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Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

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Gender differences in spatial orientation: A review

Emanuele Coluccia, Giorgia Louse
Department of Psychology, University of Rome, Via dei Marsi n. 78, 00185 Rome, Italy

Abstract

While significant gender differences in spatial abilities consistently emerge, results concerning gender differences in spatial
orientation skills are mixed, ranging from ‘‘marked differences’’ to ‘‘no-differences’’. In order to improve our understanding of this
phenomenon, literature about gender differences in spatial orientation skills is reviewed from 1983 to 2003. The influence of
biological and socio/cultural factors is discussed as well as the hypothesis that gender differences are due to different strategies used
to solve orientation tasks. The role of personality factors and the influence of spatial anxiety in orientation performance are also
discussed. An additional interpretative hypothesis is proposed highlighting the role of task-difficulty expressed in terms of Visuo-
Spatial Working Memory involvement. This interpretation can explain the overall results, resolving some apparent contradictions.
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1. Introduction is much less clear with respect to performance on more

ecologically valid tasks (Montello, Lovelace, Golledge,
The aim of the present review is to provide hints for & Self, 1999). On measures concerning spatial orienta-
future research on gender differences in spatial orienta- tion (which is the complex of all the skills used for
tion. We do not try to explain the causes of gender locating themselves with respect to a point of reference
differences. We just try to explain the large variability of or an absolute system of coordinates) mixed results have
the results that emerged in the previous literature on been indeed obtained (Lawton & Morrin, 1999).
gender differences in spatial orientation. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind the
Two distinct concepts are often confounded: spatial distinction between spatial ability and orientation skills.
ability and spatial orientation. Considering them as similar capacities can be mislead-
Spatial ability generally refers to the ability to ing. There are some studies reporting a nonsignificant
generate, represent, transform, and recall spatial in- relationship between orientation tasks and spatial
formation (Linn & Petersen, 1985). Gender differences abilities (Lorenz & Neisser, 1986; Allen, Kirasic,
in spatial abilities are considered among the largest Dobson, Long, & Beck, 1996). Orientation skills and
gender differences in all cognitive abilities (Lawton & spatial abilities have different characteristics. For
Morrin, 1999). In traditional tests of basic spatial instance, orientation skills always involve an environ-
abilities, males perform better than females; however, ment and imply a movement (actual navigation or
the size of this effect changes depending on the type of imagined map scanning) and the acquisition of informa-
the spatial ability measured (Halpern, 1992). Many tion about the surroundings. When considering gender
results show that males perform better in some spatial differences in orientation conflicting results often
tasks, especially in the Mental Rotation Task (Sanders, emerge, ranging from studies showing that males out-
Soares, & D’Aquila, 1982; Harshman, Hampson, & perform females (Galea & Kimura, 1993; Schmitz, 1997;
Berenbaum, 1983; Linn & Petersen, 1985). The evidence Malinowski & Gillespie, 2001; Waller, Knapp, & Hunt,
2001) to studies in which gender differences are totally
Tel.: +39 0649917596. absent (Sadalla & Montello, 1989; Taylor & Tversky,
E-mail address: emanuele.coluccia@uniromal.it (E. Coluccia). 1992a; Brown, Lahar, & Mosley, 1998). Currently, it is

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doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.006
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
330 E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

not possible to assert the existence of gender differences form better than females, whereas in a real environment
in spatial orientation. At the same time we must their performance could be even.
remember that spatial orientation is a complex process The different sources of environmental learning can
that depends on numerous basic cognitive functions. be categorized as follows:
For these reasons, studies investigating spatial orienta- Real environment: Spatial orientation in real environ-
tion use a wide variety of measures. In fact, different ments was studied in a wood (Malinowski & Gillespie,
tasks have been adopted (landmark and/or route recall, 2001), in a building (Sadalla & Montello, 1989; Lawton,
landmark replacement, pointing, map drawing, straight- 1996; Lawton, Charleston, & Zieles, 1996), in a maze
line and route distance estimation, verbal description of (Schmitz, 1997), and in a university campus (Kirasic,
a route, route learning, route reversal, wayfinding, Allen, & Siegel, 1984; Montello & Pick, 1993; Saucier et
orienteering, maze learning) and different environments al., 2002). In 58.82% of the conditions in which
(maps, real outdoor environments, real indoor environ- exploration took place in a real environment, males
ments, virtual tours) and self-report questionnaires. This perform better than females. Yet there is a consistent
multiplicity of measures and environmental contexts percentage of cases (41.18%) in which gender differences
contributed to produce different patterns of results and do not emerge. Females never perform better than
has generated some difficulties in reaching a satisfactory males.
interpretation of the findings. Simulated environment: Some examples of spatial
The aim of this work is not only to analyse the orientation in simulated environment are 3-D computer
literature concerning gender differences in spatial simulations (Moffat, Hampson, & Hatzipantelis, 1998;
orientation, but also to look for an interpretative Lawton & Morrin, 1999; Sandstrom, Kaufman, &
hypothesis able to explain the phenomenon of the Huettel, 1998; Waller et al., 2001), video recording
presence/absence of such differences. (O’Laughlin & Brubaker, 1998) and slide sequences
With the aim of achieving a complete picture of the (Holding & Holding, 1989). Here again, in a high
results so far obtained on gender differences in spatial percentage (57.14%) males perform better than females,
orientation, we reviewed all the experimental studies but in the 42.86% of the cases differences between males
(from 1983 to 2003) comparing male and female and females do not emerge. Again, females never
performance on spatial orientation tasks. For each perform better than males. Within simulated environ-
study we report a short description of the tasks used. ments, it is possible to distinguish between situations
The measured dependent variables, the results concern- that allow interaction with the environment (3-D
ing gender differences and the environment to which the computer simulations) and others that do not (slides
tasks refer are also reported in the following table. and video recordings). In the first one, participants can
A simple inspection of Table 1 shows variations move themselves and actively decide where to go. In the
in performance on orientation tasks. If the self-report second one, they are passively shown a static (slides
questionnaires are excluded (because they do not give sequence) or dynamic (video recordings) environment.
us any information on performance), a male advantage In the ‘‘active situation’’ the number of cases in which
in about half the cases (49.28%) is observed. At the males outperform females is 85.71%; in the remainder
same time, a consistent percentage of cases (40.58%), in cases performance is even. When the ‘‘passive situation’’
which gender differences do not appear, emerges. It is considered, males perform better than females in a
should be noted that a female superiority very seldom lower percentage of cases (28.57%). There are no
emerges. differences in 71.43% of the cases. This effect could be
In the attempt to find a factor able to explain the given by a higher familiarity of the males with the 3-D
results concerning the presence or the absence of gender computer simulations, as they spend more time playing
differences, we grouped each study, first on the basis of videogames (Barnett et al., 1997). It could be also
the environmental context and then on the basis of reasonable to hypothesize that the active interaction
orientation task type. with the environment increases the complexity of the
It is possible to think, for instance, that males perform task, as more elements have to be considered and
better than females in configurational tasks (pointing, elaborated. Such hypothesis will be exhaustively illu-
distance estimation) because of their preference for strated later.
Euclidean strategies (Lawton, 1994). Otherwise, a factor Map: When the environment is represented by a map,
related to the presence/absence of gender differences (McGuinness & Sparks, 1983; Miller & Santoni, 1986;
could be identified in the environmental context. For Ward, Newcombe, & Overton, 1986; O’Laughlin &
instance, studies with ecological approaches usually do Brubaker, 1998; Galea & Kimura, 1993; Dabbs, Chang,
not show marked gender differences (Halpern, 1992; & Strong, 1998; Brown et al., 1998; Coluccia &
Galea & Kimura, 1993; Rossano & Moak, 1998). On Martello, 2004) the percentage of cases in which males
this basis, we could suppose that, in a symbolic no- perform better than females (42.11%) is only slightly
ecological environment (e.g. maps), males might per- superior to the number of cases (39.47%) in which
Table 1
List of the experimental studies dealing with gender differences in spatial orientation skills (1983–2003)

