Updated:

2015-2016

®
AP Microeconomics
Full Review
VERSION 2.0
AUTHOR: GABE REN

Primary Works Consulted:

1. Notes from Mrs. Joelle Keats’, Mr. Nathan Tengowski, and Mr. Jason
Mohr’s AP Economics Classes
2. Cracking the AP Economics Exams (2015)
3. ACDCecon: http://www.acdcecon.com/#!ap-econ/c18qp
4. Crash Course Economics: https://www.youtube.com/user/crashcourse

AP and Advanced Placement are registered trademarks of the College

Board, which does not sponsor or endorse this product.
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Table of Contents
Please Read/Background Info................................................................................................................... 5

About the Exams....................................................................................................................................... 5

Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 6

Tips ........................................................................................................................................................... 6

Key for Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. 7

Micro Unit 1: Basic Economic Concepts ................................................................................................. 8

Scarcity ................................................................................................................................................. 8

Factors of Production (Inputs): LLCE .................................................................................................. 8

EXAMPLE: Factors of Production – Donut Shop ............................................................................... 8

Opportunity Costs ................................................................................................................................. 9

GRAPH: Production Possibilities Curve/Frontier (PPC/PPF) with Specialization .............................. 9

GRAPH: Production Possibilities Curve/Frontier (PPC/PPF) without Specialization....................... 10

GRAPH: Capital Goods vs. Consumption Goods on a PPC/PPF ...................................................... 11

Specialization and Comparative Advantage ....................................................................................... 12

EXAMPLE: Absolute and Comparative Advantages......................................................................... 12

Three Important Questions for any Economy .................................................................................... 13

Systems of Government ...................................................................................................................... 14

Micro Unit 2: The Nature and Functions of Product Markets: Supply and Demand ............................. 15

GRAPH: Demand Curve .................................................................................................................... 15

EXAMPLE: Summation of Individual Demand Curves .................................................................... 16

GRAPH: Marginal Utility (MU) vs. Total Utility .............................................................................. 17

GRAPH: Supply Curve....................................................................................................................... 18

EXAMPLE: Summation of Individual Supply Curves ...................................................................... 19

GRAPH: Supply and Demand ............................................................................................................ 19

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 1 of 56

 EXAMPLE: Supply or Demand Shifting ........................................................................................... 20

EXAMPLE: Supply and Demand Shifting ......................................................................................... 21

GRAPH: Consumer and Producer Surplus ......................................................................................... 21

GRAPH: Price Ceilings ...................................................................................................................... 22

GRAPH: Price Floors ......................................................................................................................... 22

EXAMPLE: Tax on Buyers (Demand)............................................................................................... 23

EXAMPLE: Tax on Suppliers (Supply) ............................................................................................. 24

Micro Unit 3: Production, Costs, and Elasticity ..................................................................................... 25

Elasticity ............................................................................................................................................. 25

Price Elasticity of Demand ................................................................................................................. 25

GRAPH: Price Elasticity of Demand ................................................................................................. 26

EXAMPLE: Total Revenue Test ........................................................................................................ 27

Price Elasticity of Supply ................................................................................................................... 27

Income Elasticity of Demand ............................................................................................................. 28

Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand ....................................................................................................... 28

GRAPH: Marginal Product and Total Product ................................................................................... 29

GRAPH: Marginal Cost and Total Cost ............................................................................................. 30

Short Run vs. Long Run ..................................................................................................................... 31

GRAPH: Economies of Scale ............................................................................................................. 32

Micro Unit 4: Perfect Competition ......................................................................................................... 33

Key Terms .......................................................................................................................................... 33

EXAMPLE: Decreasing Cost Industry (less common) ...................................................................... 34

GRAPH: Perfect Competition ............................................................................................................ 35

GRAPH: Total Cost and Total Revenue ............................................................................................. 36

GRAPH: Perfect Competition – Profit Maximizing Firm .................................................................. 37

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GRAPH: Shut Down Decision ........................................................................................................... 38

Micro Unit 5: Monopolies ...................................................................................................................... 39

GRAPH: Monopoly ............................................................................................................................ 39

Price Discrimination ........................................................................................................................... 40

GRAPH: Monopoly – Perfect Price Discrimination .......................................................................... 40

GRAPH: Monopoly – Perfect Price Discrimination w/Differing Demand Elasticities ..................... 41

EXAMPLE: Government Policy towards Imperfect Competition ..................................................... 41

GRAPH: Natural Monopoly ............................................................................................................... 42

Micro Unit 6: Monopolistic Competition and Oligopolies..................................................................... 43

GRAPH: Monopolistic Competition .................................................................................................. 43

Oligopoly ............................................................................................................................................ 44

Game Theory ...................................................................................................................................... 44

EXAMPLE: Payoff Matrix – Dominant Strategy Equilibrium .......................................................... 45

EXAMPLE: Payoff Matrix – Non-Dominant Strategy Equilibrium .................................................. 46

Bilateral Monopoly (less common) .................................................................................................... 46

SUMMARY: Market Structures ............................................................................................................. 47

Micro Unit 7: Factor Markets ................................................................................................................. 48

EXAMPLE: Factor Markets – Ice Cream Machines .......................................................................... 48

GRAPH: Marginal Revenue Product of Labor ................................................................................... 48

GRAPH: Perfectly Competition – Labor Market ............................................................................... 49

GRAPH: Monopsony.......................................................................................................................... 50

Unions (less common) ........................................................................................................................ 51

Micro Unit 8: Market Failures and the Role of Government ................................................................. 52

Market Failures ................................................................................................................................... 52

Externalities ........................................................................................................................................ 52

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 3 of 56

EXAMPLE: Negative Externality ...................................................................................................... 53

EXAMPLE: Positive Externality........................................................................................................ 53

Public Goods ....................................................................................................................................... 54

Antitrust Legislation (less common) .................................................................................................. 54

Measures of Market Power (less common) ........................................................................................ 55

GRAPH: Lorenz Curve....................................................................................................................... 55

Poverty and Taxes............................................................................................................................... 56

