Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that

carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various
parts of the body.

The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and
Peripheral nervous system. The Central nervous system is made
up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system
is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems.
Division of Nervous System
Neuron
Neuron can be defined as the information
processing and information transmitting element
of the nervous system.
Neuron is the cell which is the structural and
functional unit of nervous system. This cell
provides communication network by receiving
information, processing it and sending it to the
other cells.

All neurons comprise of 4 basic parts.

Parts of Neuron
1. Cell body or Soma
It contains membrane nucleus, ribosome, mitochondria
and other structures. Much of the metabolic work occurs
here. Soma occupies different shapes in different types of
neurons.
• Membrane defines the boundary of cell and has proteins
that fulfill special functions.
• Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance that contains small
specialized structures .
Parts of Neuron
1. Cell body or Soma
It contains membrane nucleus, ribosome, mitochondria
and other structures. Much of the metabolic work occurs
here. Soma occupies different shapes in different types of
neurons.
• Membrane defines the boundary of cell and has proteins
that fulfill special functions.
• Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance that contains small
specialized structures .
Parts of Neuron
• Nucleus is a structure in the central region of the cell,
it contains the chromosomes.
Chromosomes ----- strands of DNA ------
Portion of the chromosomes called genes are responsible
fro making special proteins.

• Mitochondria break down nutrients such as glucose and

provide the cell with energy to perform its functions. It
produces Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP) that is used as
an energy source.
* We inherit our mitochondria fro m our mothers *
Structure of Soma/Cell body
Structure of Soma/Cell body
2. Dendrite
A branched tree-like structure attached to the soma of a neuron. Neurons
talk to each other and dendrites serve as recipients of these messages.

3. Axons
A long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from soma of a
neuron to its terminal buttons. Axons are covered by a protective layering
called as myelin sheath.
The messages carried by axons are called as action potential.
4. Terminal Buttons
The bud at the end of a branch of an axon, forms synapses with another
neuron and is involved in sending information to that neuron.

Most important function: When an action potential traveling down the

axon reaches them, they secrete a chemical called neurotransmitter.
*** Dendrites receive messages whereas axons are used t0 convey
messages. ***
Structure of a Neuron
Synapse
 Types of Neurons (Structural & Functional)
• Structurally, neurons are of 3 types. Structural division is also called as
Cajal’s Classification System.

i) Unipolar neuron has only 1 stalk, which leaves the soma and divides into 2
branches a short distance away. Their function is to transmit sensory
information from environment to the CNS. (Figure B)

ii) Bipolar neuron give rise to one axon and dendrite at opposite end of the
soma. They are usually sensory and their dendrite detect events occurring in
the environment and communicate information to the CNS. (Figure A)

iii) Multipolar neuron comprises of 1 axon and many dendrites. These

neurons make up the majority of all neurons which are found throughout the
central and peripheral nervous system.
 Functional Division of Neurons
i) Sensory neuron: They receive information from sense
receptors and sent them to central nervous system.
They are located in peripheral nervous system.

ii) Motor neuron: They carry messages from central

nervous system and send them to glands and muscles.
They are located in central as well as peripheral nervous
system. Movements are accomplished by the contraction
of muscles which are controlled by motor neurons.

iii) Interneuron or intrinsic neuron: They exchange

messages with neighboring neurons and don’t transmit
information over long distances.
They lie entirely within the central nervous system.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the
movement of information from one neuron
across the gap between it and the adjacent
neuron.

They can be also called as ‘neurochemicals’

that are used for neuronal communication with
the body and the brain.
 Types of Neurotransmitters
Broadly classified into two groups. Neurotransmitters are
classified as excitatory or inhibitory according to their effects
on postsynaptic membranes.

 Excitatory Neuro-transmitters: A neurotransmitter is called

excitatory if activation of the receptor causes depolarization
of the membrane and promotes action potential generation.
They stimulate the brain.  
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: A
neurotransmitter is called inhibitory if the
activation of the receptor causes
hyperpolarization and depresses action
potential generation.
Difference between Neurotransmitter & Hormone
1. Neurotransmitters belong to the nervous system,
whereas hormones belong to the endocrine system.

