Author’s Accepted Manuscript

Novel Technique for Enhancement of Diesel Fuel:

Impact of Aqueous Alumina Nano-Fluid on
Engine's Performance and Emissions

Miqdam Tariq Chaichan, Abdul Amir H. Kadhum,

Ahmed A. Al-Amiery
www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

PII: S2214-157X(17)30175-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2017.11.006
Reference: CSITE236
To appear in: Case Studies in Thermal Engineering
Received date: 21 July 2017
Revised date: 7 November 2017
Accepted date: 12 November 2017
Cite this article as: Miqdam Tariq Chaichan, Abdul Amir H. Kadhum and
Ahmed A. Al-Amiery, Novel Technique for Enhancement of Diesel Fuel: Impact
of Aqueous Alumina Nano-Fluid on Engine's Performance and Emissions, Case
Studies in Thermal Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2017.11.006
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Novel Technique for Enhancement of Diesel Fuel: Impact of Aqueous Alumina Nano-Fluid on Engine's Performance
and Emissions

Miqdam Tariq Chaichan1, Abdul Amir H. Kadhum2 and Ahmed A. Al-Amiery1,*

1 Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Centre, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq.
20185@uotechnology.edu.iq
2 Department of Chemical & Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. amir8@ukm.edu.my

*Correspondance authors: 20185@uotechnology.edu.iq ; dr.ahmed1975@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Nanofluids are suspensions of nanoparticles mixed in liquids and show significant enhancement in some thermophysical
and combustion properties of the resulting suspension. In this study, the changes in the performance and emissions
characteristics of a conventional diesel engine are verified experimentally using the combustion of a mixture of nanofluid
(water and Al2O3) and conventional Iraqi diesel fuel. The nano-Al2O3 (51 nm diameter) was used in this study; multiple
weight ratios of this nanoparticle were mixed with water to form a nanoparticle suspension. The weight fractions used were
1, 3, 5, 7, and 10%. After that, a fixed volume ratio of the resulting suspension (10%) was added to the diesel and
completely mixed. The results indicate that the addition of the nano-alumina-water suspension has increased the brake
thermal efficiency up to 5.5%, and reduced the relative fuel consumption up to 3.94%, compared to diesel fuel. In the
analysis of emitted exhaust emissions, CO, HC, NOx, PM and noise emissions, they were found to be lower than diesel fuel,
while CO2 emissions increased.

Keywords: diesel engine, engine emissions, aqueous alumina nano-fluid, Additive, nitrogen oxides, particulate matters.

INTRODUCTION

Compression ignition engines are widely used in automobiles, trains, construction equipment, and marines
because of their efficient and reliable economy [1]. As with any oil derivative, the future of this material has become
dubious because oil reserves are falling faster than expected due to high population growth and the need for greater energy
use [2]. Many threats, such as global warming, ozone hole, and climate change, have prompted many governments to issue
strict regulations on pollutants emitted from these engines, creating an urgent need for renewable fuel [3].
The concept of using diesel-water emulsion has become the focus of researchers in recent years. The use of such
emulsions in compression ignition engines drives to improve engine performance, reduce emissions, and reduce fuel
consumption [4]. Several improvements have been reported in the use of fuel emulsions, such as reduced fuel consumption,
improved combustion to be more complete and significantly reduced exhaust emissions [5 & 6]. The use of a water-diesel
emulsion is also an effective way to reduce nitrogen oxides, and particulate matters (PM) emissions as explained in
References [7 and 8]. Nanoparticles (at least one of their main dimensions smaller than 100 nanometers) are mixed with
liquids to form a nanofluid. Nanofluids have been shown to have enhanced thermophysical properties as thermal
conductivity, thermal diffusion, viscosity, and convective heat transfer coefficient compared with base fluids such as oil or
water [9 and 10]. References [11 & 12] clarified that the thermal conductivity of a nanofluid is increasing with the increase
of volumetric fraction of nanoparticles in the suspension.
Metals such as aluminum (Al) and oxides such as alumina (Al2O3) are characterized by high combustion cards
and have always been used as additives in warm fuel and explosives [13]. The production, monitoring and characterization
of nanomaterials of multiple sizes have been made possible by recent advances in nano-science and technology.
Nanomaterials have shown enormous advantages over micron sizes materials. The high surface area of metallic
nanoparticles causes short bursts of ignition, which reduces the combustion time and results in a more complete combustion
than the use of micro-particles [14 and 15]. Adding nanomaterials to fuel to enhance its combustion is an interesting
concept. The high energy density of metals, especially aluminum, enhances the production of energy in engines and thus
reduces the consumption of liquid fuels, and reduces emissions such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Adding
nanomaterials to fuel shortens ignition delay period and improves fuel oxidation by catalytic effect. However, studies on
ignition behavior and combustion of liquid fuels with nanoparticles are still rare to date [16 and 17].
Tyagi et al. [18] studied the ignition properties of diesel fuel using a hot plate; also, they studied the implications
of adding small amounts of aluminum and aluminum oxide particles. The results manifested that the ignition potential of
fuel mixtures containing nanoparticles was much higher than that of pure diesel. The study showed that the adding n-Al to

