Introduction to Micro-economics

Lecture notes

Course Outline
Purpose: To enable the learner understand and appreciate the importance of the various
economics activities. This will enable thee learner actively play a practical role in economic
activities in the society.
Course Objectives: By the end of the course unit the student should be able to:-
Define and understand terminologies and meaning of key concepts used in economics
Appreciate the relevance and importance of economics as a discipline
Relate knowledge of Economic to other discipline involved in economic growth and
development of a country
Explore how they can contribute to the development of society
Course Outline
Lesson 1 (Week 1- 3)
Introduction to economics
- Basic economics concepts
- Production Possibility Frontier/Capacity (PPF/PPC)
- The main branches /scope of economics
- Why study economics?
- The methodology of economics
- Economic systems
- Why Intervene in the economy
- Specialization
- Review questions
Lesson 2 (Week 4 - 6)
Demand and supply
- Definition of demand
- The law of negatively sloped demand and exceptions
- The determinants of demand
- Movement along and shift in demand curve
- Definition of supply
- Determinants of supply
- Movement along and shift in supply curve
- The concept of equilibrium and types of equilibrium
- The effect of a shift of demand and supply on market equilibrium.
- Price control
- Elasticity of demand
- Elasticity of supply
Lesson 3 (Week 7 - 8)
Theory of consumer
- Cardinalist marginal utility approach
- Consumer equilibrium
- Ordinalist/ indifference curve approach
- Consumer equilibrium

iv
 - Income consumption curve
- Application of indifference curves
CAT 1
Lesson 4 (Week 9 - 10)
The Theory of Production
- Factors of production
- Specialization
- Production function
- Long run changes in production
- The theory of cost
- Optimum seize of a firm
- Economies of scale
- Mergers and acquisitions

Lesson 4 (Week 11 - 12)

Market structures
- Perfect markets
- Monopoly
- Monopolistic competition
- Oligopoly

Recommended Text Books:

Hardwick, Philip, et al; An introduction to Modern Economies, Longman Group
Saleemi M.A (2001) Economics Simplified (Revised Edition) Saleemi
Publishers. Text Books for further Reading:
Koutsoyiannis A; (1994), Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan Education Ltd
Nicholson, Walter (1992), Microeconomics Theory: Basic Principles and
Extensions, Dryden Press
Other support materials: Various applicable manuals and journals; variety of electronic
information resources as prescribed by the lecturer

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LESSON ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS
Purpose: To introduce the learner to the tenets of economics, as the building blocks for
studying and understanding economics.

Specific Objectives

By the end of the lesson the learner should:

(i) Define the term economics
(ii) Differentiate between microeconomics and macroeconomics
(iii) Describe economics systems

1.1 Introduction to Economics

Economics essentially studies the way in which mankind provides for the material well
being. It‟s thus concerned with the way people apply their knowledge, skills and effort to the
gift of nature in order to satisfy human their material wants. Economics is a social science
which studies the allocation of scarce resources which have alternative uses among
competing and usually limitless wants of the consumers in the society.
Basic Economic Concepts
i) Human wants This refers to people desires for goods and services and
circumstances that enhance their material well being.
ii) Economic Resources These are ingredients that are available for providing goods
and services in order to satisfy the human wants. A resource must be scarce and
have money value. Resources can be categorized as natural, or man made.
iii) Natural Resources refer to anything given by God or nature such as fertile soil,
rivers, lakes, mountains etc.
iv) Man Made Resources refers to anything created by man to assist in further
production such as tools, equipments, roads and buildings etc.
N/B Economics resources also refer to as factors of production which includes
land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
v) Scarcity and Choice if the resources available are not enough to produce goods and
services to satisfy all the wants then they are said to be scarce. As a result,
individuals and society cannot have all the things that they want. Since resources
are limited, choices have to be made. The choice to satisfy one want implies

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 others are forgone. Individuals have to make choices e.g. consumers with their
limited income and unlimited wants have to choose how they spend their income.

vi) Opportunity Cost refers to the value of benefit expected from the best
second
alternative forgone. It is based on the fact that resources being scarce have
competing alternative uses. The choice to satisfy one alternative means that
another is forgone. The value of the second best forgone alternative is the
opportunity cost.
Production Possibility Frontier/Capacity (PPF/PPC)
It provides a graphical illustration of the problem of scarcity and choice which is the
basic economic problem. The curve shows what a country produces with existing supply of
land, capital and entrepreneurship ability. With limited supply of economics resources a
country has a wide variety of options and variety of goods and services it can produce.
Assume a simple hypothetical economy where a country produces two types of goods i.e.
agriculture and manufactured goods. The two extreme possibilities are:
a) The country commits all its resources to the production of agriculture and non to
manufacturing.
b) All the resources are put to manufacture and non to agriculture.
These two extreme cases are unlikely and the country will most likely choose to produce
goods of both commodities. The opportunity cost of producing either of them is
increasing which the law of diminishing return.

Agricultural • a
• p
Goods
Q under b
Utilization •
•c Effective production

Manufactured goods

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 The PPF is a locus of all combination point which represents goods and services that a
country can produce if all resources are utilized fully and efficiently. Points on the curve
such as A, B and C show maximum possible combined output of the two commodities.
The economy can produce any combination inside the curve such as point Q where it
means some resources are unemployed. The resources in such a case will produce more
commodities by moving either to point B or point A. The points outside the curve are not
attainable with the country‟s present productive capacity. The country can only achieve
this if its productive capacity has been increased and this will cause the curve to shift to
the right as shown by the dotted curve. A country‟s productive capacity can increase if
there is advancement in technology or if there is a discovery of new resources. The
PPF/C is concave to the origin indicating the concept of increasing opportunity costs.

1.2 Scope of Economics

The main branches of economics are:
Microeconomics which is the study of the smallest economic decisions making units of
the society. Microeconomics theory is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of
individual decision making units such as consumers, resource owners and business firm as
well as individual markets in a free market economy. The aim of microeconomics is to
explain the determination of prices and quantities of individual goods and services.
Microeconomics also considers the impact of government regulation and taxation of
individual markets. For example, microeconomics analyses the forces that determine the
prices and quantities of television sets sold. Microeconomics can be considered as the
ultimate cellular structure of economics.
i) It is the study of individuals, households and firms. The major areas are
- demand and supply analysis
- market equilibrium
- consumer theory
- theory of the firm
- market structure
- distribution theory

3
 ssss

Macroeconomics is the study of bigger and complex systems. Macroeconomic

theory is
the study of the behaviour of the economy as a whole whereby the relationship is
considered between broad economic aggregates such as national income, employment
and prices. The economy is disaggregated into broadly homogenous categories and
determinants of the behavior of these aggregates are integrated to provide a model to the
entire economy.
ii) Macroeconomics focuses on the economic stabilization whereby government
policy is used to moderate business cycles and encourages real economic growth.
Macroeconomics became a separate topic of discussion in the aftermath of John
Maynard Keynes and the great depression. The line between microeconomics and
macroeconomics is, however, blurred and there are many areas of overlap
between the two. Key areas of macroeconomics are:
- National income
- Economic growth and development
- Money and banking
- Public finance
- Unemployment
- Inflation
- International trade

1.3 Why Study Economics?

It is useful to study economics for the following reasons
i) Economics provides the underlying principles of optimal resource allocation
and thus enables individuals and firms to make economically rational
decisions. Thus for example the preparation of budgets involves knowledge of
demand and elasticity analysis. The making of price policy decisions draws
heavily on the concept of elasticity in economics. Additionally, the theory of
production in economics is concerned with the principles that facilitate the
optimal combination factors of production.
ii) A study of economics enables individuals and organizations to appreciate the
constraints imposed by the economic environment within which any entity

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 operates. Thus an individual or firm is more fully enabled to appreciate the
implications of the annual budget considering how for example the increased
liberation of the economy will affect a particular business entity and the
economy in general. Additionally, the student of economics is able to
appreciate the effects of such economic variables as inflation, exchange rates,
interest rates money supply and so on.
iii) The area of development economics is fundamentally concerned with the
Reasons why societies develop and means of accelerating development. It is
vital for individuals as citizens to appreciate the parameters that determine the
development process so that they contribute more fully to facilitate and
Contribute to solving the economic problems that characterize their society.
iv) Economics is an analytical subject and its study can help develop logical
Reasoning which is never superfluous.

1.4 The Methodology of Economics

A useful insight into the methodology applied in economics can be gained by
distinguishing between positive and normative economics. This enables one to appreciate
the limitations and scope of economics.

Positive economics is concerned with what is, or how the economic problem facing
societies are actually solved. Positive statements therefore, only deal with facts for
example; “Kenya is a member of the East African community” and “Uganda is currently
Kenya’s major trading partner” are positive statements. For example a dispute over
whether Uganda is currently Kenya’s major trading partner can be settled by looking at the
statistics of Kenya’s trade with its partners.

Normative economics refers to the part of economics that deals with the value
of
judgments. This implies that normative deals with what ought to be, or how the economic
problems facing the society should be solved. Normative statements usually reflect
people‟s moral attitudes and are expressions of what particular individuals group thinks
ought to be done. A statement such as “Uganda to should join the Southern Africa

5
Development Community” or “upper incomes classes ought to be taxed heavily” are
normative statements.

Economics makes use of the scientific methods to develop theories. Scientific inquiry is
generally confined to positive questions. One of the major objectives of sciences is to
develop theories. A theory is a general or unifying principle that describes and explains the
relationship between things observed in the world around us.

The purpose of a theory is to predict and explain. The search for a theory begins
whenever a regular pattern is observed in the relationship between two or more variables and
one asks why this should is so. A theory refers to a hypothesis that has been
successfully tested. It is important to note that economics hypothesis is not tested by
realism of its assumptions but its ability to predict accurately and explain.
The following procedures are adopted in the scientific method:
i. The concepts are defined in such a way that they can be measured in
order to be able to test the theory against the facts.
Whereas these facts may seem superfluous,( Definition of superfluous : When something is so
unnecessary that it could easily be done away with, like a fifth wheel on a car or a fifth person on a
double date,) ... in practice it is quite difficult to define many concepts in economics in a way
that is agreeable to all schools of thought. It is often correctly postulated that when you
want to argue, first define your terms.

ii. A hypothesis formulated A hypothesis refers to tentative untested statement,

which attempts to explain how one thing is related to another. Hypotheses are based
on observation and upon certain assumptions about how the real world works.

The assumptions may themselves be based upon prevailing theories that have proved to
have a high degree of reliability. In a social science, the basic assumptions or paradigms
about reality are vital. A discipline’s basic assumptions about reality determine what it
focuses on. In economics for example, many theories are based on the rationality
assumption. The formulation of hypothesis is thus arrived at through a process of logical
reasoning using observed facts and certain assumptions. As mentioned earlier, a
hypothesis is not tested by the realism of its assumptions but its ability to predict
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 Accurately. Economic hypothesis must be framed in a manner that enables scientists to
test their validity.

iii. The hypothesis is then used to make predictions.

If the hypothesis is correct, then if certain things are done, certain others will happen. For
example hypothesis may predict the rise in the price of a given commodity may lead in the
fall of the quantity demanded of that commodity.

iv. The hypothesis is tested by considering whether its predictions are supported by
facts.
In order to test a hypothesis and arrive at a theory, one must go to the real world and see
whether the hypothesis is indeed true for various situations. The social scientists however
cannot carry out controlled experiments in the laboratory. The laboratory of the social
scientist is the human society and human beings cannot be put into a controlled situation
to see what happens. Observed economic data is subjected to statistical analyses whose
techniques help the economist to determine the probability that particular events have
certain causes. If a hypothesis is supported by factual evidence we have a successful
theory, note that a theory can never be true in all circumstances and new theories are
developed as old ones are discarded because their predictions have become unreliable.

1.5 Economic Systems

These refer to the way in which different societies solve the three different basic
economic problems which are:
a Which goods should be produced and in what quantities?
b. How should various goods and services be produced?
c. How should various goods and services be distributed?
These in turn determine various political and economic structures in the society. The
economic systems are as follows:
(a) Free market economy Also referred to as capital system or laiser faire
economy. It
refers to a system where decisions about allocation of resources are made by
individuals on the basis of prices generated by forces of market prices of demand
and supply. A free market economy has the following features

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 - Private property individuals have the right to own or dispose off their
property as they may consider it fit.
- Freedom of choice and enterprise Individuals have the right to buy or hire
economic resources, organize them for production purpose and sell them in
the market of their choice. Such persons are referred to as
entrepreneurs.
- Self interest the pursuant of personal goals. The individuals are free to do
as they wish and have the motive of economic activity in self interest.
- Competition There is a large number of buyers and sellers such that each
buyer and seller accounts for but is insignificant to influence the supply
and demand and hence prices.
- Reliance on price mechanism This is an elaborate system of commerce in
which numerous choices of consumers and producers are aggregated and
balanced against each other. The interaction of demand and supply
determine prices.
- No government intervention Hence no price controls, taxes and subsidies.
- There are property rights provided and enhanced by the government
through copy rights patents, trademarks etc.
Advantages of free market economy
- There is the matching of demand and supply. Production takes place in
response to demand hence a balance between what is produced and
consumed. No wastage.
- There is flexibility of the market in responding to changes in demand and
supply conditions.
- There are no resources wasted in planning as no planning is required
- Consumer sovereignty and competition gives rise to a wide variety of
goods and services giving consumers a wide range to choice from.
- Higher rates of economic growth due to the incentive available for hard
work which is motivated by profits.
- No wastage of resources on unrealistic projects because investment
decision are based on profits.

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Disadvantages
- Income inequality the ability of some people and firms to acquire
excessive market power leads to greater inequality in income and wealth.
- Monopoly power refers to the ability of a firm to control its prices
- Externalities spill over refers to social costs and benefits not taken into
consideration when determining price levels.
- Public goods. The price mechanism on its own cannot allocate resources
to the production of public goods such as roads, schools, security etc.,
which have no rivals and no excludability.
- Instability and unemployment due to the trade cycles of recession,
depression, recovery and boom.
- The inability to deal with structural changes caused by wars, natural
calamities among others.
- Inadequate provision of merit goods. Merit goods are goods of importance
to the community such as health, education, security among others

(b) Planned economy Also referred to as command economy or government

controlled economy, socialism or communism. It refers to an economic system
where the crucial decisions are determined a body appointed by the state. The
body takes up the role of mechanism which prevails in a free market economy
Features of a command economy
- Leadership and control of economies. All important means of production
(resources) are publicly owned such as land, power generation, housing
among others.
- Rationing of certain commodities if supply of such fall bellow demand.
- Existence of production targets for different sectors of the economy. The
government determines how resources are allocated through planning.
- Fixing of prices and wages
- Occasional existence of restricted labour market in which workers take up
jobs assigned to them.
- Government decides what is to be produced

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Advantage of planned economy
- Avoids economic instability
- Minimize negative externalities
- Makes adequate provision of public and merit goods
- Facilitate the shift of resources in pursuant of grand schemes such rapid
industrialization
- Puts checks on monopoly power which are controlled by state monopolies
(Parastatals).
Disadvantages of Planned economy
- There is wastage of resources in production because consumers demand is
judged in advance without the use of price mechanism.
- The cost of gathering information for planning is expensive to the state.
- In absence of profit motive in production there is no incentives for hard
work and innovation.
- The power of consumer sovereignty is curtailed
(c) Mixed economy refers to an economic system where resource allocation
is
determined by the state and price mechanism. This form of economic system can
exist in two ways:
- Where the means of production are privately owned but the government
through fiscal and monetary policies regulate the working of price
mechanism towards desired levels.
- The government does not only regulate the working of the price
mechanism but also strategic resource thus taking part in production.
Fiscal policy refers to the policies which the government uses to stabilize the economy
through government revenue and expenditure.
Monetary policy refers to the policies implemented by the central bank to stabilize
the economy by use of money supply and interest rates.
Both policies make up the budgetary policy of the government.