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Please Read/Background Info

I. This resource is not meant to teach you economics; rather it is meant to serve as a concise guide for
you to review economic knowledge you have already learned (translation: you still need to pay
attention in class)
II. Very few parts of this study guide are bolded so pay special attention to bolded sections
III. (less common) indicates material that can, but rarely, appears on the AP test
IV. GRAPH: or DIAGRAM: indicates the section has an accompanying graph or diagram
V. SUMMARY: provides a short summary of a section’s material
VI. This is the full version of the study guide. Other resources including the condensed version can be
found here: http://bit.ly/1UqPiBi

About the Exams

Around 18% and 15% of people get 5s on the AP Micro and AP Macro tests, respectively 1
Shoot for an 80% to 85% on both the MC and FR sections for a 5

I. 60 multiple choice
a. 70 minutes
b. 66% of total score
II. 3 free response
a. 60 minutes
i. 10 minute reading/planning period
1. May begin the test during this time
ii. 50 minute solving period
b. 33% of total score
i. Long FR counts for ½ of this percentage
1. Spend around 25 minutes
ii. Two short FR count for ¼ of this percentage
1. Spend around 25 minutes

1
Data from the 2015 AP Microeconomics and AP Macroeconomics Tests

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 5 of 56

 Resources
I. AP Central
a. Contains course description with practice MC questions and past FR questions
b. Micro Homepage:
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/courses/teachers_corner/2121.html
c. Micro FR:
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/exam/exam_information/2084.html
d. Macro Homepage:
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/courses/teachers_corner/2120.html
e. Macro FR:
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/exam/exam_information/2083.html
II. ACDCecon (Mr. Clifford)
a. http://www.acdcecon.com/#!ap-econ/c18qp
b. Micro cumulative video review: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRlREpsr348
c. Macro cumulative video review: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e18RXFFoL9c
III. Crash Course Economics
a. https://www.youtube.com/user/crashcourse

Tips

These are applicable to both exams, unless stated otherwise.

I. Multiple choice section

a. Types of questions
i. Economic policy
ii. Graphs
iii. True vs. false statements
b. Use the process of elimination
c. Stick with your gut feeling
d. Two pass system
i. Skip the questions you aren’t comfortable with
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1. Come back to them later if you have time

ii. Use the letter of the day strategy
1. Guess using the same answer choice
e. No penalty for guessing
II. Free response section
a. Determine which economic tools the question is asking about
b. Always draw graphs even if they aren’t explicitly asked for
i. Label every line and axis
ii. Graphs will help you avoid making silly mistakes
c. Don’t skip steps in your explanation
i. Bad answer: expansionary monetary policy shifts AD out
ii. Good answer: expansionary monetary policy shifts the money supply curve to the
right, thus lowering interest rates which attracts more investment and shifts AD out
d. Don’t say unnecessary stuff though
i. AP graders will take off points for incorrect extraneous information
e. As a blanket statement, always think in terms of marginal cost = marginal benefit

Key for Abbreviations

I. MC = multiple choice
II. FR = free response
III. PL = price level
IV. F.O.P. = factors of production
V. Rightward shift = outward shift
VI. Leftward shift = inward shift
VII. SR = short run
VIII. LR = long run
IX. e = subscript e = equilibrium
X. 𝚫𝚫 = delta = change in
XI. Fed = federal reserve = central bank
XII. Ceteris paribus = all other things being held equal

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 7 of 56

 Micro Unit 1: Basic Economic Concepts

Economics is the study of how to allocate scarce resources among competing ends.

Microeconomics analyzes the market behavior of individual consumers and firms in an attempt to
understand the decision-making process of firms and households.

Scarcity
I. Occurs b/c our unlimited desire for goods and services exceeds our limited ability to produce them
due to constraints on time and resources

Factors of Production (Inputs): LLCE

I. Land (natural resources)
a. Any productive resource existing in nature
b. E.g. water, wind, mineral deposits
II. Labor
a. Physical and mental effort of people
III. Capital
a. Manufactured goods that can be used in the production process
b. E.g. tools, equipment, buildings, machinery
c. Human capital (less common)
i. Knowledge and skills acquired through training and experience
IV. Entrepreneurship
a. Ability to identify opportunities and organize production
b. Willingness to accept risk in the pursuit of rewards

EXAMPLE: Factors of Production – Donut Shop

I. Land
a. Land and rain provide wheat for the dough
II. Labor
a. People making and selling the donuts
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III. Capital
a. Building, ovens
IV. Entrepreneurship
a. Shop-owner took risks to open a business

Opportunity Costs
I. Value of the best alternative sacrificed as compared to what actually takes place
II. Implicit costs
a. Forgone benefits of any single transaction
b. E.g. time and effort an owner puts into maintaining a company, rather than expanding it
III. Explicit costs
a. Expenses that are paid with cash or equivalent
b. E.g. wages to workers, electricity bill

GRAPH: Production Possibilities Curve/Frontier (PPC/PPF) with Specialization

I. Illustrates the choices an economy faces when deciding to produce one good over another
II. Point A
a. Outside the frontier
b. Currently unobtainable

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 9 of 56

III. Point B
a. Inside the frontier
b. Obtainable but inefficient
IV. Point C
a. On the frontier
b. Efficiency occurs at all points on the frontier
i. Economy is using all of its resources productively
V. Effects of specialization on the PPC/PPF (less common)
a. Assume our economy is only producing chairs
b. The initial opportunity cost of producing one birdcage is small, only 0.25 chairs
c. However, as we begin to produce more birdcages, the opportunity cost rises
d. This is b/c the resources that are used to produce birdcages are less and less specialized for
birdcage production and more and more specialized for chair production

GRAPH: Production Possibilities Curve/Frontier (PPC/PPF) without Specialization

I. Effect of no specialization on the PPC/PPF (less common)

a. Economy must allocate its resources between two goods that involves no specialization of
resources; skills, tools etc. to produce the two goods may be identical
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GRAPH: Capital Goods vs. Consumption Goods on a PPC/PPF

