En Banc Rehearing

Case: 17-6119 Document: 65-1 Filed: 09/06/2019 Page: 1 (1 of 40)
Nos. 17-6119/6120
IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT
DAVID ERMOLD; DAVID MOORE,

Plaintiffs–Appellees (17-6119),
Plaintiffs–Appellees/Cross-Appellants (17-6119 & 17-6233),
v.
KIM DAVIS, Individually,
Defendant–Appellant (17-6119),
ELWOOD CAUDILL, JR., CLERK OF ROWAN COUNTY, KENTUCKY,
Defendant–Appellant/Cross-Appellee (17-6119 & 17-6233).
WILL SMITH; JAMES YATES,

Plaintiffs–Appellees (17-6120),
Plaintiffs–Appellees/Cross-Appellants (17-6120 & 17-6226),
v.
KIM DAVIS, Individually,
Defendant–Appellant (17-6120),
ELWOOD CAUDILL, JR., CLERK OF ROWAN COUNTY, KENTUCKY,
Defendant–Appellant/Cross-Appellee (17-6120 & 17-6226),
ROWAN COUNTY, KENTUCKY,
Defendant–Appellee (17-6226).
On Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Eastern District of Kentucky
In Case No. 15-cv-00046 before The Honorable David L. Bunning
PETITION FOR REHEARING EN BANC
A.C. Donahue Mathew D. Staver, Counsel of Record

DONAHUE LAW GROUP, P.S.C. Horatio G. Mihet
P.O. Box 659 Roger K. Gannam
Somerset, Kentucky 42502 Kristina J. Wenberg
(606) 677-2741 LIBERTY COUNSEL
ACDonahue@DonahueLawGroup.com P.O. Box 540774
Orlando, Florida 32854
(407) 875-1776
court@LC.org | hmihet@LC.org
rgannam@LC.org | kwenberg@LC.org
Counsel for Defendant-Appellant Cross-Appellee Kim Davis
CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
In accordance with Fed. R. App. P. 26.1 and Rule 26.1 of this Court,
Defendant–Appellant Kim Davis states that she is an individual person. Thus, Davis
is not a subsidiary or affiliate of a publicly owned corporation, nor is there any
publicly owned corporation, not a party to the appeal, that has a financial interest in
its outcome.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT ..........................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ................................................................................... iii
STATEMENT OF GROUNDS FOR REHEARING EN BANC .............................. 1
BACKGROUND SUMMARY.................................................................................. 5
ARGUMENT ............................................................................................................. 7
I. THE MAJORITY OPINION CONFLICTS WITH BINDING SUPREME

COURT AND SIXTH CIRCUIT PRECEDENT REQUIRING A TIERED
“DIRECT AND SUBSTANTIAL BURDEN” ANALYSIS OF RIGHT-
TO-MARRY CLAIMS. ................................................................................... 7
II. THE MAJORITY OPINION CONFLICTS WITH BINDING SIXTH
CIRCUIT PRECEDENT REQUIRING ANALYSIS OF CLEARLY
ESTABLISHED RIGHTS IN A PARTICULARIZED SENSE. .................... 9
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 15
CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE WITH TYPE-VOLUME LIMIT,

TYPEFACE REQUIREMENTS, AND TYPE-STYLE REQUIREMENTS .......... 16
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE ................................................................................ 17
ii
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
Cases
Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635 (1987) .......................................................... 10
Campbell v. City of Springboro, 700 F.3d 779 (6th Cir. 2012) ................................. 7
Corp. of Presiding Bishop of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v.

Amos, 483 U.S. 327 (1987) ................................................................................. 13
Hobbie v. Unemployment Appeals Comm’n of Fla.,

480 U.S. 136 (1987) ............................................................................................ 13
Kennedy v. City of Villa Hills, 635 F.3d 210 (6th Cir. 2011) .................................. 10
Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003) ............................................................13,14
Miller v. Caudill case, Nos. 17-6385/6404,

2019 WL 3979593 (6th Cir. Aug. 23, 2019) ...................................................... 14
Montgomery v. Carr, 101 F.3d 1117 (6th Cir. 1996) .......................................... 1,7,8
Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584 (2015)..................................................passim
Occupy Nashville v. Haslam, 769 F.3d 434 (6th Cir. 2014)................................... 2,9
Plumhoff v. Rickard, 134 S. Ct. 2012, 2023 (2014)............................................. 2,3,9
Reid v. Memphis Pub. Co., 525 F.2d 986 (6th Cir. 1975) ...................................... 3,4
Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996) ................................................................13,14
Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194 (2001) ........................................................................ 7
United States v. Rosciano, 499 F.2d 173 (6th Cir. 1974) .......................................... 4
Vaughn v. Lawrenceburg Power Sys., 269 F.3d 703 (6th Cir. 2001) ..................... 1,8
Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374 (1978) ........................................................... 1,7,8
iii
Statutes
Kentucky Religious Freedom Restoration Act,

Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.350 (2013) ..........................................................12,13,14,15
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.010 .......................................................................................... 12
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.030 .......................................................................................... 12
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.090 .......................................................................................... 12
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.140 .......................................................................................... 12
Ky. Rev. Stat. Ch. 446 ............................................................................................. 12
iv
STATEMENT OF GROUNDS FOR REHEARING EN BANC
Pursuant to Rule 35(b)(1), Defendant–Appellant Kim Davis states the
following grounds for a rehearing en banc:
(1)(a) The panel majority opinion (the “Opinion,” attached hereto) in these
appeals1 conflicts with binding precedent of the Supreme Court, Zablocki v. Redhail,
434 U.S. 374 (1978), and of this Court, Montgomery v. Carr, 101 F.3d 1117 (6th
Cir. 1996); Vaughn v. Lawrenceburg Power Sys., 269 F.3d 703 (6th Cir. 2001).
Consideration by the full Court is therefore necessary to secure and maintain
uniformity of the Court’s decisions. Fed. R. App. P. 35(a)(1); 6th Cir. IOP 35(a).
These precedents require a tiered analysis of a claim that a government policy
violated the constitutional right to marry: Policies imposing a direct and substantial
burden on the right to marry are subject to strict scrutiny, while policies imposing a
lesser burden are subject to only rational basis review. See, e.g., Montgomery, 101
F.3d at 1124–29. The majority, relying on Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584
(2015), expressly rejected this mandatory tiered analysis (Op. 10), and its opinion is
therefore in conflict with decades of binding Supreme Court and Sixth Circuit
precedent. As the concurrence reasoned, “I don’t believe that the Supreme Court
would abolish tiers-of-scrutiny analysis for all marriage regulations without
1
The captioned appeals were consolidated by the Court for submission, and the
Court issued a single opinion in the consolidated appeals.
1
explicitly telling us it was doing so.” (Op. 14 (Bush, J., concurring in part and in the
judgment).) Judge Bush’s concurrence also cautioned against allowing the
majority’s error to stand, admonishing, “This is not mere pedantry,” and, “The next
marriage-regulation case that our court hears may not be amenable to this type of
judicial shortcut.” (Op. 15–16 (Bush, J., concurring in part and in the judgment).)
(b) Put differently, the majority’s conflicting opinion involves a question
of exceptional importance: Whether a claimed violation of the constitutional right to
marry, as extended to same-sex couples by Obergefell, is subject to the same tiered,
“direct and substantial burden” analysis applicable to right-to-marry claims brought
by different-sex couples prior to Obergefell. The full Court should grant rehearing
to answer this exceptionally important question. See Fed. R. App. P. 35(a)(2).
(2)(a) The majority Opinion also conflicts with the binding precedent of this
Court, Occupy Nashville v. Haslam, 769 F.3d 434 (6th Cir. 2014). Consideration by
the full Court is therefore necessary to secure and maintain uniformity of the Court’s
decisions. Fed. R. App. P. 35(a)(1); 6th Cir. IOP 35(a). In Occupy Nashville,
determining whether a public official was entitled to qualified immunity, this Court
recognized, “The Supreme Court has ‘repeatedly told courts . . . not to define clearly
established law at a high level of generality, since doing so avoids the crucial
question whether the official acted reasonably in the particular circumstances that he
or she faced.’” 769 F.3d at 443 (alteration in original) (quoting Plumhoff v. Rickard,
2
134 S. Ct. 2012, 2023 (2014)). The majority disregarded this clear instruction and
defined—at the highest possible level of generality—the right Plaintiffs sought to
enforce as the “right to marry.” (Op. 8–9.) But this generalized right was no more
specific than the “right to air grievances” that the Occupy Nashville Court rejected
as too generalized to begin the “clearly established” inquiry for qualified immunity
purposes, focusing instead on the particularized right claimed by the plaintiffs: the
right to a “24-hour occupation” of a public plaza to engage in the right to air
grievances. See 769 F.3d at 443. Thus, the majority should have focused on the
Plaintiffs’ claimed right to marry on a marriage license issued in Rowan County, by
Davis, “in the particular circumstances [Davis] faced.” Id. at 443 (emphasis added).
(b) Put differently, the majority’s conflicting opinion involves a question
of exceptional importance: Whether the Court must heed the Supreme Court’s
repeated instruction “‘not to define clearly established law at a high level of
generality,’” 769 F.3d at 443, in determining whether a public official violated a
clearly established right for qualified immunity purposes. The full Court should
grant rehearing to answer this exceptionally important question. See Fed. R. App. P.
35(a)(2).
The foregoing grounds for rehearing en banc are furnished by Rule 35(a), Fed.
R. App. P. “Rule 35(a) . . . provides for in banc hearings to maintain uniformity of
decisions and to deal with questions of exceptional importance.” Reid v. Memphis
3
Pub. Co., 525 F.2d 986, 986 (6th Cir. 1975) (Edwards, J., dissenting from denial of
reh’g en banc). Where, as here, the panel’s decision conflicts with a decision of the
Supreme Court and previous decisions of this Court on the appropriate constitutional
test for violations of the fundamental right to marry, “[f]ull consideration is essential
to establishing a consistent rule of law . . . .” Id. And, even if the majority’s opinion
and the cited precedents are not “diametrically opposed,” but instead “point in
opposite directions,” en banc rehearing should be granted because “[s]uch hearings
are primarily useful in facilitating the orderly development of a consistent body of
jurisprudence.” United States v. Rosciano, 499 F.2d 173, 176 n.3 (6th Cir. 1974)
(Stevens, J., dissenting).
In deciding whether Davis violated a clearly established right of Plaintiffs, the
majority asked the wrong question. Having concluded unequivocally that Davis
acted for Kentucky both in issuing marriage licenses, and in not issuing marriage
licenses to Plaintiffs (Op. 6–7), the majority should have asked whether Kentucky
(acting through Davis) directly and substantially burdened Plaintiffs’ ability to marry
whom they wanted, which is necessary to establishing the appropriate level of
review. Instead, the majority imposed a novel, strict liability on Davis because she
did not license Plaintiffs to marry, regardless of the extent to which Plaintiffs were
burdened by Davis herself. (Op. 8–11; cf. Op. 13 (Bush, J., concurring in part and in
the judgment) (“They suffered a hardship . . . . What they did not suffer was a
4
prohibition on getting married.).) Furthermore, in deciding whether Plaintiffs’
claimed right was clearly established, the majority considered the right at too high a
level of generality—the “right to marry”—instead of asking whether Plaintiffs had
a right to marry on a marriage license issued in Rowan County, by Davis, and then
asking whether Davis acted (on Kentucky’s behalf) reasonably in removing but one
of the many Kentucky marriage licensing options available to Plaintiffs under
Kentucky law, in order to balance Davis’ conscience rights and Plaintiffs’ right to
marry under Kentucky law. In short, the Court did not apply binding Supreme Court
and Sixth Circuit precedent and should grant rehearing to address the error.
BACKGROUND SUMMARY
In Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court held:
[T]he right to marry is a fundamental right inherent in the