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1.6 Why Intervene in the Economy
- To create a framework of regulations and rules to ensure fair competition thus promote
competition between firms both small and big.
- Redistribute income through a system of taxation
- Prevent market failure of price mechanism
- Stabilize the economy
- Maintain competition by controlling monopoly
Partial Equilibrium refers to the study of the behaviour of individual decisions making
units and the functioning of individual markets in isolation.
General Equilibrium is the analysis of the behaviour of all individuals‟ decision making
units on all individual markets simultaneously.

1.7 Specialization
This refers to the process where people concentrate on those activities where they are best
at. It takes a form of division of labour which is dividing up of economic tasks of
production into tasks which people specialize into. Division of labour therefore leads to
specialization which leads to increase in output.
Advantages of specialization
- It help individual development by exploring their talent
- It is possible to use machines to do specific/ particular task
- Increase in skills result in increased expertise and performance
- Time saving as a worker will accomplish more by doing a particular task.
Disadvantages
- Leads to loss of craftsmanship. Extensive specialization leads to increased
use of machines which are more automated leading to loss of basic skills
- Production of standardized goods limiting the range of goods consumers
can choice from. It does not cater for different tastes and preferences.
- Monotony and boredom due to repetitions of the same work. This leads
increased accidents, absenteeism which are associated with lack of
motivation.
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 - Increased inter-dependence as a specialized system of production
increases the extent to which different sectors of the economy rely on each
other. If mistakes are made in one production unit it may cause the fall of
all or other organization which depend on items from that production unit.
- Increase in risk of unemployment if one‟s skills are no longer required in
the market they may get an alternative employment.

1.8 Review Questions

1. Briefly define the term „economics‟
2. What is a production possibility frontier?
3. Distinguish microeconomics from macroeconomics
4. What is an economic system?
5. Why is the study of economics important?
6. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the three economic systems
7. Why should the government intervene in the economy?
8. Explain the main advantages of specialization

1.9 References
Saleemi M.A (2001) Economics Simplified (Revised Edition) Saleemi Publishers Ltd
(Pages 1-12)
Koutsoyiannis A; (1994), Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan Education Ltd

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 LESSON TWO: DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Purpose The theory of demand and supply enables us to understand the determination
of prices and quantities in different markets. For example, why the prices of
agricultural commodities such as tomatoes, apples, mangoes and cabbages increase
and decrease at certain times of the year, why have the prices of computers, music
systems and television sets been steadily declining over time. An understanding of
the working of the price system provides us with the answers to some of these
questions. The price system provides the basis for determining the prices of factors of
production.
Specific Objectives
At the end of this lesson you should be able to:
(i) Outline the key determinants of demand and supply
(ii) Explain the difference between a movement along a demand and supply curve
and shift of the curve.
(iii) Explain the concept of market equilibrium
(iv) Distinguish between maximum and minimum price controls and explain the
consequences of each
(v) Compute equilibrium values in elementary market models.

2.1 Definition of Demand

Demand refers to the quantity of a commodity that consumers are willing and able to
purchase at any given price over a given period of time. It is important to realize that
demand is not the same thing as want, need or desire. Only when want is supported by
the ability and willingness to pay the price does it become an effective demand and have
an influence on the market price. Hence demand in economics means effective demand.
It is different from desire in that it has to be supported by the ability to purchase the
product/service.
The price of a commodity is most important factor/determinant of demand. All factors
affecting demand other than the price are referred to as conditions for demand. While
analyzing the relationship between price and quantity of demand economists assume that
all factors affecting demand remain constant. An individual demand for a given good can

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be presented in a form of a demand schedule. A demand schedule is a table showing
quantity of a commodity that could be purchased at various prices. The Table 2.1 shows an
individuals demand for commodity X.
Price per unit in Kshs Consumers‟ weekly demand
6 65
5 70
4 80
3 90
2 100
1 115
Table 2.1 Demand schedule for an individual commodity
From the table, 65 units of commodity X will be demanded per week if the price is Kshs
6 per unit.
A demand schedule can be represented in the form of a graph known as a demand curve.
Figure 2.1 shows the demand curve for commodity X. The curve shows graphically the
relationship between quantity demanded and the price of the commodity. A demand
curve has a negative slope. It slopes downwards from left to right showing that as the
price of a commodity falls demand increases. The inverse relationship between the price
of a commodity and the quantity demanded is what is referred as the law of demand.
Price per unit

d
6

1 d
0
65 70 80 90 100 115
Quantity demand
Figure 2.1 The law of negatively sloped demand

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This law states that, “ceteris paribus (other things remaining constant), the
lower the
price of a commodity the greater the quantity demanded by the
individual and vice
versa”.
Exceptions to the Law of Demand
There are some demand curves that slopes upwards from left to right showing that as the
prices of a product rise more is demanded and vice versa. This type of demand curve is
known as regressive, exceptional or abnormal demand curve and occurs in the following
situations:
i. When there is fear of a more drastic price changes in the future. This will
causes consumers to increase there quantity demanded to avoid paying a
higher price in the future. This situation is often found in the stock exchange
where there is often an increase in the demand of shares of a company if its
shares are expected to increase.
ii. In the case of giffen goods. This refers to basic foodstuffs that constitute a
high proportion of the budget of low income families. When the price of a
giffen good rises, the proportion of the total income of individuals who
consumes these giffen goods rises and since such consumers are worse off in
real terms, they can no longer afford to consume other more expensive
commodities like meat and fruits. To make up for the goods they can no
longer afford to buy, they are more likely to purchase more of basic
foodstuffs; conversely when the price of basic foodstuffs falls. They become
better of in real terms and are likely to buy more or relatively more expensive
foodstuffs and less basic foodstuffs.
Goods of ostentation (Veblen goods). These are commodities whose prices falls in
the
upper price ranges and that have a snob appeal. The wealthy are usually concerned about
status. Believing that only goods at high prices are worth buying and worth the effect of
distinguishing them from other consumers. In the case of such commodities, a firm
increasing its prices may find that the sales of its product increase and at lower prices less
of the commodity may be bought as the commodity is rejected as being substandard.
Consumers often in making comparisons between similar products with different prices
opt for relatively more expensive product believing it to be better. As prices increase
15
demand increases this is referred to as sonob effect. Examples of goods of ostentation are
expensive perfume, jewellery, cars clothes, etc. The demand curve will be positively
slopping as indicated in Figure 2.2.

P2

P1
d

Q1 Q2 Quantity
Figure 2.2 positively slopped demand curve

2.2 The Determinants of Demand

The demand of the product can be considered from the standpoint of either individual
demand or market demand. Demand for any commodity can be considered from two
points of view:
(a) Individual demand is the amount the individual is willing and able to buy at
a
given price and over a given period of time. Factors affecting individual demand
are;
- Price of the product
- Price of other related goods
- Consumer‟s income
- Consumer‟s tastes and preferences
- Future expectation in price changes
- Advertising
- Other factors such as subsidies, climate change etc.
The price of the product. When deciding whether or not to buy a particular product,
an
individual will compare the price of the product and the amount of utility or satisfaction
expected to be received from the product. If the price is considered worth the anticipated
16
utility the individual will buy the product and if not will not buy. A decrease in the price of a
product will probably increase individual‟s demand for it since the amount of utility obtained
is likely to be worth the lower price. Conversely a rise in the price of a product will probably
result in a fall in demand, as the amount of utility received is less likely to be worth the higher
price to be paid. An example of this phenomenon is the hotel industry in Kenya. There is
usually an increase in domestic tourism during the low season when many Kenyans consider
the lower hotel prices to be worth the level of satisfaction they are receiving. During the
high season when the hotel prices are high, many do not consider the satisfaction they are
receiving to be worth.
If the amount a consumer is willing and able to purchase due to change in the price, a
change in the quantity demanded is said to take place. If on the other hand the amount the
consumer is willing and able to purchase changes because of a change in the price of a
given commodity leads to a change in the quantity demanded will be undertaken later in
utility analysis and indifference curve analysis.
The prices of related goods. The demand for all goods is interrelated in that they
are competing for consumer‟s limited income. Two peculiar interrelationships can be;
Substitutes goods such as tea and coffee butter and margarine, beef and mutton, a bus ride
and a matatu ride, a mango and an orange, CDs and cassettes.
Two goods, X and Y are said to be substitutes if a rise in the price of one commodity, say Y,
leads to a rise in the demand of the other commodity X. If the price of tea increases
consumers will find coffee relatively cheaper to tea as a result demand for coffee
increases. Substitutes are commodities that can be used in place of other goods. This
phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 2.3. The graph shows the relationship between the
prices of tea over the quantity for coffee. If the price of tea increases from P1 to P2 the
quantity of coffee demanded increases from Q1 to Q2.

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 Price (tea)
P2

P1

Q1 Q2
Quantity (coffee)

Figure 2.3 Demand curve for substitutes

Compliments goods such as shoe and polish, pen and ink cars and petrol, computers and
software, bread and margarine, hamburgers and chips, tapes and tape recorders. Demand
for some commodities can also be affected by changes in the prices of the complementary
if a rise in the price of one of the goods, say A leads to the fall in the demand of another
food, say B. Complimentary goods are usually jointly demanded in the sense that the use
of one requires or is enhanced by the use of the other. Figure 2.4 illustrates the
relationship between complementary goods graphically. For example if the price of cars
is lowered demand for petrol increases because more cars will be bought/demanded. The
curve shows the relationship between the price and of a car and quantity demanded for
petrol. If the price of cars falls from P2 to P1 the quantity demanded for petrol increases
from Q1 to Q2.

Changes in disposal real income. An individual‟s level of income has an important

effect on the level of demand for most products. If income increases demand for the
better quality goods and services increases. This relationship however, depends on the type
of goods and level of consumers‟ income. The three types of are goods;
Normal gods these are goods whose demand increases as income increases. The demand
for normal goods increases continuously with increase in income. It tends to become
gently as people reach the desired level of satisfaction.

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 Price (cars)
P2

P1

Q1 Q2
Quantity (petrol)
Figure 2.3 Demand curve for commentary goods
Inferior goods refer to goods for consumers with low income levels such that as
income increases its demand falls. At low level of income, these individuals will tend to
consume large amount of these goods but as income increases they buy other goods
which they consider superior thus demanding less of the inferior goods. At very low level
of income an inferior good behave like a normal good only to behave inferior as income
increases. Necessities these are goods which consumers cannot do without such as salt,
match boxes among others. Their income demand curve tends to remain constant other
than at the lowest levels of income as indicated in Figure 2.5

Quantity
Figure 2.5 Demand curve for a necessity
Changes in consumer tastes, preferences and fashion Personal tastes play an
important
role in governing the consumer‟s demand for certain goods. For example, preferring to
consume imported commodities despite them being extremely expensive. Prevailing

19
fashions are an important determinant of tastes. The demand for clothing for example,
particularly is susceptible to changes in fashion.

Level of advertising is also an important determinant of demand. In highly

competitive markets, a successful advertising campaign will increase the demand of a
particular product while at the same time decreasing the demand for competing products.
Increase in advertising will increase demand in the following ways;
- it helps inform about the product of a firm
- Can introduce new products to the market.
- Induce individuals to frequently use the product/service
Factors affecting advertising policies
- cost of advertising
- mode of advertising
- impact of advertising on the demand of the product
- The target group (old, young)
- number of competitors and quality of their products
- The market share of the firm and the degree of competition
- Future expectations in price changes
- Government policies and taxes
- Appropriate time to make advertisements
- Cultural background
- Language
The availability of credit consumers. This factor especially affects the demand
for durable consumer goods which are often purchased on credit. For example a decrease
in availability of credit or the introduction of more stringent credit terms is likely to lead
to a reduction in the demand of some durable consumer goods.
The government policy The government may influence the demand of a
given commodity through legislation. For example making it mandatory for everyone
to wear seatbelts. The consumers inevitably get to purchase more seatbelts as a result.
Subsidies it‟s the opposite of taxation. When the government grants subsidies prices of
goods falls leading to increase in demand and vice versa.

20
 Climate change demand of various goods varies depending on weather. For instance
there is high demand for woolen clothes during rainy reasons
(b) Market factors affecting individual demand
It‟s a horizontal demand sum of the demands for individual consumers. It refers to
quantity demanded in the market at each price by individual consumers. For this reason all
the factors affecting individual demand will affect market demand. The market demand
for a commodity can be derived graphically as in Figure 2.6.

Mkt dd curve

+ P3 + P3 = Pmkt
P1 P2

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q Mkt
Figure 2.6 Derivation of market demand
Where P1, P2 and P3 are individual prices Q1, Q2 and Q3 are individual quanties
demanded. Pmk is the market price qmk is market quantity demanded.
Other factors affecting market demand
Change in population market demand is influenced by the size of the population, the
composition of the population in terms of age sex as well as geographical distributions.
Distribution of income more evenly distribution of income may increase demand for
normal goods while at the same time it may lower the demand for luxuries.

2.3 Movement Along and Shift in Demand Curve

Demand is a multi- variant function in the sense that it is influenced by so many factors
such as the price of the commodity, the price of other related commodities, consumer
incomes etc. The price of the commodity is the most important determinant of demand
and its relationship with the quantity demanded give rise to a demand curve.
Movement along demand curve is demonstrated by a change in the price of a
good as
shown in Figure 2.7 by movement from one point to another on the same demand curve.

21
 d

P1 A

Price x

P2 B
d

Q1 Q2 Quantity X
Figure 2.7 Movement along a demand curve
A change in price of a good from P1 to P2 causes a movement from point A to B along the
demand curve. This movement along demand curve shows a change in quantity
demanded which is an increase or a fall in the quantity demanded. A shift in the demand
curve is caused as a result of a change in any factor affecting demand other than price
such as changes in consumer income tastes and preferences. For this reason all other
factors affecting demand other than price of the product are also referred to as shifting
factors as illustrated in Figure 2.8
Any change in the shifting factors will cause changes in demand (an increase or a fall in
demand). A shift to the right (dd to d1d1) shows an increase in demand while a shift from (dd
to d2d2) shows a decrease in demand.

d1
d

d2

Price

d1
d
d2
Q2 Q Q1 Quantity X

Figure 2.8 Shift in demand curve

22
Terms used in demand
(a) Joint demand it is the demand whereby two commodities are always demanded
together. One good cannot be demanded in the absence of the other such as car
and petrol.
(b) Competitive/rival goods it is the demand for goods which are substitutes such
tea
and coffee.
(c) Derived demand where goods are demanded in order to provide goods such as
cotton is required to produce cotton wool
(d) Composite demand (several uses) where some goods are used for
different
purposes such as steel for cars machine etc

2.4 Definition of Supply

Individual supply refers to the quantity of a given commodity that a producer is willing
and able to sell at a given price over a specific time period.
Market supply refers to horizontal summation of individuals producers/firms supply in the
market.
The supply schedule and the supply curve demonstrate the relationship between market
prices and quantities that suppliers are willing to offer for sale. Supply differs from
“existing stock” or the amount available because it is concerned with amounts actually
brought to the market. The basic law of supply states that, “a greater quantity will be
supplied at a higher price than at a lower price”. An individual producer‟s supply
schedule shows alternative quantities of a given commodity that a producer is willing and
able to sell various alternative prices for that commodity ceteris paribus (other things
remaining constant).
23
 Price per unit in Kshs Quantity supplied each week in units
30 500
31 550
32 600
33 650
34 675
35 700
36 725

Table 2.2 Supply schedule for commodity Y

This can be represented by the use of a graph referred to as a supply curve as shown in
Price X

37

36

35

34

33

32

31

500 550 600 650 700 750 800

Quantity X
Figure 2.9 Supply curve

A supply curve show the relationship between the price of the commodity and the
quantity supplied. The relationship is a direct one as the supply curve slopes upwards
from left to right. The direct relationship is a graphical representation of the law of supply
which states that other things remaining constant a greater quantity will be supplied at
higher prices and vice versa.
Determinants of Supply
The supply of a good is influenced by the following factors

