Climatology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.

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Climatology Part II
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1. Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................................. 3

1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone ............................................................... 3
Good Source of Latent Heat ................................................................................................................................... 4
Coriolis Force .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Low-level Disturbances........................................................................................................................................... 5
Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses .......................................................................................................... 5
Wind Shear ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Upper Air Disturbance ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones) ................................................................ 6
Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Mechanism – Mature stage .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................. 9
Regional names for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................... 10
Which sector of the cyclone experiences strongest winds? ................................................................................ 10
1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of Bengal? ................ 10
1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale ............................................................................................................................ 11
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department ............................................................................ 12
1.7 Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones ........................................................................................... 12
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Wind ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Storm surge .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
States Vulnerable to Cyclones .............................................................................................................................. 14
1.8 Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 14
1.9 Naming of Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 14
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................. 15
1.10Warning of Tropical Cyclones................................................................................................................. 15
4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones .............................................................................................. 15

2. Jet streams ......................................................................................................................................... 16

2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams ..................................................................................................................... 16
Geostrophic Wind ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Upper tropospheric westerlies ............................................................................................................................. 17

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 High velocity ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Meandering .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Permanent jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 18
Subtropical jet stream (STJ) .................................................................................................................................. 18
Polar front jet (PFJ) ............................................................................................................................................... 18
2.3 Temporary jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 19
The Somali Jet ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet ................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on Weather..................................................................................................... 19
Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions ................................................................................................. 19
2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation ........................................................................................................................ 20

3. Temperate Cyclones ........................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 Air Masses .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Source regions ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
Conditions for the formation of Air Masses ......................................................................................................... 21
Air masses based on Source Regions.................................................................................................................... 21
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ......................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Fronts ..................................................................................................................................................... 23
Front Formation.................................................................................................................................................... 23
Classification of Fronts ......................................................................................................................................... 23
3.3 Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones .................................................................................. 26
Polar Front Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 26
Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 27
Distribution of Temperate Cyclones ..................................................................................................................... 27
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................ 27

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison .................................................................. 28

5. Polar Vortex ....................................................................................................................................... 30
5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave ......................................................................................................................... 30
How it slips............................................................................................................................................................ 30
5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole .................................................................................. 31
Ozone depletion ................................................................................................................................................... 31

6. El Nino ................................................................................................................................................ 33
6.1 Normal Conditions ................................................................................................................................. 33
Walker circulation (Normal Years) ....................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 During El Nino year................................................................................................................................. 33
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)..................................................................................................................... 34
Effects of El Nino................................................................................................................................................... 34
El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons..................................................................................................................... 35
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India) .................................................................. 35
6.3 El Niño Modoki ....................................................................................................................................... 36
6.4 La Nina .................................................................................................................................................... 36
Effects of La Nina .................................................................................................................................................. 36

7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate ...................................................................................... 37

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 7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates .................................................................................................................. 38
Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ................................................................................... 39
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon).............................................................................. 42
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ..................................................... 46
7.3 B – Dry Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 48
Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)........................................................................ 48
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ........................................................ 49
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high latitude) ........................................ 51
7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates....................................................................................... 55
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ................................................................. 55
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa) .................................................................................................. 57
British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf) ............................................................... 60
7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates ............................................................................................................... 64
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f – no dry season, c – cold summer)......................................................... 64
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc) ................................................................ 67
7.6 E – Cold Climates .................................................................................................................................... 70
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate .............................................................................................. 70
7.7 Questions ............................................................................................................................................... 71
Previous prelims questions................................................................................................................................... 71
Descriptive questions ........................................................................................................................................... 73

✓ a closed low-level atmospheric circula-

1. Tropical Cyclones tion (winds converging from all directions
― cyclonic circulation),
• Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in trop- ✓ strong winds (squalls ― a sudden violent
ical areas in late summers. gust of wind), and
• They are rapidly rotating violent storms charac- ✓ a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms
terised by that produce very heavy rain (torrential
✓ a closed low-pressure centre with steep rainfall).
pressure gradients (category 1 cyclones • The low-pressure at the centre is responsible for
have a barometric pressure of greater than the wind speeds.
980 millibars; category 5 cyclones can have • The closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is
central barometric pressure of less than a result of rapid upward movement of hot
920 millibars), moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force.

1.1 Conditions necessary for the

Formation of a Tropical Cyclone

• Large sea surface with temperature higher

than 27° C.
• Presence of the Coriolis force enough to
create a cyclonic vortex.
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or
Closed Isobars in a Tropical Cyclone low-level-cyclonic circulation.
• Low wind shear.
• Upper-level divergence.

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Good Source of Latent Heat ➔ more air comes in to fill the gap ➔ new moisture
is available for condensation ➔ latent heat of
• Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C and condensation is released. The cycle repeats as long
depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m as there is enough supply of moisture.
deep supply enough moisture, and hence la-
tent heat of condensation, to generate and
drive a tropical storm.
• Thick layer of warm water ensures that the deep
convection currents within the water do not
churn and mix the cooler water below with the
warmer water near the surface.

Why tropical cyclones form mostly on the

western margins of the oceans?

• Because of warm ocean currents (easterly

trade winds drag ocean waters towards west)
that flow from east towards west forming a
thick layer of warm water with temperatures
greater than 27°C.

Why are tropical cyclones very rare on the

eastern margins of the oceans?

• The cold currents lower the surface tempera-

Coriolis Force
tures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans
• The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but
making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic
it increases with latitude.
storms.
• Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough
Exceptional case: During strong El Nino years, to create a storm (cyclonic vortex).
strong hurricanes occur in the eastern Pacific. This is • About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs
due to the accumulation of warm waters in the east- between 10° and 20° latitude.
ern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell. • The cyclonic circulation is anti-clockwise
(counterclockwise) in the northern hemi-
Why do tropical cyclones weaken on land- sphere and clockwise in the southern hemi-
fall? sphere.