Authors Tasks Dependent variables Gend. diff. Contexts

McGuinness and Sparks (1983) Sketch map Number of missing buildings F=M Map
McGuinness and Sparks (1983) Sketch map Extra items included (details) F4M Map
McGuinness and Sparks (1983) Sketch map Major roads and paths included (absolute number) M4F Map
McGuinness and Sparks (1983) Sketch map Spatial coordinate errors (absolute number) MoF Map

E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

McGuinness and Sparks (1983) Sketch map Relative deviation error FoM Map
Kirasic et al. (1984) Pointing to difficult landmarks Mean error MoF Real (campus)
Kirasic et al. (1984) Pointing to easy landmarks Mean error F=M Real (campus)
Ward et al. (1986) Verbal description of a route (map present) Number of errors and omissions F=M Map
Ward et al. (1986) Verbal description of a route (map absent) Number of errors and omissions MoF Map
Ward et al. (1986) Verbal description of a route Number of cardinal and mileage terms M4F Map
Miller and Santoni (1986) Verbal description of a route Number of Euclidean terms M4F Map
Miller and Santoni (1986) Verbal description of a route Number of landmark terms F4M Map

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Sadalla and Montello (1989) Pointing to familiar landmarks Mean error F=M Real (building)
Holding and Holding (1989) Landmark relocation Mean error F=M Slide sequence
Holding and Holding (1989) Pointing Mean error MoF Slide sequence
Holding and Holding (1989) Pointing Response time F=M Slide sequence
Holding and Holding (1989) Route distance estimation Mean error MoF Slide sequence
Holding and Holding (1989) Straight-line distance estimation Mean error F=M Slide sequence
Taylor and Tversky (1992a, b) Sketch map Number of omitted elements F=M Verbal description, map
Taylor and Tversky (1992a, b) Sketch map Number of incorrect positioning F=M Verbal description, map
Montello and Pick (1993) Pointing with familiar landmarks Mean error F=M Real (campus)
Galea and Kimura (1993) ‘‘Euclidean composite’’ Euclidean task’s composite score M4F Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) ‘‘Landmark composite’’ Landmark task’s composite score F4M Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Map learning Number of errors MoF Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Map learning Number of trials MoF Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Map learning Time to complete all trials MoF Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Direction questions Number of correct answers M4F Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Map-extrapolation test Number of correct answers F=M Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Landmark recall Number of correct recall F4M Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Street names recall Number of correct recall F4M Map
Galea and Kimura (1993) Straight-line distance estimation Number of correct answers F=M Map
Lawton (1994) Self-report questionnaire Spatial anxiety MoF
Lawton (1994) Self-report questionnaire Route strategies F4M
Lawton (1994) Self-report questionnaire Orientation strategies M4F
Devlin and Bernstein (1995) Wayfinding Number of wrong directions MoF Simulated
Lawton et al. (1996) Route reversal task Number of shortcut/exact retrace F=M Real (building)
Lawton et al. (1996) Pointing Mean error MoF Real (building)
Lawton et al. (1996) Self-report questionnaire Task uncertainty MoF
Lawton et al. (1996) Route reversal task Time taken F=M Real (building)
Lawton (1996) Pointing self-evaluation Self-confidence degree M4F
Lawton (1996) Pointing Mean error MoF Real (building)
Lawton (1996) Pointing Time response MoF Real (building)

