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NOTES ON CRIMINALISTICS

POLYGRAPHY

Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting deception done with the aid of a polygraph
instrument.

Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or several and Graph = (writing chart) is a
scientific instrument capable of recording simultaneously changes in blood pressure, pulse rate,
respiration and skin resistance as indicative of emotional disturbance especially of a lying subject
when being questioned.

Thomas Jefferson = firs person known who used the term Polygraph to described one of his
inventions

Definition of terms
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually given with some
justification or exemplification in admitting.
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the low pressure to
the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
5. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the
diastolic stem.
6. Electrodermal response = it refers to human body phenomenon in which the skin changes
resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also referred to a Psycho
galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
7. Emotion = it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to be beyond a
persons defensive power.
8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired from the time he was
conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents to their offspring through
the genes.
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is reluctant to divulge information.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading impression
with the intention of affecting wrongfully.
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an organism or part
of the organism resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a subject to an obstacle or
trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which considered a deviation from
the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which reach an
organism has the tendency to arouse.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve caused by the
contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the arteries.
Ayur Vida = a hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered as an earliest known
reference to a method of detecting deception.

EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Trial by Combat = a method to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession, in
which two parties in dispute fought in single combat.
2. Trial by Ordeal = a judicial practiced by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is determined
by subjecting them to an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience or in the present term would
mean an employment of “3rd degree”. The word “ordeal” was derived from the Medieval Latin word
“Dei Indicum” which means “a miraculous decision”.

TYPES OF ORDEAL
1. Ordeal of Heat and Fire = in this test the suspect walked a certain distance, usually nine feet, over
red-hot plowshares or holding a red-hot iron.
2. Ordeal of Hot Water = this test requires that the water had to be boiled, and the depth from which
the stone had to be retrieved was up to the wrist for one accusation, and up to the elbow for three or
more accusations.
3. Ordeal of Boiling Oil = this ordeal was practiced in villages of India and certain parts of West
Africa.
4. Red Hot Iron Ordeal = the accused will be required to touch his tongue to an extremely hot metal
nine (9) times (unless burned sooner), Once his tongue is burned, he will be adjudged guilty. In some
country instead of hot iron, they used a hot needle to tease the lips and once the lips bleed it is an
indication of guilt.
5. Ordeal of Cold Water = this ordeal has a precedent in the Code of Ur-Nammu and the Code of
Hammurabi under which a man accused of sorcery was to be submerged in a stream and acquitted if
he survived.
= in 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was associated with the witch-hunts. Floating is
an indication of witchcraft.
6. Ordeal of Rice Chewing = a method of detecting deception whereby an accused will be required
to take rice (to clergy bread or cheese).If the accused failed to swallow even a single grain of
concentrated rice he/she will be adjudged guilty.
7. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal) = in this method the accused will be required to
run fast for twelve (12 hours), take a cap of rice and drink a dark colored water (as much as one
gallon).
8. Ordeal of the Cross = the accuse and the accuser stood on either side of a cross and stretched
out their hands horizontally. The one to first lower his arms lost.
9. The Test of the Axe = in Greece, a suspended axe was spine in the center of a group of suspects,
when the axe stopped, whosoever was in line with the blade was supposed to be the guilty as pointed
by divine providence.
10. The Test of the Candle = this ordeal was used in Burma, the accuser and accused were each
given identical candles and were lighted at the same time. The candle that burns the longest
determines which the truth.
11. Donkey’s tail (Ash tail) Ordeal = a method of ordeal where all accused persons will be
instructed to select a cage with a donkey, using a donkey’s tail they will strike the donkey and
whichever cries first will be adjudged guilty.
12. The “Hereditary Sieve” = Dr. Hans Gross mentioned this Ordeal in his famous book on Criminal
Investigation in which beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of each suspect was called. The
deception criteria were described as follows--- “If the bean jumps out of the sieve, the owner of the
name pronounced is innocent, if the bean remains in the sieve, the person named is the thief.