• On landfall, the storm is cut-off from adequate Why cyclones occur mostly in late summers?
moisture supply and hence it is deprived of la-
tent heat of condensation. Thus, the storm dis- 1. Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing,
sipates (weakens or dies off) on landfall. the ocean waters in northern hemisphere at-
tain maximum temperatures in August (in
Rising of humid air parcel ➔ ambient pressure on contract continents attain maximum tempera-
the air parcel decreases with altitude ➔ adiabatic tures in June-July).
lapse rate (fall in temperature of air parcel) ➔ 2. Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced
condensation of moisture in air parcel due to low when the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over
temperature ➔ latent heat of condensation is oceans are farthest from the equator (Coriolis
released in the process ➔ air parcel is heated further force increases with distance from the equa-
due to the release of latent heat of condensation and tor).
becomes less denser ➔ air parcel is further uplifted

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Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate • Easterly wave disturbances act as seedling cir-
counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemi- culations (birthplace) for a large number of
sphere? tropical cyclones. However, not all disturbances
develop into cyclones.
• As the earth's rotation sets up an apparent
force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls the
Temperature Contrast Between Air
winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere Masses
(and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere).
• So, when a low-pressure starts to form over • The convergence of air masses of different
north of the equator, the surface winds will flow temperatures results in instability causing low-
inward trying to fill in the low and will be de- level disturbances which are a prerequisite for
flected to the right, and a counter-clockwise the origin and growth of violent tropical storms.
rotation will be initiated. • Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet
• The opposite (a deflection to the left and a along the inter-tropical front (ITCZ). Tempera-
clockwise rotation) will occur south of the equa- ture contrasts between these air masses must
tor. exist when the ITCZ is farthest from the equator
so that the low-level disturbances can intensify
Coriolis force is too tiny to effect rotation in water into a depression (intensifying low-pressure
that is going down the drains of sinks and toilets. cell).
The rotation in those will be determined by the ge-
ometry of the container and the original motion of Wind Shear
the water.
• Wind Shear is the difference between wind
Low-level Disturbances speeds at different altitudes.
• Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uni-
• Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough form.
(an extended region of low-pressure) that
moves from east to west in the form of easterly Why is convective cyclogenesis (tropical
wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Con- cyclogenesis) confined to tropics?
vergence Zone (ITCZ).
• Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone
A disturbance is a persistent group of thunderstorms formation processes are limited to latitude
with heavy rains and strong wind gusts. equatorward of the subtropical jet stream.
Easterly wave disturbances: it is a convective • In the temperate regions, wind shear is high
trough (thermal origin) ― a persistent group of due to westerlies, and this inhibits convective
thunderstorms travelling together in east to west di- cyclogenesis.
rection (westward traveling disturbances) under the
influence of trade winds. Why there are very few Tropical Cyclones
during southwest monsoon season?

Large vertical wind shear

• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the

presence of strong westerly winds (south-west
monsoon winds) in the lower troposphere (be-
low 3 km) and strong easterly winds in the up-
per troposphere (above 9 km). This results in
large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical
wind shear inhibits cyclone development.
Easterly wave disturbances

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Less time for development Upper tropospheric westerly trough assisting convec-
tive cyclogenesis
• The potential zone for the development of cy-
clones shifts to North Bay of Bengal during • As divergence prevails (upper tropospheric di-
southwest monsoon season. vergence) on the eastern side of the troughs, a
• Low-pressure system up to the intensity of de- rising motion occurs at the surface; this leads to
pressions form along the monsoon trough the development of thunderstorms or intensifi-
(along ITCZ), which extends from northwest In- cation of existing storms.
dia to the north Bay of Bengal. • Further, these abandoned troughs (remnants
• The Depression forming over this area crosses of temperate cyclones) usually have cold
Orissa-West Bengal coast in just a day or two as cores, suggesting that the environmental lapse
the bay is narrower to the north. rate is steeper. Such instability encourages
• These systems thus have shorter oceanic stay thunderstorms.
(they make landfall very quickly) and hence • An upper tropospheric westerly trough is im-
cannot intensify beyond the depression stage. portant for tropical cyclone forecasting. This is
because,
Upper Air Disturbance 1. Fast moving upper tropospheric westerly
troughs can create large vertical wind
• An upper tropospheric cyclone usually moves shear over tropical disturbances and tropi-
slowly from east to west and is prevalent in cal cyclones which may inhibit their
summer. strengthening.
• Its circulations generally do not extend below 2. Slow moving upper tropospheric westerly
6000 m in altitude. troughs can drive the tropical cyclones
• The remains of this cyclone (upper tropospher- eastward or north-eastward.
ic westerly trough or tropical upper tropo-
spheric trough) from the westerlies move deep
into the tropical latitude regions.

Troughs may be at the surface, or aloft. They may be

convective (thermal origin ― tropics), or frontal (dy-
namic origin ― temperate regions).

• These troughs can assist tropical cyclogenesis

Upper tropospheric trough can influence the Direc-
and intensification by providing additional
tion of a tropical cyclone
forced ascent.

1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (De-

velopment of Tropical Cyclones)

• Cyclogenesis is the development or strength-

ening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere.
• Cyclogenesis involves any of these three pro-
cesses:
1. Convective cyclogenesis or tropical cy-
clone formation.
2. Frontal cyclogenesis of extratropical
cyclone formation.
3. Mesocyclones forming as warm core
cyclones giving rise to tornadoes and
waterspouts.

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• The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, (lowest surface atmospheric pressure in a
and they develop over tropical seas during late tropical cyclone) at the centre of circulation.
summers (August to mid-November).
• At these locations, under favourable conditions,
multiple thunderstorms (strong local convec-
tional currents) merge and create an intense
low-pressure system (low-level disturbance).