24
 - price of the commodity in the market
- the price of other related goods
- cost of production
- state of technology
- objective of the firm
- future expectations of price changes
- climate
- government policy and taxes
Price of the good as the price of a given commodity say X rises, with the costs and
the
prices of all other goods remaining unchanged, the production of commodity X becomes
more profitable. The existing firms are therefore likely to expand their profit and new
firms are to be attracted into the industry. It should be noted however, that not just the
current rise but also expectations concerning the future increases prices may motivate
producers. The total supply of goods is expected to increase as the prices rise.
Prices of other related goods changes in the prices of other commodities may affect
the supply of a commodity whose price does not change.
Substitutes; two goods X and Y are said to be substitutes in production if the supply of
good X is inversely/negatively related to the price of Y. For instance barley and wheat or
tea and coffee. If a firm producing both tea and coffee notices that the price of tea is
rising may decide to allocate more resources to tea at the expense of coffee. The supply
of coffee will therefore fall as the price of tea increases. However, the movement of
resource from one use to the other is dependent on the mobility of factors of production.
Complimentary goods; two goods X and Y are said to be compliments if an increase in

the price of X causes an increase in the supply of Y such as a vehicle and petrol.
Jointly supplied goods; two goods X and Y are said to be jointly supplied if an increase
in the price of X causes an increase in the price of Y such as petrol and paraffin. If the
demand for petrol increases the supply of petrol will rise and at the same time the supply of
paraffin will increase.
N/B The extent to which firms can move from one industry to another in search of higher
profits depends on occupational and geographical mobility of the factors of production.
25
Prices of factors of production as the prices of factors of production used
intensively by producers of a certain commodity rise, so do the firm costs. This will cause
the supply to fall since some firms will eventually leave the industry. Similarly, if the
price of one factor of production, say land, increases, some firms may move out of the
production of land intensive products into the production of goods that are intensive in
other factors of production which are relatively cheaper. Finally other less efficient
firms will make losses and eventually leave the market.
The state of technology is a society‟s pool of knowledge concerning industrial
activities and its improvements. Technological improvements or progress such as
improvements in machine performance, management and organization or an improvement in
quality of raw materials leads to lower costs through increased productivity and increases
the profit margin in every unit sold. This leads to increase in supply.
Future expectations of price change Supply of a good is not only influenced
by the current prices but future expected price as well. For example, if the price of a good
is expected to rise the firm may decide to reduce the amount of supply in the current period.
This is to enable them pile stock which they can offer for sale when prices increase in the
future. This is known as hoarding.
Government policies through tax imposition on goods increases the cost of
production hence decline in production and supply
Through subsidies -a grant to citizens of a country which lowers the cost of production
hence encourages production and increases in supply.
Through price control can either by price minimization where prices are fixed above
equilibrium encouraging producers to produce more hence increase in supply. It may be
undertaken through price maximization where prices are fixed below equilibrium
discouraging production hence decline in supply.
Though quotas where the government puts restriction or limit production of various
goods which leads to decline in supply.

Weather /climate the supply of agricultural products is considerably affected by changes

in weather conditions. Output in agriculture is subject to variations in weather from year
to the next. An excellent growing season associated with favorable weather conditions

26
 will result in a bumper harvest leading to an increase in supply. An unfavorable season
that results in a poor harvest may be viewed as an increase in the average costs of
production because a given expenditure on inputs yields a lower input than it would in a
good/ favorable season. A bad harvest is represented by a leftward shift of the supply
curve.
Objectives of the firm a business may pursue several objectives such as
sales maximization, market leadership, quality leadership, survival, profit maximization,
social responsibility. Firms with sales maximization as an objective aim at supplying
greater quantities of its product than a firm aiming at profit maximization where the
later supplies less quantities but at a higher price in order to maximize the profit.
Incidence of strikes lead to a reduction in supply of a product. The supply
of manufactured goods is particularly likely to be affected by industrial disputes because of
generally stronger unions in the industrial sector.
Market supply
The market supply curve represents the alternative amount of a good supplied per period of
time at various alternative prices by all the producers of goods in the market. The market
supply of goods therefore will be influenced by all the factors that determine individual
producer supply and all the number of producers of goods in the market. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 2.10 It therefore follows that the market supply curve will have a gently
slope than individual supply curves.
Figure 2.10 Derivation of market supply curve
Mkt supply curve s
s s s
+ P2 + P3 = P mkt
P1
s s s s

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q Mkt

Producer 1 Producer 2 Producer 3 Market supply

27
2.5 Movement Along and Shift in Supply Curve
The relationship between price of a commodity and quantity supplied give rise to a
supply curve. Any changes in the price of a good causes change in the quantity supplied.
This can be traced by the movement along supply curve as shown in Figure 2.11
The movement from point A to B is caused by changes in price from P1 to P2 which
bring fourth the movement along the supply curve.

s
B
P2

Price A

Q1 Q2 Quantity
Figure 2.11 Movement along supply curve
A shift of supply curve is caused by a change in any other factors affecting supply other
than the price of the goods. This shift indicates changes in supply as a result of e.g.
advances in technology which makes it cheaper to produce goods and services and
therefore their supply will increase. Similarly incase of increase in cost of production will
lead to a fall in quantity supplies as shown in Figure 2.12. A shift to the right from S1S1 to
S3S3 shows a fall in supply.

S3 S1 S2

S3 S1 S2

Q 3 Q1 Q2

Figure 2.12 Shift in supply curve

28
2.6 The Concept of Equilibrium in Economics
Equilibrium in economics refers to a situation in which the forces determine the behavior
of variables are in balance and therefore exert no pressure on these variables to change. In
equilibrium the actions of all economic agents are mutually consistent. Market
equilibrium occurs when the quantity of a commodity demanded in the market per unit
equals the quantity of the commodity supplied to the market over the same period of
time. Geometrically, equilibrium occurs at the intersection point of the commodity‟s
market demand and market supply curve. The price and quantity at the equilibrium are
known as the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity respectively. The price Pe is also
referred to as market clearing point. At this equilibrium point the amount that producers
are wiling and able to supply in the market is just equal to the amount that consumers are
wiling and able to demand. Both consumers and producers are satisfied and there is no
pressure on prices to change and thus the market for goods is said to be at equilibrium.
This is illustrated in Figure 2.13 Equilibrium point
d s

Pe Equilibrium point

Price
s d

Qe
Quantity X
Figure 2.13 Equilibrium point
Equilibrium can be defined as a state of rest or balance in which no economic forces are
being generated to change the situation. These economic forces are excess demand and
supply and are illustrated in Figure 2.14. At P1, the quantity demanded by consumers is
Q1 units but producers are willing to supply at price a quantity of Q2 units. Therefore
there is an excess supply equal to (Q2 -Q1). Excess supply refers to a situation where
quantity demanded is less than quantity supplied at prevailing market price. Producers
may therefore react to the excess supply by lowering prices of their products so as to sale
the unsold stocks. Excess supply is referred to as a buyer‟s market since suppliers may be

29
obliged to lower their prices in order to dispose of excess output a situation which is
favorable to buyers. Excess supply represents an economic force that exerts downward
pressure on prices. At P2 the quantity demanded is Q2 but producers are wiling to supply
Q1 units of goods. Therefore, there will be excess demand equal to (Q2-Q1). This
situation of excess demand is referred to as sellers market because competition among
buyers will force up the price due to the existing shortage Excess supply is a situation
where quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied at prevailing market prices.

P1
Excess supply (surplus)

Price Pe e

Excess demand
P2

Q1 Qe Q3 Q2 d
Quantity
Figure 2.14 Mechanism of market equilibrium

In this case, the price of goods will rise because of competition among buyers. Excess
demand represents an economic force on prices which exerts upward pressure. Prices P1
and P2 are disequilibrium prices and market is said to be at disequilibrium. Therefore, the
general rule for equilibrium is that demand should equal supply represented by Qe and
Pe.

2.6.1 Mathematics Derivation of Equilibrium

Exercise 2.1

30
You are given two functions; the demand function and the supply function as follows:
Demand function Qd = 3550 - 266p
Supply function Qs = 1526 + 240p
Required:
Determine the equilibrium market price and quantity.
Solution

Qd = Qs
3550 - 266p =1526 + 240p
2550 - 1526 = 240p -266p
2024 = 506p
506 506
4 =p
Qd or Qs = 3550 -266(4)
= 2486

Exercise 2.2
The following economic function has been derived by the finance manager of Kenya
Breweries ltd.
Qa = 3p2 - 4p 6p - 4 - supply
Q6 - 24 - p2
Where P represents prices and Q represents quantity.
Which of the two function could represent in demand curve and supply curve and why. At
what value of price and quantity is the market in equilibrium?
∆Qa = 6p - 4 - supply curve
∆p
∆Qb = -2P - Demand curve. The price is always negative
∆P
Qa = Q6
3P2 - 4P = 24 - P2
3P2 + P2 - 4P = 24
4P2 - 4P - 24 = 0
4P2 - 4P - 24 = 0
= P2 - P - 6 = 0

31
P2 - 3P + 2P - 6 = 0
P (P - 3) + 2(P - 3) = 0 P
= 3 or P = 2
Q = 3 x 32 - 4 x 3 = 15

2.6.2. Types of Equilibrium

The are three types of equilibrium; stable, unstable and neutral.
(i) Stable equilibrium If there is a force that distracts market equilibrium then
there will adjustment that brings back the prices and quantity demand to the
initial equilibrium. This is well explained in the previous section.
(ii) Unstable equilibrium equilibrium is said to be equilibrium if there is
divergence from the equilibrium set by forces which push the prices further
away from the equilibrium prices. For example, in case of a giffen good which
assumes a demand curve which is positive as indicated in Figure 2.15

s
d
P1

Pe

P2
d
s

Q1 Qe Q3 Q4
Figure 2.15 Knife edge equilibrium
At P1 there is excess demand and this will exert an upward pressure on the prevailing
market thus push it further away from the equilibrium. At p2 there is excess demand
and this will exert an upward pressure on the prevailing market prices thus pushing it
further away from the equilibrium. This type of equilibrium is known as knife edge
equilibrium. A small in price will send the system further away from the equilibrium.

32
(iii) Neutral equilibrium occurs when initial equilibrium is disturbed and forces of
disturbances leads to a new equilibrium point. It may occur due to a shift of
either demand or supply or through the effect of taxes.
The effect of a shift of demand and supply on market equilibrium.
(a) Shift in demand
Increase in demand. Consider Figure 2.16 which illustrates the effect of an
increase
on demand on market equilibrium. An increase in demand is represented by a shift of
the demand curve from d1d1 to d2d2. The immediate effect will be shortage and this
will force prices to rise leading to increase in quantity supplied until equilibrium is re-
established at Pe.
Fall in demand Consider Figure 2.17 which illustrates the effect of a fall in demand
on the market equilibrium.
A fall in demand is represented by a shift of demand curve to the left from d1d1 to
d2d2. The immediate effect will be a surplus and this will force the producers to
lower the price in an attempt to get rid of excess stock. This fall in price will led to
decline in quantity supplied until a new equilibrium is established at Pe1; Qe1

d2
s
d1

P1

Pe
d2
s

d1
Q1 Q2
Figure 2.16 Increase in demand

33
 d1
s
Price d2

P1

Pe1
d1
s

d2
Qe1 Qe
Quantity

Figure 2.17 fall in demand

(b) Shift in supply
Increase in supply Consider Figure 2.18 which illustrates the effect of an increase
of
supply on the market equilibrium. An increase in supply is represented by a shift of
supply curve to the right from S1S1 to S2S2. The immediate effect will be surplus
and this will force the producer to lower their prices in order to get rid of excess
stock. This fall will lead to an increase in quantity demanded until a new equilibrium
is established at Pe.

S1
d
Price
S2
P2

Pe1
S1
S2
d

Qe Q1
Quantity
Figure 2.18 Increase in supply

34
A fall in supply Consider the Figure 2.19 which illustrates the effect of a fall in supply
on the market equilibrium. A fall in supply is represented by a shift of supply curve to the
left from S1S1 to S2S2. The immediate effect will be shortage and thus will force the
prices to go up leading to a fall in quantity demanded until a new equilibrium is
established at Pe1, Qe2.
S2

Price d

S1
Pe1

Pe
S2
S1
d

Qe2 Qe
Quantity
Figure 2.19 Fall in supply
Multiple Changes Consider Figures 2.20 to 2.22 which shows a simultaneous
increase in cost of production and a fall in the price of a complimentary good. An
increase in cost of production will lead to a fall in supply. This is represented by a shift
of supply curve to the left. A fall in the price of a complimentary good will lead to an
increase in demand. This is represented by a shift of demand to the right.
S2
Price
Pe1
S1

Pe
S2

S1

Qe Qe 1
Quantity
Figure 2.20 Increase in the cost of production

35
 Price d2 s
d1
Pe1

Pe d2

s
d1

Qe Qe1
Quantity
Figure 2.21 Fall in the price of complimentary

d2

S2
d1
Pe1 S1

Pe
d2
S2 S1
d1
Qe Q1
Figure 2.22 Multiple changes

2.7 Price Control

This refers to a deliberate action by the government to artificially impose through
legislation the prices of certain goods and services. Such imposed prices are referred
to as flat prices. These flat prices may be a maximum or a minimum price. A
maximum price refers to that price above which a good or a service cannot be sold. A
minimum price refers to that price below which a good/service cannot be sold.
The government may find it necessary to control the prices of certain good/service
because:

36
(i) Cheapness It may be objective of the government to keep price of certain
goods and services at a level at which they can be afforded by most people
hence protecting the consumer being exploited by producers
(ii) Maintenance of income. The government may want to keep the income of
certain producers at a higher level than that which would be supplied by
market forces demand and supply. Thus the government is able to maintain
the low income producers in the market.
(iii) Price stability if there is a wide variation in the price of product year to year
the government may wish to iron out these variations for the interests of both
producers and consumers. This price control will act as one of the methods to
curb inflation.
Maximum price control/price ceiling
Consider Figure 2.23, if the government imposes a price ceiling, given by P1 there will
an excess demand or shortage equivalent to Q2- Q. Under normal circumstances this
economic force of excess demand will exert an upward pressure prices. However, in this
case the price cannot go above P1, since P1 is the maximum price. This price is unable
to fulfill the rationing function leading to a demand for a centrally administered
system of rationing of the good in question.

s
Price d

Pe
Maximum price /
price ceiling
P1
d
s

Q1 Qe Q2
Quantity
Figure 2.23 Maximum price ceiling
Other effects of Price controls
(i) Rise of black market where goods are sold above legal price even above the
equilibrium price.

37
 (ii) Shortages are likely to become chronic as producers move away from
production of price controlled goods.
(iii) Research and development will be encouraged as the producers move from
the price controlled industry.
(iv) There will be increased costs efficiency in production by firms as profits can
only be increased by reducing costs.
Minimum price/price floor
This refers to the action taken by the government to set a price below which a
good/service cannot be sold. They are normally imposed above the equilibrium price
since the government feels that the price determined by forces of demand and supply is too
low as illustrated in Figure 2.24
If the government imposes a minimum price by P1, the immediate effect will be surplus
given by Q1 Q2. Under normal circumstances excess supply exerts a down ward pressure
on prices, but in this case prices cannot go below P1 for it is a minimum price. The
government then has to intervene by buying excess stock or limiting it to prevent prices
from going down.

Price d s

P1 Price flour

Pe

s d
Q1 Qe Q2
Quantity
Figure 2.24 Price four
Other effects of price floors
(i) In the case of a minimum produce price floor, (low income producers) will
have a stabilizing effect on their income.
(ii) In the case of minimum wages employed workers will be guaranteed an
income compatible with the cost of living.

38
 (iii) Some producers may be wiling to dispose off their product below the
minimum legal prices especially in the case of labour.
(iv) In the case of minimum wage rate, it will lead to reduction in employment.
Advantages of price control
(a) Protects consumers, especially the low income consumers from price increases by
producers.
(b) Ensures that producers have a reasonable income which is subject to inflation
(c) Contributes to industrial peace especially if they constitute part of the
comprehensive income policy and a maximum price is fixed on some basic goods.
(d) It may be associated with a decrease in price and an increase in output such as the
case of a monopolist overcharging for its products and is forced to lower prices.
In this case the monopolist may accompany the fall in price with an increase in
output in order to compensate for loss in revenue.
(e) It may be used as one of the several counters of inflation.