2. Transmission of neurotransmitters is across the

synaptic cleft, whereas that of hormones is by blood.

3. Hormones are produced by endocrine glands while

neurotransmitters are produced by neurons.

4. Target cells of neurotransmitters can be specific

neurons or other cells, whereas that of hormones can
be some distance from endocrine gland.
Difference between Neurotransmitter & Hormone
5. Action of neurotransmitters is extremely fast, which
could be up to few milliseconds. In contrast, effect of
hormones could be last for a long period which could
be in the range of few seconds to few days.

6. Hormones are able to regulate their target organs,

whereas neurotransmitters are able to stimulate the
postsynaptic membranes.

Examples for neurotransmitters include

acetylcholine, dopamine and noradrenaline, whereas
examples for hormones include ADH, insulin,
glycogen, GH, PTH, Oxytocin etc.
 Neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the movement of
information from one neuron across the gap between it and the
adjacent neuron.

 They can be also called as ‘neurochemicals’ that are used for

neuronal communication with the body and the brain.
 Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers found in the nervous
system that specifically do the transmission across the synaptic cleft, where
the space exists between two axons.
 After neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, they diffuse
into postsynaptic cleft, where they bind to receptor proteins and stimulate
the postsynaptic membrane.
Types of Neurotransmitters 26

Broadly classified into two groups. Neurotransmitters are classified

as excitatory or inhibitory according to their effects on postsynaptic
membranes.

 Excitatory Neuro-transmitters: A neurotransmitter is called

excitatory if activation of the receptor causes depolarization of the
membrane and promotes action potential generation. They
stimulate the brain.  
 Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: A neurotransmitter is
called inhibitory if the activation of the receptor
causes hyperpolarization and depresses action
potential generation.
 Difference between Neurotransmitter & Hormone

1. Neurotransmitters belong to the nervous system, whereas hormones belong to the

endocrine system.

2. Transmission of neurotransmitters is across the synaptic cleft, whereas that of

hormones is by blood.

3. Hormones are produced by endocrine glands while neurotransmitters are

produced by neurons.

4. Target cells of neurotransmitters can be specific neurons or other cells, whereas

that of hormones can be some distance from endocrine gland.
5. Action of neurotransmitters is extremely fast, which could be up to few
milliseconds. In contrast, effect of hormones could be last for a long period
which could be in the range of few seconds to few days.

6. Hormones are able to regulate their target organs, whereas

neurotransmitters are able to stimulate the postsynaptic membranes.

Examples for neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine and

noradrenaline, whereas examples for hormones include ADH, insulin,
glycogen, GH, PTH, Oxytocin etc.
Why do neurotransmitter levels get out
of optimal range?
 Neurotransmitter levels can be depleted by many ways. 
Stress, poor diet, trauma, abuse, neurotoxins, genetic
predisposition, drug (prescription and recreational), alcohol
and caffeine usage can cause these levels to be out of optimal
range.
Major structures for Neurotransmitter
production & release
 Neurotransmitters are made in the cell body of the neuron and then
transported down the axon to the terminal buttons.
 Molecules of neurotransmitters are stored in small "packages" called
‘vesicles’.
 Vesicles are also called as neurotransmitter vesicles or synaptic vesicles.
 Vesicles are essential for propagating nerve impulses between neurons and
are constantly recreated by the cell.
 Synapse & Synaptic Cleft

 Synapse is the specialized site between two neurons, whereas synaptic cleft is
referred to the narrow gap between post and pre synaptic membranes.
 Synapse has three component including pre-synaptic terminal, post-synaptic
terminal, and synaptic cleft.
 Synaptic cleft is a component of synapse.
 Pre & Post Synaptic Neuron

