6.

MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

NUCLEIC ACID
Ø DNA and RNA (genetic material).
Ø DNA – in most of the organisms.
Ø RNA – in some viruses only.
Structure of nucleic acid

Nucleoside

Nucleotide

Polynucleotide CENTRAL DOGMA

a. Nucleoside: Ø Francis Crick proposed central dogma.
Nucleoside = Nitrogen base + Pentose sugar
b. Nucleotide:
Nucleotide = Nitrogen base + Pentose sugar +
Phosphate group
c. Polynucleotide:
Ø But in certain viruses RNA is the genetic
Nucleotide + Nucleotide = Dinucleotide
material.
Several nucleotides = Polynucleotide. Ø They form DNA from RNA by reverse
Bond present between nucleotides = Phosphodiester transcription. eg: In retro viruses, reverse
bond. transcription occurs with the help of enzyme
reverse transcriptase.
THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX MODEL
Ø Proposed by Watson and Crick. PACKAGING OF DNA DOUBLE HELIX
Ø Contains 2 polynucleotide chains. Prokaryotes
Ø Nitrogen bases – ATGC. Ø No well defined nucleus.
Ø DNA is held with some proteins in nucleoid
Ø Sugar – Deoxyribose.
region.
Ø Hydrogen bond – Connect Nitrogen bases. Eukaryotes
Between A and T – 2 hydrogen bond. Ø Histones:
Between G and C – 3 hydrogen bond. - Positively charged proteins.
Ø Phosphodiester bond – Connect Sugar and - Rich in arginine and lysine.
phosphate. - 5 types-H1, H2A, H2B, H3 H4.
Ø One chain has 5’-3’ polarity. Ø Histone octamer:
Other chain has 3’-5’ polarity. - A pair of 4 histones.

Ø The two chains coiled in a right handed fashion. Ø Nucleosome:

- DNA (-ve charge) makes two complete
- Pitch of helix 3.4nm
turns around the histone octamer (+ve charge) to form
- 10 bp in each turn. a nucleosome.
- Distance between base pairs is 0.34nm.
 Ø Dimension of nucleus is 10 approximately. The
2.2m DNA is packaged in a nucleus of about 10
m.

Organism No: of base

pair
174 bacteriophage 5386 bp
E.coli 4.6 x 10 bp
Lambda bacteriophage 48502 bp
Nucleosomes
Human DNA (haploid 3.3 x 10 bp
content)
Chromatin is packaged
ERWIN CHARGAFF’S RULE
Ø This rule was proposed by Erwin Chargaff.
Chromatin fibres
Ø It states that, in a double stranded DNA, the
ratio between adenine and thymine, and
Coiled and condensed guanine and cytosine are equal.
at metaphase stage ie, A=T and G=C
If C = 30% then G = 30%, A = 20% and T = 20%
Chromosomes

Ø The nucleosome in the chromatin is seen as HETEROCHROMATIN AND EUCHROMATIN

‘beads-on-string’.
Heterochromatin Euchromatin
Densely packed regions of Loosely packed regions
chromatin of chromatin
It stains dark It stains light
It is transcriptionally It is transcriptionally
inactive active

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCES TO PROVE THAT DNA IS

THE GENETIC MATERIAL
A. Bacterial transformation experiment (Griffith’s
experiment)
Materials used:
NHC Proteins: Ø Mice.
Ø Sterptococcus pneumoniae bacteria.
Ø The packaging of chromatin fibres at higher - 2 strains- Rough (R) and smooth (S)
level requires additional set of proteins called strain.
Non-histone chromosomal proteins (NHC - R strain does not cause pneumonia.
Proteins). - S strain causes pneumonia.
Experiment:
LENGTH OF DNA
Ø Length of DNA = Total no: of base pairs x Distance
= 6.6 x 10 bp x 0.34 x 10 m/bp
= 2.2 m (human DNA)
Conclusion: ü Pellet contains bacterial cells labeled with P-32.
Some “factors” transferred from heat killed S strain Ie, the viral DNA labeled with P-32 had entered
to R strain. This made R strain to get transferred into the bacterial cells. This proves that DNA is the
pathogenic S strain. genetic material.

“The phenomenon by which a trait is transferred from

one bacterium to another one directly is called
bacterial transformation or Griffith effect.”