2.8 Elasticity of Demand

It can be defined as the ratio of the relative change of a dependent variable to changes in
another independent variable. Elasticity can be analyzed in terms of demand and supply.
It can also be defined as a measure of responsiveness of quantity demanded of a good in
to changes in income or prices of other related goods. There are three types of elasticity;
price elasticity of demand, cross elasticity of demand and income elasticity of demand.
Price elasticity of demand it‟s the measure of responsiveness of the quantity
demanded of
a commodity to changes in its own price. It is also referred to as own price elasticity. It
abbreviated as PED/ED.
It is calculated as follows

39
 PED = Proportionate change in quantity demanded
Proportionate change in price =
∆Q/Qo
∆P/Po
= ∆Q ÷ ∆P
Qo Po

= ∆Q x Po
Qo ∆P

PED = ∆Q. P
∆P Q

If changes in prices cause more than proportionate change in quantity demanded it is said
to be price elastic, in this case ED >1. If changes in the price causes less than
proportionate change in quantity demanded, then demand is said to be price inelastic this
is represented by ED < 1. If changes in price causes proportionate change inn quantity
demanded then, demand is said to be unit elastic or unitary elastic where ED= 1.
To illustrate price elasticity consider the Table 2.3 which shows demand schedule of
commodity X.
Price Quantity
10 100
5 150

Calculate the PED when the price changes from Kshs per unit 10 to Kshs 5 per unit.
PED = ∆Q . P = Q2 - Q1 . P
∆P Q P2 - P1 Q
= 150 x 10 = 30 = -3 absolute = /3/ = 3
5 100 10
This price elastic because 3 >1
The price elasticity of demand is classified into two:
(i) Point elasticity
(ii) Arc elasticity
The point elasticity of demand measures elasticity at a particular point along the demand
curve. It is calculated using the formulae ∆Q . P
∆P Q

40
 Graphically illustrated as: d

Price
Point elasticity
P
d

Q Quantity
Figure 2.25 Point elasticity
Calculate the point elasticity of demand given that Qd= 4P +2p3 -3 Q = 4+2-3 =3
Where P =1
Solution
PED = ∆Q. P P=1 Qd = 4 (1) + 2(13)-3 = 3
∆P Q
∆Q = 4P + 2P3 - 3
∆P
= 4 + 6P2
But P = 1
Therefore ∆Q = 4 + 6 x 12 = 10
∆P
From the formular ∆Q . P
∆P Q
10 x 1/3 = 3.3 price elastic
Calculate point elasticity of demand given Qd = 1/p = P2 + 1 when P = 2
Qd = ½ + 22 + 1
Q = 35.5
∆Q = P-1 + P2 + 1
∆P
= -P2 + 2P
= -1 + 2P
22
= 3.75
From the formular ∆Q . P
∆P Q
= 3.75 x 2 = 1.36
5.5
Arc Elasticity of demand

41
This measures the elasticity of demand between two points on the demand curve. Arc
elasticity is the coefficient of the price elasticity between two points on the demand
curve. It is therefore an estimate of the elasticity along a range of the demand curve. This
estimate improves as the arc becomes small and approaches a point in the limit. Arc
elasticity can calculated for both linear and non-linear demand curves using the following
formula: It is illustrated as in Figure 2.26
d

P1 A Arc elasticity

B
P2 d

Q1 Q2
Figure 2.26 Arc elasticity of demand
∆P . P where P = P 1 + P2
∆P Q Q 2
Q + Q2
2
= P1 + P2 x 2____
2 Q1 + Q2
= Pr + P2
Q1 + Q2
Therefore ∆Q . P1 = P2
∆P Q1 + Q2
Calculate Arch Elasticity of demand given by
Qd = 24 - P2
When P1 = 2
P2 = 3
Solution
PED = ∆Q . P1 + P2
∆P Q1 + Q2
2
Q = 24 - 2 to get Q
= 20
Q = 24 - 32 Use of P2 = Q2
= 15

42
∆Q = Q2 - Q1 = 15 - 20 = -5
∆P P2 - P1 3 -2 2

PED = -5 x 2 + 3
20 + 15

-5 x 5 = -5
35 7
= 0.714 price inelastic since PED

Exercise 2.1
The demand for a commodity is 5 units when the price is Sh.1000 per unit. When the
price per unit falls to Sh.600 the demanded rise to 6 units. Calculate the arc and price
elasticity of demand

Point PED = ∆Q. P

∆P Q
= 1 x 1000 = -2 = -1 = 0.5 price inelastic
- 400 5 4 2
Because ED > 1

Arch PED = ∆q x P1 + P2
∆P Q1 + Q2
1__ x 1000 + 600
- 400 5+6
= 1__ x 1600 -4_ 0.36
- 400 11 11
d
Price
P1

P2 d

Q1 Q2
Quantity
Figure 2.7 Graphical illustration of price elasticity of demand

43
 Slope / gradient = ∆Y which
∆P
ED = ∆Q . P
∆P Q
but ∆Q = 1_
∆P ∆P
∆Q
= 1____
gradient
Therefore ∆Q = 1____
∆P gradient
Making PED 1____ P
gradient Q

2.8.1 Types of elasticity

There are five types of elasticity of demand.
(i) Perfectly elastic demand. Demand is said to be perfectly elastic when the
consumers are willing to buy an amount of a commodity at a given price, but non
at a slightly higher price. In this case elasticity of demand is equally to infinity.
The will be a horizontal straight line as illustrated in Figure 2.28. This is a case of a
commodity in a perfectly competitive market. Where an increase in price may lead
to a loss of all customers.

Price

E=∞
P d

Q1 Q2 Quantity
Figure 2.28 Perfect elastic demand

44
(ii) Elastic demand. Demand is said to be price elastic when a charge in price
causes more than proportionate change in quantity demanded. In this case the
value of elasticity of demand is greater than 1 and the demand curve will be
gently sloped as indicated in Figure 2.29. This implies that if prices increase
from P1 to P2 the quantity demanded falls in greater proportion from Q1 to
Q2 and vice versa. This is a case of luxury commodity which consumes can do
without or a case of a substitute.

Price Price
d
P2 P2

P1 P1
d

Q2 Q1 Quantity Q2 Q1 Quantity

Figure 2.29 Elastic demand

(iii) Unity elastic demand. Demand is said to unit elastic if changes in price cause
proportionate change in quantity demanded. If price increase quantity falls in
the same proportion and vice versa. ED = 1 and the demand curve will be
rectangular hyperbola as illustrated in Figure 2.30. This is a case of a good
that lies between a luxury and necessity such as soap opera film or movie.

d
Price
P2
d
P1

Q2 Q1 Quantity
Figure 2.30 Unity elastic demand

45
(iv) Inelastic demand. Demand is said to be price inelastic if changes in price
causes less than proportionate change in quantity demanded. If prices
increases the quantity falls in less proportion and if the prices falls the
quantity demanded increases in less proportion ED < 1 as illustrated in Figure
2.31. This is a case of a good which is a necessity. These are goods which
consumers can not do without but need not be consumed in fixed amount like an
absolute necessity such a staple food like ugali and milk. It also applies in the
case of habit forming goods like beer and cigarettes.

P2

P1

Q2 Q1 Quantity
Figure 2.31 Inelastic demand

(v) Perfectly inelastic demand. Demand is said to be perfectly price inelastic if

changes in price has no effect on the quantity demand (ED= 0). In this case
the demand curve will be vertical straight as illustrated in Figure 2.32. This is a
case of a good which is an absolute necessity. A good that consumes cannot do
without and have to consume in fixed amounts such as salt.

Price d

P2
ED = 0
P1

Quantity

46
 Figure 2.32 Perfectly inelastic demand
Factors affecting price elasticity of demand
(i) Substitutability. If a substitute is available in the relevant price range, quantity

demanded will be elastic. The demand for a particular brand of cigarettes maybe
considered being elastic because if there is existence of other brands that are close
substitutes. However, the total demand for cigarettes may be inelastic because
there are no close substitutes for cigarette. It can hence be said that the greater the
number of substitutes for a given commodity, the greater will be its price
elasticity of demand.
(ii) The proportion of a consumer’s income spent on the commodity. If this proportion
is very small as in the case of match boxes, the quantity
demanded will tend to be inelastic. On the other hand if this proportion is
relatively large as for example in the case of meat, demand will tend to be elastic.
This implies that the greater the proportion of income which the price of the
product represents, the greater price elasticity of demand will end to be.
(iii) The extent to which the product is habit forming. Habit forming
products like
cigarettes or alcohol have a low price elasticity of demand. In the case of in
addiction to, say drugs, the price elasticity of demand is likely to be even lower.
(iv) The number of uses of a commodity. The greater the number of uses
of the
commodity, the greater the price of elasticity. The elasticity of alluminium for
example is likely to be much greater than of butter because butter is mainly used
as food while alluminium has hundreds of uses such as electrical wiring and
appliances.
(v) The length of adjustments. The longer the period allowed for adjustment in
the
quantity demanded as a commodity the greater its price elasticity is likely to be.
This is because it usually takes some time for new prices to be known and for
consumers to make the actual switch. Consumers adjust buying habits slowly. (vi)
The level of prices. If the ruling price is at the upper end of the demand curve,
quantity demanded is likely to be more elastic than if it was towards the lower
end. This is always true for a negatively sloped straight line demand curve.
47
 (vii) Necessities and luxuries Demand for luxury is likely to be price elastic
while the demand for necessities is generally price inelastic. However, this
depends with availability of close substitutes.
(viii) Width/size of the market the wide definition of the market of a good, the
lower is the price elasticity of demand. Thus for wide markets demand will tend
to be price inelastic while for a small market demand will tend to be price elastic. (ix)
Time demand for most goods and services tend to be more elastic in the long run
as compared to the short run period. This is because consumers will take some
time to respond to price changes. For instance, if the price of petrol falls relative
to diesel, it will take long for motorists to respond because they are locked in
existing investment in diesel engines.
(x) Durability of the commodity durable goods have low elasticity of demand or
they
are price elastic while perishable goods are price inelastic.
Importance of price elasticity of demand/economic application of
the concept of elasticity
(a) The consumer needs knowledge of elasticity when spending income where more
income is spent on goods whose elasticity of demand is inelastic and vice versa.
(b) The government imposes taxes with inelastic demand and vice versa.

Devaluation when a country devalues or lowers the value of its currency. The
currency is made cheaper relative to other currencies. This makes a country‟s
exports cheaper for foreigners. Its import expensive for the residents. For a
country to benefit by increasing exports, the elasticity of demand must be high.
(c) Business/producers They use elasticity of demand on deciding on whether to

charge high or lower prices or even deciding on commodities to bring to the

market especially those which are price inelastic.

2.8.2 Income Elasticity of demand

It is the measure of responsiveness of demand due to change in income.
YED = ∆Q ∕Q
∆Y∕Y
48
Where income elasticity is positive this is a normal good. Where income elasticity is
negative this is an inferior good. When the demand of a good does not change with
increase in income then income elasticity is zero. In wealthy countries for instance basic
clothes will tend to have low income elasticity of demand while foreign will have high
elasticity of demand as income increases. In poor countries basic commodities will have
high income elasticity compared to manufactured expensive items.

Importance of Income Elasticity of Demand

(i) Business firms- if demand of a commodity is elastic to price, its possible to
revenue by reducing prices. Businesses use specific information to know
which price to increase to eliminate shortages or which price to reduce to
eliminate surpluses.
(ii) Government uses elasticity to determine the yield of indirect taxes. Inelastic
commodities are highly taxed. However, if demand of a commodity is elastic an
increase in tax will hinder production
(iii) Price elasticity is relevant for a country considering devaluation as a means of
rectifying balance of payment disequilibrium. Devaluation decreases imports
and increases exports. However, this will depend on demand of import and
export elasticities.
(iv) It helps to explain price instabilities in the agricultural sector
(v) Monopolists apply price discrimination by understanding the demand
elasticities. High price is charged to those markets with lower price elasticity

Factors affecting Income elasticity of demand

(i) Nature of the need that the commodity covers. For certain goods and services the
percentage of income spent declines as income increases such as food.

(ii) The initial level of income of a country(level of development) TV sets,

refrigerators, motors vehicles are considered as luxuries in underdeveloped
countries while they are considered as necessities in countries with high per
capita income.

49
(iii) Time period. The demand for most goods and services will tend to be income
elastic in the long run as compared to short run period. This is because the
consumption pattern adjusts with time and also with change in income.

Cross elasticity of demand

It is the measure of responsiveness of quantity demanded of a good due to changes in the

price of another related good. It is abbreviated as EXY where X and Y are to goods. It is
calculated as follows:

EXY = Proportionate change in quantity demanded of a good X

Proportionate change in quantity demanded of a good Y

∆Qx .Py
∆Py Qx

The sign of cross elasticity of demand is positive if the good X and Y are substitutes and
negative if X and Y are complimentary. The higher the absolute value of cross elasticity
of demand the stronger the degree of substutability or complimentaribility. The main
determinant of cross elasticity is the nature of the commodity relative to their uses. If
two goods can certify equally the same need the cross elasticity will be high and vice
versa.

Importance of cross elasticity of demand

(i) Protection of local industries. If the government imposes a tariff on a good with
the intention of protecting a local industry then the local product and the
imported product must be close substitutes for the government to achieve it
objectives

(ii) If a firm is in a competitive market, there a high positive elasticity of demand

between its products and those of competitors. For such a firm, it will not be in
it‟s interests to increase the price of its product as this may result to more than
proportionate reduction in its sales. However, it might consider lowering the
prices of its products in the hope of attracting customers from other firms.

50
(iii) For product with high degree of complimentarity, a fall in price of one of the
goods due to increase in supply will benefit the producers of a compliment
product due to an increase in sales. E.g. if there is a fall in prices of vehicles, due to
an increase in supply the suppliers of fuel experience an increase in sales
because more cars will be bought.

2.9 Elasticity of Supply

It is the measure of responses of quality supply of a commodity to change in the factors
affecting supply

Price elasticity of supply

It is the measure of responses of quality supplied of a commodity to change in its two
prices. It is abbreviated as ES and calculated as:
Proportional change in quality supplied
Proportional change in price
E.S= ∆Qs . P
∆P Qs
ES will have appositive value because of the direct relationship between the price of the
product and quality supplied.
If ES is greater than 1, then the supply is said to be price elastic If
Es <1 then supply is price inelastic
If Es =1 then supply is unit elastic.
Type of price elasticity of supply
1. Perfectly elastic supply
2. Elastic supply
3. Unit elastic supply
4. Inelastic supply
5. Perfectly inelastic supply.

Factors affecting price elasticity of supply

51
 a) Mobility of factors of production If they are highly mobile then supply will be
price elastic since more factors can be employed quickly when the prices increase
thus increase in supply
b) The level of employment of resources It refers to the utilization and allocation of
resources. If the factors are fully utilized supply will be price inelastic due to the
fact that all the facts are occupied and thus can not be mobilized in order to
increase supply. However if they are under employed, supply will be price
elastic.
c) Production period for product that take short period of time to produce their
supply tend to be price elastic. While thus that take a longer period will be price
inelastic because it will take a while before the products can reach the market. d)
Nature of the commodity Price elasticity of supply for perishable goods tend to be
inelastic due to the fact that the goods do not respond to price fall as they can not
be easily stored. On the other hand supply for durable goods tend to be price
elastic since they can be store when the price falls thus contracting supply.
e) Risk taking If the entrepreneurs are willing to take risk then supply of the products
will be price elastic. Risk taking will in return be determined by the prevailing
conditions in the economy. E.g. Political stability, security, government
incentives, infrastructure, etc.
f) Level of stock If it‟s high supply will be price elastic because if the price of a
good increases more of the good will is supplied from the stock
g) Time period Supply for most goods and services will tend to be more elastic in the
long run than in the short run because producer need more time to reorganize
factors of production so that they can increase supply of the products.
Importance of price elasticity of supply
i) If supply of a good is price elastic thus an increase in demand will benefit both
the producer and consumer of products because the producer will be in
apposition to supply relatively more of their products and consumer will
eventually pay a relatively lower price.
ii) If the supply of commodity I price inelastic business may risk losing revenue
when there is a fall in the price of their products. This is because they will be

52
 forced to sell their products at a loss or a reduced price margin, e.g. In the case of
perishable goods, however in the supply of the goods is price elastic the
business people may store their products when price fall thus contracting
supply e.g. the case of durable goods.