 A presynaptic neuron is a nerve cell that releases chemical messengers called

neurotransmitters into the synapse

 The post-synaptic neuron is the nerve cell on the receiving end of an electrical
impulse from a neighboring cell. The pre-synaptic, “sender” neuron releases
neurotransmitters that attach themselves to receptors on the post-synaptic,
“receiver” neuron.
The post-synaptic neuron does not accept all NT’s, only those that fit in or match its
receptors.
 Release of neurotransmitters

 Neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal when their vesicles "fuse"

with the membrane of the axon terminal, spilling the neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft.
Criteria to identify neurotransmitter

1. Presence in presynaptic nerve terminal

2. Synthesis by presynaptic neuron
3. Releasing on stimulation (membrane depolarisation/hyperpolarisation)
4. Producing rapid-onset and rapidly reversible responses in the target cell
5. Existence of specific receptor
 Communication between Neurons

 Purpose: -
1. Enable circuits of neurons to gather information
2. Make plans
3. Initiate behaviors

*** Binding site : - NT’s attach themselves to a particular site on receptor molecule called
as the binding site.

***Ligand: - A chemical that binds itself to the binding site is called as ligand. NT’s are
natural ligands.
 7 Key Steps of Neurotransmitter Action

1. Synthesis
2. Storage
3. Enzymatic destruction (if not stored)
4. Exocytosis
5. Termination of release via binding with auto-receptors
6. Binding phase
7. NT Inactivation
42
Step 4
 Exocytosis is a process by which a cell transports secretory products through the
cytoplasm to the plasma membrane.
 Secretory products are packaged into transport vesicles (membrane-bound
spheres).
Step 5 & 6
Functions of different Neurotransmitters
 Acetylcholine (Ach)

 First discovered neurotransmitter because it was easy to remove and

study outside the cerebral cortex in the Petri dish.
 Primary NT secreted by efferent axons of the CNS

 Synthesis
Ach is synthesized in the presynaptic membrane.
Ach is synthesized from Choline which is derived from diet like milk &
cauliflower.
Acetyl Co-enzyme A is synthesized from metabolism.
 Synthesis Reaction
 Choline + Acetyl Co-enzyme → Acetylcholine
 Functions

1. All muscular movement is accomplished by the release of Ach.

2. Effects of Ach released in the brain are facilitator in nature. Acetylcholinergic
neurons in the pons are responsible for eliciting most of the characteristics of
REM sleep.
3. Ach producing neurons in the forebrain are involved in activating the cerebral
cortex and facilitating learning especially perceptual learning.
4. This NT also helps in controlling the electrical rhythms of the hippocampus and
modulating its functions especially the formation of certain types of memories.
5. It triggers muscular contraction at neuromuscular
junction to control motor movement.

6. In the brain it plays a special role ion the formation of

learning, memories, attention and arousal especially retinal
arousal along with NE.

7. It is involved in the stimulation regarding the excretion of

various hormones

8. It is involved in the release of catecholamine

9. It stimulates thermal receptors for the sensation of

temperature
General Division
Monoamines
Catecholamines Indolamines
 Catecholamine (CA) is a monoamine Indolamines are a family of NT that share
an organic compound that has a a common molecular structure  (namely,
catechol (benzene with two hydroxyl) and indolamine).
a side-chain amine.

Dopamine Serotonin
Nor-epinephrine
Epinephrine
Dopamine
 Production: - Dopamine is produced in the dopaminergic neurons in the
ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain and the nucleus of
the hypothalamus.

 Dopamine is the chemical that mediates pleasure in the brain. It is released

during pleasurable situations and stimulates one to seek out the pleasurable
activity or occupation such as food, sex, and several drugs of abuse
Functions
1. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain’s reward and
pleasure centers.
2. Dopamine also helps regulate movement and emotional responses.
3. It enables us not only to see rewards, but to take action to move toward
them.   
4. The presence of a certain kind of dopamine receptor is also associated
with sensation seeking; people, more commonly known as ‘risk takers’.
5. Levels of dopamine in the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex, help in improving
working memory. However, this is a delicate balance and as levels increase or decrease
to abnormal levels, memory suffers.