Stages of Cyclone Formation (Credits)

Maximum sustained wind speed

• India Meteorological Department (IMD) uses a 3

minutes averaging for the sustained wind.
• Maximum sustained wind is the highest 3
minutes surface wind occurring within the cir-
culation of the system.

Mechanism – Early stage

• In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it is warm

Multiple thunderstorms
and light. At certain height, due to lapse rate
Tropical depression (maximum sustained wind and adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature of
speed < 63 kmph) air falls, and moisture in the air undergoes con-
densation.
• The intense low-pressure system might acquire • Condensation releases latent heat of conden-
a whirling motion because of the Coriolis force sation making the air warmer. It becomes much
giving rise to a tropical depression. lighter and is further uplifted.
• A tropical depression has sustained winds be- • The space is filled by fresh moisture-laden air.
low 63 kmph. Condensation occurs in this air, and the cycle is
repeated as long as the moisture is supplied.
Tropical storm (63 kmph < maximum sustained • Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thun-
wind speed < 119 kmph) derstorm intensifies and sucks in air at much
faster rate.
• Tropical depression develops into a tropical • The air from surroundings rushes in and under-
storm when the cyclonic circulation becomes goes deflection due to Coriolis force creating a
more organised with maximum sustained winds cyclonic vortex (spiralling air column).
at or above 63 kmph but below 119 kmph. • Due to centripetal acceleration, the air in the
• At this point, the distinctive cyclonic shape vortex is forced to form a region of calmness
starts to develop, although an eye is not usual- called an eye at the centre of the cyclone.
ly present.
Centripetal force pulling towards the centre is
Tropical cyclone (maximum sustained wind countered by an opposing force called centrifugal
speed > 119 kmph) force.

• As the tropical storm intensifies and acquires a • The eye is created due to the tangential force
maximum sustained wind speed of 119 kmph it acting on the high-speed wind that is flowing in
develops into a tropical cyclone. a curvy path (intense low-pressure ➔ greater
• A cyclone of this intensity (119 kmph) tends to wind speeds ➔ greater Coriolis force ➔ greater
develop an eye, an area of relative calm deflection).

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• The diameter of the eye depends on the wind Characteristics of eyewall
speed. Greater the wind speed, larger the eye
region. • The eye is surrounded by an eyewall, the most
violent region of the cyclone.
• It is a roughly circular ring of deep convection
(heaviest rainfall in a cyclone).
• Eyewall region experiences the maximum sus-
tained winds, i.e. fastest winds in a cyclone.

Mechanism – Mature stage

In a cyclonic vortex, the intense low-pressure acts as

the string that holds the vortex in place

• All the wind that is carried upwards loses its

moisture and becomes cold and dense.
• It descends to the surface through the cylindri-
cal eye region and at the edges of the cyclone.
• If the storm doesn’t make landfall and if the A tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere (anti-
ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will clockwise circulation) (Kelvinsong, Wikipedia)
reach a mature stage. Tropical cyclones have symmetrical elliptical shapes.
They have a compact size can span in the range of
300 km to 1500 km.

Characteristics of the eye

A tropical cyclone in the southern hemisphere
• The eye is a roughly circular area of compara- (clockwise circulation)
tively light winds and fair weather.
• There is little or no precipitation, and some- • At this stage, the spiralling winds create multi-
times blue sky or stars can be seen. ple convective cells called rain bands with
• Along the eye, the air is slowly sinking and is successive calm and violent regions.
heated due to compressional warming (adia- • Cloud formation is dense at the centre. The
batic). cloud size decreases from centre to periphery.
• The eye temperature may be 10°C warmer or
more at an altitude of 12 km than the surround- Central Dense Overcast (CDO)
ing environment, but only 0-2°C warmer at the
surface in the tropical cyclone. • CDO is the cirrus cloud shield (mostly made up
• Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200 km of hexagonal ice crystals) that results from the
across, but most are approximately 30-60 km in thunderstorms in the eyewall of a tropical cy-
diameter. clone and its rainbands.

8
• Before the tropical cyclone reaches very severe The breeding grounds for tropical cyclones coincide
cyclonic storm (119 kmph), typically the CDO is with tropical regions with warm ocean currents.
uniformly showing the cold cloud tops of the
cirrus with no eye apparent. • Western Pacific (highest number of tropical
• The dry air flowing along the central dense cyclones): Philippines islands, eastern China
overcast descends at the periphery and the eye and Japan where they are called typhoons.
region. • Western Atlantic (South-east Caribbean region)
and Eastern Pacific where they are called
Rain bands (Spiral bands) hurricanes.
• Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea where they are
• Convection in tropical cyclones is organized in- called cyclones.
to long, narrow rain bands which are oriented in • Around south-east African coast and
the same direction as the horizontal wind. Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
• A direct circulation develops in which warm, • North-west Australia.
moist air converges at the surface, ascends
through these bands, diverges aloft, and de-
scends on both sides of the bands.
• Because these bands seem to spiral into the
centre of a tropical cyclone, they are called spi-
ral bands.
• Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulo-
nimbus clouds (highest rainfall).
• The ones at the periphery are made up of nim-
bostratus (prolonged rainfall) and cumulus
clouds (least).