liberty of the person, and under the Due Process and Equal
Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment couples
of the same-sex may not be deprived of that right and that
liberty. The Court now holds that same-sex couples may
exercise the fundamental right to marry. No longer may
this liberty be denied to them. . . . [T]he State laws
challenged . . . are now held invalid to the extent they
exclude same-sex couples from civil marriage on the
same terms and conditions as opposite-sex couples.
135 S. Ct. 2584, 2604–05 (2015) (emphasis added). The state laws challenged
included Kentucky’s laws “defin[ing] marriage as a union between one man and one
woman.” Id. at 2593.
5
Kentucky, acting through its then Governor Steven Beshear, immediately
changed the Kentucky marriage license form to comply with Obergefell, treating all
couples the same. (Brief of Appellant Kim Davis, No. 17-6119/6233, D.33 (“Davis
Brief”), Statement of the Case Pt. A.2) Six months later Kentucky, acting through its
next and current Governor Matt Bevin, changed the marriage license form again by
Executive Order 2015-048, to comply with Kentucky RFRA, still treating all couples
the same. (Davis Br., Statement of the Case Pt. D.) In between, Davis treated all
couples the same, first by not issuing any marriage licenses, and then by allowing
her deputies to issue marriage licenses with alterations ratified by then Governor
Beshear, while she sought the accommodation that Kentucky—in the form of the
Executive Order—agreed she was entitled to. (Davis Br., Statement of the Case Pts.
B, C, G.)
Plaintiffs sought and did not receive marriage licenses from Davis during the
two months that she was not issuing licenses, but while Kentucky marriage licenses
were otherwise available.3 (Davis. Br., Statement of the Case Pt. F; Davis Br. at 19.)
2
Davis’s briefs in No. 17-6119/6233 and No. 17-6120/6226 are substantially
the same. For the Court’s convenience, Davis herein cites only to her briefs in No.
17-6119.
3
Plaintiffs have not alleged that marriage licenses were unavailable to them in
any of Kentucky’s 119 other counties, or in the 7 counties surrounding Rowan
County. (Davis Br. at 24–25.)
6
ARGUMENT
I. THE MAJORITY OPINION CONFLICTS WITH BINDING

SUPREME COURT AND SIXTH CIRCUIT PRECEDENT
REQUIRING A TIERED “DIRECT AND SUBSTANTIAL BURDEN”
ANALYSIS OF RIGHT-TO-MARRY CLAIMS.
The Court was tasked with determine Davis’s qualified immunity defense
under a two-step inquiry: (1) whether a constitutional right has been violated, and
(2) if so, whether the right was clearly established and one that a reasonable official
should have known. See Campbell v. City of Springboro, 700 F.3d 779, 786 (6th Cir.
2012) (citing Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194 (2001)). “If either inquiry is answered
in the negative, the defendant official is entitled to [prevail].” Gibbs v. Lomas, 755
F.3d 529, 537 (7th Cir. 2014).
Having already concluded, unequivocally, that Davis acted for Kentucky—
both in issuing marriage licenses, and in not issuing marriage licenses to Plaintiffs
(Op. 6–7)—the next step under the well-settled standards for constitutional right-to-
marry claims required the Court to first determine whether rational basis scrutiny or
strict scrutiny applies to the challenged Kentucky policy. See Montgomery v. Carr,
101 F.3d 1117, 1124 (6th Cir. 1996). As the Supreme Court held in Zablocki v.
Redhail, whether challenged on equal protection or due process grounds, only state
regulations that “interfere directly and substantially with the right to marry” are
subject to strict scrutiny. 434 U.S. 374, 384–87 (1978); see also Montgomery, 101
F.3d at 1124. A “direct and substantial” burden requires an “absolute barrier” in
7
which individuals are “absolutely or largely prevented from marrying” whom they
want to marry or “absolutely or largely prevented from marrying a large portion of
the otherwise eligible population of spouses.” Vaughn v. Lawrenceburg Power Sys.,
269 F.3d 703, 710 (6th Cir. 2001) (emphasis added).
Contrary to the majority’s conclusion (Op. 8–11), and as stated supra,
Obergefell neither overruled the Zablocki–Montgomery–Vaughn line of precedent,
nor relieved this Court from applying it to Kentucky’s regulation of marriage
through Davis’s temporary policy. (See Op. 14 (Bush, J., concurring in part and in
the judgment) (“I don’t believe that the Supreme Court would abolish tiers-of-
scrutiny analysis for all marriage regulations without explicitly telling us it was
doing so.”).) Rather than focus on whether Davis’s policy created an “absolute
barrier” such that Plaintiffs were “absolutely or largely prevented from marrying”
whom they wanted to marry or “absolutely or largely prevented from marrying a
large portion of the otherwise eligible population of spouses,” Vaughn, 269 F.3d at
710, so that the Court could determine whether to apply strict scrutiny or rational
basis review, the majority instead focused only on whether Davis provided Plaintiffs
licenses on the terms Plaintiffs wanted, irrespective of the availability of Kentucky
marriage licenses to Plaintiffs from other Kentucky officials. Thus, the majority did
an end run around the binding precedent of the Supreme Court and the Sixth Circuit
8
and imposed a form of strict liability on Davis that in no way is mandated by
Obergefell.
Rehearing by the full Court is necessary to secure and maintain uniformity of
the Court’s decisions, and felicity to binding precedent, in constitutional right-to-
marry cases. (Cf. Op. 15 (Bush, J., concurring in part and in the judgment) (“This is
not mere pedantry. A restriction on marriage could be examined in different ways,
possibly with different results, depending on which analysis is used.”) Op. 16 “The
next marriage-regulation case that our court hears may not be amenable to this type
of judicial shortcut.”).)
II. THE MAJORITY OPINION CONFLICTS WITH BINDING SIXTH

