Advances in Psychology and Neuroscience

2016; 1(1): 1-5

http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/apn
doi: 10.11648/j.apn.20160101.11

Review Article
Common Neurotransmitters: Criteria for Neurotransmitters,
Key Locations, Classifications and Functions
Getinet Ayano
Research and Training Department, Amanuel Mental Specialized Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Email address:
ayanogetinet@yahoo.com

To cite this article:

Getinet Ayano. Common Neurotransmitters: Criteria for Neurotransmitters, Key Locations, Classifications and Functions. Advances in
Psychology and Neuroscience. Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016, pp. 1-5. doi: 10.11648/j.apn.20160101.11

Received: June 4, 2016; Accepted: June 20, 2016; Published: July 11, 2016

Abstract: The criteria, key locations, classifications and functions of common neuro transmitters is reviewed and discussed.
Neurotransmitters are the brain chemicals that communicate information throughout our brain and body. They relay signals
between neurons. To be neurotransmitter the molecule must be present in the brain and distributed unevenly and enzymes that
help to create the neurotransmitter must be present in the brain. Common inhibitory neurotransmitters such as serotonin,
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) and dopamine calm the brain and help create balance where as excitatory neurotransmitters
such as norepinephrine, glutamate, epinephrine, and dopamine stimulate the brain. From inhibitory neurotransmitters dopamine
is located in Amygdala, Cingulate cortex, Hippocampus, Nucleus accumbens. Olfactory bulb, Prefrontal cortex, substancia nigra
and hypothalamus and it is mainly involved in movements, emotions, sexual arousal and cognitive functions where as Serotonin
is located in Amygdala, Cingulate cortex, Hippocampus, thalamus, septum, neocortex, ventral tagemental area and
hypothalamus and it is mainly involved in emotions, sleep, body temperature regulation and pain suppressions. From excitatory
neurotransmitters norepinephrine is found in Amygdala, Hippocampus, brainstem, Spinal cord, Cerebellum, Cerebral cortex,
Hypothalamus, Tectum, Thalamus, Ventral tegmental area, and Olfactory bulb and mainly involved in anxiety, mood,
sympathetic arousal, cognitive control, working memory, hunger and circadian rhythm. Acetylcholine is found nucleus basalis of
meynert, medial septal nucleus, diagonal band hippocampus, Cerebral cortex, limbic cortex, sensory cortex, thalamus and
Ventral tegmental area and mainly involved in emotions, wakefulness and attention (arousal), short term memory, learning and
motor functions.
Keywords: Neurotransmitters, Inhibitory Neurotransmitters, Excitatory Neurotransmitters, Monoamines

responsible for communication among neurons. Neurons are

1. Neurons the cells of chemical communication in the brain. Human
Neurons are nerve cells. They are building blocks of the brains comprise tens of billions of neurons, each linked to
nervous system [1]. Neurons receives inputs, processes thousands of other neurons. Thus, the brain has trillions of
information, and generates outputs. The structure most specialized connections known as synapses. Neurons have
associated with receiving is the dendrite, the structure most many sizes, lengths, and shapes which determine their
associated with processing is the cell body (also called soma), functions. Localization within the brain also determines
and the process most associated with the output is the axon, function. When neurons malfunction, behavioral symptoms
more specifically the terminal buttons. If we move to a slightly may occur. When drugs alter neuronal function, behavioral
more detailed level we will find that neural signals most often symptoms may be relieved, worsened, or produced [2].
are received by specialized areas on the dendrites called Infact, the brain, spinal cord, and nerves throughout the
dendridic spines. As for the cell body, the "processing" body are all made up of one kind of cell. These are nerve cells,
actually occurs in the nucleus, within the cell body. Terminal also called neurons. Neurons communicate each other
buttons contain the chemical messengers [1, 2, 3]. (exchange message each other) by chemicals called
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers which are neurotransmitters. A neuron message consists of chemical and
2 Getinet Ayano: Common Neurotransmitters: Criteria for Neurotransmitters,
Key Locations, Classifications and Functions

