Where does the natural energy of a

reservoir come from?

• Liberation and expansion of solution gas
• Influx of aquifer water
• Contraction of reservoir rock skeleton
• Expansion of original reservoir fluids
- Free gas, if present
- Interstitial water
- Oil, if present
• Gravitational forces
Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
• Solution gas drive
• Gas-cap drive
• Water drive
• Gravity-drainage drive
• Combination drive

Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

• Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)
• Water drive

Ultimate oil and gas recoveries vary depending on the drive

mechanism. For oil; water drive is most effective. Typical primary
recoveries are in the 25-40% range (maximum 75%).

For gas; gravity drainage, water drive and depletion drive can provide
> 80% recovery.
 Solution gas Drive
The principle of solution gas drive or depletion drive
is the expansion of dissolved gas and liquid oil in
response to a pressure drop. The change in fluid
volume results in production.
Above the bubble point, only liquid oil expansion
occurs. Below the bubble point, both liquid oil
expansion and gas expansion contribute to volume
change.

The Upper Cretaceous Cardium sand reservoir is

an example of a solution gas drive reservoir.
 Solution gas drive mechanism

Pi Oil producing wells

A
Pb Oil

B CP

C
A. Original Conditions
LIQUID

P
X

80% a t ed n
60%
40% 20% GAS
i b er t i o
Oil producing wells L o lu s
s ga
T

B-C. Partially depleted

 Oil recovery in solution gas drive
reservoirs
Reservoir pressure, psig Initial reservoir
pressure

Bubblepoint
pressure

0 5 10 15
Oil recovery, % of OOIP

Dissolved gas reservoirs typically recover between 5 and 25% OIIP and
60 to 80% GIIP.
SOLUTION GAS GOR (R)
pressure
DRIVE HISTORY

OIL PRODUCTON

Rsi watercut

Pb time
• Rapid and continuous pressure drop, rate of decline falls at bubble point pressure.
• R (producing gas oil ratio) low until p = pb, then increases to maximum and
declines.
• Absent or minimal water influx (watercut).
• Gravity drainage is a special case in steeply dipping reservoirs where gas drives
out more oil.
• Well production declines rapidly; early pumping often required.
 Gas Cap Drive Mechanism
The principle of gas cap drive is the
expansion of free gas in response to
a pressure drop. The change in fluid
Oil producing well
volume results in production.
Gas cap expansion maintains the Oil Oil
zone Gas cap zone
pressure in the oil leg.

Gas cap drive reservoirs typically

recover 20 to 40% OIIP, sometimes Cross Section
as high as 60%.
The Lower Mississippian Turner
Valley carbonate was a gas cap
drive reservoir.
 pressure
GAS CAP DRIVE
HISTORY
OIL PRODUCTON

GOR (R)

Rsi watercut

time

• pressure drops continuously, but slowly.

• R (producing gas oil ratio) increases continuously.
• water influx (watercut) absent or minimal
• gas cap cannot be allowed to shrink or oil encroachment will occur
resulting in reduced recovery.
• oil leg wells can eventually produce gas.
• Wells have long flowing life (depending on the size of the gas cap).
 Natural Water Drive Mechanism
The principle of natural water drive is that an aquifer provides the
energy for hydrocarbon production. Both water expansion, as a result
of pressure reduction, and inflow are involved.
Natural water drive is associated with high recovery rates; oil from
35-75% OIIP; gas from 60-80% GIIP.

It is not uncommon for flow from

the surface to supply the energy
for natural water drive.
When a pressure drop occurs,
both the oil and water liquid
phases expand resulting in
production. Additionally, water
inflow radially and vertically
displaces the oil towards the
producers.
 Hydrocarbon
Water

Cross-section view

Plane view
The Upper Devonian Leduc pools are driven by inflow from the Cooking
Lake Aquifer.
 Different Water Drive Mechansims
Both bottom water drive, where the water leg underlies the entire
reservoir, and edge water drive, where only part of the areal extent is
contacted by water, are recognized.

Edge Water Drive Bottom Water Drive

Oil producing well Oil producing well

Oil Zone Oil Zone

Water Water Water

Cross Section Cross Section

 pressure
NATURAL WATER
DRIVE HISTORY watercut
OIL PRODUCTON

GOR (R)
Rsi

time

• Pressure remains high; small drop.