331
Lawton (1996) Self-report questionnaire Spatial anxiety degree MoF
 332
Table 1 (continued )

Authors Tasks Dependent variables Gend. diff. Contexts

Lawton (1996) Self-report questionnaire Route strategies F4M

Lawton (1996) Self-report questionnaire Orientation strategies M4F
Schmitz (1997) Verbal description of a route Number of directional terms M4F Real (maze)
Schmitz (1997) Maze performing Mean velocity M4F Real (maze)
Schmitz (1997) Self-report questionnaire Spatial anxiety MoF
Sandstrom et al. (1998) Reaching a hidden target, using geometrical cues Time taken MoF Simulated (water maze)
Sandstrom et al. (1998) Reaching a hidden target, using landmark cues Time taken F=M Simulated (water maze)
O’Laughlin and Brubaker (1998) Sketch map Number of included elements F=M Simulated (film)

E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

O’Laughlin and Brubaker (1998) Sketch map Number of correct positioning F=M Simulated (film)
O’Laughlin and Brubaker (1998) Self-report questionnaire Route strategies F4M
O’Laughlin and Brubaker (1998) Self-report questionnaire Orientation strategies M4F
Moffat et al. (1998) Wayfinding Time taken to find the exit MoF Simulated (3D maze)
Moffat et al. (1998) Wayfinding Number of wrong turns MoF Simulated (3D maze)
Dabbs et al. (1998) Verbal description of a route Number of Euclidean and cardinal terms M4F Map
Dabbs et al. (1998) Verbal description of a route Number of landmark terms F4M Map
Brown et al. (1998) Map learning Time taken F=M Map

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Brown et al. (1998) Verbal description of a route Number of included elements F=M Map
Lawton and Morrin (1999) Pointing Mean error MoF Simulated
Pazzaglia et al. (2000) Self-report questionnaire Route representations F=M
Pazzaglia et al. (2000) Self-report questionnaire Survey representations M4F
Pazzaglia et al. (2000) Self-report questionnaire Orientation ability M4F
Waller et al. (2001) Pointing Mean error MoF Simulated (3D)
Malinowski and Gillespie (2001) Orienteering Time taken MoF Real (wood)
Malinowski and Gillespie (2001) Orienteering Number of points found M4F Real (wood)
Saucier et al. (2002) Wayfinding with ‘‘Euclidean instructions’’ Time taken MoF Real (campus)
Saucier et al. (2002) Wayfinding with ‘‘Euclidean instructions’’ Number of wrong directions MoF Real (campus)
Saucier et al. (2002) Wayfinding with ‘‘landmark instructions’’ Time taken F=M Real (campus)
Saucier et al. (2002) Wayfinding with ‘‘landmark instructions’’ Number of wrong directions F=M Real (campus)
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Map placement (irregular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Map placement (regular map) Number of correct answers M4F Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Orientation specification test (irregular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Orientation specification test (regular map) Number of correct answers M4F Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Route distance estimation (irregular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Route distance estimation (regular map) Number of correct answers M4F Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Route Recognition (irregular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Route Recognition (regular map) Number of correct answers M4F Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Straight-line distance estimation (irregular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Straight-line distance estimation (regular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Wayfinding (irregular map) Number of correct answers F=M Map
Coluccia and Martello (2004) Wayfinding (regular map) Number of correct answers M4F Map
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E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340 333

Table 2
Grouping on the basis of context

M4F % M4F M=F % M=F MoF % MoF N total

Simulated environment 8 57.14 6 42.86 0 0 14

Real environment 10 58.82 7 41.18 0 0 17
Map 16 42.11 15 39.47 7 18.42 38

Number of cases and relative percentages.

Table 3
Grouping on the basis of the orientation task

M4F % M4F M=F % M=F MoF % MoF N total

Pointing 9 64.29 5 35.71 0 0 14

Wayfinding 11 61.11 7 38.89 0 0 18
Map drawing 2 22.22 5 55.56 2 22.22 9
Distance estimation 2 28.57 5 71.43 0 0 7

Number of cases and relative percentages.

gender differences do not emerge. In 18.42% of the cases Now we will proceed to consider how the kind of task
females perform better than males. used to measure spatial orientation abilities affects
In Table 2 we report results concerning gender males and females performance.
differences as a function of the type of environmental As shown in Table 3, most frequently used tasks can
context in which the task is carried out. be grouped as follows:
From the data summarized in Table 2, a significant Pointing tasks (Kirasic et al., 1984; Sadalla &
relationship between the type of environmental context Montello, 1989; Holding & Holding, 1989; Galea &
and the presence/absence of gender differences does not Kimura, 1993; Montello & Pick, 1993; Lawton, 1996;
emerge (chi-square=3.96, p=.86). The pattern of Lawton et al., 1996; Lawton & Morrin, 1999; Waller et
results reveals a trend, favouring males. Such trend, al., 2001). In this category, it emerges that, in 64.29% of
however, is accompanied by a consistent percentage of the cases, males perform better than females, both in
cases in which differences between males and females are time taken to solve the task and in response accuracy.
not present. However, there are some cases (35.71%) in which the
However, it is worthwhile noting that the percentage performance of the two genders is similar. Then it is
of cases favouring males is higher in Virtual and real evident that female performance is never better than the
environments than in maps. This could be related to the male’s. So we could assert that in pointing task, males
route perspective that both offer. In the maps—the only are generally more able than females; but situations with
ones to offer a survey perspective—we find the lowest males performing equal to females are also present. As
percentage of cases in which males outperform females. the pointing task could differ in several ways, some
There are even some cases in which females perform additional categorizations are added. Some pointing
better than males. It is possible that females take more tasks were performed in a paper and pencil version
advantage than males from a situation in which the (Kirasic et al., 1984; Holding & Holding, 1989; Galea &
survey perspective, which is more complete than the Kimura, 1993; Lawton et al., 1996). Some other
route one, is already offered. Females might not easily pointing tasks were performed using a circle-and-arrow
form the survey representation but, when the survey device, for example, a circular piece of cardboard with a
perspective is already offered, gender differences are pointer attached to the centre of the circle. Such a device
levelled off. In line with this hypothesis, Montello et al. implies the use of motor components (Sadalla &
(1999) found that males outperform females on tests of Montello, 1989; Montello & Pick, 1993; Lawton, 1996;
spatial knowledge of places from direct experience Lawton & Morrin, 1999; Waller et al., 2001) and it could
rather than tests of map-derived knowledge. differ from a paper and pencil version. In the ‘‘device
In real and virtual environments, we can assume that version’’, in 67% of cases males outperform females and
males are successful in switching from a route perspec- in 33% of cases the performance of the two genders is
tive to a survey one, whereas females are more similar. Same identical distributions are found in the
constrained by the kind of given perspective (Sandstrom ‘‘paper and pencil version’’, suggesting that the way to
et al., 1998). perform the pointing task does not affect gender
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334 E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