Relationship between total revenue and elasticity

a) Elastic demand Increase in price will reduce the total revenue while a
fall
in price increase the total revenue
b) Inelasticity demand Increase in price will reduce the total revenue while
a
fall in price causes reduction in total revenue.
c) Unit demand change in price will leave the price unchanged.
Application of elasticity in economic policy decisions
i. Products/services pricing decisions
ii. Customer spending programmes
iii. Production decisions
iv. Government policy orientation -Taxation policy
-Evaluation policies
-Price control/minimum
v. Price discrimination
vi. Shift of the tax burden

2.10 Review Questions

1. Define demand. Explain the law of demand by the help of a schedule and diagram
2. Discuss the assumptions and exceptions of law of demand
3. Distinguish between change in quantity demanded and change in demand.
4. Discuss the factors of change in demand.
5. Write short notes on the following
a) Abnormal demand curve
b) Joint demand
c) Composite demand
6. What do you mean by elasticity of demand? Explain it with the help of diagrams
53
7. Discuss factors which determine the elasticity of demand
8. How is elasticity of demand measured? Explain with examples
9. Explain the importance of elasticity of demand
10. Discuss the concept and importance of income elasticity and cross elasticity of
demand.
11. Distinguish between point elasticity and cross elasticity.
12. Define supply. Explain the law of supply and its assumptions
12. Distinguish between change in quantity supplied and change in supply
13. Discuss factors which affect supply
14. Explain the concept of elasticity of supply. How is elasticity of supply measured?
15. Discuss the factors of elasticity of supply

2.11 References
Saleemi M.A (2001) Economics Simplified (Revised Edition) Saleemi Publishers Ltd
(Pages 15-42)
Koutsoyiannis A; (1994), Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan Education Ltd

54
 LESSON THREE: THEORY OF CONSUMER

3.1 Introduction
It touches on satisfaction other than a customer desire from consuming a particular
commodity‟s. The satisfaction the consumers derives from consumption of commodity is
called utility. Average utility is the satisfactory per unit consumed on average. Marginal
utility is the incremental satisfaction brought about by consuming an extra unit of a
commodity. All this is assessed by two schools thought
a) Cardinality / Marginal utility Approach
b) Ordinals Approach Indifference

3.2 Cardinalist Marginal Utility Approach

This school of taught believes that utility satisfaction is measurable by use of cardinal
numbers. This theory assumes that the consumer‟s satisfaction can be measured in a unit
known as utils. An individual demands for a particular commodity because of the
satisfaction/utility received from consuming it. The cardinalist approach assumes that the
consumer‟s satisfaction or utility received from consuming a product/service. Up to a
point, the more units of a commodity the individual consumes per unit time the greater
the total utility received. Total utility is the total satisfaction received from consuming a
commodity. Marginal utility is the extra utility derived from the consumptions of one
more unit of a commodity, the consumption of all other goods remaining unchanged. It
explains that individual demand slopes downwards from left to right because of law of
diminishing marginal utilities.

The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility (DMU)

This law states that holding other factors constant as more and more units of a product are
consumed one after another the marginal utility falls as the total consumption increases..
Assumptions
1. The consumer is a rational being. As he/she consumes a commodity he goes for
those commodities that give maximum satisfaction.

55
 2. Price of commodity is constant hence marginal utility of money in constant
3. Quality of the commodity should be consumed in suitable and responsible unit
hence consumption should process commodity
4. Trend of the consumer‟s consumption should remain constant.
Exemption of the law of DMU
1) Desire for money, the more money one gets the more satisfaction.
2) Use of liquors-the more and more it is take the more the satisfaction
derived
3) Desire for knowledge
4) Personal hobbies/ habits, more and more of this will give high satisfaction.
Application of the law
a) It is applied on the bases of customers‟ behavior analysis.
b) It is applied in money whereby utility of money for poor people is greater than for
the rich.
c) It used in the base of progressive taxation whereby the higher the income the
higher the tax which led to dissatisfaction

N/B The law applies in many practical situations. For example a person on an exotic
holiday to the Maasai Mara will experience increasing in total utility as his holiday
proceeds but he is likely to derive greater satisfaction during the earlier days of his
holiday than during the late days.
The law of diminishing utility applies provided other factors affecting the consumer‟s level
utility, apart from the quantity consumed, remain constant. If any of these factors such as
taste of fashion change, the law may be temporarily inapplicable until a stable situation is
re-established. For example a person may progress from an occasional buyer of paintings into
an obsessive collector or art.

56
Illustration of total utility and marginal utility
Quantity Total Utility
Marginal Utility
0 0
0
1 20
20
2 50
30
3 60
10
4 62
2
5 60
-2
Table 3.1 Total Utility and Marginal Utility

Marginal utility = Change in total utility

Change in quality

I.e. Mu = DTU
DQ

x
70

60 * *
Total utility
*
50
T.U *
M.U 40

30

20 *
10 Marginal
utility
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 y
Quantity
Figure 3.1 Total Utility and Marginal Utility

57
The above illustration shows the relationship between total and marginal utility.
A saturation point is reached when the utility is maximum and the marginal utility is at
minimum beyond which the total utility starts to decline while marginal utility becomes
negative yielding dissatisfaction.

The Limitation of Utility (Cardinal Utility)

1) It is difficult to make inter-personal comparison of utility since satisfaction is
subjective
2) Measurement of utility is difficult since utility is a mental phenomenon even by
the help of any instrument hence difficult to determine equilibrium position of a
customer.
3) It dose not consider other factors that determine utility such as environment
4) Indivisibility of commodities is not possible to divide some goods into small units
in order to equalize marginal utility
5) Ignorance of individual who are some times not aware of the substitute or
different goods, e.g. cheap substitute leading items to have low satisfaction from
the commodity they consume.
6) Different behaviour of individual due to different customs and fashion

3.3 Consumer Equilibrium

A consumer is in equilibrium position when he/she achieves maximum satisfaction out of
the available resources. A consumer in an equilibrium position when he/she distributes
expenditure on purchase of different goods in such a way that marginal utility of a
different good is equal to that of the good. This behaviour of customers is called the law
of equal marginal utility. Based on the mention assumption the consumer will maximize
this utility if he allocates his income in such a way that a shilling spent on one good yield
as much satisfaction as a shilling spent to any other goods. The marginal utility per
shilling spent on good X equals to the marginal utility spent on good Y hence consumer
equilibrium is obtained when
Marginal utility x = Marginal Utility of Y
Price of X Price of Y

58
Mux =Muy
PX PY
The law of diminishing marginal utility is also based on the assumption that the consumer
is rational. An economic agent is said to be rational when the agent exhibits behaviour
which is consistent with a set of rules governing preferences. In the context of consumer
behavior this would imply the following assumption or axioms;
i. The axiom of dominance which implies that consumers will always prefer more
goods or less. This is also known as the axiom of non- satiation
ii. The axiom of selection which relates to the idea that the consumer aims for his or
her most preferred state.
iii. The axiom of completeness states that the consumer is able to order al the
available combinations of goods according to his or her preferences.
iv. The axiom of transivity states that if in some combination of goods; A is preferred
to B and B is preferred to C then (by transivity) A is preferred to C.

Importance of Law of Equal Marginal Utility

1) It is application in consumption .A consumer can achieve maximum satisfaction
when utility of different commodities is equal since the objective is to achieve
maximum satisfaction.
2) Application in production. Objective of the firm is to maximize profit achieved
when cost of production is minimal and when marginal productivity of all factors
is equal.
3) Application is distribution. When share of different factors of production are
determine, they are determined according to the principal of marginal utility
4) Application in saving and spending. A special part of the income is spent on
purchase of consumer good and the remaining saved for future use.

59
3.4 Ordinalist / Indifference Curve Approach
This school of thought is opposed to the law that utility is measurable through cardinal
numbers. This school of thought maintains that customer behaviour can be explained in
terms of preference so that customers need to state the commodity they prefer without
assigning numeral values without the strength of their preferences. Consumers are
expected to value their preferences of the entire service market of goods and service in
order to choose i.e. combination of two goods that can be chosen if the two goods are
ranked. This is explained by the use of indifference curves. The assumptions of this
approach are:
1. Price of goods is constant
2. Consumers are rational
3. Consumer can rank his/her preferences over time
4. Their behavior must be transitive i.e. if a consumer prefer A to B to l C then he can
prefer A to C (axiom of transitivity)
5. Customer always prefer more to less of every commodity (axiom of non-station)
6. The slope of indifference curve gives the marginal rate of situation (M.R.S)
7. The consumer is able to order all the available combination (axiom completeness)
Indifference Curve
This is curve joining together all different combination of two goods that yield the same
amount of utility to a consumer. It is a locus of point of possible combination of two
Commodity y

alternative good that yield the same level of utility. The slope of indifference curve is
called the marginal rate of situation (MRC) i.e. the rate at which good Y can be
substituted for by good X leaving the consumer at the same level of utility.

Indifference curve

Commodity x
Figure 3.2 Indifferent curve

60
 Indifference curve
IC3
IC2
IC1

Commodity x

Figure 3.3 Indifferent map

Indifference map indicate different indifference curves drawn on the same plane price
with different level of utility.
Properties of Indifference
a) Indifference has a negative slope. This shows if the quality of one good say
decrease
the quality of other good must increase if the consumer has to remain on the same
level of satisfaction
b) Indifference curve do not intersect. This is because if they did the
point of
intersection implies two levels of satisfaction which is not possible. consider the
Figure 3.4

Y1 A

Y2 B

Y3 C
U1
U2

X2 X1 X3 x

Figure 3.5 Indifference curves do not intersect

Since combination A and C are on the same indifference come u2 the consumer must be
indifferent between them. Band C are on the same in difference curve u, the consumer
Commodity y
61
must be indifferent between then. If the consumer is indifferent between A and C then the
he must be indifferent between A and B (considering the rule of transitivity). This is
however, absurd since the combination A contains more of Y and more of X and thus
preferring A to B. To be consistent with consumption assumption of rationality it can be
concluded that indifference curve cannot intersect.
c) They are convex to the original This implies that if the slope of indifference
decrease
in absolute terms as we move longs the curve from left downwards to the right
therefore the marginal rate of the substance will be decreasing or diminishing as show
Good Y

in Figure 3.6.

Y1

Y2

Y3

X1 X2 X3 Good X
Figure 3.6 Convex to the original
The theory of diminishing marginal rate of substitute expresses the observed behavior
that as people consume more of a good, the utility they gain from each excessive unit
decline. As the number of units of X the customer is will to sacrifice in order to obtain
additional unit of Y decrease as the quantity of Y rises. Therefore it is difficult to
substitute X for Y as the customer consume more of y and vice verse.

3.5 Consumer Equilibrium

To explain the concept of consumer equilibrium the price of the two commodities should
be given as well as the customers‟ income so as to derive the budget line. Budget line is a
curve or a line showing combination of two goods that can be afforded with a given level of
income. A consumer will be at equilibrium where the budgets line is a tangent to an
indifference curve as shown in Figure 3.7.

62
 IC r

_
Y •ē Budget line
IC
IC1

B.L
_
X X
Figure 3.7 Consumer budget line (B.L)

•B
A

Figure 3.8 Consumer budget line X

Point B is the equilibrium point where the consumer is maximizing the utility subject to
his budget constraint. At point A the consumer has unutilized income and cannot derive
maximum satisfaction. Point C is an attainable since the consumer‟s income is limited by
the marginal rate of substitution at the point B which is also the slope of budget line.

3.6 Income Consumption Curve

Increase in consumer income leads to an upward shift in the budget line such that it
remains parallel to the original one and vice versa. Income consumption curve is a locus
of points of consumer equilibrium resulting when only the consumer income is varied or
the consumer income change. It is also referred to as effects on an income change. The
income consumption curve can be used to derive the Engel curve which illustrates the

63
amount of a good a consumer will purchase per unit of time at various leave of income
holding the price constant.

I2

ICC
I0

I • Increase in income
• IC2
• IC0
IC1

BL1 BL0 BL2

Decrease in income

Figure 3.9 Consumer income curve

Illustration of indifferent curve for perfect substitute and perfect complimentary goods
The assumption that indifference curves are convex to the original implies that the goods are
substitute but not perfect substances. In case goods are perfect substances the
indifference curve is represented by a strait line with negative s lopes parallel to one
another. For perfect substitutes goods the marginal rate of substitution is constant
complimentary goods have indifference curves that are L shape if only they are perfect
compliments as illustrated in Figures 3.10 and 3.11

A • I3
I2
B • • I1
C

Figure 3.10 Perfect complimentX

64
 y

I3

I1 I2

x
Figure 3.11 Perfect substitutes
Point A, B and C are o the same indifference curve yet at point C it involves the same
amount of commodity Y but more of commodity X than at point B. This implies that the
customer is saturated with commodity Y and therefore the MRS=0 for both X and Y.
Similar case applies at point A involving same amount of X and more of commodity of Y
indicating that the consumer is saturated with commodities X and therefore the Marginal
Rate of Substitution (MRS) of X and Y =0

Application of Indifference Curves

1) It provides an explanation of the underlying reasons why change in price led to
change in quality demand by distinguishing between substitution and income
effects of price change.
2) It enables the derivation of normal and abnormal demand curve through price
consumption curve
3) It is applied in labor economics to measure the trade off between income and
leisure
4) It is used to examine the welfare affect of different Government Policy like taxes,
subsidies for comparative welfare effects of direct and indirect taxes.
5) It enables assessment of the impact of change in the cost of living on welfare
E.g.., the effect of change in money income and price of the welfare can be
analyzed.