CIRCUIT PRECEDENT REQUIRING ANALYSIS OF CLEARLY
ESTABLISHED RIGHTS IN A PARTICULARIZED SENSE.
Even if a violation of Plaintiffs’ constitutional right to marry occurred at some
level (it did not), the majority began its “clearly established” analysis at too high a
level of generality, in conflict with Occupy Nashville v. Haslam, 769 F.3d 434 (6th
Cir. 2014), which teaches, “The Supreme Court has ‘repeatedly told courts . . . not
to define clearly established law at a high level of generality, since doing so avoids
the crucial question whether the official acted reasonably in the particular
circumstances that he or she faced.’” 769 F.3d at 443 (alteration in original) (quoting
Plumhoff v. Rickard, 134 S. Ct. 2012, 2023 (2014)). Thus, to thwart qualified
immunity, such a “right ‘must have been clearly established in a . . . particularized
9
. . . sense: The contours of the right must be sufficiently clear that a reasonable
official would understand that what he is doing violates that right.’” Kennedy v. City
of Villa Hills, 635 F.3d 210, 214 (6th Cir. 2011) (emphasis added) (quoting Anderson
v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 640 (1987)) (internal quotations omitted).
The majority, in formulating the “clearly established” right for its analysis,
truncated Obergefell’s holding, focusing on the passage, “‘The Court now holds
same-sex couples may exercise the fundamental right to marry. No longer may this
liberty be denied to them.’” (Op. 8 (quoting Obergefell, 135 S. Ct. at 2604–05).) As
shown supra, however, Obergefell’s holding was more specific, and the majority
disregarded the critical part: “the State laws challenged . . . are now held invalid
to the extent they exclude same-sex couples from civil marriage on the same
terms and conditions as opposite-sex couples.” Obergefell, 135 S. Ct. at 2605; see
also id. at 2607 (“The Constitution . . . does not permit the State to bar same-sex
couples from marriage on the same terms as accorded to couples of the opposite
sex.”). Davis’s obligations thus, with respect to determining Plaintiffs’ “clearly
established” rights following Obergefell, must be considered in light of the
obligations imposed on Davis by Kentucky marriage law following Obergefell.
As the majority correctly explained:
Only Kentucky can discipline county clerks. And

Kentucky has “absolute jurisdiction over the
regulation of the institution of marriage.” Indeed,
Kentucky law governs everything about marriage. It
10
defines marriage and sets eligibility requirements. It vests

courts with the authority to declare certain marriages void.
It describes who may solemnize a marriage and requires a
couple to obtain a marriage license prior to marrying. It
sets out the process for licensing and recording a marriage.
And specific to Davis, Kentucky law vests county clerks
with the duty of issuing marriage licenses, recording
marriage certificates, and reporting marriages. So
Kentucky controls every aspect of how county clerks
issue marriage licenses . . . .
(Op.6 (emphasis added) (citations omitted).) Thus, the majority opinion contains an
irresolvable conflict: on the one hand, the majority holds Kentucky state law
absolutely governs all aspects of marriage license eligibility and issuance; but on the
other hand, the majority entirely disregards the interaction of Kentucky marriage-
licensing law with Obergefell’s holding that impliedly, if not expressly, leaves to the
states the details of implementing the Supreme Court’s redefinition of marriage to
include same-sex couples.
As ultimately acknowledged by Governor Bevin’s Executive Order, Davis’
right to relief from carrying out Governor Beshear’s mandate to issue marriage
licenses on the new Kentucky license form, against her conscience, is protected by
and entrenched in the Kentucky Religious Freedom Restoration Act (“Kentucky
RFRA”) which provides, in pertinent part:
11
Government shall not substantially burden a person’s[4]

freedom of religion. The right to act or refuse to act in a
manner motivated by a sincerely held religious belief may
not be substantially burdened unless the government
proves by clear and convincing evidence that it has a
compelling governmental interest in infringing the
specific act or refusal to act and has used the least
restrictive means to further that interest.
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.350 (emphasis added).
Kentucky RFRA, in turn, applies to all Kentucky statutes. Kentucky RFRA is
housed under Chapter 446, which is entitled “Construction of Statutes,” and includes
such other generally applicable provisions as “Definitions for Statutes Generally,”
“Computation of Time,” “Severability,” and “Titles, Headings, and Notes.” Ky. Rev.
Stat. §§ 446.010, 446.030, 446.090, 446.140. Even more specifically, Kentucky
RFRA is included under a section of Chapter 446 reserved for “Rules of
Codification.” As such, Kentucky’s marriage statutes—much like any other body of
Kentucky law—cannot be interpreted without also considering and applying
Kentucky RFRA.
4
While “person” is not defined in the Kentucky RFRA, it is defined in
Kentucky’s general definitions statute to include “bodies-politic and corporate,
societies, communities, the public generally, individuals, partnerships, joint stock
companies, and limited liability companies.” See KY. REV. STAT. § 446.010(33)
(emphasis added). There is no exception from the definition for individuals who are
publicly elected officials.
12
Thus, the right to refuse to act against religious conscience is expressly
conferred by Kentucky RFRA, which applies to Kentucky marriage licensing
statutes. Moreover, the specific application of this right to county clerks in the
issuance of marriage licenses was expressly established by the Executive Order. Put
differently, Kentucky (i.e., Davis in her official capacity) has a duty under Kentucky
RFRA not to substantially burden “the right of any person” (i.e., Davis in her
individual capacity) “to act or refuse to act in a manner motivated by a sincerely
held religious belief . . . .” Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.350 (emphasis added). Accordingly,
both in issuing marriage licenses, and in not issuing licenses pursuant to Kentucky
RFRA, Davis was complying with state law, and acting reasonably.
Contrary to the majority’s conclusion (Op. 11), religious accommodations are
not incompatible with constitutional rights, and do not “flout the Constitution.”
Indeed, the Constitution often requires accommodation to balance competing rights.
See, e.g., Hobbie v. Unemployment Appeals Comm’n of Fla., 480 U.S. 136, 144–45
(1987) (“[G]overnment may (and sometimes must) accommodate religious practices
and . . . it may do so without violating the [Constitution].”); see also Corp. of
Presiding Bishop of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v. Amos, 483 U.S.
327, 338 (1987) (there is “ample room for accommodation of religion under the
[Constitution]”). And, contrary to the concurrence, neither Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S.
620 (1996), nor Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003), requires the Court to
13
attribute “anti-homosexual animus” to Davis’s seeking an accommodation for her
sincerely held beliefs. Neither Romer nor Lawrence involved state laws approving
of religious accommodation, based on a balancing test, like Kentucky RFRA
provides. To be sure, Kentucky RFRA neither approves nor disapproves of same-
sex marriage or any moral aspect of marriage. Instead, Kentucky RFRA reflects a
state policy to provide an accommodation of sincerely held religious beliefs, to any
person, including public officials, subject to appropriate balancing of competing
rights. Thus, Davis’ invocation of Kentucky RFRA as grounds for her not issuing
marriage licenses while licenses were still available from other Kentucky officials
was reasonable, and Davis’ policy does not fail rational basis review automatically
as supposed by the majority and concurrence.
Furthermore, contrary to the suggestions of both the majority (Op. 11) and the
concurrence (Op. 12), Kentucky RFRA did not require Davis to first secure an
accommodation judicially before invoking the protections of the statute. By its plain
language, Kentucky RFRA confers “the right to . . . refuse to act” unless the
government meets its burden under the statute. Davis’s availing herself of that right,
under the plain language of the statute, does not require a judicial determination first.
In any event, as recognized by the Court, Davis sued then Governor Beshear to
invoke the Kentucky RFRA protections in the related Miller v. Caudill case, Nos.
17-6385/6404, 2019 WL 3979593, at *2 (6th Cir. Aug. 23, 2019), and Davis invoked
14
Kentucky RFRA in her motion to dismiss Plaintiffs’ claims here. Thus, Davis could
not have invoked Kentucky RFRA any sooner or more directly than she did.
CONCLUSION
State officials and district courts should be able to look to this Court’s opinion
for guidance on future conduct and disputes, and they will be deprived of this
important benefit if the majority opinion—applying the wrong constitutional
analysis, in conflict with Supreme Court and Sixth Circuit precedent—is allowed to
stand. For the foregoing reasons, the full Court should grant rehearing to answer this
exceptionally important questions raised herein.
Respectfully submitted:
/s/ Roger K. Gannam
A.C. Donahue Mathew D. Staver, Counsel of Record
DONAHUE LAW GROUP, P.S.C. Horatio G. Mihet
P.O. Box 659 Roger K. Gannam
Somerset, Kentucky 42502 Kristina J. Wenberg
(606) 677-2741 LIBERTY COUNSEL
ACDonahue@DonahueLawGroup.com P.O. Box 540774
Orlando, Florida 32854
(407) 875-1776
court@LC.org | hmihet@LC.org
rgannam@LC.org | kwenberg@LC.org
Counsel for Defendant-Appellant Kim Davis
15
CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE WITH TYPE-VOLUME LIMIT,