IMPORTANT PERSONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPH

Daniel Defoe = wrote an essay entitled, “An Effectual Scheme for the Preventing of Street Robberies
and Suppressing all other Disorders of the Night”

Angelo Mosso = In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of an
Italian psychologist Angelo Mosso. He made used of an instrument called plethysmograph in his
research on emotion and fear and its influence on the heart and respiration.
= developed a scientific cradle

Cesare Lombroso = In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Criminologist and tutor of Angelo Mosso,
published the second edition of his book entitled “L’Homme Criminel” which he relates the used of
hydrosphygmograph during interrogation of suspects. He called it blood pressure pulse test.
= he is considered as the first person to conceive the idea of lie detection and the first to apply
the technique in actual criminal suspects

Francis Galton = in 1879, introduced the Word Association Test using series of irrelevant
questions and relevant question separated in time.

B. Sticker = believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the influence of the
exciting mental impressions and that the will has no effect upon it.
= he made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.

Sir James Mackenzie = an English clinician and cardiologist, constructed the Clinical Polygraph in
1892, an instrument to be used for medical examinations with the capability to simultaneously record
undulated line tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a
revolving drum of smoked paper.
In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical polygraph of 1892 when he devised the Clinical Ink
Polygraph with the help of Lancashire watchmaker, Sebastian Shaw. This instrument used a
clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink
recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret.

S. Veraguth = he is said to be the first person to use the term Psychogalvanic Reflex. Veraguth
was the first scientist to use the word association test with galvanometer.
= in 1907, he described his observation on galvanic phenomena and emotions that there was
an ascending galvanometer curve during the presentation of relevant stimuli versus the rest curve on
non-crucial stimuli.

Vittorio Benussi = in March 1913, he presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian
Society for Psychology in Rome where he described how he record the subject’s breathing patter
using a Marey Pneumograph which he noted the changes in inspiration-expiration ratio during
deception.
= he also included recording of heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection of deception
and probably the first person to record more than one physiological response.

Dr. William M. Marston = in 1915 was credited as the creator of the systolic blood-pressure test
used in an attempt to detect deception during questioning, and using a standard blood pressure cuff
and stethescope, requiring repeated inflation of the pressure cuff to obtain readings at intervals during
examination. This was called Discontinuous Technique.

Harold Burtt = In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an indication of
deception.
= He was able to determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in the detection
of deception than the changes in blood pressure
John A. Larson = encouraged by August Vollmer of the Berkeley Police Department to conduct a
research on deception.
= Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram was Larson’s first instrument which was borrowed from Dr.
Robert Jessel and was invented by Earl Bryant
= in 1921, Earl Bryant made an instrument for Larson in which he used a breadboard as a
base and from that it became in the industry as Breadboard Polygraph – capable of recording
continually and simultaneously the respiration and cardiovascular activities.
= today he is known as the Father of Scientific Lie Detection and at the same time the
Father of Polygraph

Leonarde Keeler = in 1926, he made a modification of Larson’s instrument. He developed that metal
bellows and kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a constant speed under recording pens from a
roll of chart located inside the instrument.
= in 1938, 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer (PGR), a third measuring
component of his instrument which was also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) invented by
Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791.
= credited as the creator on Relevant-Irrelevant Technique.
= today Keeler is known as the Father of Modern Polygraphy.

Ruckmick = in 1936, the term Psychogalvanic Reflex used by Veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick
and proposed the term Electrodermal Response.

John E. Reid = in 1950, he developed the Control Question which consist of a known lie and
incorporated it into the relevant/irrelevant technique.
= he developed a movement or activity sensor a means of recording arm and leg
movements
= Reid also developed the silent answer test and guilt-complex test to be administered to
overly responsive examinee

Cleve Backster = developed the psychological set theory and the anticlimax dampening
concept.
= he also developed and introduced the Quantification System of Chart Analysis
(Numerical Scoring) which permits the examiner to score the charts numerically according to
standard rules.

Richard O. Arther = introduced the Arther II polygraph instrument which contains a stimulus marker
capable of recording the beginning and ending of question and the moment the examinee answered.
= credited as the creator of Stimulus Marker
= developed an instrument with two Galvanic Skin Resistance

Computerized Polygraph Instrument = in 1992, the polygraph made its official entrance into the
computer age

TRIPOD FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPHY

1. Psychological Leg Premise = states that specific nervous system component whose stimulation
can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary and emotional processes of the individual
who is continuously attempting concealment of deception especially if that individual has something
at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that exposure to deception is quite
possible although undesirable.
2. Physiological Leg Premise = that among the physiological responses that may be recorded are
those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous component system

3. Mechanical Leg Premise = polygraph is capable of making graphic record containing reliable
information regarding physiological responses of the subject.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING
The Central Nervous System (CNS) = is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. All other nerve
ways are within the peripheral nervous system which separates into two: The Somatic Nervous
System and the Autonomic Nervous System.