Vertical Structure of a Tropical Cyclone

Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones
There are three divisions in the vertical structure of
tropical cyclones. Regional names for Tropical Cyclones
• The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km and Regions What they are
known as the inflow layer, is responsible for called
driving the storm. Indian Ocean Cyclones
• The middle layer, extending from 3 km to 7 km, Atlantic Hurricanes
is where the main cyclonic storm takes place.
Western Pacific and South Typhoons
• The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The maxi-
China Sea
mum outflow is found at 12 km and above. The
Western Australia Willy-willies
movement of air is anticyclonic in nature.
Regional names for various categories
1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical
Cyclones
Category Australian name US NW Pacific Arabian Sea /Bay of Bengal
― Tropical low Tropical depression Tropical depression Depression or severe depression
1 Tropical cyclone Tropical storm Tropical storm Cyclonic storm
2 Tropical cyclone Tropical storm Severe tropical storm Severe cyclonic storm
3 Severe tropical cyclone Hurricane Typhoon Very severe cyclonic storm
4 Severe tropical cyclone Hurricane Typhoon Very severe cyclonic storm
5 Severe tropical cyclone Hurricane Typhoon Super cyclonic storm

9
1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones Which sector of the cyclone experiences
strongest winds?
• Tropical cyclones generally follow a parabolic
path with the parabolic axis being parallel to • Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is more in
the isobars. right side of the storm (in most of the cases it is
• Coriolis force, easterly and westerly winds, and the poleward margin of the storm) than at cen-
upper tropospheric westerly trough influence tre and is moreover oceans than over land-
the path of tropical cyclones. masses.
• In the northern hemisphere, tropical cyclones • The "right side of the storm" is defined with re-
start with a westward movement as the zone spect to the storm's motion: if the cyclone is
of formation is under the influence of easterlies moving to the west, the right side would be to
(trade winds). The average speed is 15-20 the north of the storm; if the cyclone is moving
kmph (360-480 km per day). to the north, the right side would be to the east
• They then turn northwards around 20° latitude of the storm, etc.
because of the Coriolis force that deflects the • The strongest wind on the right side of the
path of the storm to its right. Their speed de- storm is mainly due to the fact that the motion
creases to 10 kmph or even less. of the cyclone also contributes to its swirling
• They turn further north-eastwards at around 25° winds.
latitude (Coriolis force deflects it further). • A cyclone with a 145 kmph winds while station-
• They then turn eastwards around 30° latitude ary would have winds up to 160 kmph on the
(because of westerly winds). right side and only 130 kmph on the left side if
• The westward movement is the fastest and it began moving (any direction) at 16 kmph.
they attain speeds of 25 kmph or more.
• They then lose energy and subside beyond 30° 1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones
latitude because of cool ocean waters and in- form over the Arabian Sea as com-
creasing wind shear due to westerlies.
• In some instances, a tropical cyclone may avoid pared to the Bay of Bengal?
the general path and continue with its westward
movement. • The average annual frequency of tropical cy-
• Sometimes tropical cyclones are stalled near the clones in the north Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal
coastline, dropping unprecedented amounts of and Arabian Sea) is about 5 (about 5-6 % of
rainfall. the global annual average), and about 80 cy-
• This could happen due to weak prevailing winds clones form around the globe in a year. (Most
linked to a greatly expanded subtropical high- of them occur in Western Pacific and West-
pressure system and northward migration of ern Atlantic)
westerlies. • The frequency is more in the Bay of Bengal than
in the Arabian Sea, the ratio being 4:1.

More low-level disturbances in Bay of Ben-

gal

• Cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal are

either those that develop in-situ over southeast
Bay of Bengal or remnants of typhoons over
Northwest Pacific that move across south China
sea to Indian Seas.
• As the frequency of typhoons over Northwest
Pacific is quite high (about 35% of the global

10
 annual average), the Bay of Bengal also gets its amples: Swinging Cricket Ball; Lift achieved by aero-
increased quota. plane wings.
• The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either origi- 2. Changing the temperature of water:
nate in-situ over southeast Arabian Sea or rem- when temperature of water is increased, the
nants of cyclones from the Bay of Bengal that water molecules attain higher kinetic ener-
move across south peninsula. gy and hence the vapour pressure of water
• As the majority of Cyclones over the Bay of increases. This increases evapouration.
Bengal weaken over land after landfall, the fre- 3. Changing salinity: Increased salinity re-
quency of migration into Arabian Sea is low. duces the kinetic energy of the water mole-
cules. This decreases evapouration.
The surface temperature of Bay of Bengal is
higher

• Surface temperature in the Bay of Bengal is

usually between 22 °C and 31 °C. It is cooler by
1-2 °C in the Arabian Sea because of the mon-
soon winds.
Vapour Pressure and Rate of Evapouration (Credits)
Arabian Sea surface has higher salinity
Higher stratification in Bay of Bengal
• Salinity near the surface in the northern Bay of
Bengal can be as low as 31 ppt because the bay • If all the freshwater that the bay receives during
receives lots of freshwater from the Ganga, a year is accumulated and spread uniformly
Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Godavari, and others. over its entire surface, it would form a layer over
• Salinity near the surface in the Arabian Sea is a metre thick.
much higher than in the Bay of Bengal because • Freshwater is less dense compared to saline wa-
evapouration over the Arabian Sea is much ter. Hence vertical mixing is inhibited in Bay
greater than precipitation and river runoff (it of Bengal.
loses more freshwater than it receives). • On the other hand, high evapouration and low
inflow of fresh water increases salinity (water
becomes denser) at the surface in the Arabian
Vapour pressure of water and rate of
Sea, and this increases vertical mixing.
evapouration
Monsoon winds drive away moisture
• The rate of evapouration is controlled by
vapour pressure of water. • Though the monsoon winds increase evapoura-
• Just like air molecules exert pressure on water, tion in the Arabian Sea, the moisture is con-
water molecules exert a counter-pressure on stantly driven away by the winds towards India.
the air molecules. This counter pressure is called
as vapour pressure of water. 1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale
• Higher the vapour pressure of water, higher
is the rate of evapouration and vice versa. Cyclone Cate- Wind Speed in Damage Ca-
• The vapour pressure of water can be modified gory Kmph pacity
by: 01 120-150 Minimal
1. Changing the air pressure: higher wind 02 150-180 Moderate
speeds decreases air pressure and hence 03 180-210 Extensive
increase evapouration. 04 210-250 Extreme
Bernoulli's principle: Within a horizontal flow of
05 250+ Catastrophic
fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less pres-
Values rebounded off to make it easy to remember
sure than points of slower fluid speed. Practical ex-

