INT. J. SCI. EDUC., 2002, VOL. 24, NO.

5, 441–451

An exploratory study on students’ problem-solving

ability in earth science

Chun-Yen Chang, Department of Earth Sciences, National Taiwan Normal

University, Taipei 11650 Taiwan, R.O.C.; e-mail: changcy@cc.ntnu.edu.tw,
and Yu-Hua Weng, Taipei Municipal His Sung Senior High School, Taipei
105, Taiwan, R.O.C.; e-mail: judge567@ms22.hinet.net

In this paper, we explore the interrelationship between students’ problem-solving ability and their
science-process skills in the area of earth science. Participants were 195 earth science students enrolled
in four science classes at four senior high schools in Taipei City and the County of Taiwan. Statistical
analyses indicated that a significantly moderate correlation existed between students’ problem-solving
ability and their science process skills. Results of t-test also revealed that there were significant mean
differences in students’ skills of observation, data interpretation, and hypothesis formulation between
higher-level and lower-level problem solvers. Semi-structured interviews revealed that the higher-level
problem solver performed better on the problem-solving processes than the lower-level problem solver.

Introduction
Developing and enhancing problem-solving ability and science-process skills of
students have long been important objectives of science education. Recent science
education standards in the USA propose, ‘Teaching must involve students in
inquiry-oriented investigations in which they interact with their teachers and
peers. . . . they apply science content to new questions; they engage in problem
solving, planning, decision making, and group discussions’ (NRC 1996: 20).
Problem-solving ability is generally viewed as the ability to think critically, to
reason analytically, and to create productively, which all involve quantitative,
communication, manual, and critical-response skills (AAAS 1993). Science-pro-
cess skills usually refer to two types – basic and integrated process skills. The basic
skills include observing, classifying, measuring, using space/time relations, using
numbers, communicating, inferring, and predicting. The integrated skills encom-
pass interpreting data, formulating hypotheses, estimating, controlling variables,
experimenting and defining problems operationally (AAAS 1967).
It is interesting to find that problem-solving ability and science-process skills
have been closely tied together in the research literature. To be successful in
problem solving, it appears that students need to have some background knowl-
edge and to possess certain science-process skills. Accordingly, some researchers
have suggested improving students’ problem-solving ability through teaching
science-process skills (Germann 1991), or vice versa (Geban et al. 1992, Holley
1996a, 1996b). Others have also suggested employing different modes of problem-
International Journal of Science Education ISSN 0950–0693 print/ISSN 1464–5289 online # 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/09500690110066502
442 C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG

solving associated instruction to improve students’ creative/critical thinking, prob-

lem-solving ability, science-process skills or earth science achievement (Tobin and
Capie 1982, Germann 1989, Basaga et al. 1994, Chang and Barufaldi 1999, Chang
and Mao 1999, Chang 2001a, 2001b).
Champagne and Klopfer (1981) assessed the relative contribution of knowl-
edge and process to problem-solving and processing skills. Both contribute more
to the successful solution of set-member problems than to the solution of analo-
gous problems. They also found that the students with higher processing skills on
structuring tasks would score higher on set-member problems in physical geology
than those with lower processing skills. Tamir and Amir (1987) have also inves-
tigated the interrelationships among 21 laboratory process skills in biology. They
found both association as well as dissociation among these process skills. Bowen
and Bodner (1991) investigated different phases of problem-solving processes used
by graduate students to solve problems in organic chemistry. They found that the
verbal and pictorial systems are prevalent in all three phases of problem-solving.
Geban et al. (1992) investigated the effects of computer-simulated experiments
(CSE), problem-solving, and conventional instructional method on high school
students’ chemistry achievement, science process skills, and attitudes toward
chemistry. The results indicated that CSE and problem-solving produced greater
achievement in chemistry and science process skills than the traditional teaching
method. Ault (1994) pointed out that earth science curriculum developers
‘assumed that emphasis on inquiry processes in the curriculum would promote
problem solving’ (Ault 1994: 270). Research implicitly suggests that problem-solv-
ing ability be intertwined with science-process skills. However, the relationships
between these two have not been explored in greater depth in the area of science
education.
Earth science is a unique science subject matter in terms of its interdisciplin-
ary, integrated and practical nature among different science disciplines. As
Aldridge (1993) stated, ‘In a very real sense, the life and Earth science constitute
natural application of fundamental concepts, principles, and laws of science, most
of which appear in physics and chemistry’ (Aldridge 1993: 32). Mayer (1995)
called for an integrated science curriculum building around a unifying theme,
the earth system, to better prepare future citizens with the understanding of our
planet. Earth system science is emerging as a progressively important science
discipline because of increasing awareness of the world’s deteriorating land,
water and climate; yet, its significance has not been reflected in the area of science
education research. Moreover, after reviewing research conducted on problem-
solving, Ault (1994) concluded that insufficient research has been conducted
into the nature of learning and problem-solving in the area of earth science educa-
tion. Therefore, the purpose of this study attempted to fill the gap by exploring the
nature of students’ problem-solving ability in this context.