1. Somatic Nervous System = is involved with voluntary comparative over skeletal muscles
2. Autonomic Nervous System = involved those involuntary physiological functions of the body and
has considerable psychological impact as well.

TWO DIVISIONS OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) = the house keeping or braking system. It is
responsible for conserving energy and making sure necessary bodily functions. I
= restrains sympathetic arousal and attempt to maintain homeostatic (homeostasis) normal.
2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) – is our emergency, or action system.
= a system which causes the sudden and dramatic change.

Homeostasis = is complex interactive regulatory system by which the body strives to maintain a state
of internal equilibrium.

Hypothalamus = is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the entire endocrine-
hormonal system.

Fight, flight, freeze = are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat, sometimes simply
called F3. The physiological responses concomitant to these behaviors are the same, namely
mobilizing bodily resources for an expenditure of energy, and narrowing attention and focus to the
features of the threat.

When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it immediately prepares the body for fight
or flight by causing the adrenal glands to secret hormones known as epinephrine and norepinephrine
and the blood will be distributed to those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the
emergency.

Epinephrine = is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous system. It acts to constrict
peripheral blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase cardiac activity, promote metabolic activity
through the release of glucose, and inhibit digestive processes.
= it is called Adrenaline in British

Norepinephrine = is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, it works alongside with

epinephrine/adrenaline to give the body sudden energy in times of stress, known as the "fight or
flight" response.
=it is called Noradrenaline in British.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH

1. Pneumograph = designed to detect and record changes in respiration of the subject which
consists of the ff:
  Rubber Convoluted Tube = about 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to the body of
the subject.
 Beaded Chain = used to lock the rubber convoluted tube.
 Recording Pen Unit = consisting of two 5 inches recording pen
 Centering Knob = used to center the pen
 Sensitivity Knob = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
 Vent = used to release excess pressure from the system
 Pneumo Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by
the corrugated tube and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart

2. Cardiosphygmograph = Designed to detect changes in the cardiovascular activity of the subject.

It consists of:
a. Blood Pressure Cuff = attached to the upper right arm of the subject, above the brachial
artery.
b. Sphygmamonometer = used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to the system.
Usually about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
c. Recording Pen Unit = five (5) inches length
d. Air Pump/Pump Bulb = designed to supply air to the system
e. Cardio Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the
cuff and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
f. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
g. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on the chart
h. Vent = Used to release excess pressure from the system

Cardiosphygmograph provides a record of the following:

1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure = is the changes in the average value of the cardio
tracing (waveform) with respect to a baseline.
a. Diastolic Blood Pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the
low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
b. Systolic Blood Pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve
caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the
arteries.
2. Pulse Amplitude = is the changes in pulse amplitude (tracing height) independent of
baseline.
3. Pulse Rate = changes in heart rate or time between pulses.
4. Dicrotic Notch = changes in relative position of the dicrotic notch or pulse waveform
= short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the diastolic stem

3. Galvanograph = designed to detect changes in skin resistance of the subject. Consists of:
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
a.1. finger Electrode Plate and Retainer Bond = attached to the index and ring finger of
the subject.
a.2. Connecting Plug = attached the system to the instrument
b. Recording Pen Unit = usually 7 inches
c. Amplifier Unit = designed to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to
mechanical current.
d. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
e. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on the chart
f. GSR Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the
finger electrodes and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
How does it Records?
Galvanic Skin Response = is the change in the body’s resistance to the passage of a minute
electrical sensing current.
The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the instrument. These provide a 5 microamp
sensing current to the subject, far below the threshold of feeling.

Keymograph = serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine

= It is a motor that pulls or drives the cart paper under the recording pen simultaneously at the
rate of five seconds per vertical chart division or twelve divisions in one minute run.
a. Chart = approximately 100 ft. rolled graph paper with approximately ¼ inch horizontal
division and ½ inch vertical division equivalent to 5 seconds run
b. Cutter Bar = used to cut the paper at the end of the test
c. Rubber Roller = the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the machine.
d. Pen Table = flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
e. Paper Rail Guide = serves as the security for the unnecessary movement of the chart
paper or to ensure the paper’s forward movement without shaking.
f. Synchronous Motor = runs the chart paper at the uniform rate speed regardless of the
voltage change.