1
diesel fuel increased the fuel consumption in comparison to diesel fuel alone. With aluminum volume fractions of 0, 0.1,
and 0.5%, hot plate drops were having a much higher ignition potential regardless of nano-aluminum particles size or shape.
References [19 & 20] have conducted experimental investigations with aluminum hydroxide and graphene
sheets in nitro-methane (NM) monopropellant. These studies indicated higher burning rates (×1.75 for graphene sheets).
Ref. [21] used nano-aluminum (n-Al) with gelling agent as additives in NM; which resulted in increasing the burning rates
and reducing the fuel consumption. The nano particles in the suspended fuel have the ability to ignite optically, which result
in a distributed ignition inside the combustion chamber [22]. This paper is focused on evaluating the effect of adding
aqueous alumina nano-fluid additive on multi-cylinder compression ignition engine performance and emissions like CO2,
CO, NOx, unburned hydrocarbons, particulate matter (PM) and noise emissions. The results were compared with that of
applying conventional Iraqi diesel fuels without additive.
The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the improvement in combustion and a better understanding of
n-Al2O3 oxidation in a heterogeneous multivariate system.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

1- Equipment
The experimental engine under study works is direct injection (DI), water cooled, with four-cylinder, in line,
natural aspirated diesel Type FIAT. The main specifications of which are listed in Table 1. The engine is coupled to a
hydraulic dynamometer that subjected load on the engine by increasing torque.
Nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons, CO2, and CO concentrations were measured using the Multigas 4880
emission analyzer. The gases from the exhaust pipe interred the analyzer from a probe, where they are first separated from
any accompanied moisture using condensate capacitors, and then they transfer to the measuring cells. A beam of infrared
ray (created by the transmitter) is sent through optical filters on the measured elements. Gases (which are contained in a
measuring cell) absorb different wavelengths of the light beam according to their concentration. Hydrogen, N 2 and O2
gasses do not absorb the emitted rays due to their molecular composition (as they have the same number of atoms).
Therefore, the concentrations of these gases are not measured by infrared rays. Carbon dioxide, CO, and HC,
because of their molecular composition, absorb infrared radiation at specific wavelengths (absorption spectra). The analysis
device contains a chemical sensor type to measure the oxygen levels. The sound pressure was measured using a precision
sound level meter supplied with a microphone type 4615 Italy made, and measures the overall sound pressure level in
disciple units (dP). The device has been calibrated using a standard Pisto phone 4220 calibrator. Many specialized devices
can be used measure the variable PM concentrations using several categories that depends on the use of the properties
related to the size of particles, such as the viability of electric mobility, molecule diameter, the effect of inertial force and
mass, and the block spectrum. In this study AEROCET (USA made) was used to measure the total suspended particles
(TSP). This device was calibrated and has an uncertainty of 0.2% and measures the particulate matters sizes from 5 to 250
µg/m3.