Method
This study explored the interrelationships between tenth-grade students’ prob-
lem-solving ability and their science-process skills in the secondary earth science
classrooms. Additionally, the differences between higher-ability and lower-ability
problem solvers’ science-process skills and problem-solving processes were also
investigated.
STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 443

Sample
Subjects were 195 tenth-grade students attending four senior high schools in the
Taipei City and Taipei County of Taiwan, 75 males and 120 females with a mean
age of 16. These students were enrolled in four earth science classes in the spring
semester 1998. The earth science course, taught three hours per week for one
semester, is required of every tenth-grade student in the secondary schools in
Taiwan. These four public senior high schools shared similar features, including
similar student populations, social-economic background of parents, geographic
location, and school administration.

Instruments
Quantitative data were obtained on students’ problem-solving ability and
science-process skills through the use of the Problem Solving Ability Test
(PSAT) and the Science Process Skills Test (SPST) to inquire their common
interrelationship.
The PSAT was developed and constructed by us based on the Creative
Problem Solving (CPS) model (Osborn 1963), which emphasizes students’ con-
vergent (or critical) and divergent (or creative) thinking skills within the following
four-stage problem-solving processes: fact-finding, problem-finding, idea-finding,
and solution-finding (Treffinger and Isaksen 1992). This open-ended essay-ques-
tion-type instrument employed by the study aimed to measure students’ problem-
solving ability in earth science subject. Questions in the instrument were open-
ended to encourage pupils to express their opinions thoroughly and were designed
specifically to tap students’ problem-solving ability. There are two open-ended
questions in this test, which were designed to correspond to the aforementioned
problem-solving stages proposed by the CPS model. The first question was
adapted from an activity, ‘The deer migration mess’ in Project Wild Activity
Guide (WREEC 1992), which required the student to resolve a dilemma problem
between city development and environmental conservation. This question first
presented the student with ‘The deer migration mess’ and asked the students to
tackle the problem of establishing safe deer migration routes. Students then began
brainstorming questions about the ‘fuzzy situation’, and then tried to resolve the
issue. The second question was constructed based on the emerging problems of
water resources shortage in Taiwan. Students were required to solve this problem
based on the water resources information provided in the question. There are
multiple solutions to the questions in the PSAT and students can form their
own problem-solving strategies to reach the solutions.
These two open-ended questions were determined as appropriate for tenth-
grade students by the authors, by two senior earth science teachers in the second-
ary schools, and by two earth science professors from universities in Taiwan. The
instrument was evaluated and analysed to determine levels of students’ problem-
solving success for different stages in the CPS model. The following criteria were
used to score answers on the aforementioned PSAT at different problem-solving
stages:
(1) Fact-finding stage: number and variety of facts identified by the
student.
444 C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG

(2) Problem-finding stage: number of problems recognized by the student

and degree of clarity of the problems described by the student.
(3) Idea-finding stage: number and variety of ideas proposed by the student
and degree of creativity of the ideas presented by the student.
(4) Solution-finding stage: reasonableness, accuracy, and feasibility of sol-
utions suggested by the student.
Two earth science teachers, using the aforementioned criteria, scored the
students’ responses independently. Interrater reliability (Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficient) was computed as 0.96 and few disagreements
were resolved by discussions between the raters after completing the scoring pro-
cedure. The validity, design, administering, detailed scoring and analysis of the
PSAT can also be found in Chang and Weng (2000).1
The SPST focused on students’ skills of observation, data interpretation, and
hypothesis formulation, which are considered presumably the most important
elements in both the CPS problem-solving scheme and in earth science. A panel
of experts, including four professors from the Department of Earth Sciences,
National Taiwan Normal University, and two senior high school teachers estab-
lished the content validity of the test. We conducted a test of reliability by testing
tenth-grade earth science students …n ˆ 146† of a different school in the same
school district during a pilot study. Internal consistency reliability coefficients
of 0.64, 0.73, and 0.64 were reported for the observation, data interpretation,
and hypothesis formulation subscales respectively.
The reliability of both tests with the present sample of the study was even
higher. The reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s ¬) was calculated as 0.71 for the
PSAT with subjects of the study; the SPST had an internal consistency reliability
coefficient (Cronbach’s ¬) which ranged from 0.73 to 0.90 with participants in the
current study.

Interviews
Qualitative data were acquired through a semi-structured interviewing technique
to explore characteristics of students’ problem-solving process in greater depth.
The ‘Footprint Puzzle’ was selected and adapted from ‘The dinosaur puzzle’, an
activity first developed for the Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP), in
Investigating the Earth: Laboratory Manual (ESCP 1964). In the ‘Footprint
Puzzle’, students needed to examine two sets of footprints, and to make observa-
tions and inferences about past events. Students were also required to establish a
defensible hypothesis and estimate these animals’ weights deriving information
from their footprints. The interviews were all audio recorded and transcribed
for analysis.

Design and data analysis procedures

A correlation research design (Campbell and Stanley 1966), accompanied by the
interviewing technique, involving four senior high school classes was adopted. The
participants in these four classes were tested with the PSAT for two hours and the
SPST for another two hours during a three-week period, in the spring semester of
1998. Care was taken to ensure that the procedures of administrating these tests in
STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 445

Table 1. An analysis example of the

Flander’s system on the problem-
solving process of the student.

ff pf if sf

ff
pf 1 1 1
if 3
sf 2

different school sites were as similar as possible. The relationships between

students’ problem-solving ability and science-process skills were then determined
for the total group of students using a Pearson product-moment correlation
method.
T-test was also conducted for a sub-sample of 29 higher-ability and 28 lower-
ability problem solvers to find any significant differences between means on the
Science Process Skills Test. Twenty-nine higher-ability problem solvers were
chosen based on their PSAT scores (>38 points) which were one standard devi-
ation above the group mean score (31.52 points); while 28 lower-ability problem
solvers were selected based on their PSAT scores (<25 points) which were one
standard deviation below the group mean score. The highest possible score on the
PSAT is 60.
A cluster of six higher-ability problem solvers and six lower-ability problem
solvers was further randomly selected from the above sub-sample of 29 higher-
ability and 28 lower-ability problem solvers respectively. We then employed the
semi-structured interviewing technique to explore higher-ability vs. lower-ability
problem solvers’ problem-solving processes in greater depth.
Students’ problem-solving processes were then transcribed and classified
according to the CPS problem-solving stages: fact finding (ff), problem finding
(pf), idea finding (if), and solution finding (sf). We employed an adapted Flander’s
system (Borich 1990) to analyse interviewing data qualitatively. For example, if
one student solved the Footprint Puzzle in the following processes, ff-pf-if-pf-if-
sf-pf-if-sf, we then coded the procedures as: ff ^ pf_ if ^ pf_ if ^ sf _ pf ^ if_ sf and
converted them into the format of column and row, i.e. (column, row) as the
following: (ff,pf) (pf,if) (if,pf) (pf,if) (if,sf) (sf,pf) (pf,if) and (if,sf). We counted
the total frequency of each problem-solving process performed by individual
students and recorded this interaction in a table. Table 1 illustrates the aforemen-
tioned case.

Results

Correlation
Table 2 presents a 5 £ 4 matrix of Pearson product-moment correlation coeffi-
cients on students’ PSAT and SPST scores and their sub-scale scores. The find-
ings revealed that (1) the students’ skills of observation …r ˆ 0:55, p < 0:01†, data
interpretation …r ˆ 0:35, p < 0:01†, and hypothesis formulation …r ˆ 0:56,
446 C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG

Table 2. Summary of Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients

between students’ PSAT and SPST scores.