I. Capital goods
a. Think investment
b. E.g. machines
II. Consumption goods
a. Think consumer spending
b. E.g. food, clothing
III. Point A
a. Relatively large investment in capital
b. Will lead to PPF2A
i. More growth
IV. Point B
a. Relatively large investment in consumption
b. Will lead to PPF2B
i. Less growth

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 11 of 56

 Specialization and Comparative Advantage
I. Specialization results from people having different skills and leads to increased productivity
II. Division of labor
a. Permits people to develop expertise in the task(s) they concentrate on
III. Absolute advantage
a. Production of a good requires fewer resources per unit than another country
b. Just b/c a country has an absolute advantage, it doesn’t mean that the country
necessarily benefits the most from producing that good
IV. Comparative advantage
a. Production of a good has a lower opportunity cost (of another good) than another country
b. Countries will benefit from specialization if one country has a comparative advantage
in one good, and the other country has a comparative advantage in the other good
V. Trade ends up benefiting both countries

EXAMPLE: Absolute and Comparative Advantages

I. Consider Brazil and Mexico in the production of coffee and broccoli

II. Brazil has an absolute advantage in both producing coffee and broccoli
III. Let’s calculate the comparative advantages for each country
a. 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
b. 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
c. 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.5 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
d. 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
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IV. Mexico has a comparative advantage in the production of coffee

V. Brazil has a comparative advantage in the production of broccoli
VI. Thus, both of these countries can benefit from trade

Three Important Questions for any Economy

I. What goods and services will be produced?
a. Seeking allocative efficiency
i. P = MC
b. Output reflects the needs and wants of consumers
II. How much of each input will be used in the production of each good?
a. Seeking productive efficiency
i. P = minimum ATC
b. Marginal products of labor and capital (less common)
i. Firm only uses labor and capital to produce goods
ii. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 ) = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 (𝑤𝑤)
iii. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑃𝑃𝐾𝐾 ) = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (𝑟𝑟)
iv. 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑀𝑃𝑃𝐾𝐾 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿
v. We want =
𝑟𝑟 𝑤𝑤

1. If one side is too “heavy,” a firm will invest more into the other side and
decreases investment into the current side to achieve productive efficiency
III. Who will receive the final products?
a. Seeking distributive efficiency (less common)
𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝑈𝑈
i. Marginal rate of substitution (MRS) = = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

ii. Formal condition for distributive efficiency is when every consumer’s MRS is equal
b. Those who place the highest relative value on goods receive them
c. Marginal utilities
i. 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑀𝑀𝑈𝑈𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
ii. We want =
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

1. This is where utility is maximized

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 13 of 56

 Systems of Government
I. Communism
a. Minimize imbalance in wealth via the collective ownership of property
b. Lacks incentives for extra effort, risk taking, and innovation
c. Wages determined by the gov.
d. Particularly vulnerable to corruption as the gov. plays the central role in allocating
resources; only one political party
II. Socialism
a. Minimize imbalance in wealth
b. Lacks incentives for extra effort, risk taking, and innovation
c. Wages determined by negotiations between trade unions and managers
d. Multiple political parties
III. Capitalism
a. Pursuit of individual profit
b. Private individuals control the factors of production
c. Wages determined by negotiations between trade unions and managers
d. Market forces of supply and demand determine the allocation of resources
e. Gov. can regulate business and provide tax-supported social benefits
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Micro Unit 2: The Nature and Functions of Product Markets: Supply and Demand

GRAPH: Demand Curve

I. Displays the relationship between price and the quantity demanded (𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 ) of a good
II. Law of diminishing marginal utility
a. Consuming additional units of a good will lead to decreasing satisfaction from that good
III. Law of demand
a. As the price of a good rises, the quantity of that good demanded falls and vice versa
IV. Individual demand curve
a. Reflects an individual’s marginal utility received from each addition unit of the good
V. Market demand curve
a. Horizontal summation of the individual demand curves in the market
AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 15 of 56
VI. Changes in the price of a good only affect the 𝑸𝑸𝑫𝑫 for that good, not the curve itself
VII. Demand shifters to the right (opposite will shift D in)
a. Positive change in tastes or preferences
i. E.g. due to a successful marketing campaign
b. Increase in the price of substitute goods
i. E.g. if the price of peanut butter increases, demand for Nutella will increase
c. Decrease in the price of complements
i. E.g. if the price of jelly decreases, demand for peanut butter will increase
d. Increase in income for normal goods
i. Goods that consumers buys more of when income increases
ii. E.g. higher incomes might lead to increased demand for iPhones
e. Decrease in income for inferior goods
i. Goods that consumers buy more of when income decreases
ii. E.g. lower incomes might lead to increased demand for Spam
f. Increase in the number of buyers in the market
i. More individual demand curves are added to produce the market demand curve
g. Expectations of higher future income
i. Will spend more now
h. Expectations of higher future prices
i. Expectations of future shortages
j. Lower taxes or higher subsidies

EXAMPLE: Summation of Individual Demand Curves

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GRAPH: Marginal Utility (MU) vs. Total Utility

I. Marginal utility
a. Additional utility gained from consuming one more unit of a good
b. MU at a particular quantity is the slope of the total utility curve at that quantity
II. Total utility
a. Found by adding the MU values gained from each of the units consumed
III. When MU is positive, total utility is increasing
IV. When MU is zero, total utility is maximized
V. When MU is negative, total utility is decreasing

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 17 of 56

 GRAPH: Supply Curve

I. Displays the relationship between price and quantity supplied (𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 ) of a good
II. Law of supply
a. As price increases, the quantity of a good supplied will increase and vice versa
III. Marginal cost
a. Additional cost of producing another unit
b. Increases as 𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 increases so higher prices are needed to incentivize more production
i. Opportunity cost continually increases
ii. Each additional unit of input produces less output
iii. Firms run into redundancy and congestion
IV. Market supply curve
a. Total quantities of a good that supplies are willing and able to provide at various prices
b. Horizontal summation of individual firm’s supply curves
V. Supply shifters to the right (opposite will shift S in)
a. Decrease in input costs
i. E.g. if wages associated with the production of a good fall
b. Improvement in technology
c. Expectations of lower prices in the future
d. Increase in the number of sellers
i. More individual supply curves are added to produce the market supply curve
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e. Decrease in the price of “substitutes in production” (less common)

i. E.g. if a firm produces both milk and cheese, and the price of milk falls, then more
cheese will be supplied b/c the supplies can make more money off of the cheese
f. Increase in the price of “joint products” (less common)
i. E.g. if a firm produces both leather and beef, and the price of leather increases, then
more cows will be killed and the supply of beef also increases
g. Lower taxes or higher subsidies