2- Analysis
The following equations were used in calculating engine performance parameters:
Brake power (kW):

Brake mean effective pressure (kN/m2):

Fuel mass flow rate (kg/sec):

Air mass flow rate (kg/sec):

√
̇

2
 ̇

Brake specific fuel consumpotion (kg/kW.hr):

6-Total fuel heat (kW):

Brake thermal efficiency (%):

3- Fuel preparation and characterization

The use of nanoparticles in fuel mixtures simply needs to disperse particles into liquids and prevent their bonding and then
deposition in the tank or tubes. To obtain a symmetrical distribution and dispersion of these molecules, special treatment is
needed to reach a homogeneous and stable suspension for a long period of time, so that the level of particle mass with time
is low. The addition of surfactants can reduce the pooling of nanoparticles and their accumulation in nanoparticles as
demonstrated by many studies [4, 34]. In the current study, nano-aqueous alumina with an average size of 50 nm of Al2O3
nanoparticles was used as delivered by the manufacturer (M / s. Alpha Isar-USA). Table 3 lists the detailed specifications of
the used material.
The nano-soluble diesel emulsion is prepared by adding distilled water containing nanoparticle and mixed with diesel by
using ultra sonic shaker type (TELSONIC ULTRASONICS CT-I2) for at least one hour to ensure the complete mixing of
water with diesel fuel. The aqueous nano-diesel mixture is kept in a graduated glass tester and monitored daily to determine
the stability of the emulsion and the possible duration of its use. In this study, high vibration mixing was used as an
alternative to the use of any surfactant. Because the Iraqi diesel has a cetane number somewhat low and the addition of
water lower it more, so cetane number improver type 2-ethylhexyl nitrate (also known as iso-octyl nitrate) has been added
to equalize the resulted emulsion cetane number with the base diesel used.

4- Experimental procedure
Experiments always start by heating the engine until cooling water and lubricating oil reach approximately 80°C.
Tests were done to evaluate engine performance and emissions utilizing different engine variables strategies as well as
adding aqueous aluminum nano-fluid additive to diesel fuel effect on these strategies. The first experiments were performed
on diesel engine alone to provide basic data for comparison. Then, 1%, 3%, 5%, 7% and 10% of aqueous aluminum
nanofluid-diesel fuel blends were also tested.
In the first set of experiments, the engine was operated at 1500 rpm and the design injection timing of 38°BTDC.
The load on the engine was changed from no-load to full-load for all tested emulsions. In the second set of tests, the engine
speed was changed between 1250 and 2500 rpm at intervals of 250 rpm with the subjected load on the engine at a fixed
medium load of (44 kN / m2) and the fuel injection angle was fixed at 38º BTDC during these tests.
The use of any emulsion will leave traces within the fuel system, which affects the output of the engine when
using other emulsions with a different aqueous aluminum concentration. To prevent this from happening, before each test
for a new emulsifier, the fuel tank is discharged and the fuel lines were cleaned. Also, the engine was allowed to work for
15 minutes to clean the fuel system completely from the effects of the previous fuel. After the engine worked long enough
to reach its stability conditions, the data were collected for the engine performance and exhaust emissions. Each test was
repeated 3 times to achieve the iterative and repeatability and their averages were taken. The accuracy of measured
parameters is shown in Table 2.

5- Error analysis
Certainly all measurements have a certain degree of uncertainty coming due to a variety of factors. The uncertainty
assessment process associated with the measurement result is often measured using calibration analysis or can be called the
error analysis. The measured uncertainty value includes an evaluation of the confidence degree associated with the used
device. The experimental accuracies of the measuring devices that were used in present study are shown in table 2.
The uncertainty in the results is calculated by the equation [23]:
3
 [( ) ( ) ( ) ]

where:
: Uncertainty in the results
R : a given function of the independent variables V1, V2, …, Vn or R=R(V1, V2, …, Vn).
ei : uncertainty interval in the nth variable.
The partial derivative is a measure of the sensitvity of the result to a single variable.
The uncertainty for present tests was:

[( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ]