• R (producing gas oil ratio) remains low.
• Water influx starts early and increases to appreciable levels.
• Residual oil may be trapped behind the advancing water.
• Wells flow freely until water production (watercut) becomes excessive.
COMPACTION DRIVE

In compaction drive, the energy for oil production is provided by the

collapse of the porous medium skeleton and expansion of the pore fluids
when the reservoir pressure drops. The increase in the "grain pressure"
or effective stress causes pore “collapse” and “compaction”
(consolidation) of the reservoir.
This drive mechanism is common in highly compressible, unconsolidated
reservoirs such as those found in California, Venezuela, and the heavy
oil deposits of western Canada. Also in high-porosity chalks (e.g., North
Sea).

The Lower Cretaceous Mannville (Clearwater) sands in the Cold Lake

district provide an example of compaction drive.
 Gravity-drainage Drive
Mechanism
Within reservoirs with high dip angles and having high perms (// dip),
gas tends to migrate updip while oil migrates downdip towards the
well. This mechanism traps gas energy in the reservoir naturally. This
mechanism contains a high recovery efficiency similar to water drive

Gas

Gas
Oil
Ga
Oil Point C
s

Point B
Oil
Point A
Formation of a Secondary Gas Cap during gas
solution liberation
COMBINATION DRIVE

In combination-drive reservoirs, at least two of the basic drive

mechanisms are active in expelling oil:
5. Solution gas exsolution
6. Gas cap expansion
7. Natural water influx
8. Pore “collapse”

The example shows a combination

of natural water influx and gas cap
drive.
In many of the western Canadian
heavy oil deposits, solution gas
drive and compaction drive act in
combination, for example the
Lower Cretaceous Mannville
(Waseca) sand in the Lloydminster
district.
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA (1)

Pressure trends in reservoirs under various drive mechanisms are distinctive.

100

80 WATER DRIVE

P 60
%
40
GAS CAP DRIVE
20 SOLUTION
GAS DRIVE
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
% OIIP Produced
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA (2)

Producing GOR is also strongly diagnostic of drive mechanism.

100
GAS CAP DRIVE
80

GOR 60
%
40
SOLUTION
GAS DRIVE
20
WATER DRIVE
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
%OIIP Produced
 Recovery Factors for Oil Reservoirs

Average Oil Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive

Recovery factor is defined as the fraction (or percentage) of the volume

of hydrocarbon produced (recovered) from the amount of volume initially
in place.
Recovery Factors for Gas Reservoirs

Average Gas Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir 70 - 90 80
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50
 Estimating Oil Recovery
Factors
• Solution-gas drive - API study
 φ (1 − S )  0.1611  k  0.0979  pb 
0.1741

ER = 41.8  wi
   ( S wi )   
0.3722

 Bob   µ ob   pa  

• Water drive - API study

 φ (1 − S )  0.0422  kµ  0.0770  p 
−0.2159

E R = 54.9  wi
  w
 ( S wi ) − 0.1903
 
i

 Boi   µ oi   pa  

• Water drive - Guthrie-Greenberger study

ER = 0.272 log10 k + 0.256 S wi − 0.136 log10 µ o − 1.538 φ − 0.0003 h + 0.114

These correlations work best for sandstone reservoirs.

Nomenclature
ER = Oil recovery efficiency (recovery factor), [% (for API
study); fraction (for G-G study)]
φ = Reservoir porosity, fraction
Swi = Interstitial water saturation, fraction
Bob = Formation volume factor of oil at bubblepoint, RB/STB
k = Reservoir permeability, [darcy (for API study);
md (For G-G study)]
µob = Oil viscosity at bubblepoint pressure, cp
pb = Bubblepoint pressure of oil, psig
pa = Abandonment reservoir pressure, psig
 Suitable Characteristics for
Oil Recovery
• Solution-gas drive oil reservoirs • Water drive oil reservoirs
− Low oil density ●
Large aquifer
− Low oil viscosity ●
Low oil viscosity
− High oil bubblepoint pressure ●
High relative oil permeability
●
Little reservoir heterogeneity
and stratification
• Gas-cap drive oil reservoirs • Gravity drainage oil reservoirs
− Favorable oil properties
− Relatively large ratio of gas ●
High reservoir dip angle
cap to oil zone ●
Favorable permeability
− High reservoir dip angle distribution
− Thick oil column ●
Large fluid density difference
●
Large segregation area
●
Low withdrawal
Suitable Characteristics for
Gas Recovery
• Volumetric gas reservoir
(gas expansion drive)
– Low abandonment pressure

• Water-drive gas reservoir

●
Small aquifer
●
Small degree of reservoir
heterogeneity and
stratification