differences. A further difference in performing the in which females perform better than males occurs in a
pointing task could emerge between a situation in which map study. Finally, the distance estimation task presents
the participants are asked to pointing from their own a peculiar trend, as in most cases (71.43%) there
location (real test) and a situation in which the are no gender differences in performance. Particularly,
participant has to imagine being in a different place gender differences never emerge in straight-line distance
(simulated test). Differences between real and simulated estimation.
test are exhaustively explained in Rossano and Moak Now we will analyse some other aspects reported by
(1998). In the ‘‘real test pointing’’, in most cases (67%) the literature; these aspects do not concern specifically
males outperform females, while gender differences do the performance in orientation tasks but rather the kind
not emerge in 33% of cases. In the ‘‘simulated test of the strategies used and the self-evaluation of the
pointing’’, in 62% of cases males outperform female, orientation sense.
and in 38% of cases the performance is similar. Again, The strategies used in spatial orientation have been
gender differences seem unaffected by the kind of investigated in different situations; specifically:
pointing task. Verbal description of a route (Miller & Santoni, 1986;
Wayfinding: The performance in this task was Ward et al., 1986; Schmitz, 1997; Brown et al., 1998;
measured in different ways: route learning (Schmitz, Dabbs et al., 1998). These studies illustrate the different
1997; Saucier et al., 2002), arrival point-finding tasks ways in which males and females give indications to
(Devlin & Bernstein, 1995; Moffat et al., 1998; reach a destination. In all the situations, males paid a
Sandstrom et al., 1998; Coluccia & Martello, 2004), greater attention to configurational aspects, using terms
route reversal (Lawton et al., 1996) and orienteering indicating cardinal points (i.e. ‘‘you must go towards the
(Malinowski & Gillespie, 2001). In most cases (61.11%) North’’) and distances (i.e. ‘‘you must turn to the right
males outperform females, while gender differences do after 300 meters’’) in their verbal indications, Conver-
not emerge in 38.89% of cases. In line with the pointing sely, females showed to use more frequently terms
task, females never perform better than males. indicating landmarks (i.e. ‘‘you must turn to the right
Sketch map (McGuinness & Sparks, 1983; Taylor & near the restaurant’’).
Tversky, 1992b; O’Laughlin & Brubaker, 1998): This is Self-report questionnaires for strategies (Lawton,
the only task showing a percentage of cases (22.22%) in 1994, 1996; O’Laughlin & Brubaker, 1998; Pazzaglia,
which females outperform males. It is interesting to note Cornoldi, & De Beni, 2000). Based on the given answers
that in the sketch map tasks males are particularly aware it emerges that males maintain a survey perspective
of routes and connectors while females appear more when they imagine moving in the environment, prefer-
sensitive to landmarks (McGuinness & Sparks, 1983). In entially relying on the visuo-spatial properties of the
fact, most of the 22% of cases where females outperform environment and on configurational, orientation strate-
males concern tasks about landmarks and map ele- gies. On the other hand, females maintain a route
ments. Moreover, in this task gender differences do not perspective; rely on landmarks and on procedural
appear in more than half of the cases (55.56%), whilst ‘‘route ‘‘strategies involving route’s knowledge.
only in 22.22% of cases males perform better than Finally, with regard to self-evaluation questionnaires
females. on orientation skills (Lawton, 1994, 1996; Lawton et al.,
Distance estimations (Holding & Holding, 1989; Galea 1996; Schmitz, 1997; Pazzaglia et al., 2000), a homo-
& Kimura, 1993; Coluccia & Martello, 2004): Gender geneous pattern emerges in the results: males estimate
differences in this task are less marked than in all the themselves to be more able in orientation and they show
other tasks considered so far. In fact, males outperform greater confidence in their own ability than females. On
females only in the 28.57%, while in most cases, gender the contrary, females report a higher level of spatial
differences (71.43%) do not emerge. We can also note anxiety than males, related to the fear of getting lost.
that the few cases in which males perform better than Whilst the results concerning gender differences in the
females are related to route distance estimation. strategies used and in self-reported orientation skills are
Grouping on the basis of the orientation task provides consistent within the examined literature, the pattern of
a rather intricate pattern: pointing, wayfinding and map results concerning gender differences in performance is
drawing show a notable percentage of cases (respectively not so constant. The variability between studies in fact
64.29%, 61.11% and 54.55%) in which males outper- does not seem to depend strictly either on the type of
form females and a considerable percentage of cases environment or on the type of task. Because of the
(respectively 35.71%, 38.89% and 27.27%) in which unsatisfying explanations that emerge with the grouping
gender differences do not emerge. The map drawing task method, another attempt will be carried out. In order
is the only task indicating that females (18.18% of cases) to clarify the complex pattern of gender differences, all
outperform males. This phenomenon could be related to the interpretative theories about gender differences
the advantage that females have mentioned above when in spatial orientation will be briefly reviewed. We
directly using a survey representation. In fact, every case will discuss firstly generic spatial abilities theories
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340 335