RESULTS and DICUSSIONS

Engine load effect

Fig. 1a represents the effect of engine load on bsfc at constant engine speed (1500 rpm). Fuel consumption reduced
with increasing aqueous nano-alumina volumetric fraction in the blend. The reductions were limited with low percentages
(1, 3 & 5%) added. The reduction was 1.6%, 2.8% and 4.4% for 1%, 3% and 5% N-Al2O3 addition respectively compared
with neat diesel. While for 7% and 10% addition the reductions were 7.56% and 10.94% respectively. The reductions
achieved with high N-Al2O3 fraction addition similar to what have been reported by other researchers [8, 19 and 24]. The
brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) reduction can be referred to the reduction of the ignition delay time because of
hydrogen enrichment inside combustion chamber, which lead to more complete combustion (as Ref’s [16, 24 & 25]
indicate). These results are in agreement with similar experiments done.
Also, brake thermal efficiency increased due to this addition, as Fig 1b clarifies. The increments in brake thermal
efficiency were 0.005%, 1%, 2.18%, 3.67% and 5.51% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% N-Al addition. References [26 & 27] claimed
that nano-alumina has the ability to interact with water at high temperatures producing hydrogen, which in turn promotes
fuel combustion. As the nanometer sized alumina has a larger surface area and higher activity to activate the process of
water decomposition and production of hydrogen and oxygen that enhances the combustion process. In the other hand,
adding low volume fractions of aqueous N-Al2O3 didn’t enhance the engine bsfc nor the brake thermal efficiency
satisfactorily. Brake thermal efficiency enhancement means better usage of heat generated inside combustion chamber; this
can be confirmed by studying the effect of adding N-Al2O3 to diesel fuel on exhaust gas temperatures, as Fig. 1c illustrates.
Increasing aqueous N-Alumina volume fraction reduced exhaust gas temperatures. The reductions were 2.9%, 14.4%,
14.63, 20% and 30% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% of N-Al2O3 emulsion blends respectively compared to diesel.
Fig. 1d demonstrates the variation in CO2 concentrations due to aqueous N-Alumina addition. The increments in
CO2 concentrations were 0%, 9.8%, 20.59, 25.19% and 26% for 1, 3, 5, 7 & 10% respectively. These results conflict with
Ref. [28] results, which assured that CO2 concentration reduced with adding N-Alumina. The present results reveal clearly
that there are increments in CO2 concentration accompanied with N-Al2O3 addition especially at high volume fraction.
May be the reductions in CO and HC concentrations (as will be discussed subsequently) due to combustion improvements
caused these increments.
CO concentrations reduced with aqueous N-Alumina addition in the opposite of Ref. [8] remarks, as appears from
Fig. 1e Nano-alumina fluid-diesel emulsion burning in the combustion chamber produced higher energy as mentioned by
References [19 & 29]. This generated energy breaks the O-H bond in the water molecules in the emulsion. The creation of
(OH-) radicals allowed the denuded nano-alumina to react with it. In the same time, (OH-) existence in water improves
hydrogen generation and promotes the combustion process. Aqueous N-Al2O3 additions influence HC concentration highly
as Fig. 1f represents. The decrements in these concentrations were 7.6%, 8.17%, 15.12%, 19.74% and 27.94% for 1, 3, 5, 7
and 10% aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction-diesel blends compared to neat diesel.
NOx concentrations decrease with aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction increase, as Fig. 1g illustrates, Water-
diesel emulsion was reported by Ref. [4] as a good treatment for engine NOx reduction. In this study NOx reduction
percentages were 0.005%, 12.77%, 14.74%, 34.87% and 41.3% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% of aqueous N-Al2O3-diesel blends
compared to neat diesel. This result is compatible with similar experiments conducted by Ref. [26] using aqueous nano
alumina and Ref. [15] using nano- cerium oxide. Nitrogen oxides formation depend on the concentration of oxygen, the
time needed for formation, and the temperature, according to Zeldovich's mechanism. This reduction in NOx levels can be
referred to several factors, including: water high evaporation temperature that is absorbed from the combustion temperature,

4
the high thermal capacity of water, and the presence of nanoparticles. These combined parameters reduce the maximum
temperature in the combustion chamber and as a result reduces the nitrogen oxides emitted.
There are significant reductions of PM concentrations with adding aqueous N-Al2O3 to neat diesel fuel, as Fig
1h shows. The reductions were 0.0047%, 6.47%, 11.05%, 25.29% and 37.64% for aqueous N-Alumina fractions of 1, 3, 5, 7
and 10% respectively. This reduction could be due to the micro-explosion presence by water vapor in the combustion
chamber; and there is an enhancing of OH radicals during the combustion inside combustion chamber which agreed with
Ref’s [30, 31, 32].
Fig. 1i indicates the aqueous N-Al2O3 addition to diesel fuel effect on engine noise. Adding N-Al2O3 increases
engine noise by 0.0054%, 0.0062%, 1.19%, 1.46% and 2.19% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% of N-Alumina-diesel fuel blends. The
results show that the engine noise increments were limited. These increments were due to power increase accompanied with
N-Al2O3 addition.