TYPEFACE REQUIREMENTS, AND TYPE-STYLE REQUIREMENTS
1. This document complies with the type-volume limitation of Fed. R.
App. P. 32(a)(7)(B). Not counting the items excluded from the length by Fed. R.
App. P. 32(f), this document contains 3,472 words.
2. This document complies with the typeface requirements of Fed. R. App.
P. 32(a)(5) and the type-style requirements of Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(6). This
document has been prepared using Microsoft Word in 14-point Times New Roman
font.
DATED this September 6, 2019.

/s/ Roger K. Gannam
Roger K. Gannam
Attorney for Defendant-Appellant
Kim Davis
16
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE
I hereby certify that a true and correct copy of the foregoing was filed via the
Court’s ECF filing system and therefore service will be effectuated by the Court’s
electronic notification system upon all counsel or parties of record:
Michael J. Gartland, Esq.

DelCotto Law Group PLLC
200 North Upper Street
Lexington, KY 40507
mgartland@dlgfirm.com
Thomas Paul Szczygielski, Esq.

Joseph D. Buckles, Esq.
Chaney Buckles Szczygielski PLLC
149 North Limestone
Lexington, KY 40507
tom@cbslaw.com
joe@cbslaw.com
DATED this September 6, 2019.

/s/ Roger K. Gannam
Roger K. Gannam
Attorney for Defendant-Appellant
Cross-Appellee Kim Davis
17
Case: 17-6119 Document: 65-2
61-2 Filed: 09/06/2019
08/23/2019 Page: 1 (23
(3 of 21)
40)
RECOMMENDED FOR FULL-TEXT PUBLICATION

Pursuant to Sixth Circuit I.O.P. 32.1(b)
File Name: 19a0209p.06
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT
DAVID ERMOLD; DAVID MOORE, ┐

Plaintiffs-Appellees (17-6119), │
Plaintiffs-Appellees/Cross-Appellants (17-6119 & 17-6233), │
│
v. │
> Nos. 17-6119/6120/6226/6233
│
KIM DAVIS, Individually, │
Defendant-Appellant (17-6119), │
│
ELWOOD CAUDILL, JR., Clerk of Rowan County, Kentucky, │
Defendant-Appellant/Cross Appellee (17-6119 & 17-6233). │
│
___________________________________________________ │
WILL SMITH; JAMES YATES, │
Plaintiffs-Appellees (17-6120), │
│
Plaintiffs-Appellees/Cross-Appellants (17-6120 & 17-6226),
│
v. │
│
KIM DAVIS, Individually, │
│
Defendant-Appellant (17-6120),
│
ELWOOD CAUDILL, JR., Clerk of Rowan County, Kentucky, │
│
Defendant-Appellant/Cross-Appellee (17-6120 & 17-6226), │
│
ROWAN COUNTY, KENTUCKY,
│
Defendant-Appellee (17-6226). ┘
Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Eastern District of Kentucky at Ashland.
No. 0:15-cv-00046—David L. Bunning, District Judge.
Argued: January 31, 2019
Decided and Filed: August 23, 2019
Before: GRIFFIN, WHITE, and BUSH, Circuit Judges.

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Nos. 17-6119/6120/6233/6226 Ermold et al. v. Davis et al. Page 2
_________________
COUNSEL
ARGUED: Roger K. Gannam, LIBERTY COUNSEL, Orlando, Florida, for Kim Davis and
Elwood Caudill, Jr. Michael J. Gartland, DELCOTTO LAW GROUP PLLC, Lexington,
Kentucky, for David Ermold and David Moore. W. Kash Stilz, Jr., ROUSH & STILZ, P.S.C.,
Covington, Kentucky, for James Yates and Will Smith. Mary Ann Stewart, ADAMS,
STEPNER, WOLTERMANN & DUSING, PLLC, Covington, Kentucky, for Rowan County.
ON BRIEF: Roger K. Gannam, Mathew D. Staver, Horatio G. Mihet, Kristina J. Wenberg,
LIBERTY COUNSEL, Orlando, Florida, for Kim Davis and Elwood Caudill, Jr. Michael J.
Gartland, DELCOTTO LAW GROUP PLLC, Lexington, Kentucky, for David Ermold and
David Moore. W. Kash Stilz, Jr., ROUSH & STILZ, P.S.C., Covington, Kentucky, for James
Yates and Will Smith. Jeffrey C. Mando, ADAMS, STEPNER, WOLTERMANN & DUSING,
PLLC, Covington, Kentucky, for Rowan County.
GRIFFIN, J., delivered the opinion of the court in which WHITE, J., joined. BUSH, J.
(pp. 12–18), delivered a separate opinion concurring in part and in the judgment.
_________________
OPINION
_________________
GRIFFIN, Circuit Judge.
At first glance, this case appears simple. When Kim Davis was County Clerk for Rowan
County, Kentucky, the Supreme Court recognized a constitutional right to same-sex marriage.
One of Davis’s duties as County Clerk was to issue marriage licenses. But she believed same-
sex marriage was immoral, so she stopped issuing them. Plaintiffs, two couples who sought
licenses and were rebuffed, sued her for depriving them of their right to marry.
But Davis claims she is immune from suit, which complicates matters. That’s because
the law treats Davis not as one person, but as two: an official and an individual. The doctrine of
sovereign immunity shields Davis as an official if, when refusing to issue marriage licenses, she
acted on Kentucky’s behalf—but not if she acted on Rowan County’s behalf. And the doctrine
of qualified immunity shields Davis as an individual if she didn’t violate plaintiffs’ right to
marry or, if she did, if the right wasn’t clearly established when she acted.
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And this case comes to us at a relatively early stage. The district court hasn’t issued a
final ruling, a trial hasn’t occurred, and the parties haven’t completed discovery. That means we
don’t look at evidence; we look at allegations. So we ask not whether Davis definitively violated
plaintiffs’ rights but whether they adequately allege that she did.
The district court ruled that Davis, as an official, acted on Kentucky’s behalf, meaning
sovereign immunity protected her. Plaintiffs dispute that ruling. The court also ruled that
plaintiffs pleaded a plausible case that Davis, as an individual, violated their right to marry and
that the right was clearly established, meaning qualified immunity didn’t protect her. Davis
disputes that ruling. We agree with the district court on both issues and therefore affirm.
I.
In the summer of 2015, Kim Davis was the County Clerk for Rowan County, Kentucky.
One of her responsibilities was to issue marriage licenses. But same-sex marriage offended her
religious beliefs, so when the Supreme Court recognized a constitutional right to same-sex
marriage in Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584 (2015), Davis took matters into her own
hands.
One day after the Supreme Court released Obergefell, Davis stopped issuing marriage
licenses. She didn’t discriminate against same-sex couples, though; she stopped issuing licenses
altogether. That meant that when plaintiffs—two same-sex couples who lived in Rowan
County—sought marriage licenses from the Clerk’s Office, they couldn’t get them.
With a constitutional right to marry yet no ability to obtain marriage licenses within
Rowan County, plaintiffs sued Davis in her individual capacity and in her official capacity as
County Clerk. One of the couples also sued the County. Plaintiffs sought damages for Davis’s
violation of their right to marry.
In a different lawsuit over Davis’s conduct (which is before us on a challenge to an