(biological, environmental and interactionist theories), spatial tasks seems to fluctuate in during the day, in
and secondly specific spatial orientation interpreta- accordance with natural variations of testosterone
tions (Evolutionistic theories, strategies and personality levels: when concentration of male hormones is high,
approaches). performance increases; when concentration is low,
performance decreases (Moffat & Hampson, 1996).
Furthermore, it was found that administration of
2. Interpretations of gender differences androgen to females could significantly reduce verbal
ability and enhances spatial performance, whereas
2.1. Interpretations of gender differences in spatial deprivation of androgen has the opposite effects on
abilities males (Van Goozen, Cohen–Kettenis, Gooren, Frijda,
& Van De Poll, 1995). All together these results are
2.1.1. Biological theories consistent with the hypothesis of hormonal levels.
Biological explanations were proposed which consid- According to Annett (1992) a cerebral pattern
ered sex differences in rats in maze-learning tasks strongly left-hemisphere-dominant for language has a
(Foreman, 1985; Margueles & Gallistel, 1988; Williams, negative influence on spatial ability development.
Barnett, & Meck, 1990). Females, in particular, seem more disadvantaged than
Biological hypotheses are based on the assumption males in spatial ability, because they have an advantage
that sexual hormones influence cognitive development. in early development of the left-hemisphere for lan-
In fact, hormone manipulation affects not only sexual guage. As a result of this early left hemisphere
behaviour but also some aspects of cognition, in advantage, females spontaneously prefer verbal strate-
particular spatial memory (Williams et al., 1990). gies for solving problems and they are more likely to be
Dawson, Cheung, and Lau (1975), for example, at risk for poor spatial ability. All the previously
report that the administration of testosterone to female discussed results are in favour of the presence of some
rats during the prenatal period, improves performance biological basis (hormonal levels and cerebral pattern)
in maze learning. On the other hand, castration at birth for sex differences. Nevertheless, there are environmen-
of male rats impairs the accuracy to choose the right tal factors (society, culture, race, etc.) that can strongly
direction in a radial maze. modify the differences between males and females.
In addition several studies (Suzuki, Augerinos, &
Black, 1980; Foreman, 1985; Margueles & Gallistel, 2.1.2. Environmental factors
1988) showed that male rats, while running in a maze, Gaulin and Hoffman (1988) conclude in their review
usually ignore landmarks and show an orientation that gender differences in spatial abilities, allowing for a
behaviour based on the ‘‘Euclidean properties’’ of the biological basis, are strongly modulated by experience
room containing the maze (e.g. the shape of the room or and learning. A positive correlation between spatial
the metric relation between the long wall and the short performance and participation to high-spatial activities
wall of the room). Williams et al. (1990) found that male emerges in Baenninger and Newcombe’s (1989) meta-
rats, when instructed to learn a maze, rely on analysis.
geometrical or configurational cues. Such cues are also The different levels of spatial ability could be due to
called extramaze cues and depend on the geometry of the different time spent in spatial activities by males and
the room (e.g. the maze is enclosed in a room with females. Usually males have more experience in
circular or rectangular contours). Male rats perfor- activities that enhance the development of spatial skills
mance is impaired if the geometry of the room changes, (Lawton & Morrin, 1999). Males, in fact, since early
but it is unaffected if landmarks are modified. On the childhood, play games with high spatial components,
other hand, female rats performance is always poor in like exploratory games, team sports, LEGO-construc-
both landmark and room-geometry conditions and it is tion (Goldberg & Lewis, 1969; Baenninger & New-
significantly lower than male rats performance. combe, 1989) and videogames (Barnett et al., 1997),
However, it is not clear how much of the sex being exposed to a higher ‘‘spatial experience’’ than
differences present in rats can be extended to humans. females. In addition, boys are allowed more frequently
It seems likely that, among humans, biological effects than girls to explore new environments (Webley, 1981).
interact with experiential factors.
Kimura and Hampson (1994) found that in some 2.1.3. Interactionist theories
tasks of verbal fluency women improve their perfor- The interactionist approach asserts that gender
mances up to 10%, just during the periods of high differences are caused by a continuous interaction
concentration of oestrogen (about 5–10 days before between environmental factors (experienced-based) and
menstruation). In spatial ability tests, however, women biological factors (natural predispositions). According
perform well when hormones levels are low (when to Sherman’s (1978) bent twig theory, the innate
menstrual cycle starts). Otherwise, male performance in predisposition to particular abilities influences the
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336 E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