11
 Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale

Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department

S. No. Intensity Strength of wind Wave height (m)

1. Depression (L) 31- 49 kmph (17-27 knots) 1-4
2. Deep Depression (DD) 50 - 61 kmph (28-33 knots) 4-6
3. Cyclonic Storm (CS) 62 - 87 kmph (34-47 knots) 6-9
4. Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) 88-117 kmph (48-63 knots) 9-14
5. Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS) 118-166 kmph (64-89 knots) 14+
6. Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm (ESCS) 167-221 kmph (90-119 knots) 14+
7. Super Cyclonic Storm (SuCS) 222+ kmph (120+ knots) 14+
Source
1.7 Damage associated with Trop-
• The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical ical Cyclones
mile (1.852 km) per hour.
• A vessel travelling at 1 knot along a meridian • The dangers associated with cyclonic storms are
travels approximately one minute of geographic generally three fold.
latitude in one hour. 1. Floods
2. Winds
1 international knot = 1 nautical mile per hour =
3. Storm Surge
1.852 kilometres per hour = 0.514 metres per sec-
ond

Intensity Damage expected Measures to be taken

Depression • Minor damage to unsecured structures • Fishermen advised not to
Deep Depression venture into the open seas.
Cyclone • Damage to thatched huts. • Total suspension of fishing
• Breaking of tree branches. operations
• Minor damage to power and communication lines.
Severe Cyclone • Extensive damage to thatched huts. • Coastal hutment dwellers to
• Flooding of escape routes. be moved to safer places.
Very Severe Cyclone • Extensive damage to kutcha houses. • Mobilise evacuation from
• Minor disruption of rail and road traffic. coastal areas.
• Potential threat from flying debris.

12
Extremely Severe Cyclone • Extensive damage to kutcha houses. • Extensive evacuation from
• Large-scale disruption of power and coastal areas.
communication lines. • Diversion or suspension of
• Disruption of rail and road traffic due to extensive rail and road traffic.
flooding.
Super Cyclone • Extensive structural damage to residential and in- • Large-scale evacuation of
dustrial buildings. coastal population.
• Total disruption of communication and power • Total suspension of rail and
supply. road traffic.
• Extensive damage to bridges causing large-scale
disruption of rail and road traffic.
• Large- scale flooding and inundation of sea water.
Floods • Storm Surge (tidal wave ― long wavelength) is
an abnormal rise of sea level as the cyclone
• Precipitation of about 50 cm/day is quite com- makes landfall.
mon within a cyclonic storm. • The rise of sea level occurs due to the conver-
• Record rainfall in a cyclonic storm has been as gence of winds at great speeds that drag water
low as trace to as high as 250 cms. and cause accumulation of high water column
• The intensity of rainfall is about 85 cms/day just below the centre of the cyclone.
within a radius of 50 km and about 35 cms/day
between 50 to 100 km from the centre of the
storm.

Wind

• The strong wind speed associated with a cy-

clonic storm (60-90 kmph) can result into some
damage to kutcha houses and tree branches Storm surge
likely to break off.
• Winds of a severe Cyclonic storm (90-120 • The destructive power of the storm surge de-
kmph) can cause uprooting of trees, damage to pends on intensity of the cyclone and coastal
pucca houses and disruption of communica- bathymetry (shallower coastlines face surges of
tions. greater heights).
• The wind associated with a very severe Cyclonic • Seawater inundates the coastal strip causing
storm and super cyclonic storm can uproot big loss of life, large scale destruction to property &
trees, cause widespread damages to house and crop.
installations and total disruption of communica- • Increased salinity in the soil makes the land un-
tions. fit for agricultural use for two or three seasons.
• The maximum wind speed associated with a
What is storm tide?
very severe Cyclonic storm that hit Indian coast
in the past 100 years was 260 kmph in Oct • The storm tide is the combination of storm
1999 (Paradeep Super cyclone). surge and the astronomical tide.
• Storm surge is accentuated if the landfall time
Storm surge coincides with that of high tides.

Cyclone Strength Region affected Damage

1970 Bhola cyclone Extremely Severe Cyclone West Bengal and • Deadliest tropical cyclone
Bangladesh • 5,00,000+ fatalities

1999 Odisha Cyclone Super Cyclone Odisha • Strongest recorded tropical cy-

13
(Paradeep Super cyclone) Maximum sustained clone in the North Indian Ocean
wind speed of 260 kmph • 30,000+ fatalities
2008 Nargis Cyclone Extremely Severe Cyclone Irrawaddy delta • 1,00,000+ fatalities
(Myanmar) • Costliest cyclone in the region
High number of fatalities in all these cyclones was due to storm surge. The delta regions are always at higher risk because
of low gradient.
States Vulnerable to Cyclones Tropical cyclones bring rainfall to rain shadow
and other parched regions

• Rainshadow regions of Western Ghats ad semi-

arid regions in south India (Telangana,
Rayalaseema, Hyderabad-Karnataka, Vidarbha)
sometimes receive copious rain during the cy-
clone season.

Break up Red Tide

• Red tide is a phenomenon which involves dis-

colouration of coastal waters caused by algal
blooms.
• The algal bloom deplete oxygen in the waters
Most number of severe cyclonic storms strike Andhra and release harmful toxins.
Pradesh. • As tropical cyclones move across the ocean,
winds and waves mix and break up patches of
bacteria and can bring an earlier end to the red
tide.

Replenish Barrier Islands

• Tropical cyclones have the power to pick up

substantial amounts of sand, nutrients and sed-
iment on the ocean’s bottom and bring it to-
wards barrier islands.
• Storm surge, wind and waves will often move
these islands closer to the mainland as sand is
pushed or pulled in that direction.