electrical information's. Neurotransmitters cross the gaps consists of the cluster of receptors and other signaling proteins
between neurons. Each neuron may have thousands of that are essential for chemical neurotransmission [1, 2].
branches that connect it to other neurons. The branches are Any given neurotransmitter has several sub-types of
called dendrites or axons. Dendrites carry messages toward receptors that are specific to it. It is the presence or absence of
the cell body. axons carry messages away from the cell body to certain of these sub-types that causes a cascade of specific
another neuron. Axon tend as long as four feet in humans. In chemical reactions in the postsynaptic neuron. These reactions
some animals, axons are even longer [1, 2]. result in the excitation or inhibition of this neuron [4].
Axons and dendrites simply ran through the body
2. Synapses continuously, like wires. There is space between each axon
and dendrite. We call this space a synaptic gap, or synapse.
A synapse is the junction point between two neurons. The synapse is the space between the axon of one neuron and
However, a nerve impulse can also be transmitted from a the dendrites of the next neuron in a nerve pathway. That gap
sensory receptor cell to a neuron, or from a neuron to a set of is extremely small-about one-millionth of an inch. Chemical
muscles to make them contract, or from a neuron to an travel across the gaps. These chemicals are neurotransmitters
endocrine gland to make it secrete a hormone. In these last two [2, 4].
cases, the connection points are called neuromuscular and By far the most common types of synapses are those
neuro glandular junctions. between an axon and a dendrite (axodendritic synapses) and
In a typical chemical synapse between two neurons, the those between an axon and the cell body of a neuron
neuron from which the nerve impulse arrives is called the (axosomatic synapses). Other, less common kinds of synapses
presynaptic neuron [1, 2, 3]. The neuron to which the include axoaxonic synapses (involved in presynaptic
neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) bind is called the inhibition phenomena) and dendrodendritic synapses [2, 4].
postsynaptic neuron.
A presynaptic neuron has several specialized structures that 3. Neurotransmitters
distinguish it from a postsynaptic neuron.
The terminal button of the presynaptic neuron’s axon Neurotransmitters, also known as chemical messengers, are
contains mitochondria as well as microtubules that transport endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. They
the neurotransmitters from the cell body (where they are transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as a
produced) to the tip of the axon. neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to
another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell [4].
Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in
synapses into the synaptic cleft, where they are received by
receptors on the target cells. Many neurotransmitters are
synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as
amino acids, which are readily available from the diet and
only require a small number of biosynthetic steps for
conversion. Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping
everyday life and functions. Their exact numbers are unknown,
but more than 100 chemical messengers have been uniquely
identified [5].
Neurotransmitters are the brain chemicals that
communicate information throughout our brain and body.
They relay signals between nerve cells, called “neurons.” The
brain uses neurotransmitters to tell your heart to beat, your
lungs to breathe, and your stomach to digest. They can also
affect mood, sleep, concentration, weight, and can cause
Figure 1. Structure of neurons.
adverse symptoms when they are out of balance.
Neurotransmitter levels can be depleted many ways. As a
This terminal button also contains spherical vesicles filled matter of fact, it is estimated that 86% of Americans have sub
with neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters are secreted optimal neurotransmitter levels. Stress, poor diet, neurotoxins,
into the synaptic gap by a process called exocytosis, in which genetic predisposition, drugs (prescription and recreational),
the vesicles’ membranes fuse with that of the presynaptic alcohol and caffeine usage can cause these levels to be out of
button. The synaptic gap that the neurotransmitters have to optimal range [5].
cross is very narrow–on the order of 0.02 micron. Across the
3.1. Neurotransmitters Meet Three Criteria
gap, the neurotransmitters bind to membrane receptors: large
proteins anchored in the cell membrane of the post-synaptic Neurotransmitters are molecules or groups of atoms, joined
neuron. At this location, under an electron microscope, you by a chemical bond, that act as a unit. In order to be called a
can observe an accumulation of opaque material which neurotransmitter, a molecule must meet three criteria [6, 7]:
 Advances in Psychology and Neuroscience 2016; 1(1): 1-5 3