Science process skills

Problem-solving Data Hypothesis Total

ability Observation interpretation formulation score

Fact finding 0.45** 0.24 0.40* 0.45**

Problem finding 0.34* 0.22 0.32* 0.33
Idea finding 0.50** 0.30* 0.52** 0.52**
Solution finding 0.48** 0.31* 0.54** 0.60**
Total score 0.55** 0.35** 0.56** 0.57**

* p < 0:05, ** p < 0:01.

p < 0:01† have a significantly modest, positive correlation with the student’s
problem-solving ability; (2) the students’ skills of observation and hypothesis
formulation account for more variations …r2 ˆ 0:32† in the student’s problem-
solving ability than their skills of data interpretation …r2 ˆ 0:12†; (3) a significantly
moderate correlation exists between students’ problem-solving ability and their
science-process skills …r ˆ 0:57, p < 0:01†, as shown in the total score row of
table 2.

Differences of science-process skills

Table 3 presents the results of t-test on students’ mean scores of science-process
skills test between a sub-sample of 29 higher-ability and 28 lower-ability problem
solvers, with the means and standard deviations noted. The results indicate that
significant differences exist on students’ skills of observation …2.41-point mean
difference, t ˆ 5:54, p < 0:01†, data interpretation (1.59-point mean difference,
t ˆ 3:24, p < 0:01), hypothesis formulation (3.32-point mean difference,
t ˆ 4:94, p < 0:01), and on total scores (7.76-point mean difference, t ˆ 6:57,
p < 0:01) between these two subgroups.

Table 3. Summary of t-test on students’ mean scores of the SPST

between higher-ability and lower-ability problem solvers.

Science Data Hypothesis Total

process skills Observation interpretation formulation score
Problem-solving mean mean mean mean
ability (SD) (SD) (SD) (SD)

Higher-ability problem solver 14.72 14.59 16.59 45.90

…n ˆ 29† (1.28) (1.43) (2.38) (3.68)
Lower-ability problem solver 12.31 13.00 13.27 38.14
…n ˆ 28† (1.97) (2.18) (2.71) (5.19)
t 5.54* 3.24* 4.94* 6.57*

* p < 0:01.
STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 447

Differences of problem-solving processes

Table 4 and table 5 reported the adding-up frequency analysis of the adapted
Flander’s system on the problem-solving processes of six higher-ability problem
solvers and six lower-ability problem solvers respectively. Summarizing from the
results of table 4 and table 5, it was found that the higher-ability problem solvers
generally followed the CPS problem-solving procedures to solve a problem, i.e.
going through fact-finding, problem-finding, idea-finding, and solution-finding
stages. Regularly, higher-ability students would go back to the problem-finding
stage if it seemed necessary, as is shown in the grey area of table 4. The lower-
ability problem solvers usually jumped back and forth between different problem-
solving stages with fragmented and disorderly problem-solving processes, as illu-
strated in the grey area of table 5.

Table 4. Summary of the problem-solving

processes performed by six higher-
ability problem solvers.

Fact Problem Idea Solution

finding finding finding finding
Fact
2 3 5
finding
Problem
8 3 12
finding
Idea
5 16 0
finding
Solution
2 2 18
finding
Grey areas: frequency >7

Table 5. Summary of the problem-solving

processes performed by six lower-
ability problem solvers.

Fact Problem Idea Solution

finding finding finding finding

Fact
8 2 0
finding
Problem
7 1 8
finding
Idea
8 10 0
finding
Solution
0 2 10
finding
Grey areas: frequency >7
448 C.-Y. CHANG AND Y.-H. WENG