Speed dispersal to faraway locations

• Tropical cyclone wind blow spores and seeds

further inland from where they would normally
fall; this effect can be seen a thousand miles in-
land as storms move away from the shoreline.
• These seeds can replenish lost growth after fires
and urbanisation.
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are at greater risk of
receiving strong cyclones 1.9 Naming of Cyclones

1.8 Positive effects of Tropical

Cyclones
14
Mains 2013: The recent cyclone on east coast of Names contributed by countries in the Northern In-
India was called ‘Phailin’. How are the tropical dian Ocean Region
cyclones named across the world? Elaborate.
1.10 Warning of Tropical Cyclones
• WMO (World meteorological organisation) di-
vided the world Oceans into Basins and as- • Detection of any unusual phenomena in the
signed the responsibility of naming the Cy- weather leading to cyclones has three main pa-
clones to the respective regional bodies. rameters: fall in pressure, increase in wind ve-
• Each regional body has its own rules in naming locity, and the direction and movement
cyclones. (track) of storm.
• In most regions, pre-determined alphabetic lists • Monitoring is also done by aircraft which carry a
of alternating male and female names are used. number of instruments including a weather ra-
Why name them? dar.
• Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done
• Since the storms can often last a week or even through very high-resolution radiometers to
longer and more than one cyclone can be oc- obtain an image of the cloud cover and its
curring in the same region at the same time, structure.
names can reduce the confusion about what • Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone right
storm is being described. from its genesis in the high seas and follow its
• Naming them after a person/flower/animal etc. course, giving a warning at least 48 hours
makes it easier for quick information exchange. before a cyclone strike.
• However, the predictions of a storm course
Northern Indian Ocean Region made only 12 hours in advance do not have a
very high rate of precision.
• The names of cyclones in Indian Seas are not
allocated in alphabetical order but are arranged 4-stage IMD warning system for tropical
by the name of the country which contributed cyclones
the name.
• It is usual practice for a storm to be named IMD and Cyclone Disaster Management
when it reaches tropical storm strength (63
kmph). • 1999, IMD introduced a 4-Stage warning system
• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) to issue cyclone warnings to the disaster man-
which issues cyclone advisories to eight coun- agers.
tries has a list of names contributed by each of
them.
Pre-Cyclone Watch
• Every time a cyclone occurs, a name is picked in
• Issued when a depression forms over the Bay of
the order of the names that are already submit-
Bengal irrespective of its distance from the
ted.
coast.
• Each country gets a chance to name a cyclone.
• The pre-cyclone watch is issued at least 72
After all the countries get their turn, the next list
hours in advance of the commencement of ad-
of names is followed.
verse weather.
• It is issued at least once a day.

Cyclone Alert (Colour code Yellow)

• Issued at least 48 hours before the commence-

ment of the bad weather when the cyclone is
located beyond 500 Km from the coast.

15
• It is issued every three hours. • When isobars are straight, and when there is no
friction, the pressure gradient force is
Cyclone Warning (Colour code Orange) balanced by the Coriolis force, and the re-
sultant wind blows parallel to the isobar (de-
• Issued at least 24 hours before the commence- flection of the wind is maximum).
ment of the bad weather when the cyclone is • This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
located within 500 Km from the coast. Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind.
• Information about time/place of landfall are
indicated in the bulletin.
• Accuracy in estimation increases as the cyclone
comes closer to the coast

Post-landfall outlook (Colour code Red)

• It is issued 12 hours before the cyclone landfall

when the cyclone is located within 200 km from
the coast.
Geostrophic wind vector parallel to the isobars
• More accurate information about time/place of
landfall and associated bad weather are Why don’t winds flow from tropical high-
indicated in the bulletin.
pressure (in upper troposphere) to polar low
(in upper troposphere) directly as shown in
2. Jet streams figure below?

Jet streams are

✓ Circumpolar (circle around the earth with

poles as their centres),
✓ narrow, concentrated bands of (the air in
the stream is directed towards the axis of
the stream making it very narrow ― 50-150
km across)
✓ upper tropospheric,
✓ westerly,
✓ geostrophic streams,
General air circulation when the effect of Coriolis
✓ flowing at high velocity,
force is ignored
✓ with a degree of meandering.
• Because these winds are geostrophic, i.e., they
2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams flow at great speeds due to low friction and
are subjected to greater Coriolis force.
Geostrophic Wind • Thus, they are deflected greatly giving rise to
three distinct cells called Hadley cell, Ferrel
• The Coriolis force acting on a body increases Cell and Polar cell.
with increase in its velocity. • That is, instead of one big cell we have three
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2-3 km small cells that combinedly produces the same
above the surface, are free from frictional effect effect.
of the surface and are controlled by the pres- • Hadley Cell and Polar Cell are thermal in origin
sure gradient and the Coriolis force. (convection). Ferrel Cell is dynamic in origin

16
 (Coriolis Force and blocking effect of converging
winds). These cells are part of general circulation.
• Jet Streams are formed due to pressure difference
between air masses and Coriolis Force.

Upper tropospheric westerlies

• Jet streams are produced due to winds flowing

from tropics towards poles in the upper tropo-
sphere (just below the tropopause).
• Jet stream produced between polar and tem-
perate air masses is called as polar jet stream
or polar jet.
• Jet stream produced between temperate and Polar jet is stronger; Subtropical jet is higher
tropical air masses is called as subtropical jet
stream. • Anything moving from tropics towards poles
• In polar jet streams wind flows from temper- deflects towards their right in the northern
ate region towards polar region, and in sub- hemisphere and towards their left in the south-
tropical jet streams, winds flow from subtrop- ern hemisphere due to Coriolis effect.
ics towards temperate region. • Thus, jet streams flow from west to east in both
• In the upper troposphere, the wind flows from the hemispheres and hence they are called
less denser air mass towards the poles due to westerlies or upper-level westerlies.
thermal effect (poles receive less heat and • Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres
equator receives more heat. So, at the surface the have jet streams, although the jet streams in the
winds flow from pole towards the equator north are more forceful due to greater tempera-
whereas at an altitude the winds flow from equa- ture gradients.
tor towards poles).
• The high-pressure gradient force is directed from Why does polar jet and subtropical jet flow
south to north. at different altitudes?