Pen and Inking System = the one that provides for the permanent record of the test
Capillary Ink = a water based ink intended for polygraph instruments

FORMULATION OF TEST QUESTIONS

General Rules in formulating Test Questions
 Questions must be simple and direct
 They must not involve legal terminologies
 They must be as simple and as short as possible
 Answerable by Yes or No.
 They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
 Their meaning must be clear and they must be phrased in a language that the subject can
easily understand.
 They must never contain inference which presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject.
 They must refer to one offense only
 They must refer to one element of the offense.
 They must not contain inference to ones religion, race or belief.

1. Irrelevant Question = a question that has no connection with the matter under investigation and
deals with known facts that the subject cannot be denied. It is designed to be emotionally neutral to
examinees and usually answerable by “yes’. Also called Neutral Question.

Characteristics of Irrelevant
1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.
2.No threat to subject (usually).
3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.
4. Usually about the suspect’s background.
5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to establish a ‘norm’ for examinee, or
throughout the examination as needed to reestablish norm pattern.

Purposes of Irrelevant Question

1. Establish the professional authority in the room that means, the examiner asks questions and the
suspect answers.
2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject’s normal behavior for this heightened emotional
situation.
3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common with the subject, to establish rapport.
4. It minimizes resistance.

2. Symptomatic Question = is designed to ensure that the examiner will not ask un-reviewed
questions or that the examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-reviewed questions.
Examples:
 Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I have not gone over
word for word?
 Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in this test I have not
gone over word for word?

3. Sacrifice Relevant Question = it introduces the relevant question to the subject

= designed to absorb the response generated by the introduction of relevant question in the
series
Example:
 Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you willing to answer the questions truthfully?

4. Relevant Question = a question deals with the matter under investigation. Color coded red in
computerized instruments. It is designed to generate reactions from deceptive subject.

Types of Relevant Question

a. Primary Relevant (Strong Relevant) = addresses the primary issue or direct involvement of the
subject on the matter under question. It is use primarily with the single-issue examination.
 Ex. Did you take that missing money?
b. Secondary Relevant (Weak Relevant) = deals with the physical acts that support the primary
issue. This is usually use in multi-issue examination.
 Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing money?
c. Guilty Knowledge = designed to probe whether the subject possesses information regarding the
identity of the offender or the facts of the case under question.
 Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?
d. Evidence Connecting Question = test question in which the examinee is asked about a particular
piece of physical evidence that would incriminate the guilty person. It could be items left at the crime
scene by the perpetrator or stolen property.
 Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is right now?

5. Comparison Question = a question which is the same in nature with that of the relevant question
but broad in scope.
= is used for comparative purposes with the relevant question.
= designed to generate reactions from truthful subject.

Types of Comparison Question

a. Directed Lie Comparison Question (DLC) = a comparison question in which the examinee is
instructed by the examiner to answer the questions untruthfully.
Some examiners actually get admission to comparison questions and then instruct the
examinee to lie to that question when it is asked.
b. Probable Lie Comparison Question (PLC) = a question to which it is likely that the examinee is
untruthful with his answer.
= PLC questions are broad in scope and usually based on actions categorically similar to that
of the issue under investigation
Types of Probable Lie
a. Inclusive = a comparison question which include the relevant time period under investigation. It
was originally designed by Reid.
= this type of question usually starts with the phrase: “In your entire life,…..”. Also termed as
inclusionary.

b. Exclusive = a comparison question separated in time, place and category from the relevant
question. It was introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that this prevents the guilty suspect from
perceiving the comparison question as an ambiguous relevant question.

Example:
 During the first __ years of your life, did you ever ____?
 Prior to 2009, did you ever _____ ?
 While in college ______?
 Between the ages of __ & __, did you ever _____?

Types of Polygraph Technique/Test

1. General Question Test = consist of series of relevant, irrelevant control questions in a planned
order. Developed by John E. Reid

2. Relevant/Irrelevant Test = consists primarily of series of irrelevant questions and relevant

question pertaining to the crime under investigation. Developed by Keeler.