65
3.7 Review Questions
1. What are indifference curves? Discuss the properties of indifference curves
2. Explain the law of diminishing marginal rate of substitution
3. What do you mean by price line? How does it change?
4. Explain the equilibrium of the consumer according to indifference curve technique.
5. Write notes on
a) Income consumption line
b) Price consumption line
6. Distinguish between income and substitution effects

3.8 References
Saleemi M.A (2001) Economics Simplified (Revised Edition) Saleemi Publishers Ltd
(Pages 69-93)
Koutsoyiannis A; (1994), Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan Education Ltd

66
 LESSON FOUR: THE THEORY OF PRODUCTION
Purpose: To introduce the learner to the production theory so as to be able to appreciate
the role the key factors that influence production.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the lesson the learner should:
(i) Explain the key factors influencing production
(ii) Explain the importance of specialization
(iii) Apply the production function in determining optimal combination of resources

4.1 Definition
Production comprises all activities that provide goods and services which people want
and for which they are prepared to pay a price. The composition of the total output can be
classified into consumer goods and produce goods and services.
Consumer goods are commodities that satisfy human needs directly .They can be:
a. Durable consumers’ goods provide a steady stream of satisfaction and their
value
diminishes slowly through age and usage.
b. Non- durable consumer good are consumed and destroyed in the very act of
being
used e.g. Food, juice, cigarettes.
Producer goods are commodities that do not directly satisfied wants but they are used
for the contribution they make to the production of other goods. Example: factories,
buildings etc.
Services are intangible economic goods e.g. banking, transport, tourism and
administration. Services are non transferable i.e. they can not be purchased and then
resold at a different price.
Production can be categorized into three:
Extractive industries, examples are farming, fishing and forestry. Primary products result
from such industries
Manufacturing industries these include engineering, vehicle manufacture, chemical
and food processing.
Distribution industries; these incorporate the activities of wholesaling and retailing.
67
4.2 Factors of Production
This refers to the inputs or resources from the society that are used in the process of
production .They include land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship
Land It refers to all natural recourses over which people have power of disposal and
which may be used to yield income. It includes farming land, forest, river, lakes, building
land, and mineral deposit. The total supply of land in the world is limited although the
supply of land for some particular use is not fixed. Thus for example, more maize can be
planted at the expense of potatoes. Alternatively, more land can be allocated to buildings
at the expense of farming land, drainage, irrigation and fertilizers can increase the area of
agricultural land.
Labour refers to the exercise of human mental and physical effort in the production of
goods and services. The supply of labour in an economy is measured by the number of
hours of work which is offered at a given wage rate at a given period of time.
Capital is a manmade input. It can be classified as working capital or circulating capital
referring to stocks or raw materials, partly finished goods and goods held by producers.
Alternatively, capital can be classified as fixed capital which consists of equipment used in
production such as machinery and buildings. The value of total output required for
replacement of won out producer goods every year is referred to as depreciation. The
total output of producer goods is referred to as the gross investment and any addition to
capital stock is referred to as the net investment.
This implies that: Gross investment - Depreciation = Net investment
Note that in economics, the concept of depreciation is distinct from the concept of
depreciation in accounting. Depreciation is considered to be the period allocation of the
cost of a fixed asset
Entrepreneurship the organizational of the factors of production with a view to make a
profit It involves hiring and combining other production factors making decision on what to
produce how and what and where to produce. It in involves risk taking which arises
because most production is undertaken in expectation of demand and in most cases the
future is uncertain. Entrepreneurs make payments to cover their costs without any
certainty that the cost will be covered by revenue.
Mobility of Factors of Production has two main aspects

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a) Occupational mobility refers to the ease of movement of factors of production from
one job or task to another.
b) Geographical mobility refers to the movement factors of production from one
location to another.
Individual mobility of factors of production
Land is not mobile geographically but has a high degree of occupation mobility i.e. land
can be put into different uses of farming building roads etc
Capital is mobile in both cases e.g. a vehicle and tools are geographical and occupational
mobile. Some capital are immobile e.g. railways. Other form of capital has occupational
mobility e.g. a building
Labour is mobile both geographical and occupation. However there are barriers to
geographical and occupation mobility.
Barriers to Mobility of Labour
1) Reluctance of the family to move
2) Cost involves in labour mobility
3) Language barriers
4) Adverse climatic condition
5) Insecurity and political instability
6) Ignorance of job opportunities

4.3 Specialization
This refers to the concentration of activity in those lines of production where the
individual, firm or country has natural or acquired an advantage. Adam Smith drew
attention to the importance of division of labour in his book, the wealth of nations. He
was fundamentally concerned with division of labour of a particular industry where the
manufacture of products was broken down into many specialized activities. Adam Smith
observed that the making of pins required 18 distinct operations, estimating that the
production per day in the factory was about 5,000 pins per person employed. If however
the whole operation was undertaken from first to finish by each employee, Smith
estimated that he would have been able to make only a few dozen pins per day. Apart

69
from specialization in particular industries the following other forms of specialization can be
identified:
a) International specialization - refers to the concentrating of a country of its
resources on a specific area of production for example, the concentration by
Kenya in the production of coffee and tea or the production of copper by Zambia. b)
Regional specialization within a country where factor endowments and economic
history have led industries to concentrate in certain areas because it is difficult for
competitive plants to be established elsewhere. Thus for example, in Kenya the
production of tea is concentrated in the highlands.
c) Specialization between Industries since each economy includes many industries
an example; it is possible to speak of the motor manufacturing industry, the steel
industry and so on.
d) Specializations between firms- since industries are composed of firms that can be
regarded as units of production. Thus for example different firms can specialize in
the manufacture of different components of a product. Thus for example, in the
car industry certain firms specialize in the provision of spare parts.
e) Specialization within factories which arises because one firm will often control
a
number of factories, and these are usually referred to as plants and are units of
production. For example, a manufacturer might find it economical to build
engines in one plant, axles in another, car bodies in a third and so on, and
subsequently transport all the parts of another plant for final assembly.
f) Specialization within plants can be of two types:
i) A particular plant may produce more than one item and plant may thus
be regarded as two working side by side.
ii) Within every plant there is a considerable specialization of labour. In
a typical manufacturing firm, some employees will be receiving and
storing raw materials and components whereas the majority will be
engaged in the manufacturing process, while others will be checking and
packing finished product.

70
The advantages of specialization
1. The fundamental advantage of division of labour is the increased output
arising from division of labour.
2. Specialization may lead to boredom or monotony as some workers perform
the same operation hundred of times. This monotonous repetion may lead to
a greater incidence of accidents and greater absenteeism as a result of low
morale. In addition, labour relations between senior management and
production workers may deteriorate as communication becomes more
difficult.
3. Specialization may be accompanied by decline in craftsmanship as skills
are transferred from the hands of the workers to a machine that controls the
design, quantity and quality of a given product. It should however be noted
that mechanization has produced many craftsmen in occupations that
require a high degree of skills.
4. Specialization is associated with an increased risk of unemployment as
specialized workers do not have a wide industrial training that would make
them adaptable to changes in techniques of production. In the short term
such workers are susceptible to unemployment although in the long run the
simplification of tasks implied by specialization would mean that jobs in
different industries are fairly similar and retraining is relatively easily
achieved.
5. Specialization is economically limited by the extend of the market in that
methods of production using expensive capital equipment are only
worthwhile if there is a potential demand for the mass produced product
that keeps the capital equipment fully employed. This mass market may not
always exist because of low income levels in a particular country.
6. Specialization especially in cases involving mass production is inevitably
associated with standardization of products. This is because of the heavy
development costs incurred in launching mass commodities that leave little
possibility for the accommodation of tastes and preferences of individual

71
 consumer‟s sovereignty is, to some extend, limited by this narrow regard for
individual preferences.

4.4 Production Function

This is a technical relationship between the output of good and the input required to make
these goods. The function may take the form of an equation, a table or a graph. The
relationship between an input and output is a technological relationship which may be the short
run or long run.
Q = f (K, L) where Q-output; K-capital; L - Labour
Short run refers to a period of time in which only some variables change. It is an
economic process during which supply of certain factors of production e.g. land are fixed and
cannot be varied.

Long run refers to a period of time in which all variables are able to settle at their
equilibrium and all economic processes have time to work in full.
Average product (AP) is the output per unit of the variable factors and it‟s given
by:
AP = Total product (TP)
Number unit of variable factors

E.g. the average product of workers and capital are given by:
AP = TP; AP = TP
L K
Marginal products it is changes in the total product brought about by varying the
employment of the variable factors by one unit e.g. increasing employment by 1 person.

MP = Change in total product

Change in quality of labour employment

= ∆TP
∆L

Fixed Costs - are costs that do not change as output varies. They are associated with
fixed factors of production and include; rent rates, insurance, interest on loans and
depreciation. Fixed costs remain the same whether output is one unit or output is 1,000
units. Fixed costs are also referred to as overhead costs or unavoidable costs.

72
Depreciation, especially in capital intensive industries usually constitute a major item in
fixed costs since the life of capital tends to be measured in economic rather than technical
terms and machinery, for example, depreciates even when not in use.

Variable Costs- are costs that are related directly to output and include the wages of
labour, the costs of raw materials, fuel and power. Variable costs are alternatively known as
direct or prime costs.
Total Costs represent the sum of fixed costs (FC) and variable costs (VC).
TC = FC+VC
When output is equal to zero, total costs will be equal fixed costs since variable costs will be
zero. When production begins to increase total costs will continue to rise as variable costs
increase since output expands.

Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns/Law of Variable Proportions

It states that holding other factors constant as additional unit of a variable factor are
added to a given quantity of a fixed factors, the total product and the marginal product
will initially increase at an increasing rate but beyond a certain level of output it will
increase at a decreasing rate and eventually fall.

APL
MPL
Stage 2 Stage 3
Stage 1 TP

APL

L
MPL

73
 Figure 4.1 Law of diminishing marginal returns
Stage 1
There is increasing returns to the variable factors. In this stage the total product is
increasing at an increasing rate while the marginal product and average product are also
rising with marginal product higher than average product at any given point. This is an
indication of increasing efficiency of the proportion in which the factors are combined
since the fixed factors are still under utilized and there is greater scope of specialization.

Stage 2
It represents a decreasing return to the variable factors in that the total product is
increasing at a decreasing rate. The marginal product and the average product are positive but
they are falling at this stage. The average product is higher than the marginal product and
only national production takes place.
Stage 3
This represents a stage of negative return of the variable factors. At this stage the
marginal product is negative and as a result the total output is reducing. It represents a
stage of extreme inefficiency when factors of production are probably getting into each
other‟s way (conflicting). At this stage the producer will not operate even with free
labour, since he could also raise the total output by using less labour.
The law of diminishing marginal returns is explained by the use of the schedule in Table
4.1
Labour Total product Average product (AP) Marginal product (AP)
0 0 0 0
1 3 3 3
2 8 4 5
3 12 4 4
4 15 3.75 3
5 17 3.4 2
6 17 2.83 0
7 16 2.29 -1
8 13 1.625 -3
Table 4.1 Law of diminishing marginal returns

74
The average product curve raises at first, reaches the maximum and then falls. It remains a
positive as long as the total product is positive. The marginal product rises and reaches the
maximum before the average product and then declines. The marginal product
becomes zero when the total product starts to decline. Therefore the falling portion of
marginal product curve illustrates the law of diminishing returns.
Assumptions
1) The state of technology remains unchanged.
2) Successive units of the variable factors are assumed to be equally efficient
3) Production take place in the short run where at least one factor of production is
fixed.
4) There is one variable factor of production under consideration.

4.5 Long Run Changes in Production

In the long run all factors of production can be varied and thus the firm will chose the
input combination which optimize output and at the same time minimize their cost. This is
illustrated by the use isoquant and isocost.
Isoquant shows all the difference combination of labour and capital with which a firm
can produce a specific quantity of output.
Assumption of Isoquant
1) There are only two factors of production i.e. labour and capital
2) It is possible to substitute labour for capital and vise versa continuously in the
production process

K1
Q3

Q2
K2
Q1

Figure 4.2 Graphical representations of isoquants

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A higher isoquant shows a greater level of output (Q3) while a lower isoquant shows
lower level of output (Q1). A series of isoquant gives isoquant map series
Properties of Isoquants
1) They are convex to the origin
2) Do not intersect
3) They have a negative slope
Isocost shows all different combination of labour and capital that a firm can purchase
given the total outlay (ability) of the firm and factor prices.
Assumptions
1) The firm takes the input prices as given by the market
2) There are two inputs; there are the labour and the capital.

C
PR
Increase in cost
outlay

Decrease in
cost outlay C
PL
Figure 4.3 Graphical representations of isocosts

The slope of an isocost line is given by ∆Pk

∆PL

If the firm spends all the total outlay on capital then he will purchase C units of capital
PK
If the spends all the outlay in labour then would purchase C
PL
By going the two points we get the is cost of the firm and therefore the total cost for
utilizing labour and capital will be given by
C = WL+rK Where w- price for labour; r- Price for capital

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Optimal Input Utilization
For a firm to minimize the cost of production which is the optimal input utilization point,
it must do so t
hat the point where the
isoquant is a tangent to the isocost line are shown in Figure 4.4.

Capital

K
• B
Eq
• A•
Labour

Figure 4.4 Optimal input utilization

At point A there will be under production since the resource are not maximally utilized. At
point Eq the firm achieves the optimum input utilization.
At point B the firm is unable to produce since the resources are limited at the point Eq.

The Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRTS)

The slope of an isoquant measures the rate at which labour can be substituted for capital
keeping the output constant.
The MRTS refers to the slope of the isoquant
The MRTS of labour for capital refers to the amount of capital that a firm can give up by
one unit and still remain on the same isoquant

MRTs = MPl = ∆L
MPk ∆k

MRTsk = MPk = ∆K
MPL ∆

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Expansion Path
In the long run all the factors of production can be varied and thus there is no limitation
to the firms‟ expansion on its output. The objective of the is to choose the optimal way
of expanding its output so as to minimize its cost and maximize the output within a given
factor prices and given the production function, the optimal expansion path is determined
by the point of tangency of successive isocost line sand successive isoquant curves as
shown in Figure 4.5

Capital
Expansion path

K3

K2

K1

L1 L2 L3 Labour
Figure 4.5 Path of expansion

4.6 The Theory of Cost

It helps in understanding the concept of cost. The following are necessary:
Opportunity Cost Assuming full resources allocation and employment in production
of good and services increasing the production of any one product involves the
sacrifice of an alternation product. The cost of producing a certain product is taken to refer
to the forgone value of the alternative product
Private cost and social cost (negative externalities) private cost refers to
these costs
which relates to an individual producer. They include both explicit and implicit.
While social cost refer to these costs which occur to the third party in the production
process.

78
 Implicitly cost The explicit costs refer to the money paid out made by the firm. This
includes payment for resources bought or hired e.g. wages, cost of raw materials, rent
etc.
Implicit cost includes the resources owned and used by the firm‟s the owner. When
the profits are calculated on the bases of explicit and implicit cost we obtain economic
profit. When calculated only on basis of explicit cost we obtain financial profit.

Assumptions
(i) The firms take prices or input as determined by the market forces.
(ii) Firms aim at minimizing the production cost.
Short Run Cost Function
In the short run input levels will depend on output level that the firm wants to achieve. In short
run not all factors will be varied. At least one must be fixed and therefore the cost incurred
on it will be fixed cost. The total fixed cost will be constant regardless of the output level
e.g. rent for factory building, salaries of office staff etc.
Variable costs are incurred by the firm for its variable input. A firm wishing to increase
its out put will require large variable input thus higher variable cost. The variable costs of a
firm will increase as the output levels increase e.g. cost of raw materials, cost of direct labour
and other direct running expenses.
VC = f (Q) Where VC - variable costs, f -function, Q- output
Total cost represents the sum of the fixed cost and the varied cost.
TC = (VC + FC) Where TC - Total costs; VC variable costs, FC - fixed costs
Average cot is the cost per unit is the total cost of producing any given output divided by
the total number of unit produced. Given by:
A C = TC Where AC - average cost, Q - total units produced
Q
Average fixed cost, the total fixed cost divided by the output. Given by:
AFC = TFC Where TFC - total fixed costs
Q
Average variable cost is given total variable cost divided by the output
AVC = TVC Where TVC - total variable costs
Q

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Marginal cost is the change in the total cost as a result of a unit change in output.
MC = ∆TC
∆Q.

Graphic representation

Cost
T.F.C (not affected
by output

Output
Figure 4.6 Fixed costs

Cost T.V.C

Output
Figure 4.7 Variable costs
The relationship between average cost and marginal cost
In most of case the marginal cost the average cost from below. The average cost must be
failing as compared to marginal cost
a) Mathematically it can be shown that, if the slope of average cost is less than zero,
then the marginal cost will be less than average cost AC<0; MC<AC
b) If the average cost is greater than zero, then marginal cost is greater than average
cost. AC>0 ;MC>AC
Since the average cost curve is U- shaped the slope of average cost becomes zero to its
minimum and hence marginal cost is equal to costs at this point.