• Polar jet streams flow 6 – 9 km above the

ground and Sub-tropical jet streams flows 10 –
16 km above the grounds.
• This is because the troposphere is thicker at
equator (17 to 18 km) than at poles (8 to 9 km).

High velocity

• The friction in the upper troposphere is also

quite low due to less dense air.
• Temperature also influences the velocity of the
jet stream.
• The greater the difference in air temperature,
the faster the jet stream.
• Jet stream can reach speeds of up to 400 kmph
or greater.
• The jet streams have an average velocity of 120
Polar Jet Stream is formed between temperate and kmph in winter and 50 kmph in summer.
polar air masses

17
• These jet streams also have cores where the • In Rossby waves are polar air moves toward the
speed is much greater. equator while tropical air moves poleward.
• A meander is called peak or ridge if it is to-
wards poles and trough if it is towards equator.
• The existence of these waves explains the low-
pressure cells (cyclones) and high-pressure
cells (anticyclones).

2.2 Permanent jet streams

Winds are highest in the core

Meandering • Polar jet and subtropical jet are permanent jet

streams that breeze through the upper tropo-
• When the temperature contrast is maximum, jet sphere for most part of the year.
stream flows in near straight path.
• But when temperature contrast reduces (jet
stream is weak), the jet stream starts to follow a
meandering path (wavy, irregular manner with a
poleward or equatorward component).
• Thus, meandering depends on temperature
contrast (temperature gradient).
• High temperature gradient ➔high-pressure gra-
dient ➔ greater wind speed ➔ greater Coriolis
force ➔ geostrophic stream ➔ wind direction is
parallel to isobars (perfect west-east flow).
• Low temperature gradient ➔ low variable Corio-
lis force ➔ winds start to meander Permanent and Temporary Jet Streams

Rossby Waves Subtropical jet stream (STJ)

• During winter, the STJ is nearly continuous in

both hemispheres.
• The STJ exists all year in the southern hemi-
sphere. However, it is intermittent in the north-
ern hemisphere during summer when it mi-
grates north.
• The STJ can be temporarily displaced when
strong mid-latitude troughs (remnants of tem-
perate cyclones) extend into subtropical lati-
tudes.
• When these displacements occur, the subtropi-
cal jet can merge with the polar front jet (relat-
ed to cloudbursts. We will study this in Indian
Meandering Jet Streams or Rossby Waves Monsoons).
• STJ is closely connected to the Indian and Afri-
• The meandering jet streams are called Rossby can summer monsoons (we will study this in In-
Waves. dian Monsoons).
• Rossby waves are natural phenomenon in the
atmosphere and oceans due to rotation of Polar front jet (PFJ)
earth.

18
• The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, and • It is fairly persistent in its position, direction,
subtropical jets are somewhat weaker. and intensity from June through the beginning
• The northern Polar jet stream follows the sun, of October.
i.e., it slowly migrates northward in summer, • During the South Asian summer monsoon, the
and southward in winter. TEJ induces secondary circulations that enhance
• The polar front jet is closely related to the polar convection over South India and nearby ocean.
front (frontogenesis process in mid-latitudes). • The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ
• It has a more variable position than the sub- is not fully understood, but it is believed that
tropical jet. the jet may be caused by the uniquely high
• In summer, its position shifts towards the poles temperatures and heights over the Tibetan
and in winter towards the equator. Plateau during summer (dry air encounters
• The jet is strong and continuous in winter. more humid air at high altitudes).
• It greatly influences climates of regions lying • The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for
close to 60° latitude. the strong southwest monsoon.
• It determines the path and speed and intensity • In recent years due to the decrease in the tem-
of temperate cyclones. perature contrast between the land and sea
over the Indian subcontinent, the TEJ has shown
2.3 Temporary jet streams a decreasing trend (not good).

• Other than polar jet and subtropical jet, there 2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on
are temporary jet streams which appear only Weather
in a particular season.
• They are few. Important ones are Somali Jet and • Jet streams help in maintenance of latitudinal
The African Easterly Jet. heat balance by mass exchange of air.
• They are major high-velocity winds in the lower • Sub-tropical jet stream and some temporary jet
troposphere, and hence they are called low- streams together influence Indian Monsoon
level jets (LLJs). patterns. (more about this while studying India
Monsoons in Indian geography)
The Somali Jet
• Jet streams also exercise an influence on
movement of air masses which may cause pro-
• The Somali Jet is a south-westerly jet.
longed drought or flood conditions.
• The Somali jet occurs during the summer over
northern Madagascar and off the coast of So- Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate
malia.
Regions
• The jet is most intense from June to August.
• The jet remains relatively steady from June to
• PFJ play a key role in determining the weather
September before moving southward to the
because they usually separate colder air and
southern Indian Ocean during the winter.
warmer air.
(More details about Somali Jet is given under Indian • Jet streams generally push air masses around,
Monsoons) moving weather systems to new areas and even
causing them to stall if they have moved too far
The Tropical Easterly Jet or African East- away.
erly Jet • PFJ play a major role in determining the path
and intensity of frontal precipitation and
• The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the frontal cyclones.
northern hemispheric summer over southern • Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar vor-
Asia and northern Africa. The TEJ is found near tex into temperate regions.
between 5° and 20°N.