Discussion and implications

Overall, there exists a significantly moderate correlation between problem-solving
ability and science-process skills of tenth-grade students in earth science; however,
correlations are not great …r ˆ 0:35 ¹ 0:57† but substantial. Besides, the current
study found that 12 to 32% of the variation in problem-solving ability was attri-
butable to differences in the science-process skills of students. These data indi-
cated that science-process skills might serve as important inputs in accomplishing
successful problem-solving in earth science. Since solving a problem requires
students to understand the problem, make accurate observations, interpret data,
formulate a valid hypothesis, and find solutions to the problem. These findings
suggested that earth science instruction in the secondary schools should put more
emphasis on developing the science-process skills of students because pupils
receiving this type of instruction would be provided with the opportunity to
observe, interpret, hypothesize, and think on their own. Accordingly, these
science-process skills might help students, to some extent, in improving their
problem-solving abilities.
Students’ skills of observation and hypothesis formulation were found to be
strongly associated with students’ problem-solving ability in comparison to
students’ skills of data interpretations. The above result is consistent with results
or conclusions from other studies in this area. First of all, many instructors believe
that students must develop careful visualization and observation skills in order to
solve earth science problems (e.g., Ault 1994). Secondly, reasoning ability or
hypothesis formulation skills were found to be significantly related to students’
success at solving stoichiometry problems (Robinson and Niaz 1991), concept
acquisition (Lawson and Worsnop 1992), or their science grades (Bitner 1991).
These findings along with conclusions from this study have a practical implication
for the practice of science education. If students were well trained on their obser-
vation skills and hypothesis formulation techniques in regular science classrooms,
they might be capable of solving problems more thoroughly not only in earth
science subject but, also, across different science disciplines.
The results of the study indicated that the students with higher problem-solv-
ing ability had higher science-process skills than did those students with lower
problem-solving ability. Scarnati (1993) proposed to improve students’ observa-
tion skills and reasoning abilities through solving a puzzle problem in earth
science. Holley (1996a, 1996b) suggested that using problem-solving to help
students develop their basic science-process skills. Padilla and Padilla (1986)
also perceived that teaching efficient learning or problem-solving strategies
appears to exhibit promise for teaching integrated process skills. The study gen-
erates, to some extent, experimental evidences to uphold these ideas.
The present research also provides empirical evidence to support a previous
study (Tobin and Capie 1980), which proposed that science-process skills might be
used as primary vehicles to solve problems within different science disciplines. As
described by Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS 1993: 282), ‘Students’
ability and inclination to solve problems effectively depend on their certain knowl-
edge, skills and attitudes’. It is, therefore, suggested that teachers should be able to
improve students’ problem-solving performance through providing pupils with
the opportunities for the development of their science-process skills in earth
science classrooms.
STUDENTS’ PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY IN EARTH SCIENCE 449

The results of the current study could serve as guidelines for the development
of earth science curriculum, i.e., future earth science curriculum should emphasize
the issues of developing and teaching of science-process skill in the secondary earth
science classroom, which might be able to help students overcome the difficulties
they encounter solving earth-science problems. The Taiwanese, New Nine-Year
Science Curriculum Standards (Ministry of Education 1999: 10) stress the follow-
ing seven major themes of scientific literacy as a guide to the development of the
science curriculum: science process skills, scientific cognition, nature of science,
attitude towards science, habits of mind, application of science, and application of
information (Chang and Chiu 2000). On the top of the scientific literacy list is
‘science process skills’. As Russell and Chiappetta (1981: 300) claimed ‘Problem
solving is an integral part of science and it should permeate the entire science
curriculum’. In light of the current study, it is suggested that not only problem-
solving but also process skills, especially those of observation and hypothesis for-
mulation skills, be infused throughout all earth science curricula.
The higher-ability problem solvers’ problem-solving processes in earth
science generally correspond to the problem-solving procedures proposed by the
CPS model. Consequently, the CPS problem-solving model has its promise in the
area of earth science education in terms of improving students’ problem-solving
ability in secondary schools. It is therefore suggested that incorporating the CPS
model into earth science classroom might be helpful. As Abell (1990) suggested,
employing CPS could help integrate higher-order thinking skills into science
instruction, and to inspire students to think creatively.
The results of the study provide new information on the interrelationship of
student’s problem-solving ability and their science-process skills in the area of
earth science education. It is noted, however, that a positive correlation does not
ensure causality. Consequently, causality merits further investigation, which is
presently being investigated in Taiwan. Future research is needed to ascertain
whether this relationship is generalizable to other science disciplines.

Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the National Science Council (NSC) of the Republic
of China under Contract no. NSC 87-2511-S-003-026. The data presented, the
statements made and the views expressed are solely the responsibility of the
authors. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Jing-Wen Hsu.
The authors thank two anonymous reviewers and the editor for their insightful
comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

Notes
1. Part of the present paper has been published in the Chinese Journal of Science Education,
which is in the Chinese language.

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