3. Peak of Tension Test = consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant questions.
= resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of the asking of a
series of question in which only one has any bearing upon the matter under investigation.
= padding questions before and after the relevant questions.

Two Types of POT Test

 Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) = is used to determine whether the
examinee is aware of details of a crime that have been kept from the general public and would
presumably only be known to the perpetrator of the crime or those with incriminating
knowledge.
 Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) = is used to determine details of a crime that are
not known to officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be known to a
participant in the crime.

4. Card test / Acquaintance Test / Stimulation Test = the subject is presented with seven (7)
previously numbered cards face down.
= he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of the cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him, with the instruction
that he will answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one being shown to him is the one he has seen
earlier.

5. Guilt Complex Test = used primarily for overly responsive subjects.

= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being investigated and make him
believe it is real.
= The purpose is to compare the response with those response made concerning the actual
matter under investigation
6. Silent Answer Test = Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject will only
answer in his mind.

7. Comparison Question Test (CQT) = the reactions on the control and relevant questions are
compared via numerical scoring
Polygraph Examiner = is one who is capable of detecting deception and verifying the truthfulness of
statement through the use of a polygraph instrument.
= is someone who has successfully completed formal education and training in conducting
polygraph examination and is certified by his agency to conduct such examination.

Subject = is any person who undergoes polygraph examination.

Polygraph Examination = a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a
polygraph examiner and an examinee during a specific series of interactions. For a valid polygraph
examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and Cardiovascular activity must be monitored and recorded.

Two Types of Polygraph Exam

1. Mixed Issue Exam = multiple-issue polygraph testing like screening of applicants or audit of
employees or persons with security clearances.
2. Diagnostic Exam = a test which involves specific case investigation.

Types of Diagnostic Exam

1. Single Issue Exam = a test which inquires direct involvement of subject into a specific case under
question.
2. Mult-facet Exam = test format in which the relevant questions are targeted toward different
elements of the same crime.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test

 Initial Interview With the Investigator

1. Pre-test Interview = an interview conducted by the polygraph examiner designed to prepare or

condition the subject for the actual test. It usually last for about 20 – 30 minutes
a. Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological suitability to undergo the test
a.1. the subject should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before the test
a.2. the subject if female should not be pregnant
a.3. the subject should not be hungry
a.4. the subject should not be physically or emotional abuse
a.5. the subject should not be suffering high blood or hypertension.
b. Informing the subject of his Constitutional Rights (if the examiner is a law enforcement officer)
c. Taking of the subject consent
d. Taking of the subject personal data
e. Discuss with the subject the crime/issue under investigation
f. Preparing the subject for the test – administration of stimulation test

2. ln-Test (Actual Test) = is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph examiner

Conditions of the Room

 It should be spacious for two persons
 Well lighted
 Well ventilated
  Sound Proof
 Not decorated

3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation = is an interview or an interrogation administered by a

polygraph examiner after the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the subject. =
interview is conducted when the reactions indicate an innocent response and very cooperative to
the examiner. = interrogation is conducted when the reactions show sign of deception and being
uncooperative to open an information.

Chart markings = are annotations of the physiologic tracings to denote stimulus (question) onset and
offset, examinee’s answer, question number, question label, artifacts, and other details important to
the interpretation of the physiological data.

Two Types Chart Markings

1. Primary Markings = these are markings which indicate the beginning and end of examination as
well as the questions and answers of the subject. These are usually placed at the bottom or top of the
polygraph chart

a. X – it indicates the start of the test. The examiner informs the subject that the test is about to
begin.

b. I I – is a stimulus mark. The first vertical line marks when the examiner starts asking
question. Second vertical line marks when the examiner finishes asking question.

c. + - a positive sign which indicates that the subject answers the question with “yes”. This also
indicates the period when the subject answers the question and usually followed by a “number”
indicating the order number of question, example +3, +4, +5….)

d. – a negative sign indicating that the subject answers the stimulus with “no”. This also indicates
the period when the subject answers the question and usually followed by a “number”.

e. XX – indicates the end of test.