EXAMPLE: Summation of Individual Supply Curves

GRAPH: Supply and Demand

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 19 of 56

 I. Market equilibrium
a. Point of intersection between the supply and demand curves
b. At the market equilibrium price (𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 ), quantity demanded = quantity supplied
II. Surplus
a. Occurs when price is greater than 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒
III. Shortage
a. Occurs when price is lower than 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒

EXAMPLE: Supply or Demand Shifting

I. Important to distinguish between movement on the supply/demand curves and actual shifts of the
supply/demand curves
a. Movement along a stationary curve represents a change in 𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 or 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷
II. When the supply curve shifts from 𝑆𝑆1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑆𝑆2 , market equilibrium moves from 𝐸𝐸1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐸𝐸2
III. Thus 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 moves from 𝑃𝑃1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃2 and quantity demanded changes from 𝑄𝑄1 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄2
a. This is not a shift of the demand curve but rather a shift on the demand curve
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EXAMPLE: Supply and Demand Shifting

I. Make sure you are shifting the correct curve(s) when working with these problems
II. Indeterminate
a. When both supply and demand shift, and you don’t know the size of the shifts, either the
resulting 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒 will be indeterminate

GRAPH: Consumer and Producer Surplus

I. Consumer surplus
a. Value received from the purchase in excess of what is paid for it
II. Producer surplus
a. Difference between the price a seller receives and the minimum price for which a seller
would be willing to supply that good

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 21 of 56

 GRAPH: Price Ceilings

I. Non-effective price ceiling

a. Price ceiling is above 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒
II. Effective price ceiling
a. Price ceiling is below 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒
b. Provide lower costs for consumers
c. Leads to a shortage in the market as 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 > 𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆
d. Can also result in illegal black market activity
i. Sell goods for a higher price than the price ceiling

GRAPH: Price Floors

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I. Non-effective price floor

a. Price floor is below 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒
II. Effective price floor
a. Price ceiling is above 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒
i. E.g. minimum wage
b. Leads to a surplus in the market as 𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 > 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷

EXAMPLE: Tax on Buyers (Demand)

I. Graph represents a tax on the use of hotel rooms, which is imposed on guests
II. Tax = vertical distance between the two demand curves
a. Burden of the tax does not depend on who has to pay for it
b. Burden of the tax depends on the relative elasticities of the supply and demand curves
i. More elastic curve is burdened by a larger portion of the tax
ii. Perfectly inelastic supply curve would place the entire burden of the tax on supplies
iii. Perfectly inelastic demand curve would place the entire burden of the tax on buyers
III. Deadweight loss (DWL)
a. Represents the loss to former consumer and producer surplus in excess of the total revenue
of the tax: transactions that would have taken place in the market if there was no tax
AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 23 of 56
IV. Without the tax
a. Demand = 𝐷𝐷1
b. Supply = 𝑆𝑆1
c. 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 75
d. Consumer surplus = ACG
e. Producer surplus = GCE
V. With the tax
a. Demand = 𝐷𝐷𝑇𝑇
b. Supply = 𝑆𝑆1
c. 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = $71 + $10 = $81
i. Price consumers have to pay has increased by $6, from $75 to $81
ii. Price supplies receive has decreased by $4, from $75 to $71
d. Consumer surplus = ABH
e. Producer surplus = FDE
f. Tax revenue = tax amount × quantity = $10 × 94 = $940
g. DWL = BCD

EXAMPLE: Tax on Suppliers (Supply)

I. Graph represents a tax on the use of hotel rooms, which is imposed on the hotels
II. Same result as a $10 tax on hotel guests
III. See “EXAMPLE: Tax on Buyers (Demand)” for more info on taxes
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Micro Unit 3: Production, Costs, and Elasticity

Elasticity
I. Measure of how responsive something is to various changes

Price Elasticity of Demand

I. Indicates how responsive the 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 of a good is to changes in P
II. Higher price elasticity of demand (opposite will yield lower price elasticity of demand)
a. High number of close substitutes
b. Higher proportion of income spent on the good
i. Consumers are more sensitive to price changes at higher price levels
c. Longer time
i. More time consumers have to adapt, the more they are able to learn about the good
and find cheaper alternatives
d. Luxury good
i. The less essential a good is, the more likely consumers are willing to forego the
good when it becomes more expensive
∆𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷
%∆𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
III. Price elasticity of demand = = ∆𝑃𝑃
%∆𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

a. Always negative b/c the price and quantity demanded are inversely related
b. Elastic
i. |𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒| > 1
c. Unit elastic
i. |𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒| = 1
d. Inelastic
i. |𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒| < 1
e. Perfectly elastic
i. |𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒| = ∞
ii. Any increase in price will result in a quantity demand of zero
iii. Demand curve is a horizontal line
f. Perfectly inelastic

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 25 of 56

 i. |𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒| = 0
ii. Price has no influence on quantity demanded
iii. Demand curve is a vertical line
g. Relates to the slope of the demand curve but does not equal the slope of the demand curve
i. Steeper slope = less elastic

GRAPH: Price Elasticity of Demand

I. Elasticity determines what happens when price changes

a. Firms will always produce in the elastic portion of the demand curve
b. Total revenue test
i. Total revenue (TR) = price × quantity
ii. Elastic portion of demand curve
1. TR increases when price increases and vice versa
iii. Unit elastic portion of demand curve
1. TR stays constant with price changes
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iv. Inelastic portion of demand curve