First, the molecule must be present in the brain or must be and the remainder in central nervous system neurons. It
synthesized in the neuron and distributed unevenly. That is, functions to regulate appetite, sleep, memory and learning,
the molecule must be spread out among different types of temperature, mood, behavior, muscle contraction, and
neurons, and across regions of the brain that have different function of the cardiovascular system and endocrine system. It
functions. is speculated to have a role in depression, as some depressed
Second is a chemical criterion. The enzymes that help to patients are seen to have lower concentrations of metabolites
create the neurotransmitter must be present in the brain. (An of serotonin in their cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue [12].
enzyme is a catalyst-a protein that speeds up chemical Serotonin is a chemical cousin of the "catecholamine's"
reactions within the body). Also, these enzymes must be 5HT, NE and DA are sometimes grouped under the heading
present in areas where the neurotransmitter is found. MONOAMINES or BIOGENIC AMINES, and because of
Third is the criterion of mimicry and excretion criteria. The their similarities they are influenced by some of the same
same response must be obtained when the chemical is drugs. 5HT is best known as a transmitter in several brain
experimentally placed on the target and a mechanism must areas [1, 2, 12]:
exist for removing the chemical from its site of activation after 1) sleep regions
its work is done. 2) limbic system mood control regions
3) pain suppression system
3.2. Types of Neurotransmitters The action of 5HT at a synapse is brought to an end
A neurotransmitter influences trans-membrane ion flow primarily via reuptake. 5HT may also be broken down by the
either to increase (excitatory) or to decrease (inhibitory) the enzyme MAO. (think "5HT and SLeeP" for sleep, limbic
probability that the cell with which it comes in contact will mood control and pain suppression) [12-16].
produce an action potential. Thus, despite the wide variety of GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is often
synapses, they all convey messages of only these two types, referred to as “nature’s VALIUM-like substance". When
and they are labeled as such. Type I synapses are excitatory in GABA is out of range (high or low excretion values), it is
their actions, whereas type II synapses are inhibitory. Each likely that an excitatory neurotransmitter is firing too often in
type has a different appearance and is located on different the brain. GABA will be sent out to attempt to balance this
parts of the neurons under its influence. Each neuron receives stimulating over-firing [17].
thousands of excitatory and inhibitory signals every second [1, GABA is used at the great majority of fast inhibitory
2, 8-11]. synapses in virtually every part of the brain. Many
There are two kinds of neurotransmitters – inhibitory and sedative/tranquilizing drugs act by enhancing the effects of
excitatory. Excitatory neurotransmitters are not necessarily GABA [17]. Correspondingly, glycine is the inhibitory
exciting – they are what stimulate the brain. Those that calm transmitter in the spinal cord.
the brain and help create balance are called inhibitory. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA:) GABA, another
Inhibitory neurotransmitters balance mood and are easily amino acid neurotransmitter widely distributed in the CNS, is
depleted when the excitatory neurotransmitters are overactive. the most important inhibitory transmitter [17].
Type I (excitatory) synapses are typically located on the Dopamine is a special neurotransmitter because it is
shafts or the spines of dendrites, whereas type II (inhibitory) considered to be both excitatory and inhibitory. Dopamine
synapses are typically located on a cell body. In addition, Type helps with depression as well as focus, which you will read
I synapses have round synaptic vesicles, whereas the vesicles about in the excitatory section [14].
of type II synapses are flattened. The material on the Dopamine has a number of important functions in the
presynaptic and post-synaptic membranes is denser in a Type I brain; this includes regulation of motor behavior, pleasures
synapse than it is in a type II, and the type I synaptic cleft is related to motivation and also emotional arousal. It plays a
wider. Finally, the active zone on a Type I synapse is larger critical role in the reward system; people with Parkinson's
than that on a Type II synapse. disease have been linked to low levels of dopamine and
people with schizophrenia have been linked to high levels of
3.2.1. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters dopamine [15].
Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter – which means DA is the precursor (chemical forerunner) that is turned into
that it does not stimulate the brain. Adequate amounts of NE, so is closely related to NE and often affected by the same
serotonin are necessary for a stable mood and to balance any drugs. DA and NE are members of the transmitter family
excessive excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter firing in known as the CATECHOLAMINES. In some neurons the
the brain. If you use stimulant medications or caffeine in your synthesis of transmitter stops at the DA step and DA serves as
daily regimen – it can cause a depletion of serotonin over time. the neurotransmitter [14, 15, 18].
Serotonin also regulates many other processes such as Key Locations and Functions:
carbohydrate cravings, sleep cycle, pain control and DA is an important transmitter in several brain
appropriate digestion. Low serotonin levels are also associated systems:
with decreased immune system function [2, 12]. 1) Extra pyramidal motor system (posture and movement
Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Most is control)
produced by and found in the intestine (approximately 90%), 2) Mesolimbic/mesocortical system (midbrain connections
4 Getinet Ayano: Common Neurotransmitters: Criteria for Neurotransmitters,
Key Locations, Classifications and Functions

