systematic-
review-handwashing-practices-worldwide-and-update-
health?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Community-
Led%20Total%20Sanitation%20newsletter
65

http://www.google.ch/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&ved=0CDAQFjAH&
url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fgpsc%2F5may%2FHand_Hygiene_Why_How_an
d_When_Brochure.pdf&ei=NBHSU57YHYOp0QW9h4DYBA&usg=AFQjCNHyshVRLk0m
4Wv5JT1N5ezl3sHZIA
66
http://www.tippytap.org/
67
http://cresastre.hubpages.com/hub/-MAKING-A-LOCAL-SOAP
68
http://practicalaction.org/soap-making
69
http://watsanmissionassistant.wikispaces.com/Menstrual+Hygiene+Management
70
http://www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-publications/view-
publication?id=02309d73-8e41-4d04-b2ef-6641f6616a4f&sc_lang=en
71
http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_key_points.html
72
http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/toolkit/
73
http://www.wateraid.org/uk/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-
publications?filter376D6D2078C6436C8DF03DF817E109F5=957644D955344102B71EC
54DD86394FC#filterContent
74
http://www.who.int/pmnch/knowledge/publications/summaries/ks30/en/

All websites accessed between May and August 2014

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