Engine speed effect

Brake power increases with increasing engine speed, and it increases also with increasing aqueous N-Alumina
volume fraction in the blend, as Fig. 2a deduces. The bp increments were 1.03%, 2.1%, 4.11%, 5.02% and 6.65% for 1, 3, 5,
7 and 10% aqueous N-Al2O3 addition compared to neat diesel. The figure shows that adding N-Alumina in low percentage
didn’t improve resulted bp, while at 7% and 10% addition the bp was ameliorated. This bp improvement reflects on
reducing bsfc as Fig. 2b represents. It was reduced by 1.03%, 2.67%, 5.16%, 7.77% and 14.99% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10%
aqueous N-Alumina addition compared to diesel fuel. Exhaust gas temperatures increased with increasing engine speed, but
it reduced with increasing aqueous N-Al volume fraction in the blends, as Fig. 2c reveals. The reduction in exhaust gas
temperatures for studied blends of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% of aqueous N-Al2O3 and diesel were 0.03%, o.329%, 6.06%, 9.35%
and 13.23% respectively compared to neat diesel.
CO2 concentrations increased with increasing engine speed, and it increased with increasing aqueous N-Alumina
volume fractions in blends, as Fig. 2d represents. The increments were 1.7%, 4.39%, 6.75%, 9.35% and 10.69% for 1, 3, 5,
7 and 10% aqueous N-Al2O3 addition compared to neat diesel. These increments are due to combustion improvements with
aqueous N-Alumina addition, which reduced CO and HC concentration (as will be seen subsequently). CO concentrations
reduced due to combustion enhancement, as Fig. 2e illustrates. These decrements were 5.67%, 11%, 13.22%, 13.78% and
14.49% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction with diesel.
Carbon monoxide levels depend mainly on the air-to-fuel ratio; and as CI engines operate at lean mixtures, the CO
concentrations as a result would be low. Aqueous N-Alumina emulsion has affected fuel propagation by increasing
hydrogen which results in more complete and fast combustion. Also, HC concentration reduced, as Fig. 2f shows. The
reductions were 3.61%, 7.4%, 11.05%, 17.57% and 26.78% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% aqueous N-Alumina blends compared to
neat diesel fuel.
The high heat of combustion and the availability of excess oxygen due to engine operation at lean equivalence
ratios cause the formation of NOx emissions in diesel engines. Aqueous N-Al2O3 addition affects NOx apparently as Fig.
2g indicates. The decrements were 1.8%, 3.94%, 5.85%, 8.96% and 13.44% for 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% aqueous N-Alumina
blends compared to neat diesel fuel. Ref. [10] concluded that the presence of aqueous N-Al2O3 with diesel raises the level
of moisture that causes small explosions in the emulsified fuel. The latent heat of water evaporation absorbs much of the
heat generated, thus reducing the temperature inside the combustion chamber and inhibiting the accumulation of nitrogen
oxide.
PM reduced when engine accelerated from low to medium speeds, then it start to increase with increasing engine
speed from medium to high speeds. However, its concentrations reduced with increasing aqueous N-Alumina volume
fraction in blends, as Fig. 2h represents. The decrements were 5.98%, 14.479%, 21.77%, 33.95% and 52.18% for 1, 3, 5, 7
and 10% aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction with diesel. These results indicate clearly that using aqueous N-Alumina that
generates additional oxygen, which react with carbon atoms and reduces PM formation.
Combustion improvements means increasing heat and pressure generated inside combustion chamber. These
increments appear as increasing in engine noise. Increasing aqueous N-Alumina in blends increases engine noise, as Fig. 2i
represents. These increments were 0.06%, 1.8%, 2.53%, 3.36% and 4% or 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10% aqueous N-Al2O3 volume
fraction with diesel. These results indicates that the increase in noise values were limited especially for low N-Alumina
rating.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the performance and pollutant pollutants of a diesel engine with emulsion fuel were examined by adding nano-
alumina emulsion to diesel. The followings are the conclusions of this investigation:
1. Adding aqueous N-Al2O3 to diesel reduced the specific fuel consumption compared to neat diesel for all subjected
loads when the engine was run at fixed speed. Besides, the engine brake thermal efficiency for the studied
emulsion was higher than the conventional diesel for all the studied loads.
5
 2. The use of aqueous N-Alumina-diesel emulsion reduced the carbon monoxide and HC levels in the exhaust gas
compared to neat diesel. Also, NOx and PM concentrations were lower at the same conditions. The addition of
aqueous N-Al2O3 to neat diesel increased engine noise, at variable loads and constant speed.
3. CO2 concentrations increased with adding aqueous N-Alumina to diesel due to reductions in CO and HC
concentrations.
4. Adding aqueous N-Al2O3 to diesel fuel and running the engine at variable speed and constant load indicated
improvements in engine performance as the brake power increased and the brake specific fuel consumption was
decreasing. Also, high reduction in CO, HC and NOx levels was done. Higher CO2 and lower PM concentrations
and engine noise were observed.
5. The results showed that increasing aqueous N-Alumina concentrations will expand its effects.