1. TR decrease when price increases and vice versa
II. As we move left to right along a demand curve, the elasticity will go from negative infinity to zero 2

EXAMPLE: Total Revenue Test

Price Elasticity of Supply

I. Indicates how responsive the 𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 of a good is to changes in P
∆𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆
%∆𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
II. Price elasticity of demand = = ∆𝑃𝑃
%∆𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

a. Always positive b/c the price and quantity supplied are directly related
b. Elastic
i. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 > 1
c. Unit elastic
i. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1
d. Inelastic
i. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 1
e. Perfectly elastic
i. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ∞
ii. Any decrease in price will result in a quantity supplied of zero

2
For this particular graph, the given elasticity values are in absolute value.

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 27 of 56

 iii. Supply curve is a horizontal line
f. Perfectly inelastic
i. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0
ii. Price has no influence on quantity supplied
iii. Supply curve is a vertical line
g. Relates to the slope of the supply curve but does not equal the slope of the demand curve
i. Steeper slope = less elastic

Income Elasticity of Demand

I. Indicates how responsive the 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 of a good is to changes in income
∆𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷
%∆𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
II. Income elasticity of demand= = ∆𝐼𝐼
%∆𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

a. Normal good
i. Individual purchases more of when income increases
ii. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 > 1
b. Inferior good
i. Individual purchases more of when income decreases
ii. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 1

Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand

I. Indicates how responsive the 𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 of a good is to changes in P of another good
∆𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐴𝐴
%∆𝑄𝑄𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐴𝐴
II. Cross-price elasticity of demand = = ∆𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐵𝐵
%∆𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐵𝐵
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐵𝐵

a. Substitutes
i. Individual purchases less of when the price of another good increases
ii. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 > 1
b. Complements
i. Individual purchases more of when price of another good decreases
ii. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 1
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GRAPH: Marginal Product and Total Product

∆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
I. Marginal product (𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) = ∆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

a. Additional output produced per when one more unit of an input is added, ceteris paribus
b. Sometimes called the marginal physical product
i. Reminder that dollars aren’t involved: just a measure of physical output
c. Increases with the first few workers as they are able to take advantage of specialization
II. Law of diminishing marginal returns
a. As the amount of one input is increased, incremental gains in output, or marginal returns,
will eventually decrease, ceteris paribus
b. E.g. consider hiring more workers, eventually too many workers leads to boredom and the
distraction of other workers
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
III. Average product (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 29 of 56

 a. Rises when MP is above it and falls when MP is below it
i. Think of the MP curve as your score on each new AP economics test, and the AP
curve as your average grade in AP economics
b. Reaches its maximum when it intersects the MP curve
IV. Total product curve
a. Shows the relationship between the total amount of output produced and number of units of
an input used, ceteris paribus
b. Slope = marginal product
c. Rises when MP is positive and vice versa
d. Remains constant when MP is zero

GRAPH: Marginal Cost and Total Cost

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I. Fixed costs (FC)

a. Stay constant when more output is produced
b. E.g. rent for machines
c. Continually falls as Q increase b/c the same fixed cost is divided by a larger and larger Q
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
d. Average fixed cost (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

II. Variable costs (VC)

a. Change as more output is produced
b. E.g. ingredients for donuts
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
c. Average variable cost (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

i. Falls when MC is below it and rises when MC is above it

ii. Reaches its minimum when it intersects the MC curve
III. Total costs (TC) = total fixed costs + total variable costs
a. TC = FC when output is zero b/c there are no variable costs
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
b. Average total cost (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

i. Falls when MC is below it and rises when MC is above it

ii. Reaches its minimum when it intersects the MC curve
∆𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ∆𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
IV. Marginal costs (MC) = ∆𝑄𝑄
= ∆𝑄𝑄

a. Decrease in the beginning b/c the first few units of input produce more additional output
than the units before them 3
b. Eventually increases due to the law of diminishing marginal returns

Short Run vs. Long Run

I. Short run
a. Amount of at least one input is constant
b. E.g. labor is variable in the short run but capital is fixed
II. Long run
a. Can change the amounts of all inputs

3
Note the relationship with the marginal product curve, which was explained earlier. When MP is rising, MC is falling and
vice versa. This is due to the law of diminishing marginal returns.

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 31 of 56

 i. No fixed costs

GRAPH: Economies of Scale

I. LRAC = long run average cost

II. SRAC = short run average cost
a. Capital e.g. ovens is fixed which accounts for the three different curves
b. Each curve represents a stage in the bagel shop when it has a certain amount of ovens
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Micro Unit 4: Perfect Competition

Key Terms
I. Economies of scale
a. Occur during the range of output where LRAC slopes downward
b. Can result from increasing returns to scale
II. Diseconomies of scale
a. Occur during the range of output where LRAC slopes upward
III. Increasing returns to scale
a. Output increases proportionally more than increases in all inputs
i. E.g. doubling all inputs yields three times the amount of output
b. Often confused with increasing marginal returns
i. Only involved an increase in one input, ceteris paribus
IV. Decreasing returns to scale
a. Output increases proportionally less than increase in all inputs
i. E.g. doubling all inputs yields 1.5 times the amount of output
V. Constant returns to scale
a. Output increase proportionally to increases in all inputs
i. E.g. doubling all inputs yields two times the amount of output
VI. Productive efficiency
a. P = minimum ATC
VII. Allocation efficiency
a. P = MC
VIII. Increasing cost firm (less common)
a. Firm facing decreasing returns to scale
IX. Decreasing cost firm (less common)
a. Firm facing increasing returns to scale
X. Increasing cost industry (less common)
a. Experiences increases in average production costs as industry output increases
b. More likely to occur in large industries where input prices increases with higher demand
i. E.g. automobiles

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 33 of 56

 c. Upward sloping long run supply curve
XI. Decreasing cost industry (less common)
a. Experiences decreases in average production costs as industry output increases
b. More likely to occur in industries where production is only possible at a mass level
i. E.g. solar panels
c. Downward sloping long run supply curve
XII. Constant cost industry (less common)
a. Does not experience changes in production costs as industry output increases
b. Horizontal sloping long run supply curve