2. Secondary Markings = are markings which are placed only if the examinee does something which
will cause the physiological tracings to distort. These markings are usually placed below the affected
tracing.

a. M – Movement
b. T – Talking
c. DB – Deep Breath
d. C – Cough
e. CT – Clear Throat
f. SW – Swallow
g. SNF – Sniff
h. Y – Yawn
i. SZ – Sneeze
j. LGH – Laugh
k. SLP – Sleep
l. B – Belch
m. OSN – Outside Noise
n. ISN – Inside Noise
 o. EE – Examiner Error
p. WRQ – Will Repeat Question
q. MI – Movement Instruction
r. TI – Talking Instruction
s. AI – Answering Instruction
t. BI – Breathing Instruction
u. WU – Wake-Up
v. TDB – Take Deep Breath

INTERPRETATION OF POLYGRAPH DATA

Important Terms to Consider
 Analysis Spot = The relevant and control questions that are actually evaluated during spot
analysis.
 Artifact = A change in an examinee’s physiological pattern that is not attributable to a
reviewed test question. It includes examinee’s movements during the examination.
 Blind chart Analysis = Evaluation of PDD recordings without the benefit of extrapolygraphic
information, such as subject behavior, case facts, pretest admissions, base rates of deception,
etc
 Deception Indicated (DI) = A decision of DI in PDD means that (1) the physiological data are
stable and interpretable, and (2) the evaluation criteria used by the examiner led him to
conclude that the examinee is not wholly truthful to the relevant issue.
 Exosomatic = Something generated from outside the body. Skin resistance is exosomatic
measures because electrical current is applied from outside sources to detect the
electrodermal activity.
 EDA Recovery Phase = The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing that occurs
between the highest peak and subsequent return to the pre-stimulus or newly established
baseline. The EDA recovery phase begins once the tracing ahs reached its highest peak.
 EDA Rise Time = The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing beginning with
response onset and ending at the peak.
 No Deception Indicated (NDI) = is a conventional term in PDD, NDI signifies that the
polygraph test recordings are stable and interpretable and the evaluation criteria used by the
examiner led him to conclude that the examinee was truthful to the relevant issue.
 Test Data = The signal of interest that may consist of artifacts, recovery or examinee’s
physiological response to stimuli.
 Test Data Analysis = Analysis of the psychohysiological response activity (time) displayed
between response onset. Typically, this is the time from response onset until return to the pre-
stimulus (phasic response) or a newly established baseline (tonic) response.
 Recovery = A deviation in polygraph tracing attributable to a physiological phenomenon
occurring as a compensatory action after a response or an artifact.
 Response = A physiological change that occurs following, and is attributable to the
presentation of applied stimulus.
 Phasic Response = A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally seen as
an upward movement from the baseline with subsequent return to the pre-stimulus or original
baseline.
 Tonic Response = A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally seen as a
movement from the pre-stimulus baseline and establishment of a new baseline without
returning to the pre-stimulus baseline.
 Response Amplitude = The displayed physiological activity reflected in a polygraph tracing
occurring between response onset and response peak (highest level from pre-stimulus
baseline).
  Response Duration = The physiological activity (time) displayed between response onset and
offset. Typically, this is the time from response onset until return to the pre-stimulus baseline
(phasic response) or a newly established baseline (tonic response).
 Response Latency = The time between stimulus onset and response onset.
 Response Onset = The first indication of change from the pre-stimulus level of physiological
activity to an applied stimulus.
 Response Onset Window = The period of time between stimulus onset (verbal presentation
of question) and an examinee’s verbal answer to that stimulus.
 Spot Analysis = The procedure wherein each component tracing is separately evaluated by
comparing the response of a relevant question to the response of a comparison question.
 Stimulus Onset = It is the beginning of the presentation of the first word of a question.
 Tonic Level = It describes the examinee’s physiological response when resting. An
examinee’s level of physiological activity occurring prior to stimulus onset. This is sometimes
referred to as the resting or baseline activity level.
 Zone = A concept coined by Cleve Backster. A zone is a twenty to thirty-five seconds block of
polygraph chart time initiated by a question having a unique psychological focusing appeal to a
predictable group of examinees

Two types of Chart Interpretation

 Global Analysis
 Numerical Scoring
 Manual Numerical Scoring
 Computer Scoring Algorithm

GLOBAL ANALYSIS
In global analysis, the examiner looks for significant reactions that occur repeatedly
which is referred to as “Conspecnificance”. Conspecnificance is the consistency of reaction to a
specific question with significant magnitude
 NUMERICAL SCORING
The numerical scoring is a method of rendering polygraph decisions that are based
exclusively on numeric values that have been assigned to physiological responses recorded during a
structured polygraph examination