attorney’s-fees award), the district court enjoined Davis from refusing to issue marriage licenses.
With the injunction in place, plaintiffs obtained marriage licenses.
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A challenge to that injunction came to our court. Before we could rule on the dispute,
however, Kentucky legislators changed the law in a way that convinced Davis to issue licenses
without objection. See 2016 Kentucky Laws Ch. 132 (SB 216). So Davis asked us to dismiss
her appeal, which we did. Miller v. Davis, 667 F. App’x 537, 538 (6th Cir. 2016).
The district court read our opinion so broadly that it dismissed plaintiffs’ cases as well,
ruling that there was no longer a legal dispute because Davis had agreed to issue marriage
licenses. Two plaintiffs appealed the dismissal, and we reversed because they sought damages
for the past deprivation of their right to marry, which meant there was still a dispute to resolve.
Ermold v. Davis, 855 F.3d 715, 720 (6th Cir. 2017).
On remand, the district court also re-opened the other two plaintiffs’ case. Davis then
moved to dismiss the complaints, arguing that sovereign immunity shielded her from suit in her
official capacity and that qualified immunity shielded her from suit in her individual capacity.
The district court sided with plaintiffs on the qualified-immunity issue (ruling that the doctrine
didn’t shield her) and with Davis on the sovereign-immunity issue (ruling that the doctrine did).
Davis appealed the denial of qualified immunity, and plaintiffs appealed the grant of
sovereign immunity. After the parties submitted their briefs, Elwood Caudill, Jr. replaced Davis
as Rowan County Clerk and thus became a defendant and cross-appellee in his official capacity.
II.
We begin with sovereign immunity. Unless a State consents to be sued, it enjoys

immunity from private lawsuits seeking damages. U.S. Const. amend. XI; Crabbs v. Scott, 786
F.3d 426, 428 (6th Cir. 2015). And because lawsuits against state officials in their official
capacities equate to lawsuits against the State itself, see Kentucky v. Graham, 473 U.S. 159, 165–
66 (1985), sovereign immunity shields state officials as well. But the doctrine doesn’t extend to
counties and county officials. See Mt. Healthy City Sch. Dist. Bd. of Educ. v. Doyle, 429 U.S.
274, 280 (1977).
Whether sovereign immunity protects an official from being sued in her official capacity,
then, depends on her role in government. Sometimes the inquiry is easy. A governor obviously
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is a state official; a mayor obviously is not. But not all officials operate within jurisdictional
silos—some have hybrid duties in which they serve both state and local government. In such
scenarios, immunity depends on which entity the official serves when engaging in the challenged
conduct. McMillian v. Monroe Cty., 520 U.S. 781, 785 & n. 2 (1997). And that inquiry turns on
how state and local law treat the official. Id. at 786.
Here, plaintiffs contend that when Davis stopped issuing marriage licenses, she acted on
the County’s behalf. Caudill and the County, however, claim Davis acted on Kentucky’s behalf.
To resolve this dispute, we must examine and balance six factors:
1. The State’s potential liability for a judgment;

2. How state statutes and courts refer to the official;
3. Who appointed the official;
4. Who pays the official;
5. The degree of state control over the official; and
6. Whether the functions involved fell within the traditional
purview of state or local government.
Crabbs, 786 F.3d at 429.
The first and fourth factors are neutral. Kentucky law appears silent on which level of
government must pay for a judgment against a county clerk or clerk’s office, and the parties have
provided us nothing but tangentially related hypotheticals about who might pay. Clerk’s offices
in Kentucky are self-funded. They operate using money from the fees they collect—fees that
come from both state and county sources. So both state and county money paid Davis’s salary.
And if plaintiffs secured a judgment against Davis in her official capacity (now Caudill in his
official capacity) and the Clerk’s Office paid the judgment with the money it controls, that
money would have both state and local origins.
The second and third factors weigh in favor of Davis having acted on the County’s
behalf. The Kentucky Constitution refers to clerks as county officials. Ky. Const. § 99.
Kentucky courts have also generally characterized county clerks as county officials. See, e.g.,
Carroll v. Reed, 425 S.W.3d 921, 924 (Ky. Ct. App. 2014); St. Matthews Fire Prot. Dist. v.
Aubrey, 304 S.W.3d 56, 60 (Ky. Ct. App. 2009). County residents elect county clerks. Ky.
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Const. § 99. And if there is a vacancy, a county judge or executive appoints a new clerk. Ky.
Rev. Stat. § 63.220. But these factors offer little help because they pertain to county clerks
generally, and no party contests that county clerks mostly work on the behalf of counties—hence
the title county clerk. What we need is legal authority specific to marriage licensing.
The fifth and sixth factors give us that authority, and they show that Davis acted on the
State’s behalf. Only Kentucky can discipline county clerks. See Ky. Const. § 68; Ky. Rev. Stat.
§§ 402.990(6), 522.020–030; Lowe v. Commonwealth, 60 Ky. 237 (Ky. 1860). And Kentucky
has “absolute jurisdiction over the regulation of the institution of marriage.” Pinkhasov v.
Petocz, 331 S.W.3d 285, 291 (Ky. Ct. App. 2011) (citations omitted). Indeed, Kentucky law
governs everything about marriage. It defines marriage and sets eligibility requirements. Ky.
Rev. Stat. §§ 402.005, 402.010, 402.020. It vests courts with the authority to declare certain
marriages void. Id. at § 402.030. It describes who may solemnize a marriage and requires a
couple to obtain a marriage license prior to marrying. Id. at §§ 402.050, 402.080. It sets out the
process for licensing and recording a marriage. Id. at §§ 402.100–402.240. And specific to
Davis, Kentucky law vests county clerks with the duty of issuing marriage licenses, recording
marriage certificates, and reporting marriages. Id. at §§ 402.080, 402.220, 402.230. So
Kentucky controls every aspect of how county clerks issue marriage licenses; Rowan County has
no say whatsoever.
Plaintiffs acknowledge Kentucky’s general control over marriage, but they contend that
when Davis refused to issue licenses, she made a discretionary policy on Rowan County’s
behalf. If true, sovereign immunity wouldn’t shield Davis because when an official applies state
law that leaves the method of application to her discretion, she acts on behalf of local
government.
Perhaps the best example of this principle is Brotherton v. Cleveland, 173 F.3d 552 (6th
Cir. 1999). There, Ohio law allowed county coroners to remove corneas for medical use. Id. at
555. The law didn’t specify the process for doing so, but it permitted removal only when the
coroner had no knowledge of an objection by the decedent or certain others. Id. at 556. One
coroner established a policy of intentional ignorance to potential objections, which meant his
subordinates didn’t review medical records or paperwork pertaining to a corpse before removing
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its corneas. Id. When sued in his official capacity for making that policy, the coroner claimed
that sovereign immunity protected him from suit. Id. at 562. We rejected his argument, holding
that he had acted without state compulsion, had selected a policy for his county, and had thus
acted on the county’s behalf, not the State’s. Id. at 567.
In comparing Davis’s actions to those of the coroner in Brotherton (and to other, similar
cases), plaintiffs conflate discretion with insubordination. Whereas Ohio’s cornea-harvesting
law left to officials the method of application, Kentucky’s marriage-licensing laws gave county
clerks no wiggle room. Kentucky required Davis to issue marriage licenses to eligible couples.
See, e.g., Ky. Rev. Stat. § 402.100 (“Each county clerk shall make available to the public the
form prescribed by the Department for Libraries and Archives for the issuance of a marriage
license.”) (emphasis added); id. at § 402.110 (“In issuing the license the clerk shall deliver it in
its entirety to the licensee.” (emphasis added)); id. at § 402.080 (2017) (“The license shall be
issued by the clerk of the county in which the female resides at the time, unless the female is
eighteen (18) years of age or over or a widow, and the license is issued on her application in
person or by writing signed by her, in which case it may be issued by any county clerk.”)
(emphasis added). Plaintiffs have cited no authority suggesting that if a county official acting on
the State’s behalf fails to do her job, that failure transforms the source of her power from the
State to the county. Indeed, such a proposition would make little sense; for whom an official
acts has nothing to do with how well she acts. Davis’s refusal to issue licenses, then, did nothing
to change the government she acted for.
Because Davis acted on Kentucky’s behalf when issuing (and refusing to issue) marriage
licenses, sovereign immunity protects her (and now Caudill, as the current county clerk) from an
official-capacity suit.
III.
Next, we turn to qualified immunity, which shields a government official from a lawsuit
against her in her individual capacity if (1) she didn’t violate any of the plaintiff’s constitutional
rights or (2) the rights, if violated, weren’t “clearly established” at the time of the alleged
misconduct. Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223, 232 (2009). Put differently, the doctrine
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protects “all but the plainly incompetent or those who knowingly violate the law.” White v.
Pauly, 137 S. Ct. 548, 551 (2017). Davis challenges the district court’s denial of her motion to
dismiss, which places our focus on plaintiffs’ allegations. If they adequately allege the violation
of a clearly established right, we must affirm. See Cahoo v. SAS Analytics Inc., 912 F.3d 887,
898–99 (6th Cir. 2019) (discussing the interplay between qualified immunity and the motion-to-
dismiss standard).
That they do. Plaintiffs allege that: (1) the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees them the
right, as same-sex couples, to marry; (2) they sought marriage licenses from Davis, whom
Kentucky tasked with issuing those licenses; (3) under Kentucky law, they qualified for licenses;
and (4) Davis refused to license them. Put differently, they identify the specific right they sought
to exercise, what they did to exercise it, who thwarted their efforts, and how she did so.
Plaintiffs therefore adequately alleged the violation of a constitution right.
And that right was clearly established when Davis acted. To be clearly established, the
right’s contours must have been so obvious that a reasonable official would have known that her
conduct was out of bounds. Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 640 (1987). This need for
clarity means the Constitution’s text, alone, is often insufficient to establish a right’s edges;
terms such as “liberty” and phrases such as “equal protection” are too general—too nebulous—to
give an official the notice she needs. Constitutional law, then, regularly fills the void
constitutional text creates. In other words, legal opinions that forge constitutional rights
frequently set their limits as well.
Here, Obergefell both recognized the right to same-sex marriage and defined its contours.
The Court’s decree was as sweeping as it was unequivocal:
[T]he right to marry is a fundamental right inherent in the liberty of the person,
and under the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth
Amendment couples of the same-sex may not be deprived of that right and that
liberty. The Court now holds that same-sex couples may exercise the fundamental
right to marry. No longer may this liberty be denied to them.
Obergefell, 135 S. Ct. at 2604–05. The Court made no mention of a limit on that right, of an
exception to it, or of a multi-factor test for determining when an official violates it. For a
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reasonable official, Obergefell left no uncertainty. For Davis, however, the message apparently
didn’t get through.
And it still doesn’t appear to have gotten through: She now argues that Obergefell
doesn’t even apply to her conduct. Because she stopped issuing licenses to all couples regardless
of their sexual orientation, she claims, she “obviate[ed] any equal protection issue.” That might
be so, but the right to marry also arises from the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause.
Obergefell, 135 S. Ct. at 2604 (“[T]he Equal Protection Clause, like the Due Process Clause,
prohibits this unjustified infringement of the fundamental right to marry. . . . [U]nder the Due
Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment couples of the same-sex
may not be deprived of that right and that liberty.”) (emphases added). So one could say that
Davis provided “equal protection of the laws,” U.S. Const., amend. XIV, § 1, but in reality, her
alleged conduct amounted to equal deprivation of the due-process right to marry. Because
Obergefell speaks to such deprivations, it applies with force here.
Davis further contends that Obergefell doesn’t apply for another reason: Obergefell
involved a total ban on same-sex marriage, but here plaintiffs could’ve obtained marriage
licenses elsewhere in Kentucky. She also presents two other arguments with similar thrusts:
(1) The relevant inquiry is whether Kentucky violated plaintiffs’ right to marry, not whether she
violated it, and (2) Obergefell didn’t clearly establish a right to demand marriage licenses from
particular state officials. The common denominator is a claim that we should focus broadly on
Kentucky instead of narrowly on Davis. Yet Davis provides no legal authority for that
proposition. We can find none. And we know why: that’s not how qualified immunity works,
and that’s not how constitutional rights work.
Qualified immunity protects government officials from lawsuits against them in their
individual capacities. McCloud v. Testa, 97 F.3d 1536, 1539 n.1 (6th Cir. 1996). The focus of
the analysis, then, is on what the law requires of them individually. And nowhere in the
Constitution—or in constitutional law, for that matter—does it say that a government official
may infringe constitutional rights so long as another official might not have. All government
officials must respect all constitutional rights. And that means Obergefell’s holding applies not
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just to monolithic governmental entities like Kentucky but to the officials acting for those entities
as well.
Davis also asks us to apply rational-basis scrutiny to plaintiffs’ constitutional challenge.