choice of particular activities. Consequently males, The location of each destination is determined by
naturally interested in spatial activities, actively search following some instructions. ‘‘Euclidean-based’’ instruc-
for high-spatial experiences and spend much more time tions indicate the directions (e.g. north or west) and
in them than females. Such activities, in turn, enhance metric distances (e.g. 100 m). ‘‘Landmark-based’’ in-
the development of spatial abilities, increasing the initial structions indicate the salient landmark (e.g. the purple
differences between males and females. Casey (1996b) doors) and egocentric (right or left) turn directions. An
hypothesizes that males innate predisposition for error was scored when the participant took five or more
spatial abilities depends on their particular pattern of steps in the wrong direction. The authors found that
cerebral organization, characterized by low hemispheric men perform best in navigational tasks when provided
lateralization. In fact, such cerebral organization with Euclidean information, whereas women perform
seems to be more frequent in men (Annett, 1992). best when provided with landmark information. In fact,
Consequently, individuals having this particular pattern when instructions are ‘‘Euclidean-based’’, females make
and, at the same time, high exposition to spatial more errors than males for reaching the arrival point.
experience can excel in spatial abilities compared to When instructions are ‘‘landmark-based’’, males and
individuals having the same spatial exposition but females have similar performances.
different cerebral patterns. Individuals with this parti- In Sandstrom et al. (1998), when geometrical-config-
cular pattern of cerebral organization and low exposi- urational cues are available, males are faster than
tion to spatial experience are not likely to develop their females at reaching a hidden target. When landmark
spatial abilities. cues only are available, no sex differences emerge.
However, even if males prefer configurational strategies,
2.2. Interpretations of gender differences in spatial they can use landmarks, when required. It seems that
orientation males can swap strategies if necessary, adapting
dynamically their strategies to the information available
2.2.1. Evolutionistic theories in the environment. Females, on the other hand, are
Following an evolutionistic approach, Silverman and more landmark-centred and have more difficulties in
Eals (1992) hypothesized that, during the course of time, swapping strategies. Thus males perform better in
women developed a highly specialized memory system spatial orientation, because they spontaneously prefer
for object location. Since prehistoric age, landmark configurational strategies (more complete than other
positions have been more useful for females than males. strategies) and because they can swap easily their
Females spent long time in caverns taking care of their strategies, in line with to available information.
children, while males needed to know Euclidean
and configurational properties of their hunting-area, 2.2.3. Personality factors
exploring extended and unfamiliar environments in Another possible interpretation comes from psycho-
search of food. logical studies of personality. According to Lawton
(1996) and Kozloswki and Bryant (1977) males are more
2.2.2. Differences in strategies confident than females about their skills in finding a way
This hypothesis is suggested by some differences and about their own sense of direction. Similarly, self-
between males and females regarding the strategies used evaluating questionnaires reveal that females are more
in orientation tasks. Males seem to rely on global anxious than males when navigating (Lawton, 1994).
reference points and configurational or ‘‘survey strate- The ‘‘spatial anxiety’’ (Lawton, 1994, 1996) or ‘‘fear
gies’’ (e.g. maintaining a sense of their own position in to get lost’’ (Kozloswki & Bryant, 1977) can reduce the
relation to compass directions, keeping in mind the ability to focus on cues essential to maintain geogra-
position of the sun in the sky, cardinal points, town phical orientation. Many studies find that stress impairs
centre, starting point, etc.). Females, indeed, show use of the ability to memorize spatial locations (Mackintosh,
landmarks and apply procedural or ‘‘route strategies’’, West & Saegert, 1975; Evans, Skorpanich, Gärling,
attending to instructions on how to get from place to Bryant, & Bresolin, 1984; Sunanda, Rao, & Raju, 2000).
place (Lawton, 1994; Galea & Kimura, 1993; Lawton, In Schmitz (1997), spatial anxiety and fear of the dark
1996; Lawton et al. 1996; O’Laughlin & Brubaker, negatively correlate with speed in walking through a
1998). According to Saucier et al. (2002), the different maze: subjects with high anxiety levels are the slowest.
performances between males and females are not due to Anxiety about getting lost is likely to inhibit the
a better orientation ability in males rather than in exploration of unfamiliar places, having a negative
females, but they are due to the different strategies impact on self-confidence and on motivation to navi-
employed. Males are likely to use survey strategies, gate in new environments (Bryant, 1982, 1991). So
which are usually more efficient than others. In the females have few navigational experiences than males,
Saucier et al.’s (2002) experiment participants are having fewer opportunities to increase their spatial
requested to navigate to four unknown destinations. orientation skills.
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E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340 337