ELEMENTS OF SCORING SYSTEM

1. Reaction Features = are raw physiological data that a polygraph examiner should look into the
polygraph chart for numerical interpretation. It can be scored using the seven position or three
position rules. Only reactions on the relevant and comparison questions are scored during
interpretation.
2. Transformations = In transforming physiological data, combine observations of reactions to
relevant and control stimulus into a single value for each component and for each presentation of
each of the target stimuli.
 Red questions (relevant) are compared to Green question (control)
 Assign a - score when there is a larger response to a relevant question
 Assign a + score when there is a larger response to a control question
 Different scoring systems used different scoring rules in assigning numerical value to particular
reaction features on the relevant and comparison questions.
3. Decision Rules = determines when data meet the criteria for inclusion in a particular category.
= final step in polygraph numerical scoring, producing decisions of Deception Indicated, No
Deception Indicated, and Inconclusive.
= artifacts such as deep breaths, coughs, movements, and physiological abnormalities
(premature ventricular contractions) affect the quality of tracings for scoring. All these should not be
scored.
ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY OF POLYGRAPH RESULTS
 Accuracy = the condition or quality of being true, correct, or exact
 = refers to validity (state or quality of being well founded).

Types of Validity
 Face Validity = opinion or consensus of experts
 Content Validity = selection of pertinent issues of inquiry
 Predictive Validity = ability to predict a future outcome
 Concurrent Validity = ability to identify what is already known
 Convergent Validity – new info coincide with extant info
 Divergent Validity – new info separates extant ideas
 Construct Validity – meaningful defined and understandable relationships (correlations)
between various phenomena
 Criterion Validity – accuracy of category decisions
 Incremental Validity – professional decision accuracy improves with the use of additional
information

Reliability = refers to stability or consistency of measurement. Reliability studies in PDD often

examine the rate of decision agreement among examiners on polygraph test charts.
Two Types of Reliability
1. Interrater reliability = denotes agreement among examiners
2. Intrarater agreement (test-retest reliability) = pertains to an examiner agreement with his own
decisions when evaluating the charts on different occasions.
Note:
Reliability is not the same as validity, which means accuracy. A technique cannot be
more valid than it is reliable. A technique can have high agreement without high accuracy, though the
reverse is not true.

Goals of Polygraph Testing

 Sensitivity = Ability to detect or notice the issue.

 Specificity = Ability to reject non-involved cases.

Threshold of Accuracy According to American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

 Ninety (90) Percent = for evidentiary polygraph examinations. Evidentiary polygraph
examinations are those conducted specifically for courtroom purposes.
 Eighty (80) Percent = for investigative polygraph examination. Investigative polygraph
examinations are used for non-judicial purposes.
 Both evidentiary and investigative examinations are permitted to an inconclusive rate of twenty
(20) percent.

Result Errors
 False Negative = refers to the failure to detect the presence of a particular event or item.
= in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that deception was not practiced by the
examinee.
 False Positive = is the false detection of something that is not actually present. In polygraphy
= it is the incorrect decision that deception was practiced by the examinee.

Admissibility of Result
In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted as evidence. Many polygraph examiners
and lawyers have attempted presenting polygraph evidence in court but all resulted to futile.
Philippines
 Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence provides that:
“The opinion of a witness on matter requiring special knowledge, skill, experience or
training which he shown to posses, may be received in evidence.”

U.S. United States v. Frye – 1923 – NOT ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE (First case in Polygraphy)

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals - 1993 (U.S.)

Areas of Inquiry:
 the theory or technique in question can be (and has been) tested;
 whether it has been subjected to peer review and publication;
 its known or potential error rate;
 the existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation; and
 whether it has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.

In New Mexico, the Supreme Court, in State v. Dorsey in 1973, ruled that:

“Polygraph results are admissible as long as (1) the polygraph operator is competent,
(2) the procedure used is reliable, and (3) the “tests made on the subject” are valid.”

In 1983, New Mexico then codified the admissibility of polygraph results with Rules of
Evidence, which states that:
"Subject to the provisions of these rules, the opinion of a polygraph examiner may in the
discretion of the trial judge be admitted as evidence as to the truthfulness of any person called as a
witness if the examination was performed by a person who is qualified as an expert polygraph
examiner.”