6. Dopamine may be responsible for determining what stays in the short term memory
based on an imagined response to certain information. 

7. Dopamine in the frontal lobes of the brain controls the flow of information from
other areas of the brain. Disorders of dopamine in this region lead to decline in
neurocognitive functions, especially memory, attention, and problem-solving.

8. It helps in regulating prolactin secretion. Dopamine is occasionally called prolactin-

inhibiting factor (PIF), prolactin-inhibiting hormone(PIH), or prolactostatin.

9. Dopamine plays a role in pain processing in multiple levels of the central nervous

system. 
Nor-epinephrine
 Ulf von Euler (1946), a Swedish biologist discovered norepinephrine
(formerly called noradrenaline). 

 Norepinephrine is released predominantly from the ends of sympathetic

nerve fiber. It is released from the sympathetic nervous system in response
to stress.

 It is prevalent in the sympathetic nervous system.

 It is classified as a neurotransmitter, a chemical that is released from

neurons. Because the release of norepinephrine affects other organs of the
body, it is also referred to as a stress hormone.
 Functions

1. NE acts to increase the force of skeletal muscle.  

2. The actions of norepinephrine are vital to the fight or flight response , whereby
the body prepares to react to or retreat from an acute  threat.
3. Nor epinephrine is strongly associated with bringing our nervous systems into
"high alert." 
4. It increases our heart rate and blood pressure. 
5. It is also important for forming memories.
Serotonin
 Serotonin , biochemically derived from tryptophan is primarily found in
the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), blood platelets and the  (CNS).

 It is popularly thought to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and

happiness.

 Also called as a ‘natural mood stabilizer’

 Serotonin is a derivative of tryptophan, which is found in warm milk. 

Functions
1. Serotonin is found primarily in the body's stomach and intestines. It helps
control your bowel movements and function. 

2. Serotonin in the brain is thought to regulate anxiety, happiness, and mood.

Low levels of the chemical have been associated with depression. 

3. Serotonin is part of the reason why you become nauseous. Production of

serotonin rises to push out noxious or upsetting food quicker in diarrhea. The
chemical also increases in the blood, which stimulates the part of the brain
that controls nausea. 

4. This chemical is responsible for stimulating the parts of the brain that control
sleep and waking. Whether you sleep or are awake depends on what area is
stimulated and which serotonin receptor is used.
5. Blood platelets release serotonin to help heal wounds. The serotonin causes
tiny arteries to narrow, helping form blood clots.

6. Serotonin plays a role in bone health. Significantly high levels of serotonin

in the bones can lead to osteoporosis, which makes the bones weaker.
Glutamate
 Glutamate was discovered by Kikunae Ikeda of Tokay Imperial Univ. in
1907, while looking for the flavor common to things like cheese, meat, and
mushrooms.  He was able to extract an acid from seaweed - glutamate. 
 He went on to invent the well known seasoning MSG - monosodium
glutamate.  It took decades for Peter Usherwood to identify glutamate as a
neurotransmitter (in locusts) in 1994.
 It is the most common neurotransmitter in the central nervous system - as
much as half of all neurons in the brain.
 It is especially important in regards to memory.

 Glutamate sends chemical messages in the brain by “exciting” neurons that

are sensitive to it.

 Although it plays a vital role in learning, memory, and brain development,

too much glutamate can be toxic. When a person experiences a head injury
or stroke, glutamate floods the injured area and kills the neurons by
overexciting them, causing brain damage.
Endorphin
 In1973, Solomon Snyder and Candace Pert of Johns
Hopkins discovered endorphin. 
 Endorphin is short for "endogenous morphine." 
 It
is structurally very similar to the opioids (opium,
morphine, heroin, etc.) and has similar functions: Inhibitory
 Itis involved in pain reduction and pleasure, and the opioid
drugs work by attaching to endorphin's receptor sites. 
 Itis also the neurotransmitter that allows bears and other
animals to hibernate.  Heroin slows heart-rate, respiration,
and metabolism in general - exactly what you would need to
hibernate.