80
The relationship between average total costs, average fixed cost, average
variable cost and marginal cost is shown in Table 4.2.
Output AFC AVC AC MC
1 50 20 10 -
2 25 15 40 10
3 16.7 11.7 28.3 5
4 12.5 11.3 23.8 10
5 10 13 23 20
6 8.3 18.3 26.7 4.5
Table 4.2 Relationship between costs variables

M.C

A.C

AVC

AFC

Figure 4.8 Graphical representations of cost variables

Exercise 4.1
Given that total cost is
TC = Q2+ 3Q + 2
Find a) Marginal cost function
∆TC = 2Q +3
∆Q
b) The average total cost function
ATC = TC = Q2 + 3Q+ 2 = Q+3+2
Q Q Q

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c) Average variable cost function
AV = VC = Q2 +3Q = Q+3
Q Q

d) At what level of output would the firm minimize its average total cost and its average
variable cost in the short run
MC = ATC - 2Q + 3 = Q+3+2/Q
(2Q+3)Q = (Q+3)Q
= 2Q2 + 3Q= Q2+3Q+2
2Q2 - Q2 = 2
Q2 = 2
Q=2
= 1.41
MC = AVC
2Q+3 = Q+3
q=0
Exercise 4.2
Suppose that the total cost function of a firm operating in the short run is given by
TC = Q2 + 5Q+6 Find
(i) The ATC function
(ii) The marginal cost function
(iii) The average variable cost function
Calculate the average fixed cost where Q= 3
(iv) What will be the value of the following at the output of 100 unit
a) Average variable cost
b) AFC
c) Marginal
(v) At what level of output will the firm minimize its average total cost by average
variable cost?
Solution
i. ATC = TC = Q Q2 + 5Q+ 6Q= Q+ 5+6
Q Q Q Q

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 ii. MC = ∆TC = 2Q+5

iii. AVC = AVC = Q+5

iv. Give 3= AFC = 6 =2
3

v. Given Q = 104 Unit

a. AVC = VC = {(10)2 +5X10} = 150 =15

Q 10 10

b. AFC = TC = 6 =0.6
Q 10

c. MC = ∆TC = 2Q +5 = 2X 10 +5 = 25
∆Q

d. MC = TC
Q (2Q +5) =( Q+5+6 ) Q
Q
2 2
2Q +5Q = Q + 5Q +6
2Q2 +5Q - Q2 - 5Q = 6
Q2 = 6
Q= 6
= 2.45 Unit ~ 3 Unit

MC = AVC
2Q+5 = Q+5
Q=0

83
Exercise 4.3
Suppose the marginal cost function of firm operating in the short run is given by MC = 2Q
+9. Find
i) the total cost function
ii) The average variables cost function
iii) Calculate the average fixed cost where Q=3
iv)
At what level of output will firm minimize its average total cost and average
variables cost in the short run.
MC = ∆TC
∆Q
2Q + 9 = ∆TC
∆Q
∆TC = Q2 +9Q +C 2Q + 9 = ∆TC
i) TC = Q2 +9Q + C ∆Q

ii) AVC = VC = Q2 + 9Q = Q +9
Q Q

iii) AFC = FC = C = C
Q Q 3

MC = ATC ATC = Q2 + 9Q + C = Q + 9 + C
2Q + 9 = Q + 9+C Q Q
Q

Q = C
Q
Q2 = C

Q=5C

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4.7 Revenue Function
Revenue is the receipt from the sales of a good or service
Total revenue is given by the price x quantity sold
TR = PQ Where TR- total revenue, PQ- price x quantity
Average Revenue is given by;
AR = TR refers to revenue per unit sold on average
Q
Marginal revenue it is the increase in revenue brought about on extra unit sold.
MR = ∆TR
∆Q

Exercise 4.4
Given a demand function P = 5 -1/4 Q. Calculate total revenue marginal revenue and
average revenue.
TR = PQ
= (5 - 1/4 Q) Q = 5Q - ¼ Q2
MC = ∆TR = 5 - ½ Q
∆Q
AV = TR = 5Q - 1/4Q2 = ¼ Q
Q Q

=5-¼Q
Exercise 4.5
Give the following demand function P = 3 +Q - 5
Q
Calculate total revenue marginal revenue and average revenue.
TR = PQ = (3/Q2 + Q - 5) Q
= 3/Q + Q2 - 5Q
AV=TR= 3/Q + Q² - 5Q = 3 +Q - 5
Q Q Q -2

MR = ∆TR = 2Q -5 - 3
∆Q Q²

85
AV = TR = 3/Q + Q²- 5Q
Q Q Q Q
3
/Q² + Q - 5

4.8 Optimum Seize of a Firm

This is the level of output at which total profit is at maximum. It is the best or the most
efficient size of a firm when the long run average cost of a firm is at minimum. At this
point there will be no motive for further expansion since at any other size large or smaller the
firm will be less efficient. This is also attained when the firm cost of production is at its
minimum level as illustrated in Figure 4.9

A
TC BEP TC
BEP
• E
• E

A TR
TR

O L M N Output
Figure 4.9 Optimum seize of a firm
Below OL total cost exceeds total revenue and hence the firm is making loss. At the
point EL neither profit nor loss are being made and hence its break even point (BEP)
when total revenue is equal to the total cost. The same case applies to the point EN.
Maximum profit lies where revenue and total cost difference total in the greater i.e. the
point where the vertical distance between the total revenue and the total cost is greatest.
In Figure 4.9 the maximum profit is at point M where AA is the largest vertical distance.

86
N/B: For profit maximization the following two conditions must be met
i) The necessary conduction - according to this conduction profit are maximized at
the levels of output where marginal revenues is equal to marginal cost. To
maximize profits profit is symbolized by pie ( ∏ )

Maximize profit= ∆ Profit =0

∆ Quantity

=∆∏ =0
∆Q

But ∏ = TR - TC

∆∏ = ∆TR - ∆TC
∆Q ∆Q ∆Q
0 = MR - MC
MR = MC
ii) The sufficient condition states that the slope of marginal revenue curve must be
less than the slope of marginal cost curve at the point where they meet. Meaning that
the marginal cost curve cuts the marginal revenue curve from below as shown
in Figure 4.10
MC

AC

P AR, MR

Figure 4.10 Sufficient conditions for revenue maximization

N/B: Total profit function is maximized as follows
i. Taking the first derivative and setting it equal to zero to obtain the critical values.
ii. Taking the second derivative and evaluating it at the critical values to ascertain if
the function is at the relative minimum or maximum.

87
Exercise 4.6
Trusts enterprises is a medium sized firm which specializes in production of water taps
The finance department has determined the following cost structure per unit of a tap
produced.
a) Variables cost per unit 15/=
b) The fixed cost period is 20/=
c) Selling price for tap is 2 5/=
Required:
i. Deriver the total cost function and re venue function
ii. Determine the break win point.
iii. The number of taps that would give a profit of 4/=
iv. If for some reason the price o f taps increase to 3 5/= per tap. What will be the
break even output?

VC=15 FC=20 P=25

1) TC =VC + FC VC =f (Q)
= 15Q
a) TC = 15Q+ 20

b) TR = PQ=2 5q

ii) TC = TR
15Q + 20 = 25Q
20 = 10Q
2=Q

iii) P - ∏ = TR - TC
4 = 2 5Q-(15Q+20)
4 = 1 0Q-20

88
 24 = 10Q
2.4 = Q ~ 2taps

iv) TR= TC
35 x Q = 15Q x 20
2 Q = 20
Q=1

Exercise 4.7
The total cost equation in the production of beckon at a certain factory is given as follows
C= 1000 + 1000-25Q2+ Q3 Where C is the cost is Shs. and Q is the quality in Kg.
Required:
i. Compute the total and average cost at the output of 1 0kg and 11kg.
ii. What is the marginal cost of the 12th kg?
iii. Explain the slope and relationship between the average cost, average variable
cost, marginal cost and fixed cost curve using relevant diagrams
Solution
TC = 100 + 100Q - 15Q2 +Q3 ATC = TC= 100 + 100 - 15Q + Q2
Q Q

1 a) TC = 1000 + 100 x 10 - 15 x 102 +103 ATC=1000 + 100 - 15 x 10 + 102

=1500 10
= 150
b) TC = 100 + 100Q x 11 - 15 X 112 + 113 ATC = 1000 + 100 - 15 x 11 + 112
=1616 11
=146.91
ii) MC=∆TC = 100 - 30Q + 3Q2 At 12th KG = 100 - 30 x 12 + 3 x 122
∆Q =172

89
4.9 Economies of Scale
In the long run, all the input into production processes are variable so the problems
associated with diminishing returns to the variable factors do not arise. The law of
diminishing returns therefore only applies to short run costs and not on long run costs.
This implies that whereas short term decisions are concerned with diminishing returns
given fixed factors of production, long run output decisions are concerned with
economies of scale which are based on assumptions that all factor inputs are variable.
Economies of scale are aspects of increasing size which lead to falling long run average
costs. Economies of scale assist in explanation of trend towards large production units in
some industries. Economies of scale can be classified into internal and external
economies of scale. They are the advantages that arise due to expansion in scale of are
two categories:
a) Internal economies of scale
b) External economies of scale
Internal economic of scale are factors which bring to reduction in average cost as
the
scale of production of individual firm rise. Internal economies of scale are those factors
which bring out a reduction in average costs as the scale of production of individual firm
arises, depending on what is happening to other firms. This is attributed to the activities
within the firm hence the economics are brought about by various source which include:
(i) Marketing economies of scale consists of all the advantages a firm acquires as
they approach the market such as
- Buying advantage- large firms enjoy buying advantage since they
purchase goods in bulk hence receive heavy bulk discounts that reduce
cost of production.
- Packaging advantage It is easier to package goods in bulk than in small
unit with reference to packaging costs.
- Transportation advantage due to transporting many units at the same time
which reduces transportation cost to a large scale producer compared to a
small scale producer.

90
 - Selling advantage in terms of advertising whereby the large scale
producer will benefit more as he will sell more as compared to a small
scale producer due to mass advertisement
(ii) Technical economic of scale consists of:
- Factor indivisibility e.g., certain capital equipment must be of a specific
minimum scale or capacity of justify manufactures ability. A small firm will
not utilize its equipments in full due to idle capacity arising from the small
production capacity. Large scale producer will be advantaged since he will
optimally utilize the equipments.
- Increased specialization The larger the scale of production the greater the
scope of specialization of both labour and machinery leading to high
productivity.
- Principle of multiples If the production process involves use of different
stages and type of machinery the large firms will benefit due to high
productivity while smaller ones will be disadvantaged since they produce
fewer units.
- Research and developments A large firm may be able to support its
research and development programs which could result in cost reducing
innovations
(iii) Financial economies Large firms can easily obtain financial resources at lower
rates than small firms. Large firms can also produce more security for loans and
investments
(iv) Risk becoming economies a large firm that has diversified into several markets is
usually better placed to withstand adverse trading conditions.
(v) Managerial and administrative economies Managers and administrators are
highly qualified in managements of large firms. This creates division of labour
which improves efficiency.
External economies of scale
These are advantages that arise from the growth of industry resulting from simultaneous
interaction of a number of industries in the same or various industries as well as the
community at large. External economies of scale are those advantages in the form of

91
lower average costs that a firm gains from the growth of the industry. External economies are
available to all firms in the industry no matter their size.
These advantages include:
(i) Employment Due to growth of industries employment opportunities are created to
the communities that will help to improve the standard of living.
(ii) Specialization Different firms within the industry will decide to specialize in one
area of production which will reduce cost of production and improves quality of
the product and reduce prices. The repeated performance of the same actions
means that labour can become very skilled. The breaking of the production
process into many stages signifies that machines can be designed specifically for
each stage. An example is in the motor assemble plant where many of the
different stages in the assembly are completed using computer controlled
machines.
(iii) Growth of complimentary service Whenever a business is expanding its output,
there are some complimentary services that arise e.g. schools medical facilities
financial institutions, better roads, etc. that benefit the society.
(iv) Increased co-operation Many firms within the industry can co-operate with one
another in terms of research and development hence improve the quality of a
product, new techniques in production which lowers the cost of production and
reduction in prices.
Internal diseconomies of scale
Increasing the size of a firm beyond a certain scale can lead to rising average costs. This is
because of management difficulties and rising prices of inputs. Management problems arise
because:
a) As the size of departments in an organization increase, the task of coordination
becomes more difficult.
b) Despite the existence hierarchy of authority in large firms, the task of control,
that is, of ensuring implementation is extremely difficult in practice.
c) In the firms of large sized communication may be problematic in that it
is
difficult to ensure an effective vertical and lateral line of communication.

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 Communication network are generally more complex in large organization with
associated greater likelihood of communication breakdown.
d) The maintenance of morale is more difficult in large organizations because
individual workers in large organizations may feel unimportant the firm and often
do not identify with the firm‟s objectives.
e) An additional source of internal diseconomies of scale is increase in price of
inputs since as the scale of production increases, the firm will increase the
demand for inputs likelihood and transport and this may lead to the bidding up of
prices of prices of certain inputs.
External diseconomies of scale
May arise because of a shortage of various inputs used in the industry may arise leading to an
increase in the cost of those inputs. For example, an increased demand for raw materials
may bid up the prices of raw materials and cause their prices to rise. Heavy localizations
of industry may make land for expansion scarce and therefore more expensive to rent
and purchase. Increased congestion could also lead to higher transport costs. Others costs
include:
- Over production Increase in growth of a firm will lead to overproduction
leading to wastage due to lack of a market
- Negative externalities e.g. pollution, poor working condition this will be
experienced as many firms expand their output.
- Maintenance of morale Individual workers feel unimportant to the firm
and may not identify with the firm objectives
- Government interference Whenever there is increase in output due to
increase in growth it‟s led to increase in profit. The government then
imposes tax which is a disadvantage to the firm

4.10 Mergers and Acquisitions

Mergers occur where two firms agree mutually to joint their operations together. While
an acquisition occurs when a firm called a predator decides to take over another firm
referred to as a prey either forcefully of willings. Mergers and acquisitions are driven by
different motives. The following are major types of mergers and acquisitions.

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(i) Vertical integration occurs when merger takes place between firms engaged
in
different stages of the production process. Thus for example, a tyre manufacturer
can acquire rubber plantations. Backward integration is said to take place when
the movement is towards the market outlets as, for example in the case of large
oil companies taking control of petrol stations.
(ii) Horizontal integration occurs when firms engage in the production of the same
kind
of good or service brought under unified control. An example would be an
amalgamation of several motor manufacturers.
(iii) Diversification occurs when firms that produce goods that are not directly related
to
each other combine. An example would be the merger of a firm producing
fertilizers with a manufacturer of paint. The main aim of diversification or
conglomerates is to reduce the risk of trading.
The survival of small firms
Small firms continue to survive for the following reasons:
a) Demand for variety that cannot be met by mass production especially in
industries like clothing and footwear.
b) Many owners of small firms have no ambition to grow large because they do
not want to sacrifice their independence and control.
c) A personal contact with customers is important in many industries like
accountancy and architecture.
d) The size of the firm may be limited by the extend of the market since a firm
can only grow in size if this is permitted by the market. The market for luxury
items for example is limited by income and wealth.
e) Firms may want to avoid the rising costs that arise from diseconomies of
scale
f) There is a tendency for mass production industries to disintegrate into a large
number of specialist firms.

4.11 Review Questions

1. What are the main factors of production? Briefly describe them.
2. What do you understand by mobility of factors of production?
3. Discuss different forms of specialization
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4. Explain law of diminishing marginal returns/law of variable proportions
5. Write short notes on:
a) Isocosts
b) Isoquants
6. Define total, average and marginal product. Discuss the relationship between average
and marginal product.
7. Define total, average and marginal product cost. Discuss the relationship between
average and marginal cost.
8. Distinguish between average total cost, average variable cost and average fixed cost.
9. Explain the short run and long run cost curves of the firm.
10. Define total, average and marginal revenue

4.12 References
Saleemi M.A (2001) Economics Simplified (Revised Edition) Saleemi Publishers Ltd
(Pages 117-143)
Koutsoyiannis A; (1994), Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan Education Ltd

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 LESSON FIVE: MARKET STRUCTURES
Purpose: To introduce the learner to market structures. This will enable the learner
appreciates features of different market for various industries.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the lesson the learner should:
(i) Explain features perfect markets
(ii) Describe characteristics of monopoly market
(iii) Explain features of a monopolistic market
Markets can be divided into imperfect market and perfect market.