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7
Table 1, Tested engine specifications
Engine type 4cyl., 4-stroke in line
Engine model TD 313 Diesel engine rig
Combustion type DI, water cooled, natural aspirated
Displacement 3.666 L
Valve per cylinder two
Bore 100 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Compression ratio 17
Fuel injection pump Unit pump, 26 mm diameter plunger
Fuel injection nozzle Hole nozzle
10 nozzle holes
Nozzle hole dia. (0.48mm)
Spray angle= 160o
Nozzle opening pressure=40 Mpa

Table 2, Experimental Accuracies

Measurements Accuracies in this study
Thermocouples ± 1.2 %
Engine speed tachometer ± 1.7%
Diesel fuel flow meter ± 0.46 %
Air flow meter ± 1.1 %
Sound pressure level ± 0.76%
dynamometer ± 0.9%
NOx analyzer ± 0.7%
HC analyzer ± 0.15%
CO analyzer ± 0.17%
CO2 analyzer ± 0.13%
PM analyzer ± 0.9%

Table 3, the specification of the used nano-alumina

Item Nano-Al2O3 specifications

Manufacturer M / s. Alpha Isar-USA
Appearance White powder
Assay 99.99%
PH value 7.5
Crystal and Type a
Grain size nm 30-60nm
Bulk density % 0.43
Lose on drying ≤ % 0.21
Sulfated assay ≤% 0.42
Fe ≤ ppm ≤0.005%
Si ≤ ppm ≤0.003%
Mg ≤ ppm ≤0.001%

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NOTATIONS

bmep brake mean effective pressure

BTE brake thermal efficiency
CO2 carbon dioxide
CO carbon monoxide
CN cetane number
CR compression ratio
CA crank angle
°BTDC degree before top dead center
dB decibel
DI direct injection
IT Injection timing
LCV Lower calorific value
N engine speed (rpm)
NOx nitrogen oxides
PM particulate matter
UBHC unburnt hydrocarbon
T engine torque
Vsn swept volume

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 Fig. 1a, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction Fig. 1b, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction
addition effect on bsfc for variable loads addition effect on brake thermal efficiency for
variable loads

Fig. 1c, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction Fig. 1d, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction
addition effect on exhaust gas temperature for addition effect on CO2 concentrations for variable
variable loads loads

Fig. 1e, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction Fig. 1f, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition
addition effect on CO concentrations for variable effect on HC concentrations for variable loads
loads

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 Fig. 1g, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition Fig. 1h, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition
effect on NOx concentrations for variable loads effect on PM concentrations for variable loads

Fig. 1i, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on Fig. 2a, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition
engine noise for variable loads effect on brake power for variable engine speeds

Fig. 2b, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition Fig. 2c, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on
effect on bsfc for variable engine speeds exhaust gas temperatures for variable engine speeds

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Fig. 2d, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on Fig. 2e, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on
CO2 concentrations for variable engine speeds CO concentrations for variable engine speeds

Fig. 2f aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on Fig. 2g, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on
HC concentrations for variable engine speeds NOx concentrations for variable engine speeds

Fig. 2h, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on Fig. 2i, aqueous N-Al2O3 volume fraction addition effect on
PM concentrations for variable engine speeds engine noise for variable engine speeds

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