EXAMPLE: Decreasing Cost Industry (less common)

I. Short run
a. Demand = 𝐷𝐷1
b. Price = 𝑃𝑃1
c. Supply = 𝑆𝑆1
d. Firm quantity = 𝑞𝑞1
e. Market quantity = 𝑄𝑄1
II. Long run
a. Demand = 𝐷𝐷2
i. Suppose there is an increase in demand
b. Price = 𝑃𝑃2 → 𝑃𝑃3
i. Price initially rises to 𝑃𝑃2
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1. At this price, firms are earning an economic profit

2. Availability of profits will draw new firms, causing supply to shift out
ii. B/c this is a decreasing costs industry, even when price returns to 𝑃𝑃1 (due to the
supply curve shifting out), firms are still making economic profit as their costs will
be lower than in the beginning when 𝑃𝑃1 corresponded to zero economic profit
iii. Supply curve will continue to shift out until falling prices correspond to falling
average and marginal costs, and thus zero economic profit earned by firms
c. Supply = 𝑆𝑆2
d. Firm quantity = 𝑞𝑞2 → 𝑞𝑞3
i. Firm quantity initially rises to 𝑞𝑞2 but then falls to 𝑞𝑞3
e. Market quantity = 𝑄𝑄2 → 𝑄𝑄3
i. Market quantity initially rises to 𝑄𝑄2 and then increases even more to 𝑄𝑄3

GRAPH: Perfect Competition

I. Key characteristics
a. Many sellers
i. E.g. agricultural goods
b. Homogeneous, or identical, products
c. Firms are price takers
d. Free entry and exit from market
e. Zero economic profits in long run
i. Firms will enter the market to compete away existing profits
ii. Firms will leave the market to eliminate any losses
AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 35 of 56
 II. Mr. DARP 4
a. Marginal revenue = firm demand curve = average revenue = market price
∆𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
b. 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = ∆𝑄𝑄
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
c. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄𝑄

III. Market S and D curves are the horizontal summations of individual firm’s S and Demand curves 5
IV. Economic profit 6 = total revenues – total costs
a. Implicit costs i.e. opportunity costs are included in total costs
b. Zero economic profit = you couldn’t be making any more money doing anything different
c. Normal profit = zero economic profit
V. Accounting profit = total revenues – explicit costs

GRAPH: Total Cost and Total Revenue

4
Every time you encounter a questions on perfect competition, make sure you use Mr. Darp!
5
This was covered earlier in Unit 2.
6
In economics, unless told otherwise, assume profit is referring to economic profit.
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I. When TR is greater than TC, vertical distance represents profits

II. When TR is less than TC, vertical distance represents losses
III. Firms want to produce where profit is maximized
a. MR = MC
i. In other words: slope of the TR curve = slope of the total cost curve

GRAPH: Perfect Competition – Profit Maximizing Firm 7

I. Total profit is positive when P > ATC

a. In this graph, total profit = TR – TC = ABFE – DCFE = ABCD
II. Total profit is negative when P < ATC
III. Total profit is zero when P = ATC

7
AC is the same thing as ATC. The corresponding market graph is not shown to the right.

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 GRAPH: Shut Down Decision

I. Short run: depends on whether or not P exceeds AVC

II. Long run: depends on whether or not P exceeds ATC
III. P > ATC
a. Firm is making economic profits
IV. AVC < P < ATC
a. Firm is incurring economic losses but will stay open
b. Two options in the short run
i. Shut down and not incur variable costs, but not obtain any revenue for fixed costs
ii. Remain open and cover all of its variable costs (b/c P > AVC), and pay off some of
its fixed costs with the difference between P and AVC
1. Better of the two alternatives
V. P < AVC
a. Firm is incurring economic losses and will shut down as it can’t cover its variable costs
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Micro Unit 5: Monopolies

GRAPH: Monopoly

I. Key characteristics
a. Sole provider of a unique product 8
i. E.g. local monopolies such as a the sole movie theater in a small town
b. Absolute monopolies are rare at the national and international level
c. Barriers to entry allow economic profits in the long run
i. Patents
ii. Control of resources
1. E.g. diamond mines
iii. Exclusive licenses
1. E.g. gov. grants only one company the right to produce electricity
II. Demand curve is downward sloping

8
Just because they are the sole provider of the product, it doesn’t mean that monopolies can charge whatever price they
want. Consumers will not buy a product if the price is higher than the demand curve.

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 a. Lower price must be charged on all previous units to sell additional units
b. Price ≠ marginal revenue at output levels greater than zero
i. MR falls as Q increases
III. Always produces in the elastic portion of the demand curve when maximizing profits
a. Find where MR = MC to find the quantity of output
b. Trace your finger upwards until you hit the demand curve to find price
IV. Monopolies produce less and at a higher price than firms in perfect competition

Price Discrimination
I. E.g. airlines, car dealers, Uber
II. Key characteristics
a. Firm must have market power: downward sloping demand curve
b. Buyers with differing demand elasticities must be separable
c. Firm must be able to prevent the resale of its goods
i. Block those paying the lower price to resell to those willing to pay the higher price
III. Want to charge customers the most they are willing to pay

GRAPH: Monopoly – Perfect Price Discrimination

I. All consumer surplus is transformed into profit

II. MR = D
a. No need to lower the price of all units to sell one additional unit
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GRAPH: Monopoly – Perfect Price Discrimination w/Differing Demand Elasticities

I. The more inelastic the demand, the more consumers pay

EXAMPLE: Government Policy towards Imperfect Competition

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 I. Firms with market power can challenge the efficiency of the market if left unchecked
II. Monopolies produce less and at a higher price than firms in perfect competition
III. Monopolies and their corresponding profits have the potential to motivate research and
development expenditures that result in important drug and technology innovation