Moreover, some studies demonstrate a relationship differences in verbal descriptions of a route, when the
between spatial anxiety, kinds of strategy and orienta- map was present during task execution (easy task).
tion performance. In Schmitz (1997), males show low Differences indeed emerged when the map was not
levels of anxiety and prefer to include more directional visible, increasing the memory load of the tasks. Taylor
elements (configurational strategy) in verbal descrip- and Tversky (1992b) found no gender differences in map
tions of a maze; they also perform better than females drawings and in verbal descriptions. It is Taylor and
when running through a maze. Contrary to this, Tversky’s opinion that mean percentage of errors
females show high levels of anxiety and include few was very low for all subjects, both in map drawings
directional elements and many landmarks in their and in verbal descriptions. It is possible to hypo-
descriptions. In agreement with these results, Lawton thesize that gender differences were ‘‘masked’’ or
(1994) finds that the use of survey (configurational) levelled-off by the low difficulty of the task. Again high
strategies correlates negatively with the level of spatial performance can be ascribed to the experimental
anxiety. People with high level of spatial anxiety paradigm. Each participant studied twice the same
generally do not use this kind of strategy. These verbally described environment, from two different
individuals are not able to maintain a sense of direction viewpoints, a route perspective and a survey perspective.
and/or self-position with respect to the surrounding Furthermore, participants were free to study each
environment (survey strategy). They tend to get lost, perspective, for as long as they wanted and up to four
confused and anxious. times. This kind of procedure could generate an
over–learnt situation.
Pointing: On the basis of significant differences in
3. An interpretative hypothesis angular errors produced by all subjects when performing
a pointing task, the Kirasic et al. (1984) identified ‘‘easy-
All the previously reported hypotheses attempt to to-locate’’ and ‘‘difficult-to-locate’’ landmarks. Post hoc
explain the presence of gender differences, ignoring the analyses for each landmark showed significant differ-
40% of cases in which gender differences do not emerge. ences in accuracy for locating the target. Some locations
So far, there are no hypotheses that give a complete (difficult-to-locate landmarks) resulted in greater angu-
explanation of all emerged results. In an attempt to find lar error than did others (easy-to-locate landmarks).
a comprehensive explanation of the variability of the Results showed that males located difficult landmarks
obtained results, we try to analyse literature from a with a lower angular error than females, and that gender
different perspective, focusing on the cognitive demands differences disappeared when easy landmarks had to be
of the orientation tasks, independently on the kind of located.
tasks and on the kind of environment. In Montello and Pick (1993), Sadalla and Montello
(1989), and Kirasic et al. (1984) gender differences
3.1. Gender differences in orientation emerge when tasks between males and females did not emerge in ‘‘real test
are ‘‘difficult’’ pointing’’. These results can appear completely incom-
patible if we do not consider participants’ familiarity
From the previously analysed literature, it is possible with the environment. In all these studies, in fact,
to claim that when gender differences appear, they often participants were students and the environments were
arise favouring males. This tendency and the oscillation familiar buildings in campus. We suggest that the
marked-differences/no-differences suggested to us that absence of gender differences might be due to the high
the difference in orientation performance could be familiarity of the subjects with the environment. In
‘‘masked’’ by task-cognitive demands as follows: or- particular, Kirasic et al. (1984) chose their landmarks
ientation tasks high in cognitive demands are accom- for the pointing task, just on the basis of familiarity data
panied by gender difference, orientation tasks low in from a previous study (Herman, Kail, & Siegel, 1979).
cognitive demands are not. Distance estimation: Both in Galea and Kimura (1993)
In order to support the present hypothesis we show and in Coluccia and Martello (2004), gender differences
some examples grouped on the basis of tasks. for straight-line judgment tasks did not emerge. These
Verbal descriptions: Brown et al. (1998) found no results are inconsistent with the well-known male-
differences between males and females in time spent superiority in all Euclidean tasks. Usually Euclidean
to study a map and in errors giving verbal descriptions tasks require estimating the absolute distance between
of a route within the map. Authors asserted that the two or more objects (Miller & Santoni, 1986; Geary,
absence of differences was due to the experimental 1995; Dabbs et al., 1998). The absence of gender
paradigm used. It was a map-present paradigm, differences in Galea and Kimura (1993) and in Coluccia
generating a low-memory load situation, since the map and Martello’s (2004) study could depend on the type
was always visible, when orientation tasks were exe- of task. In both these studies participants were not
cuted. Similarly, Ward et al. (1986) found no gender required to produce metrical estimations, but to make
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338 E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340

a comparison between two (Galea & Kimura, 1993) 3.2. The difficulty of the task depends on its working
or three (Coluccia & Martello, 2004) positions (i.e. memory load
‘‘Starting from landmark A, which landmark is more
distant? B or C?’’). Making a qualitative distance When analysing gender differences, an important
comparison is easier than making a quantitative factor is the working memory load. According to
distance estimation (i.e. ‘‘How meter/miles far is A Thorndyke and Hayes-Roth (1982) and Rossano and
from B?’’). Gender differences again dissolve in low- Moak (1998), a real test has a lower cognitive load than
demanding tasks. a simulated test. In a simulated test participants are
Wayfinding: Lawton et al. (1996) did not find gender required to make a consistent imagination effort. The
differences in the route-reversal task. Participants were cognitive load, in fact, increases depending on the
instructed to walk in a real indoor environment, number of interacting elements to be maintained
retracing backward a route from the end to the starting simultaneously in working memory (Marcus, Cooper
point. Differences did not arise both in time spent and in & Sweller, 1996). In a real pointing task, for instance,
number of errors. Lawton et al. (1996) suggested that subjects are positioned in a specific point at the
gender differences in wayfinding could be found in an environment, facing a specific direction. Then, they are
environment characterized by a more complex structure asked to point at some landmarks direction. In a
than the used one. In fact, Lawton et al. (1996) admitted simulated test, on the other hand, subjects are set down
that in the environmental structure of their research in front of a desk, facing up a wall of the room. Then
there were only a few routes that could be taken to go they are asked to imagine staying in a different location,
back to the starting point, spending a short time. with his/her face towards a specified direction and to
Lawton et al. (1996) concluded that, in order to obtain point at some landmarks.
gender differences in wayfinding, it is necessary to use In simulated tasks, females often show lower perfor-
more complex environments. mance than males. In real tasks their performance is
Various tasks: In Coluccia and Martello (2004), two similar to male ones (Rossano & Moak, 1998). Brown
different maps were used: the first was characterized by et al. (1998) found that gender differences disappeared,
a regular pattern of routes with straight, perpendicular when the memory load is low (map present condition).
and parallel streets, square-shaped zones and landmarks Similarly, Ward et al. (1986) did not find gender
with similar features. The second map was characterized differences in map present condition (low memory
by an irregular pattern of routes with dissimilar and load). Males performed better than females when the
curvilinear streets and different types of landmarks. map was absent (high memory load).
Following map learning subjects were required to According to Garden, Cornoldi, and Logie (2002), the
perform 8 orientation tasks: Landmark Recognition; memory load implied in wayfinding processes is not a
Landmark with Surrounding Recognition; Map Com- generic cognitive load, but it is a specific load of Visuo-
pletion; Map Section Rotation; Euclidean Distance Spatial Working Memory (VSWM). Consequently,
Judgement; Route Recognition; Wayfinding; Route gender differences could arise in spatial orientation tasks
Distance Judgement. It was found that subjects showed that require a consistent load of VSWM. Using dual task
greater overall orientation performance in the irregular methodology, Garden et al. (2002) showed that spatial
map than in the regular one. Significant gender tapping (VSWM interference tasks) impaired perfor-
differences emerged with the regular (more difficult) mance in a route-recognition task significantly more than
map, but not the irregular (easy-to-learn) map. Some articulatory suppression (Verbal Working Memory
tasks in particular showed marked gender differences: interference task) did. These results reveal the direct
Landmark with Surrounding Recognition; Map Com- implication of VSWM in orientation abilities. Other
pletion; Route Recognition; Wayfinding; Route Dis- studies are also consistent with these conclusions. Conte,
tance Judgement (see Bosco, Longoni, & Vecchi, 2004 Cornoldi, Pazzaglia, and Sanavio (1995), found that
for an exhaustive description of the tasks). blind boys with high working memory perform better
A last hint comes from spatial ability literature. In the than girls when moving through a room. Pazzaglia and
meta-analysis by Linn and Petersen (1985), the largest Cornoldi (1999) found that participants with high scores
difference between males and females was found in the in the Corsi test have an optimal memory for route
Mental Rotation Tests. This kind of task is supposed to descriptions. Then, Bosco et al.(2004), using multiple
be the most difficult in comparison to the other two regression approach, found that some VSWM tasks
types found by the authors (Spatial Visualization Tests predict orientation performance.
and Spatial Perception Tests). All the three spatial Can we hypothesize that gender differences emerge
ability tasks require the production of a mental image, only in high-VSWM-load tasks because women’s
but the Mental Rotation Tests need an additional VSWM are less efficient? In fact, many studies found
process, because three- or two-dimensional objects have that females have a lower VSWM span than males
to be rotated in imagination. (Richardson, 1991; Halpern, 1992; Lawton & Morrin,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
E. Coluccia, G. Louse / Journal of Environmental Psychology 24 (2004) 329–340 339