She says her actions were objectively reasonable because Kentucky’s Religious Freedoms
Restoration Act, Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.350, required her to accommodate her personal religious
opposition to same-sex marriage. This argument fails because, under Obergefell, the direct
prohibition of same-sex marriage didn’t trigger the tiers-of-scrutiny analysis typical in many
other constitutional inquiries. “Rational basis” never appears in the Obergefell majority’s
opinion. Neither does “intermediate scrutiny.” And “strict scrutiny” appears only once: in a
reference to a Hawaii Supreme Court opinion during a discussion of how “[t]he ancient origins
of marriage confirm its centrality” and how the concept “has not stood in isolation from
developments in law and society.” Obergefell, 135 S. Ct. at 2597.
On this point, the concurrence sees things differently. Although Obergefell never
invoked the tiers of scrutiny, it reasons, the framework should still apply because Davis merely
burdened the right to marry. Sometimes the government regulates marriage without banning it,
the concurrence notes, and Obergefell didn’t overrule that swath of caselaw. Thus, because
plaintiffs could have obtained a license in another county and used it to wed within Rowan
County, the argument goes, Davis didn’t ban marriage. And because she didn’t ban marriage,
the argument continues, Obergefell’s method of analysis doesn’t apply to her actions.
Yet Obergefell answered two questions, the first of which was “whether the Fourteenth
Amendment requires a State to license a marriage between two people of the same sex.” Id. at
2593. The Court said “yes.” Id. at 2607. Obergefell therefore condemned the very action Davis
took—refusing to license same-sex marriage—and did so without ever asking what government
interest that refusal served or examining the relationship between the refusal and any proffered
interest(s). This move “b[roke] sharply with decades of precedent.” Id. at 2618–19 (Roberts,
C.J., dissenting). Obergefell, then, didn’t abolish the tiers of scrutiny for all marriage
restrictions. But it did jettison them for actions such as Davis’s.
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Davis’s request that we apply rational-basis scrutiny fails for a second reason as well. To
be sure, Obergefell might have created “serious questions about religious liberty,” 135 S. Ct. at
2625, (Roberts, C.J., dissenting), but it said nothing to suggest that government officials may
flout the Constitution by enacting religious-based policies to accommodate their own religious
beliefs. Davis provides no legal support for her contention that Kentucky’s Religious Freedoms
Restoration Act required her to do what she did. Her reading of the Act is a subjective one and,
as far as we can tell, one no court has endorsed. In the presence of Obergefell’s clear mandate
that “same-sex couples may exercise the fundamental right to marry,” 135 S. Ct. at 2605, and in
the absence of any legal authority to support her novel interpretation of Kentucky law, Davis
should have known that Obergefell required her to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples—
even if she sought and eventually received an accommodation, whether by legislative
amendment changing the marriage-license form or by judicial decree adopting her view of the
interplay between the Constitution and Kentucky law.
In short, plaintiffs pleaded a violation of their right to marry: a right the Supreme Court
clearly established in Obergefell. The district court therefore correctly denied qualified
immunity to Davis.
IV.
Finally, Davis argues that because plaintiffs haven’t pleaded a violation of a

constitutional right, the district court lacked subject-matter jurisdiction. As discussed above,
plaintiffs have adequately pleaded a violation of their right to marry. More importantly, Davis
conflates the merits of a claim with its source. Plaintiffs sued Davis under 42 U.S.C. § 1983.
Section 1983 is a federal law. That means plaintiffs asserted claims “arising under the . . . laws .
. . of the United States.” 28 U.S.C. § 1331. And district courts have original jurisdiction to
resolve such claims. Id. Put differently, if a claim is ultimately unsuccessful, jurisdiction to
resolve it doesn’t vanish.
V.
For these reasons, we affirm the district court’s grant of sovereign immunity and denial
of qualified immunity.
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__________________________________________________
CONCURRING IN PART AND IN THE JUDGMENT