GRAPH: Natural Monopoly

I. E.g. power generation

II. Industries where competition isn’t possible due to extremely high fixed costs
III. ATC decreases throughout the relevant range of production
IV. At the socially optimal price (𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = MC), the monopoly is incurring economic losses
V. At the monopoly price (MR = MC → 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀 ), the monopoly is making economic profit but charging
too high of a price and producing too low of an output
VI. Gov. needs to intervene as competition can’t influence prices in this situation
a. Fair return price = 𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
i. Firm will make zero economic profit
ii. Middle ground between severe resource misallocation and economic losses
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Micro Unit 6: Monopolistic Competition and Oligopolies

GRAPH: Monopolistic Competition

I. Key characteristics
a. Faces more competition than monopolies or oligopolies
b. Maintains some market power due to product differentiation
i. E.g. restaurants, clothing stores
c. Zero economic profits in long run
i. Firms will enter the market to compete away existing profits
ii. Firms will leave the market to eliminate any losses
II. Demand curve is downward sloping
a. Lower price must be charged to sell additional units
b. Price ≠ marginal revenue at output levels greater than zero
i. MR falls as Q increases
III. Always produces in the elastic portion of the demand curve when maximizing profits
a. Find where MR = MC to find the quantity of output
IV. Trace your finger upwards until you hit the demand curve to find price

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 Oligopoly
I. E.g. airlines, Coca-Cola vs. Pepsi
II. Key characteristics
a. Small number of firms selling a homogeneous or differentiated product
b. High barriers to entry and high market power
c. Mutualistic interdependence
i. Decision of one firm will highly impact the decisions of other firms

Game Theory
I. Considers the strategic decision of players (e.g. interdependent ogopolistic firms) in anticipation of
their competitors’ reactions
II. Payoff matrix: two by two square
a. Details the possible results of varying pricing choices by two entities
b. Isolate one player and one strategy and circle the best choice for the other player
i. It can be helpful to cover up the other side of the square
ii. E.g. use circles for player 1 and rectangles for player 2 for their best choices
III. Dominant strategy
a. Choosing one pricing strategy regardless of what the competitor chooses
IV. Nash equilibrium 9
a. Occurs when two choices appear in the same square of a payoff matrix
b. Dominant strategy equilibrium
i. Both sides have a dominant strategy, so neither party will deviate from its strategy
given the strategy of the other side
ii. All dominant strategy equilibriums are Nash equilibriums, but not vice versa
V. Prisoner’s dilemma
a. When competing parties forgo an option more beneficial for both parties e.g. Party A and B
choose to make $100 and $200 instead of $300 and $500, respectively
b. E.g. arms races
i. Both parties are better off with peace

9
Rest in peace, John Nash.
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EXAMPLE: Payoff Matrix – Dominant Strategy Equilibrium

I. Bob chooses high priced strategy

a. Liz makes 300 going high or makes 500 going low
II. Bob chooses low priced strategy
a. Liz loses 800 going high or loses 500 going low
III. Liz chooses high priced strategy
a. Bob makes 400 going high or makes 600 going low
IV. Liz chooses low priced strategy
a. Bob loses 800 going high or loses 500 going low
V. Nash equilibrium
a. Both players have a dominant strategy of going low
b. Bob ends up losing 500 and Liz ends up losing 500
i. This illustrates the prisoner’s dilemma
1. Both players would have been better off going high

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 EXAMPLE: Payoff Matrix – Non-Dominant Strategy Equilibrium

I. Bob chooses high priced strategy

a. Liz makes 500 going high or makes 300 going low
II. Bob chooses low priced strategy
a. Liz makes 150 going high or makes 200 going low
III. Liz chooses high priced strategy
a. Bob makes 400 going high or makes 600 going low
IV. Liz chooses low priced strategy
a. Bob makes 50 going high or makes 100 going low
V. Nash equilibrium
a. Bob has a dominant strategy of going low
b. Liz goes high when Bob goes high and goes low when Bob goes low

Bilateral Monopoly (less common)

I. Only one buyer and one seller exist in the same market
II. Cannot theoretically predict what the final wage of workers will be
a. Depends on the relative bargaining skills of both parties
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SUMMARY: Market Structures

I. Maximizing profits (without price discrimination) for all market structures

a. Find where MR = MC
b. Go straight down to the x-axis to determine the quantity produced
c. Go straight up to the demand curve to determine the price
i. If the D = MR, this step is easy
d. If price is less than AVC, the firm will shut down
e. Otherwise, the firm will produce at Q and at a price of P
f. Profit = total revenue – total costs = (𝑃𝑃 − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) × 𝑄𝑄

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 47 of 56

 Micro Unit 7: Factor Markets 10

Instead of working with demand for products, we are now working with demand for the factors of
production e.g. land, labor, capital. 11

EXAMPLE: Factor Markets – Ice Cream Machines

I. If the demand for ice cream increase, the demand for ice cream machines will also increase

GRAPH: Marginal Revenue Product of Labor

10
This is one of the hardest units in microeconomics. It is easy to confuse product markets with labor markets and vice
versa, but you need an adept understanding of both to score well on the AP Test.
11
Most graphs and examples will use labor in the explanation of factor markets. The determination of other factor prices is
analogous to the material in this section.
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I. 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿 × 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

II. Assuming firms can’t price discriminate, those facing downward sloping demand curves must
lower the price of all output in order to sell more output produced by additional units of an input
a. The most a firm would be willing to pay for another worker (or other factor of production)
in the short run is that factor of production’s marginal revenue product
III. Want to hire at the intersection of wage and MRP
a. If less workers are hired, there is still the opportunity to hire more workers and pay them
less than the value of their contribution to revenues
b. If more workers are hired, those excess workers are paid more than the value of their
contributions to revenues
IV. If MRP shifts outward, demand for labor will increase and vice versa
V. Demand for labor is a derived demand
a. i.e. firms demand labor b/c consumers demand their products

GRAPH: Perfectly Competition – Labor Market

I. Each firm is a wage taker, just as firms are price takers in a perfectly competitive output market
II. Market demand for labor is the horizontal summation of individual firm demand curves
III. Market demand shifters to the right (opposite will shift 𝐷𝐷𝐿𝐿 in)
a. Increase in the number of firms in the market