Avery, Mac Leody, Mc Carty experiment

They discovered that:

B. Viral infection experiment (Hershey and Chase

experiment)
Materials used:
o Bacteriophage (Virus that infect bacteria).
o E. coli bacteria.
o Medium containing radioactive phosphorus(P-
32). Criteria required for a molecule to be genetic material
o Medium containing radioactive sulphur (S-35).
1. It should be able to generate its replica.
o Blender.
2. It should be chemically and structurally stable.
o Centrifuge.
3. It should provide scope for slow changes
Experiment: (mutation) that are required for evolution.
i. They grew some viruses on a medium that 4. It should be able to express itself in the form of
contained radioactive phosphorus (P-32) and ‘Mendelian characters’.
some others on a medium that contained
radioactive sulphur (S-35).
ii. These preparations were used separately to DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
infect E.coli.
iii. After infection, the E.coli cells were agitated in
DNA RNA
a blender.
iv. Then it is centrifuged. Double stranded Single stranded
v. After centrifugation, heavier bacterial cells are Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
formed as a pellet at the bottom. Lighter viral
components remained as supernatant at the Nitrogen bases are ATGC Nitrogen bases AUGC
top. Purines and pyrimidines Purines and pyrimidines
Conclusion: are present in equal are not present in equal
amount amount
They found that:
Seen in nucleus, Seen in cytoplasm,
ü Supernatant contains viral protein labeled with mitochondria and ribosome and nucleolus
S-35. Ie, the viral protein had not entered the chloroplast
bacterial cells.
DNA versus RNA
DNA RNA
1. DNA can replicate. 1. RNA can also replicate.
2. DNA is stable. ie, it 2. RNA is not stable.
does not change Because, 2 OH group
with different present at every
stages of life cycle, nucleotide in RNA is a
age or with change reactive group and
in physiology of an makes RNA liable and
organism. The easily degradable.
presence of
thymine gives 3. RNA is reactive.
additional stability 4. RNA mutates at faster
to DNA. rate.
Because, RNA is
3. DNA is chemically unstable. Therefore,
less reactive. viruses having RNA
4. DNA can mutate. genome and having
shorter life span
mutate and evolve
faster.
5. DNA is dependent 5. RNA can directly code o Origin of replication – starting point of
on RNA for the for the synthesis of
synthesis of proteins, hence can replication.
proteins. easily express the o Helicase enzyme will unwind DNA.
characters. So for the
transmission of genetic o Hydrogen bond breaks down.
information RNA is o Separated strands become template strand.
better.
o Primer (Short RNA) is formed first.
o DNA polymerase enzyme adds nucleotides to
the primer. As a result leading strand and
The DNA is structurally more stable and chemically less lagging strand is formed.
reactive when compared to RNA. Therefore, DNA is a ü Leading strand:
better genetic material. - It is formed in 5’-3’ direction.
- Its formation is continuous.
ü Lagging strand:
DNA REPLICATION
- It is formed in 5’-3’ direction, but away
v Proposed by Watson and Crick. from the replication fork.
v It is the synthesis of new DNA molecules from - Its formation is discontinuous.
the pre-existing DNA. - Small fragments (Okazaki fragments)
v It is semi conservative type. are formed first.
- Okazaki fragments are joined by DNA
What is semi conservative replication?
ligase enzyme.
The newly formed DNA will have one parental - RNA primer is replaced with DNA.
strand and one newly synthesized strand. As one strand
Replication fork:
is conserved, it is called semi conservative replication.
Ø When the DNA helix is unwind up to a point, it
Replication process
appears to be a ‘Y‘shaped structure called
Ø In eukaryotes, DNA replication takes place at S replication fork.
phase of the cell cycle.
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF FOR DNA REPLICATION o RNA polymerase II (involved in the synthesis of
(Messelson and Stahl experiment) precursor of mRNA, ie, hnRNA).
o RNA polymerase III (involved in the synthesis of
tRNA, 5sRNA, SnRNA).
Ø E. coli was grown in a medium containing
b. DNA:
heavier isotope of nitrogen (N 15 medium).
Ø DNA is needed for the synthesis of RNA.
v Result: N15 was incorporated into
both strands of DNA of E. coli. Thus c. Transcription unit:
DNA becomes heavier. This DNA is
called heavier DNA.

Ø E. coli with heavier DNA is transferred to a

medium containing lighter isotope of nitrogen
(N 14 medium).
v Result: After first generation: The DNA Ø Transcription unit contains – promoter,
of daughter cells contained one heavier structural gene and terminator.
strand and one lighter strand. o Promoter - It provides binding site for
ü Heavier strand – strand containing N15. RNA polymerase.
ü Lighter strand – strand containing N 14. o Structural gene – It provides template
o This indicated the semi – conservative strand for the formation of RNA.
method of DNA replication. o Terminator – It defines the end of the
process of transcription.
v After second generation: Half of the
Steps in the process of transcription
DNA molecules were hybrid (each DNA
having one heavier and one lighter
strand) and the other half were
completely new (each DNA with lighter
strands only).