__________________________________________________
JOHN K. BUSH, Circuit Judge, concurring in part and in the judgment. I concur fully in
the Majority’s treatment of the sovereign immunity issue. I also concur in the Majority’s
disposition of qualified immunity, though I follow a different route to that conclusion.
In the Majority’s view, Kim Davis banned same-sex marriage in Rowan County plain and
simple, and Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584 (2015) abolished tiers of scrutiny in the
analysis of bans on same-sex marriage. Therefore, the Majority does not apply tiers-of-scrutiny
analysis to Davis’s actions, which were per se unconstitutional under Obergefell. Davis is not
entitled to qualified immunity because Obergefell clearly established that Davis’s conduct was
unconstitutional, and she may not rely on Kentucky’s Religious Freedom Restoration Act
(“KRFRA”), Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.350.
I agree that Davis violated Plaintiffs’ constitutional rights and is not entitled to qualified
immunity. But, unlike the Majority, I don’t find that Davis’s actions constituted an outright ban
of same-sex marriage, and I believe they should be reviewed using tiers-of-scrutiny analysis.
Her conduct, however, does not survive even rational-basis review because of her anti-
homosexual animus, which is not a legitimate basis for government action under Romer v.
Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 632 (1996) and Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003). Romer,
Lawrence, and Obergefell together clearly established that Davis could not deny marriage
licenses to Plaintiffs based on their sexual orientation; therefore, Davis was properly denied
qualified immunity. I express no opinion on whether Davis may have been entitled to an
exemption under KRFRA or what that exemption may have looked like because she never
properly invoked the protections of the statute.
I.
There is no dispute that Davis, confronted by a conflict between her conscience and the
dictates of Obergefell, ceased issuing marriage licenses in Rowan County. The Majority states
that in doing so, Davis “depriv[ed] [Plaintiffs] of their right to marry.” Majority Op. at 2.
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According to the Majority, we must apply Obergefell to Davis’s actions with the understanding
that she effected a “total ban on same-sex marriage” within Rowan County. Majority Op. at 9.
The facts, however, are more nuanced than that.
The Commonwealth of Kentucky has two requirements for a valid marriage—licensure

and solemnization:
[T]he General Assembly intended two essential requisites of a legally valid civil
marriage which are inviolable. First, the parties intending to be married must
obtain a marriage license from a county clerk. Second, having obtained a
marriage license, the parties intending to be married must solemnize their intent to
be married before a person or society believed in good faith to possess authority
to solemnize the marriage.
Pinkhasov v. Petocz, 331 S.W.3d 285, 294 (Ky. Ct. App. 2011). It is true that Davis prevented
Plaintiffs from acquiring marriage licenses in Rowan County. However, a marriage license
issued by any county clerk, in any county in Kentucky, is valid throughout the entire
Commonwealth. See Ky. Rev. Stat. § 402.080. Thus, Davis did not (and could not) bar
Plaintiffs from getting married in Rowan County. Nothing prevented each Plaintiff couple from
travelling outside Rowan County, obtaining a marriage license from a different county clerk, and
returning to Rowan County to solemnize their marriage.
Plaintiffs do not dispute this, but they hypothesize that Davis’s actions might have
worked a total marriage ban upon a certain class of marriage license seekers, namely those
Rowan County residents who could afford to travel to the Rowan County Courthouse but not to
the courthouse of an adjacent county. However, these hypothetical plaintiffs are not before us.
In analyzing this issue, I would take Plaintiffs at their word: they were entitled to a marriage
license but were prevented from getting one in Rowan County. They suffered a hardship, to be
sure. What they did not suffer was a prohibition on getting married.
II.
Does this distinction make a difference? It may with regard to whether tiers-of-scrutiny
analysis applies. The Majority is correct that the Obergefell decision never uses the words
“rational basis” or “intermediate scrutiny,” and refers to “strict scrutiny” only once, in a non-
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substantive manner. See Majority Op. at 10. But the fact that the Supreme Court held in
Obergefell that a total ban of same-sex marriage was per se unconstitutional, does not necessarily
mean that tiers-of-scrutiny analysis is inapplicable for review of a marriage regulation that is less
than a total ban. I don’t believe that the Supreme Court would abolish tiers-of-scrutiny analysis
for all marriage regulations without explicitly telling us it was doing so. In any event, as we
have noted, “the Supreme Court itself does not seem terribly bound by the rigid rules of tiering.
The lower courts are bound, however, even though the Supreme Court remains free to create new
levels of scrutiny or ignore old ones.” Montgomery v. Carr, 101 F.3d 1117, 1123 (6th Cir.
1996).
I therefore believe we should apply tiers-of-scrutiny analysis to Davis’s conduct. This

naturally raises the question: what level of scrutiny should govern?
Even—especially—in the wake of Obergefell, there is some debate over the nature of the
right to marriage under our Constitution. There are several lines of cases recognizing this right
on different constitutional grounds. First, there is a substantive due process right to marriage.
See, e.g., Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 12 (1967) (“These statutes also deprive the Lovings of
liberty without due process of law in violation of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment. The freedom to marry has long been recognized as one of the vital personal rights
essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men.”). Second, there is an associational
right to marriage. See, e.g., Roberts v. United States Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609, 619–20 (1984)
(“The personal affiliations that exemplify these considerations, and that therefore suggest some
relevant limitations on the relationships that might be entitled to this sort of constitutional
protection, are those that attend the creation and sustenance of a family[, such as] marriage . . . .
[O]nly relationships with these sorts of qualities . . . have led to an understanding of freedom of
association as an intrinsic element of personal liberty.”). And third, as with any other state
action, regulation of marriage will fall under the purview of the Equal Protection Clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment to the extent that the state regulates different groups differently. See
Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71, 75–76 (1971) (“The Equal Protection Clause . . . den[ies] to States the
power to legislate that different treatment be accorded to persons placed by a statute into
different classes on the basis of criteria wholly unrelated to the object of the statute.”).
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In the contexts of substantive due process and associational rights, we analyze a marriage
restriction through a two-step process: “first, a court must ask whether the policy or action is a
direct or substantial interference with the right of marriage; second, if the policy or action is a
direct and substantial interference with the right of marriage, apply strict scrutiny, otherwise
apply rational basis scrutiny.” Montgomery, 101 F.3d at 1124 (citing Zablocki v. Redhail,
434 U.S. 374, 383–84 (1978)). In the equal protection context, we analyze disparate treatment
by the government this way: 1) we ask whether the restriction discriminates against a suspect or
semi-suspect class, and 2) if it discriminates against a suspect class, we apply strict scrutiny; if it
discriminates against a semi-suspect class, we apply intermediate scrutiny; if it discriminates
against neither a suspect nor a semi-suspect class, we apply rational basis review. See Clark v.
Jeter, 486 U.S. 456, 461 (1988); Loving, 388 U.S. at 11.
Government may sometimes regulate marriage in ways that fall short of a complete ban,
but that still place burdens on marriage rights. For example, in Montgomery, we considered a
school district’s policy that forbade employees from being married to fellow employees. See
101 F.3d at 1118. Two employees of the school district married each other, and because of the
anti-nepotism policy, one of them was forced to take a job in a neighboring district. Id. at 1119.
We held that forcing an individual to drive sixty-five miles per day as a condition of marriage
was not a significant burden and applied rational basis to uphold the policy. Id. at 1121.
I do not read Obergefell as overruling cases like Montgomery. Aside from passing
references to the Fourteenth Amendment, Obergefell did not spell out any new understandings of
the sources of marriage rights under our Constitution, or when and how to apply which mode of
analysis. Obergefell answered some questions, but it also left many unanswered.
This is not mere pedantry. A restriction on marriage could be examined in different

ways, possibly with different results, depending on which analysis is used. For example, suppose
that instead of refusing to issue marriage licenses on the basis of moral misgivings about same-
sex marriage, the Rowan County clerk had gone on strike, and refused to issue marriage licenses
to any applicants until Rowan County gave her a pay raise. Very likely, were we to analyze such
a case under equal protection, we would not find a constitutional violation, because there would
simply not be disparate treatment of anyone. See Scarbrough v. Morgan Cty. Bd. of Educ.,
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470 F.3d 250, 260 (6th Cir. 2006) (explaining that “[t]he threshold element of an equal
protection claim is disparate treatment”). On the other hand, if we were to analyze such a case as
a substantive due process violation, we might find a constitutional violation. Even if we agreed
that the refusal of one county—out of 120 in Kentucky—to issue marriage licenses was not a
significant interference with the right to marriage (and thus applied rational basis review), it is
hard to imagine that we would construe a county clerk’s desire for a pay raise as a legitimate
government interest to justify the non-issuance of marriage licenses.
The present case, as the Majority points out, is relatively easy. Not because, as the
Majority holds, the case does not require us to discern and apply an appropriate level of scrutiny.
Instead, this case is straightforward because even if we give Davis the benefit of any doubt and
apply the lowest tier of scrutiny, rational basis review, the result is still the same. The next
marriage-regulation case that our court hears may not be amenable to this type of judicial
shortcut.
Let’s assume arguendo—either because Davis’s actions were not a significant