1999). These span differences are particularly marked in experiences with hand attitudes toward videogames. Journal of
active tasks, where participants are required to elabo- Applied Social Psychology, 27, 1316–1334.
rate, integrate and transform the visual imagined Bosco, A., Longoni, A. M., & Vecchi, T. (2004). Gender effects in
spatial orientation: Cognitive profiles and mental strategies.
material (Vecchi & Cornoldi, 1998; Vecchi & Girelli, Applied Cognitive Psychology.
1998). Brown, L. N., Lahar, C. J., & Mosley, J. L. (1998). Age and gender
related differences in strategy use for route information. A map
present direction giving paradigm. Environment and Behavior,
4. Conclusion 30(2), 123–143.
Bryant, K. J. (1982). Personality correlates of sense of direction and
geographical orientation. Journal of Personality and Social
It seems that marked gender differences in VSWM Psychology, 43(6), 1318–1324.
can account for some differences in the orientation Bryant, K. J. (1991). Geographical/Spatial orientation ability within
abilities. In particular, gender differences in orientation real word and simulated large scale environments. Multivariate
emerge only when tasks require a high load of VSWM. Behavioral Research, 26(1), 109–136.
Casey, M. B. (1996b). Gender, sex, and cognition: considering
Consequently the VSWM load could be a determinant
interrelationship between biological and environmental factors.
factor, able to increase or level off individual differences Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 39–53.
in orientation abilities. Males would show better Coluccia, E., & Martello, A. (2004). Il Ruolo Della Memoria Di
orientation performance, because of their larger VSWM Lavoro Visuo-Spaziale Nell’Orientamento Geografico: Uno Studio
span. When the orientation task does not involve a high Correlazionale (The Role of VSWM in Geographical Orientation:
load in VSWM, gender differences would disappear. A correlational study). Giornale Italiano di Psicologia.
Conte, A., Cornoldi, C., Pazzaglia, F., & Sanavio, S. (1995). Lo
The interpretation we are offering in this review is not sviluppo della memoria di lavoro visuospaziale e il suo ruolo nella
expected to be exhaustive, since we do not try to explain memoria spaziale. Ricerche Di Psicologia, 19(2), 95–114.
the origin of the gender differences in WM. More simply Dabbs, J. M., Chang, L., & Strong, R. A. (1998). Spatial ability,
the present review wants only to offer an hypothesis navigation strategy and geographic knowledge among men and
helpful in the understanding of the overall findings, women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 89–98.
Dawson, J. L., Cheung, Y. M., & Lau, R. T. (1975). Developmental
trying to cast more light on the large variability of the
effects of neonatal sex hormones on spatial and activity skills in the
results emerged. white rat. Biological Psychology, 3(3), 213–229.
Spatial orientation is a healthily multi-disciplinary Devlin, A. S., & Bernstein, J. (1995). Interactive wayfinding: use of
area: the collaboration between psychologists and cues by men and women. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15,
geographers is crucial for the development of spatial 23–38.
orientation studies. As stated by Kitchin, Blades, and Evans, G. W., Skorpanich, M. A., Gärling, T., Bryant, K. J., &
Bresolin, B. (1984). The effects of pathway configuration, land-
Golledge (1997): ‘‘Both psychologists and geographers marks and stress on environmental cognition. Journal of Environ-
have much to offer each other, in terms of ideas, theory, mental Psychology, 4, 323–335.
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psychology and behavioural geography is essential Journal of Experimental Psychology: Comparative and Physiological
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Galea, L. A. M., & Kimura, D. (1993). Sex differences in route-
learning. Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1), 53–65.
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We are especially grateful to Prof. Anna Maria
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