TRANSCRIPTION
Ø The process of copying genetic information
from one strand of DNA into RNA is termed as
transcription.
Requirements for transcription
a. Enzyme. a. Initiation
b. DNA.
· Transcription is initiated from the promoter
c. Transcription unit.
region.
a. Enzyme: · RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region
Ø The enzyme that catalyzes transcription is RNA of DNA. As a result DNA unwinds. RNA
polymerase. formation starts.
Ø In bacteria there is only one RNA polymerase. · In bacteria, only one initiation factor sigma (σ)
Ø In eukaryotes there are three RNA is required.
polymerases. · In eukaryotes, several initiation factors are
o RNA polymerase I (involved in the synthesis of RNA). required.
b. Elongation PROPERTIES OF RNA
· The RNA chain is synthesized in 5’- 3’ direction. o Complementary to the template strand of the
· The nucleotides are added to the growing chain. DNA duplex.
c. Termination o Identical to the non – template strand (coding
strand).
· Termination occurs at terminator region.
eg: Template strand – 3’ TACGTACGTACGTACG 5’
· A termination factor rho (ρ) binds to the RNA
polymerase and terminates transcription. Coding strand – 5’ ATGCATGCATGCATGC 3’
mRNA strand – 5’ AUGCAUGCAUGCAUGC 3’
RNA PROCESSING IN EUKARYOTES
v The processing events include the following – Template strand Coding strand
- Capping of the 5’ end of the RNA. It acts as a template It is a sequence of DNA
- Splicing. for the synthesis of that has the same base
- Tailing (polyadenylation of the 3’ end of mRNA during sequence as that of
transcription. mRNA (except thymine is
the RNA).
replaced by uracil).
Capping - an unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine
triphosphate) is added to the 5’ end of the hnRNA.
It runs from 3’ – 5’ It runs from 5’ – 3’
Splicing - the introns (non – functional) are removed direction. direction.
and the exons are joined together.
Tailing - adenylate residues are added at the 3’end of
the RNA. It is mediated by an enzyme called Poly A EXONS AND INTRONS
Polymerase.
Exons: Coding regions.
The hnRNA is now called mRNA, which is transported
Introns: Non coding regions.
out of the nucleus for translation.

CISTRON
o Cistron: It is a segment of DNA, coding for a
polypeptide.
o MONOCISTRONIC (In eukaryotes): Codes for
only one polysaccharide.
o POLYCISTRONIC (In prokaryotes): Codes for
more than one polysaccharide.

GENETIC CODE
Ø The sequence of nitrogen bases in mRNA which
contains information for protein synthesis is
called genetic code.
Ø The code is made up of 3 nitrogen bases. This is
called triplet code. Eg: Code for Phenyl alanine
is UUU and UUC.
Ø Codon – The sequence of 3 bases determining a
single amino acid is called codon.
 Ø There are 64 codons for 20 naturally occurring
amino acids.
Ø George Gamow, Marshall Nirenberg, Severo
Ochoa, Hargobind Khorana etc have made
significant contributions to decipher the genetic TRANSLATION
code. Ø The process by which proteins are derived from
RNA is called translation.
Requirements for translation
Ø Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Ø Ribosomes (70s ribosome in prokaryotes and
80s ribosome in eukaryotes)
Ø Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ø Amino acids
Ø Enzymes
Ø Energy source
Steps in the process of translation
Salient features of the genetic code.
Ø Genetic code is triplet code.
Ø Genetic code is universal in nature.
Ø Genetic code is unambiguous, ie, is one codon
codes for only one amino acid.
Ø Genetic code is degenerate, i.e., a single amino
acid is represented by many codons.
Ø Genetic code is comma less.
Ø Genetic code has initiation codon and
termination codon.
o Initiation codon - AUG
o Termination codon -UAA, UAG, UGA.
1. Charging of tRNA
Amino acids are linked to their tRNA in the
tRNA presence of amino acyl tRNA synthetase enzyme. So the
tRNA becomes charged.
2. Initiation
Ø It begins at the 5’ end of the mRNA.
Ø The small subunit of ribosome binds to mRNA.
Ø The initiation codon in mRNA is AUG.
Ø The initiator tRNA (methionyl tRNA) having UAC
at the anticodon site blinds to the initiation
codon on the mRNA.
Ø The large subunit of ribosome then blinds to
mRNA.
Ø The large subunit has two blinding sites for
tRNA – A site and P site.
Ø The initiator tRNA is founds at the P site.
Ø All other tRNA first binds to A site and then
shift to the P site.
3. Elongation Ø The structural genes transcribe together and
Ø Then another tRNA complex with an form mRNA.
appropriate amino acid enters the ribosome Ø This mRNA directs the synthesis of 3 enzymes:
and attaches at the A site. o β galactosidase
Ø Methionine from the first tRNA is now attached o Galactosidase permease
to the amino acid of the second tRNA through o Galactosidase transacetylase
peptide bond. Ø The regulator gene synthesizes a regulator
Ø The first tRNA is removed from the P site. protein called ‘‘lac repressor”.
Ø The second tRNA is moved to the P site from A Ø The regulation can be positive or negative.
site (translocation). Positive regulation Negative regulation
Ø Then again third tRNA with amino acid bind at · It occurs when · It occurs when
the A site. lactose is present in lactose is absent in
Ø This process of peptide bond formation and the medium and the medium and
translocation are repeated. enzymes are required enzymes are not
to metabolize it. required.
· Lactose serves as the · Lac repressor is
4. Termination
inducer and it active.
Ø When the tRNA reaches the termination codon inactivates the lac · Lac repressor binds
(UAA, UAG, UGA) termination of protein repressor. to the operator
synthesis occurs. · Lac repressor cannot region.
Ø A release factor binds to the termination codon bind to the operator · The structural gene
(stop codon). region. cannot undergo
Ø This leads to the release of the polypeptide · The structural gene transcription and
chain of amino acids and tRNA from the undergoes translation and the
transcription and enzymes are not
ribosome.
translation to produced.
Untranslated regions (UTRs) produce the enzymes.
Ø They are the sections of the RNA before the
start codon and after the stop codon that are
not translated.
Ø The UTRs are present at both 5’ end and 3’ end.

REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

In eukaryotes:
In eukaryotes the regulation could be exerted at,
I. Transcriptional level
II. Processing level
III. Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the
cytoplasm
IV. Translational level
In prokaryotes:
Operon Concept
Ø It was put forward by Jacob and Monod.
The Lac Operon
Ø It controls the degradation of lactose in E.coli.
Ø The operon consists of:
o 3 structural genes – z, y and a.
o Operator gene
o Regulator gene ie, ‘i’ gene.
o Promoter region
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP) Application of HGP
v It was started in the year 1990 to map the Ø Biological systems can be well studied by the
entire genome and completed in 2003. knowledge of DNA sequences.
Why HGP is called a mega project? Ø HG sequence used to develop a new approach
to biological research.
v Because: The total estimated cost of the project
was around 9 billion US Dollars. Around 3300
books were required for storing the information DNA FINGER PRINTING
of DNA sequence of a single human cell. A large Ø The technique was developed by Alec Jeffry.
amount of data was stored in computers. For
this bioinformatics is used.
Repetitive DNA Satellite DNA
Goals of HGP
· A small stretch of · Highly
· To identify all the genes in human DNA.
DNA is repeated repetitive non-
· To determine the sequence of 3 billion base
several times in transcribed
pairs in human DNA.
the total DNA of a region of DNA.
· To store this information in databases. cell.
· To address ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI)
that may arise from the project.
DNA Polymorphism: It is an inheritable mutation.
VNTR (Variable Number of Tandem Repeats): The
Methodologies repetitive sequences are called VNTR.
Two major approaches were used. They are: PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): It is used to amplify
- Expressed sequence tags (ESTs): Sequencing DNA.
the genes that are expressed as RNA.
- Sequence annotation: Sequencing the whole
genome that contain coding and non-coding Steps in DNA finger printing
sequences. 1. Isolation of DNA
-
2. Digestion of DNA into fragments by restriction
endonuclease

3. Separation of DNA fragments by electrophoresis

4. Transferring of separated DNA fragments into

nitrocellulose paper (blotting)

Features of human genome

5. Hybridization using labeled VNTR probe
Ø The human genome contains 3164.7 million
nucleotides.
Ø Chromosome I has most genes (2968) and the Y 6. Detection of hybridized DNA fragments be auto
has fewest (231). radiography
Ø The largest human gene is dystophin having 2.4
million base pairs. Application of DNA finger printing
ü Used in forensic science to solve the problems
Repeated sequences – They are stretches of DNA of paternity, rape, murder etc.
sequences that are repeated many times. They have no ü Used to diagnose genetic disorders.
direct coding function.

PREPARED BY ARIFA T M A (HSST ZOOLOGY)

DEMHSS THALANGARA, KASARAGOD.