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 49 of 56

 b. Increase in the 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐿𝐿 in the individual firms
IV. Equilibrium wage
a. Intersection of 𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 and 𝐷𝐷𝐿𝐿
b. Zero unemployment 12
i. Everyone who would like to work has the opportunity to do so

GRAPH: Monopsony

I. E.g. mining company in a small mining town

12
Unemployment is discussed further in macroeconomics.
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II. Key characteristics

a. Like a monopoly, but for factors of production
III. Supply curve is upward sloping
a. Must raise wages of all workers to hire an additional worker
b. Price ≠ marginal factor cost (MFC) at output levels greater than zero
i. MRC rises as Q increases
IV. Find where MFC = MRP = D to find the quantity of output
a. Trace your finger downwards until you hit the supply curve to find wage
V. In contrast to a perfectly competitive labor market
a. Price = MFC as firms can hire all of the workers they want at the same market wage
b. Firms hire more workers (𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶 ) and pay them more (𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐 )

Unions (less common)

I. Workers form unions to increase their collective bargaining and lobbying strengths
II. Goals
a. Increase the demand for labor
b. Decrease the supply of labor
i. Unions comprised of skilled workers do this
c. Negotiate higher wages
i. Unions comprised of unskilled workers tend to use their size to their advantage

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 Micro Unit 8: Market Failures and the Role of Government

Market Failures
I. Occurs when resources are not allocated efficiency (P = MC)
a. Imperfect competition
b. Externalities
c. Public goods
d. Imperfect information
i. Buyers and sellers don’t have full knowledge about available markets, prices,
products, customers, suppliers, and so forth
ii. E.g. consumers pay too much for a product b/c they aren’t aware of a cheaper
alternative

Externalities
I. Costs and benefits felt beyond those causing the effects: spillover effects
II. Lead to inefficient allocation of resources as those making decisions fail to consider all of the
repercussions of their behavior
III. Negative externalities
a. Lead to overconsumption of a good
b. Solutions
i. Can be taxed by the amount of the MEC
1. E.g. taxing cigarettes
2. Internalize the externality
ii. Restricting output to eh socially optimal quantity
iii. Imposing a price floor at the socially optimal price
IV. Positive externalities
a. Lead to underconsumption of a good
b. Solution
i. Can be subsidized by the amount of the MEB
1. E.g. subsidizing higher education
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EXAMPLE: Negative Externality13

I. MPC = marginal private cost

a. Additional cost Mary pays for each additional dog
II. MEC = marginal external cost
a. Additional cost imposed Mary’s neighbors due to biting, barking etc.
III. MSC = marginal social cost = MPC + MEC
IV. MB = marginal benefit = Mary’s demand curve for dogs
V. Mary will own 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 dogs if we ignore the negative externality
VI. Mary will own 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 dogs if we account for the negative externality

EXAMPLE: Positive Externality 14

13
Notice the similarities to the cost curves in perfect competition. MSC is to ATC as MEC is to AVC and MPC is to AFC.
14
Marginal private benefit (MPB) is equivalent to MB.

AP Microeconomics Full Review Page 53 of 56

 I. MPB = marginal benefit = Mary’s demand curve for flowers
II. MPC = marginal private cost
a. Additional cost Mary pays for each additional flower
III. MEC = marginal external benefit
a. Additional benefit Mary provides to her neighbors for each additional flower planted
IV. MSB = marginal social benefit = MPB + MEB
V. Mary will own 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 flowers if we ignore the positive externality
VI. Mary will own 𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 flowers if we account for positive externality

Public Goods
I. Those that many individuals benefit from at the same time
II. Key characteristics
a. Nonrival in consumption
i. One person’s consumption doesn’t affect its consumption by others
ii. E.g. Mrs. Keats’ use of the park doesn’t affect Mr. T’s use of the same park
b. Nonexcludable
i. Goods cannot be held back from those who desire access
ii. E.g. the police cannot choose who they protect
III. Free rider problem
a. Consumer attempts to benefit from a public good without paying for it
b. Consumers know they can enjoy the provision of these goods without paying for them
c. Thus, the gov. oftentimes provides these goods and pays for them through taxes

Antitrust Legislation (less common)

I. Sherman Act (1890)
a. Declared attempts to monopolize commerce or restrain trade among the states illegal
II. Clayton Act (1914)
a. Strengthened the Sherman Act
b. Specified that monopolistic behavior such as price discrimination was illegal
III. Robinson-Patman Act (1936)
a. Allows price discrimination in certain circumstances
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i. E.g. differences in marketability of product

IV. Celler-Kefauver Act (1950)
a. Banned select vertical mergers
i. Merger of firms in the various steps in the production process
b. Banned select horizontal mergers
i. Merger of firms who are direct competitors

Measures of Market Power (less common)

I. Herfindahl-Harschman Index (HHI)
2
a. 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = ∑𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖

i. Takes the market share of each firm in an industry as a percentage, squares each
percentage, and adds them up
b. Increases as the number of firms in the industry decreases and/or as the firms become less
uniform in size
II. N-firm concentration ratio
a. Sum of the market shares of the largest n firms in an industry, where n is an integer

GRAPH: Lorenz Curve

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 I. Measure of income inequality
II. Horizontal axis starts with the poorest families on the left and ends with the richest families
𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
III. Gini coefficient = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

a. If the Lorenz curve was the line of perfect equality, the poorest 𝑛𝑛% of people would own
𝑛𝑛% of the wealth in their nation: Gini coefficient = 0
b. United States Gini coefficient: 0.45

Poverty and Taxes

I. Poverty line
a. Official benchmark of poverty
II. Progressive tax
a. Gov. receives a larger percentage of revenue from families with larger incomes
III. Regressive tax 15
a. Gov. receives a larger percentage of revenue from families with smaller incomes
IV. Proportional tax
a. Gov. receives the same percentage of income from all families
V. Social Security
a. Provides cash benefits and health insurance to retired and disabled works and their families

15
For example, Mrs. Keats employs a regressive curve in her class: the curve helps you more the worse you do.