5.1 Perfect Markets

Perfect market is a market with many buyers and sellers where nobody can determine the
price of goods or services.
Characteristics
(i) Large number of buyer and sells where each individual firm supplies part of total
quality supplied. Buyers are many such that no monopolistic powers can affect the
working of the markets. Under this condition no individual firm or buyer can affect
the market
(ii) Free entry and free exist there are no barriers to entry or exit to the industries.
Entry and exit from the industries may take time but firms have the freedom of
movement in and out of the industry.
(iii) Product homogeneity The industry is defined as group of firms producing
homogenous product i.e. the technical characteristic as well as the service
associated with product sold are identical. There is no why is which buyer can
differentiate among the products of different firms.
N/B: Under perfect competition firms are price takers. Meaning the demand curve of an
individual firm will be perfectly elastic showing that the firm can sell any quantity of
output at a given or prevailing market price. The concept of price taking is illustrated in
Figure 5.1

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 Industry Firm

Y Y
d s
Price
Price
e

s d

Quality demand X Quality demand X

Figure 5.1 Concept of price taking
(iv) Profit maximization The goal of the firm is profit maximization both is the short
run and in the long run. No other goal is pursued.
(v) No government regulation. There is no government intervention in the operation
of this market.
(vi) Perfect mobility of factors of production. Factors are free to move from one firm
to another throughout the economy. It is assumed that there is perfect competition on
the factor market.
(vii) Perfect knowledge All sellers and buyers are assumed to have complete
knowledge about the conditions in the market. This knowledge refers not only to
prevailing condition in current but also for future periods.
The revenue position of a perfectly competitive firm
In perfect competition since each unit of out is sold at the same price both the average
and marginal revenue are constant. This is illustrated in Table 5.1
Price(ksh) Qty demand Total demand Marginal revenue
20 1 20 20
20 2 40 20
20 3 60 20
20 4 80 20
20 5 100 20
20 6 120 20
20 7 40 20
20 8 160 20

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Table5.1 illustrates that as the quantity demand increases the price remains unchanged.
This implies that each additional unit sold increases the total revenue by in amount equal to
its price. This relationship is illustrated graphically as shown in Figure 5.2

Y axis

Revenue

P AR = MR

Output X axis

Figure 5.1 Output of the firm in perfect competition

The short run Recall that the short run is the context the theory of the firm is the period in
which the quality of at least one factor of production is fixed. The level of output during
this period of time can alter the utilization of variable factors. In the short run is the
perfect competition can make normal profit, abnormal profits or losses
Normal profit This refers to the minimum level of profit which a firm must make in order

to induce it to remain in operation. The level of normal profit varies from one industry to
the other. This because of different level of risk and nature of the production process
involved in different industries. Normal profits may be considered be just past cost of
production line since production will not continue unless at least this level of profit is
attained.

MC
Revenue
cost price AC

AR=MR

Q1
Figure 5.2 Normal profits

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In the Figure 5.2 the firm is earning normal profit because price is equal to the average
cost. The profit maximizing level of output is Q1 where the necessary sufficient
conditions are satisfied. Since normal profit are made where the price is equal to average
cost it implies that when price exceeds average cost the firm is said to be earning normal or
super-normal profits.
Supernormal profit (P>AC) Categories all those firms which are earning a return which
exceeds the minimum necessary to induce them to remain the industry they currently
occupy. Figure 5.3 shows a firm making super-normal profits.

Revenue MC AC

D AR=MR
P

C
E

Q2 Output X axis
Figure 5.3 Firm making super-normal profits
From Figure 5.3 when the level of output is Q2 the cost for unit is EQ2 and the price
DQ2 supernormal profit is equal to CPDE which is represented by the scheduled area.

5.2 Monopoly
Monopolies are usually associated with economies of scale because of the large size of
the market controlled by the firm. Economies of scale imply lower unit‟s costs of
production. It is likely that the consumer will benefit from this cost effectiveness through
lower prices from a monopoly supplier. A monopolist like any other firm finds profit
maximizing level of output where the marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost as
shown in Figure 5.4. Monopoly firm maximizes profit at the level of output Q where the
necessary and sufficient conditions of profit maximization are satisfied. The super normal
profits earned by the monopolist are represented by the shaded area PCBX. This
monopolist profit will persist in the long run since the are barriers to the entry in the

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industry. In the long run the monopoly can expand or use the existing plants at any level
that will maximize profit. Owing to the existence of barriers it is unnecessary for the
monopolist to reach the optimum scale of production which corresponds to the minimum
point of the long run average curve.

Revenue
&
MC
cost
A AC
P

B
C

AC
Q MR MC Output
Figure 5.4 Supernormal profits made by a monopolistic firm
Sources of monopoly power
Legal barriers This takes the form of statutory monopolies or patents i.e. monopolies
established by an Act of parliament and patent meaning that a firm is protected from
competition of new firms.
Products differentiation barrier This may be in form of product
uniqueness,
advertisements and branding where an existing monopolist may exploit his position as a
supplier of an established products which the customer is persuaded to believe that it is
the best.
Economies of scale barriers could arise where existing firms are already operating
on a vast scale production and enjoying technical economies of sale.
Transport cost and tariff barriers Some firms may enjoy local monopoly position
arising
from the ability to sell more cheaply in their own localities than other firm. Such firms
can therefore rise prices in their local markets above the production cost by an amount
that does not exceed transport cost close of firm in other localities with similar production
cost
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Advantages of monopolies
a) Economies scale
b) No wastage of resources
c) Price stability since monopolists are price makers
d) Ability to carry out research and development to improve on their product
Disadvantages
(i)
Diseconomies of scale arises in case the firm grows in a very
large size, exploits the economies of scale and fails to achieve
the targeted economies of scale.
(ii)
Inefficiency since there is no competition
(iii)
Lack of motivation though the firm is in a better financial position to
research and develop there product the monopoly may fail to do so
since there is no competition or a challenging firm.
(iv)
Consumers‟ exploitation .This is the most notorious practice of
monopoly. This is done through overpricing and price
discrimination of their products.
Price
Discrimination
This exists where the same product is sold at different prices to different buyers. This
depends on the tastes and preferences of the consumers, different periods of the firm,
consumers‟ income etc. These factors will give rise to a demand curve with different
elasticities in different areas in the markets for the firms. Price discriminates is easily
implemental by a monopolists since he controls the whole supply of a given good. There are
two necessary condition for price discrimination to take place:
1. The monopolist must effectively separate markets. If he has not separated the
market the customers in the low price market will buy and sell the commodities
those consumers in the higher price market.
2. The price elasticity of demand for the two markets must be different so that
profitability will be realized. At every price the demand in any market must be
elastic than the other where the low priced market have a more elastic demand than
the high priced market. By selling the quality dined by the equation MC and MR at
different price the monopolist realizes a higher total revenue and profits, the

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 monopolists realizes a higher total revenue and profits as compound to charging
uniform prices.
N/B: suppose that a monopolist has two markets M1 and M2 the profit in each market
maximized by equating marginal cost to the corresponding marginal revenue i.e.
In the first market; MR1=MC1
In the second market; MR2=MC2
That mean monopolist will maximize profit by equating the common market cost with the
individual market revenues as MC=MR1=MR2

5.3 Monopolistic Competition

This is a form of imperfect competition which lies between the extremes of perfect
competition and monopoly and includes elements from both markets. Examples include:
restaurants, hair dressers etc
Characteristics
1 There are many buyers and sellers in the market
2 The product of the sellers is differential yet very close substitute for each other
3 There is freedom of entry and exist of firms
4 The goal of the firms is profit maximization both in the short run and in the long
run.
5 The prices of factors of production and technology are given. Under this
competition, each producer sells a product which is to slightly different from that of
the competitor and attempts to emphasize on differences like packaging and
advertisements.
This process of creating the differences is called product differentiation which is aimed at
creating brand loyalty. The firm demand curve will be relatively elastic since the products
sold by the competition will be relatively close substitutes. Monopolistic firm sells
differentiated products therefore have limited control over the price. They are prices
makers since they can raise their prices without loosing their customers and have to
reduce the prices in order to sell more
Short run equilibrium in monopolistic competition

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In Figure 5.5 a firm operating under monopolistic competition makes supernormal profit in
the short run as shown by PCAB. The supernormal profit will attract new firms into the
industry and the surplus profit will be reduced to normal profit in the along-run as
shown in Figure 5.6

Revenue
&
MC
cost
AC
P A

C B AR

MR
O Q Output
Figure 5.5 Supernormal profits in short run

MC
AC
A
P

AR
MR
O Q1 Q2 Output
Figure 5.6 Normal profits in long run
A firm in monopolistic competition in the long run will make normal profit since average
revenue will be equal to average cost. The existence of many brands enhances the
consumer choice and ability. However it is considered wasteful because of existence of
excess capacity shown by (Q2-Q1) which is carried (borne) by the consumer through

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prices. It is also in wasteful since the resources that could have been used in expansions and
exploitation of economies of scale are used in advertising.

5.4 Oligopoly
This refers to the market structure dominates by large few firms. The number of sellers
(firms) is small enough for other sellers to take account of each other i.e. if one seller
changes his prices or uses non- price strategies his/her rivals would react. This is called
oligopolistic dependency.
Characteristics
1. Contains few firms who produce goods that are substitute but need to be perfect
substitutes.
2 Lies somewhere between extreme of perfect competition are monopoly.
3 There are barriers to the entry.
4 Decision of the firms are strictly interdependent
5 Sellers agrees on the price or the market share
Forms of oligopoly
(i) Duopoly where market is dominated by two firms
(ii) Pure oligopoly where the products of the few sellers are identical.
(iii) Differentiated oligopoly where products are differentiated in term of quality
packaging etc.
(iv) Collusive oligopoly where the few sellers in the market come together and
make decisions to control the prices, quality and quantity to be produced.
(v) Non collusive oligopoly where the few sellers determine their prices, quality
and quantity without colluding.
Kinked Demand Curve
The interdependence in oligopolistic firms explains the price rigidity among the firms.
The theory of kinked demanded curve suggests that firms in oligopoly face two sets of
demand curves.
(i) Price increase
(ii) Price reduction which is slightly inelastic

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 D
Price d
P d
Kink
P1 E
E

d
D
D

Q1 Quantity Q1 Q
Figure 5.7 Kinked demand curve
For price increases the firm is an elastic demand curve dd. For price decreases it is on the
inelastic demand curve DD. This means the actual demand curve for firms is represented
by dED. The demand is said to have a kink at point E associated with the price P1 and
quantity Q1. All firms in the industry are assumed to be in a similar position which
implies that if a firm raises its prices and its competitor fails to follow suits then, it will
loss large sales of revenue. This firms is on the elastic portion of the demand curve
If one firm reduces prices then, its competitors will have to reduce their price by at least a
much or even more to retain the market share. When the price is lower each firm has the
same market share which implies that the firms are on the inelastic portion of the demand
curve. Collusion will take the form of agreeing the prices for each market share. This is
done in order for the oligopolistic firms to maximize their joint profits and reduce
uncertainty. A form of open collision is known as a cartel whereby firms produce
differently but act like determinants of price and output. Figure 5.8 shows the
Equilibrium of an oligopolistic firm facing kinked demand curve.

The marginal revenue is discontinuous at the output level where there is a kink in the
demand curve. The kink in the demand curve explains the nature of the marginal revenue
curve. Where at point E and output Q the marginal revenue curve falls vertically since at
the higher price the marginal revenue curve correspond to less elastic demand curve. The
firm maximizes its profit where the marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue. Its is very
likely that the marginal cost curve will cut the marginal revenue curve between point X
and Y which corresponds to the discontinuous part of marginal revenue curve.

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 Revenue
cost
Kink
d
E
MC
x

y
MR
Q Output
Figure 5.8 Equilibrium with kinked demand curve

5.5 Review Questions

1. What is meant by a perfect market?
2. What is meant by monopoly? What are the main sources of monopoly power?
3. Give the arguments for and against monopoly
4. How can the government control monopoly?
5. Discuss the equilibrium of a firm under monopoly
6. Compare the equilibrium under a firm under perfect competition and monopoly
7. How are price and output determined under price discrimination?
8. What is monopolistic competition? Discuss the salient features
9. Explain the concept of kinked demand curve.

5.6 References
Saleemi M.A (2001) Economics Simplified (Revised Edition) Saleemi Publishers Ltd
(Pages 132-170)
Koutsoyiannis A; (1994), Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan Education Ltd

106
Sample Paper 1

Answer Question ONE which is COMPULSORY and any other TWO questions
QUESTION ONE
a) Define the term “consumer rationality” and outline the conditions that must be
fulfilled for consumer rationality (6 marks)
b) Using indifference curves derive the demand curve for a normal good. (6 marks)
c) With the help of a diagram distinguish between the income effect and
substitution effect of change in the price of a normal good. (8 marks)
d) Using an illustration, explain the concept of market equilibrium in economics
(8 marks)
e) Define the term “opportunity cost” (2 marks)
(30 marks)
QUESTION TWO
a) Explain the factors that influence cost beheviour in a firm (4 marks)
b) Illustrate and briefly explain the relationship between marginal cost (MC) and
average cost (AC) curves of a firm (6 marks)
c) The total cost in thousands of shillings (TC) of producing Q units of a given
product is given by the following function:
TC = 1,000 + 2Q2-12Q
Required:
(i) The total fixed costs.
(ii) The output level that will minimize the marginal cost.
(iii) The marginal cost when the level of output is 5000 units.
(6 marks)
d) Economics is both a science and an art. Explain (4 marks)

(20 marks)

107
QUESTION THREE
a) Distinguish between the following
(i) Consumption curve and Engel curves (4 marks)
(ii) Cardinal approach and marginal approach to measuring utility (6 marks)
b) Briefly explain the limitations of the cardinal approach in measuring utility
(6 marks)
c) Define the term “cross elasticity of demand” (2 marks)

Price of commodity X (SH) Demand for commodity X (Units)

12 80
16 100
20 120
24 140
28 160
d) The following data relate to a consumer in a certain market:
Required: Calculate the cross elasticity of demand of commodity Y with each of the
changes in price of commodity X. comment on the relationship the two commodities.
(2 marks)
(20 marks)
QUESTION FOUR
a) Define the term “inferior goods” (2 marks)
b) Explain the law of supply (2 marks)
c) Explain a situation where the law of supply is violated (2 marks)
d) Explain the concept of consumer sovereignty (4 marks
e) Briefly explain the usefulness of the concept of elasticity of demand in
decision making process (8 marks)
QUESTION FIVE
a) Identify the source of monopoly power (6 marks)
b) In relation to the theory of production, explain the shut point of a firm (6 marks)
c) Explain with illustrations, the long run output choice of a firm operating in a
perfectly competitive structure (8 marks)

108
Sample Paper 2

Answer Question ONE which is COMPULSORY and any other TWO questions
QUESTION ONE
a) Write brief notes on the following:
i) Scarcity and choice
ii) Diminishing marginal utility
iii) Price elasticity of demand
iv) Substitution and income effects of price change (Each 5 marks)
b) Illustrate and explain the three stages associated with the law of variable
proportions (10 marks)
(30 marks)
QUESTION TWO
a) What is oligopoly? (4 marks)
b) Using a well illustrated diagram, show that a monopolist can make losses in the
short-run even when MC= MR (8 marks)
c) Using a well illustrated diagram, explain why prices are „sticky‟ downward
under oligopolistic market (8 marks)
(20 marks)

109
QUESTION THREE
a) The demand and supply schedules for carrots in a certain market are given below.
Price KShs „000‟ Quantity demanded per Quantity supplied per
per ton month (thousands of tons) month (thousands of tons)
2 110.0 5.0
4 90.0 46.0
8 67.5 100.0
10 62.5 115.0
12 60.0 122.5
Determine the equilibrium quantity and price by graphical method (8 marks)
b) Explain how the of elasticity guides in price discrimination by a monopolist
(2 marks)
c) By focusing on an inferior good, use the indifference curve analysis to
demonstrate and explain income and substitution effects (10 marks)
(20 marks)
QUESTION FOUR
a) What is meant by the term “production function” (2 marks)
b) Giving appropriate examples, explain the term “fixed factors of production”
(3 marks)
c) Explain and illustrate the resultant hypothetical total and marginal product curves
for an economy with only two factors of production, one of which is fixed.
(8 marks)
d) What is a “production possibility frontier” (3 marks)
e) Given a production possibility frontier curve, show the impact of a new more
efficient mode of production. (4 marks)
(20 marks)
QUESTION FIVE
a) Discuss the barriers to occupational mobility of labour (10 marks)
b) Explain the characteristics of free market economy (10 marks)

110