interference with Plaintiffs’ right to marriage, or because her actions were not discriminatory
against a suspect or semi-suspect class—that rational basis is the appropriate level of scrutiny.
Under rational basis review, state activity is constitutional if it is rationally related to a legitimate
purpose. Liberty Coins, LLC v. Goodman, 748 F.3d 682, 694 (6th Cir. 2014). “There is a strong
presumption of constitutionality and the regulation will be upheld so long as its goal is
permissible and the means by which it is designed to achieve that goal are rational.” Id. To
conclude that the governmental action in question fails rational basis review, we must find that
“government action . . . ‘is so unrelated to the achievement of any combination of legitimate
purposes . . . that the government’s actions were irrational.’” Michael v. Ghee, 498 F.3d 372, 379
(6th Cir. 2007) (quoting Club Italia Soccer & Sports Org. v. Charter Twp. of Shelby, 470 F.3d
286, 298 (6th Cir. 2006)).
Although rational basis is the lowest level of scrutiny, there are some instances in which
government action does not pass even that low bar. Under Romer v. Evans, government actions
based on moral disapproval of homosexuality fail rational basis review. See 517 U.S. at 632.
Similarly, in Lawrence v. Texas, the Supreme Court indicated that moral disapproval on the part
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of the state legislature was not a “legitimate state interest” justifying interference with
homosexual relationships. 539 U.S. 558, 578 (2003). Likewise, county clerks are not allowed
to act on this basis. Cf. Monell v. Dep’t of Soc. Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 690–91 (1978)
(“[L]ocal governments, like every other § 1983 ‘person,’ . . . may be sued for constitutional
deprivations . . . .”).
Davis argues, however, that she was entitled to an accommodation under KRFRA, or at
least had a good-faith basis to argue for such an accommodation, that would entitle her to
qualified immunity, notwithstanding the federal constitutional mandates of Romer, Lawrence,
and Obergefell. However, it is not settled whether KRFRA actually entitled Davis to an
accommodation.1 KRFRA provides, in relevant part:
The right to act or refuse to act in a manner motivated by a sincerely held

religious belief may not be substantially burdened unless the government proves
by clear and convincing evidence that it has a compelling governmental interest in
infringing the specific act or refusal to act and has used the least restrictive means
to further that interest.
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.350. Based on this language, Davis not only argues that she was entitled to
an accommodation but also takes the argument even further: she claims she was entitled to self-
create an accommodation if none was forthcoming from the state government. The latter point,
it seems to me, goes too far.
Even if we assume arguendo that KRFRA entitled her to an accommodation,2 it was not
permissible for Davis to take the law into her own hands. Her “accommodation”—refusing to
issue any marriage license to any applicant—denied Plaintiffs marriage licenses in Rowan
County to which they were entitled, given the existing state statutory framework and the holding
of Obergefell. Davis is correct that Obergefell neither spelled out the entire nature of marriage
rights under our Constitution nor spelled out a comprehensive analysis for constitutional review
of restrictions on marriage rights. She also correctly notes that the Obergefell majority and
1I note here that the constitutionality of KRFRA is not at issue in this case.
2This assumption is not necessarily true. My research could not find a Kentucky case interpreting KRFRA
to support the theory that a government employee may be relieved from the performance of ministerial duties under
the auspices of the statute. However, for the purposes of this concurrence, I assume without purporting to decide
that Davis’s theory of KRFRA is correct.
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dissent agreed that the holding was not meant to denigrate religious faith or people who hold
moral viewpoints in opposition to same-sex marriage. See Obergefell, 135 S. Ct. at 2607; id. at
2625 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting). However, whatever unclarity, whatever unresolved tension,
whatever lingering questions remain in the wake of Obergefell, one thing is clear from that
decision: “Today . . . the Court takes the extraordinary step of ordering every State to license and
recognize same-sex marriage.” Id. at 2611 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting). Although I cannot agree
with the Majority’s statement that “Obergefell left no uncertainty,” Majority Op. at 9 (emphasis
added), I agree that Davis knew or ought to have known, to a legal certainty, that she could not
refuse to issue marriage licenses, as was her duty under state law, because of moral disapproval
of homosexuality. And if Davis truly believed that she had a right under KRFRA to not issue
marriage licenses, she should have sought and obtained judicial confirmation of her claim. That,
she did not do.
I therefore agree with the Majority that Plaintiffs have pleaded a violation of their
constitutional right to marriage based on Davis’s refusal to issue marriage licenses and that the
district court correctly denied qualified immunity to Davis because she violated clearly
established rights.

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Case: 17-6119 Document: 65-1 Filed: 09/06/2019 Page: 1 (1 of 40)

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

DAVID ERMOLD; DAVID MOORE,

WILL SMITH; JAMES YATES,

On Appeal from the United States District Court

PETITION FOR REHEARING EN BANC

A.C. Donahue Mathew D. Staver, Counsel of Record

CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

is not a subsidiary or affiliate of a publicly owned corporation, nor is there any

CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT ..........................................................i

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... ii

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ................................................................................... iii

STATEMENT OF GROUNDS FOR REHEARING EN BANC .............................. 1

I. THE MAJORITY OPINION CONFLICTS WITH BINDING SUPREME

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE WITH TYPE-VOLUME LIMIT,

Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635 (1987) .......................................................... 10

Corp. of Presiding Bishop of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v.

Hobbie v. Unemployment Appeals Comm’n of Fla.,

Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003) ............................................................13,14

Miller v. Caudill case, Nos. 17-6385/6404,

Obergefell v. Hodges, 135 S. Ct. 2584 (2015)..................................................passim

Plumhoff v. Rickard, 134 S. Ct. 2012, 2023 (2014)............................................. 2,3,9

Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996) ................................................................13,14

Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194 (2001) ........................................................................ 7

Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374 (1978) ........................................................... 1,7,8

Kentucky Religious Freedom Restoration Act,

Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.010 .......................................................................................... 12

Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.030 .......................................................................................... 12

Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.090 .......................................................................................... 12

Ky. Rev. Stat. § 446.140 .......................................................................................... 12

Ky. Rev. Stat. Ch. 446 ............................................................................................. 12

STATEMENT OF GROUNDS FOR REHEARING EN BANC

Pursuant to Rule 35(b)(1), Defendant–Appellant Kim Davis states the

following grounds for a rehearing en banc:

Consideration by the full Court is therefore necessary to secure and maintain

These precedents require a tiered analysis of a claim that a government policy

would abolish tiers-of-scrutiny analysis for all marriage regulations without

judgment).) Judge Bush’s concurrence also cautioned against allowing the

(b) Put differently, the majority’s conflicting opinion involves a question

of exceptional importance: Whether a claimed violation of the constitutional right to

marry, as extended to same-sex couples by Obergefell, is subject to the same tiered,

“direct and substantial burden” analysis applicable to right-to-marry claims brought

to answer this exceptionally important question. See Fed. R. App. P. 35(a)(2).

defined—at the highest possible level of generality—the right Plaintiffs sought to

right to a “24-hour occupation” of a public plaza to engage in the right to air

Plaintiffs’ claimed right to marry on a marriage license issued in Rowan County, by

(b) Put differently, the majority’s conflicting opinion involves a question

repeated instruction “‘not to define clearly established law at a high level of

generality,’” 769 F.3d at 443, in determining whether a public official violated a

R. App. P. “Rule 35(a) . . . provides for in banc hearings to maintain uniformity of

decisions and to deal with questions of exceptional importance.” Reid v. Memphis

opposite directions,” en banc rehearing should be granted because “[s]uch hearings

are primarily useful in facilitating the orderly development of a consistent body of

(Stevens, J., dissenting).

In deciding whether Davis violated a clearly established right of Plaintiffs, the

whom they wanted, which is necessary to establishing the appropriate level of

prohibition on getting married.).) Furthermore, in deciding whether Plaintiffs’

level of generality—the “right to marry”—instead of asking whether Plaintiffs had

of the many Kentucky marriage licensing options available to Plaintiffs under