to limbic system and cortex) (emotion and cognitive distinguished as the transmitter at the neuromuscular junction
functions) connecting motor nerves to muscles. The paralytic
3) Hypothalamus-pituitary system (menstrual and other arrow-poison curare acts by blocking transmission at these
hormone regulation) The action of DA at a synapse is synapses. Acetylcholine also operates in many regions of the
brought to an end primarily via reuptake. (think brain, but using different types of receptors, including
"DAMMM" for motor, mood/ mesolimbic, nicotinic and muscarinic receptors [2, 19, 20].
menstrual/hormonal) Neurons which use ACh to send their messages are referred
to as cholinergic neurons.
3.2.2. Excitatory Neurotransmitters 1) ACh is the transmitter at all neuromuscular
Dopamine is our main focus neurotransmitter. When (nerve-to-skeletal muscle) junctions. It stimulates all
dopamine is either elevated or low we can have focus issues muscle contractions and hence all behavior.
such as not remembering where we put our keys, forgetting 2) ACh is the transmitter of the parasympathetic half of the
what a paragraph said when we just finished reading it or autonomic nervous system.
simply day dreaming and not being able to stay on task. 3) ACh is a transmitter in many brain areas (cortex, basal
Dopamine is also responsible for our drive or desire to get ganglia, hypothalamus to name a few) and is necessary
things done or motivation. Stimulants such as medications for for normal memory and cognition and motor control.
ADD/ADHD and caffeine cause dopamine to be pushed into The action of ACh released at a synapse is ended via
the synapse so that focus is improved. Unfortunately, breakdown of ACh by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.
stimulating dopamine consistently can cause a depletion of Glutamate is used at the great majority of fast excitatory
dopamine over time [2, 14, 15, 18]. synapses in the brain and spinal cord. It is also used at most
Norepinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is synapses that are "modifiable", i.e. capable of increasing or
responsible for stimulatory processes in the body. decreasing in strength. Modifiable synapses are thought to be
Norepinephrine helps to make epinephrine as well. This the main memory-storage elements in the brain. Excessive
neurotransmitter can cause ANXIETY at elevated excretion glutamate release can over stimulate the brain and lead to
levels as well as some “MOOD DAMPENING” effects. excitotoxicity causing cell death resulting in seizures or
Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with LOW strokes. Excitotoxicity has been implicated in certain chronic
ENERGY, DECREASED FOCUS ability and sleep cycle diseases including ischemic stroke, epilepsy, Amyotrophic
problems [19, 20]. lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington disease, and
Norepinephrine which focuses on the central nervous Parkinson's disease. Glutamate, an amino acid, is the single
system, based on patients sleep patterns, focus and alertness. It most widely distributed excitatory neurotransmitter in the
is synthesized from tyrosine. CNS [2, 8].
1) NE is the primary transmitter carrying messages from the Histamine works with the central nervous system (CNS),
sympathetic half of the autonomic nervous system to specifically the hypothalamus (tuberomammillary nucleus)
body organs and glands. and CNS mast cells [15].
2) NE is a transmitter in many brain areas (reticular Endorphins (& enkephalins): A family of larger molecule
activating system, hypothalamus appetite areas, limbic transmitters involved in pain suppression, reward and positive
system) and is involved in nervous system arousal, mood states [2].
hunger, and mood control. Classification (other means of classification)
The action of NE at a synapse is brought to an end primarily There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters.
via reuptake. NE may also be broken down by enzymes like Dividing them into amino acids, peptides, and monoamines is
MAO.(think "NE and hams" for hunger, arousal, mood, sufficient for some classification purposes.
sympathetic) [14, 15, 19, 20]. Major neurotransmitters:
Epinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is Amino acids: glutamate, aspartate, D-serine,
reflective of stress. This neurotransmitter will often be γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine
elevated when ADHD like symptoms are present. Long term Gasotransmitters: nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide
STRESS or INSOMNIA can cause epinephrine levels to be (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
depleted (low). Epinephrine also regulates HEART RATE and Monoamines: dopamine (DA), norepinephrine
BLOOD PRESSURE [2, 14, 15]. (noradrenaline; NE, NA), epinephrine (adrenaline),
Epinephrine which is also synthesized from tyrosine takes histamine, serotonin (SER, 5-HT)
part in controlling the adrenal glands. It plays a role in sleep, Trace amines: phenethylamine,
with one's ability to stay become alert, and the fight-or-flight N-methylphenethylamine, tyramine, 3-iodothyronamine,
response octopamine, tryptamine, etc.
Other common neurotransmitters Peptides: somatostatin, substance P, cocaine and
Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter discovered in amphetamine regulated transcript, opioid peptides [9]
the peripheral and central nervous systems. It activates Purines: adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine
skeletal muscles in the somatic nervous system and may either Others: acetylcholine (ACh), anandamide, etc.
excite or inhibit internal organs in the autonomic system. It is
 Advances in Psychology and Neuroscience 2016; 1(1): 1-5 5

4. Conclusions Neurological Origins of Individuality, 2nd edition". The

Teaching Company. see pages 13 & 14 of Guide Book
Neurotransmitters are chemicals by which nerve cells or
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R. Kandel, Gleb P. Shumyatsky, and Vadim Y. Bolshakov.
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