19
Explanation Jet Streak; Ridge and Trough

• The jet stream drives temperate weather • Troughs and ridges are analogous to low-
through phenomena called troughing, ridging, pressure (troughs) and high-pressure (ridges).
and jet streaks. • Active weather occurs ahead of a trough and
• Ridges occur where the warm air (at high- quiet weather beneath a ridge.
pressure) pushes against the cold air. • The ridges and troughs give rise to jet streaks.
• Troughs occur where cold air (at lower pressure) • They form in response to localised but major
drops into warm air. temperature-gradients.
• This condition occurs due to weak jet stream • The process of winds exiting a trough or a jet
(lesser temperature contrast between air mass- streak, known as divergence, creates a void in
es). the upper atmosphere. Air will rush up from
lower altitudes to fill the void.
• This upward rush of air from the surface creates
a low-pressure system.
• The Coriolis effect creates the cyclonic rotation
that is associated with depressions.
• The winds entering the jet streak are rapidly
converging, creating a high-pressure at the up-
per level in the atmosphere. This leads to diver-
gence (high-pressure) at the surface (anticy-
clonic condition).
• The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic rota-
tion that is associated with clear weather.

2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation

Trough and ridge (Credits)

• Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to

fly in the direction of the flow of the jet streams
and avoid them when flying in opposite direc-
tion.

• Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight be-

cause the jet stream is sometimes unpredictable
and can cause sudden movement, even when
the weather looks calm and clear.
• During volcanic eruptions plumes of volcanic
ash tend to get sucked into the same jet stream
that aeroplanes use for travel.

20
 • When an air mass moves away from a source
3. Temperate Cyclones region, the upper level maintains the physical
characteristics for a longer period.
• Cyclonic systems developing in the mid and • This is possible because air masses are stable
high latitude (35° latitude and 65° latitude in with stagnant air which do not facilitate con-
both hemispheres), beyond the tropics are vection.
called temperate cyclones. • Conduction and radiation in such stagnant air is
• They are known as mid-latitude cyclones, ex- not effective.
tratropical cyclones, frontal cyclones or wave
cyclones. Conditions for the formation of Air
• Unlike the tropical cyclones (convective cy- Masses
clogenesis) which have a thermal origin, the
temperate cyclones (frontal cyclogenesis) • Source region should be extensive with gentle,
have a dynamic origin (complex interaction of divergent air circulation (gentle anticyclonic
air masses under the influence of Coriolis force). circulation).
• To understand the mechanism of frontal • Areas with high-pressure but little pressure
cyclogenesis (origin and development of difference or pressure gradient are ideal source
temperate cyclones) it is important for us to regions.
understand the concepts of air masses and • There are no major source regions in the mid-
fronts. latitudes as these regions are dominated by
frontal cyclones and other disturbances.
3.1 Air Masses
Air masses based on Source Regions
• An air mass is a large body of air having little
horizontal variation in temperature and There are five major source regions. These are:
moisture.
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
• Air masses are an integral part of the planetary
2. The subtropical hot deserts;
wind system and are associated with one or
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
other wind belt.
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high
• They extend from surface to lower strato-
latitudes;
sphere and are across thousands of kilometres.
5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arc-
Source regions tic and Antarctica.

Accordingly, following types of airmasses are rec-

• When a large parcel of the air remains over a ognised:
homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time,
it acquires the characteristics of the area. 1. Maritime tropical (mT);
• The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean 2. Continental tropical (cT);
surface or vast plains and plateaus. 3. Maritime polar (mP);
• The homogenous surfaces, over which air mass- 4. Continental polar (cP);
es form, are called the source regions. 5. Continental arctic (cA).
• The main source regions are the high-pressure
belts in the subtropics (giving rise to tropical The first letter describes moisture properties of the
air masses) and around the poles (the source air mass.
for polar air masses).
• c: continental air masses (dry)
• Source region establishes heat and moisture
• m: maritime air masses (moist)
equilibrium with the overlying air mass.
The second letter describes source region of the air
mass.

21
 • T: Tropical ble with lesser prevalence of anticyclonic winds,
• P: Polar warmer landmasses and lesser snow.
• A: Arctic or Antarctic
Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)

• The source region of these air masses are the

oceans between 40° and 60° latitudes.
• These are those continental polar air masses
which have moved over the warmer oceans, got
heated up and have collected moisture.
• The conditions over the source regions are
cool, moist and unstable.
Air masses (Wikipedia) • The weather during winters is characterized by
high humidity, overcast skies and occasional fog
• Tropical air masses are warm, and polar air and precipitation. During summer, the weather
masses are cold. is clear, fair and stable.
• The heat transfer processes that warms or cools
the air takes place slowly. Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT)

Cold Air Mass • The source regions of the air masses include
tropical and sub-tropical deserts of Sahara in
• A cold air mass is one which is colder than the Africa, and of West Asia and Australia.
underlying surface. • These air masses are dry, hot and stable and
do not extend beyond the source.
Cold source regions (polar air masses)
• They are dry throughout the year.
• Arctic Ocean – cold and moist
• Siberia – cold and dry
Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT)
• Northern Canada – cold and dry
• The source regions of these air masses include
• Southern Ocean – cold and moist
the oceans in tropics and sub-tropics such as
Warm Air Mass Mexican Gulf, the Pacific and the Atlantic
oceans.
• A warm air mass is one which is warmer than • These air masses are warm, humid and unsta-
the underlying surface. ble.
• The weather during winter has mild tempera-
Warm source regions (tropical air masses) tures, overcast skies with fog.
• During summer, the weather is characterized by
• Sahara Desert - warm and dry
high temperatures, high humidity, cumulous
• Tropical Oceans - warm and moist
clouds and convectional rainfall.
Continental Polar Air Masses (cP)
Influence of Air Masses on World
• Source regions of these air masses are the Arc- Weather
tic basin, northern North America, Eurasia and
Antarctica. • The properties of an air mass which influence
• Dry, cold and stable conditions characterize the accompanying weather are vertical tem-
these air masses. perature distribution (indicating its stability
• The weather during winter is frigid, clear and and coldness or warmness) and the moisture
stable. During summer, the weather is less sta- content.

22
• The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from • Mid-latitude cyclones (temperate cyclones or
oceans to continents. extra-tropical cyclones) occur due to fronto-
• They transport latent heat, thus contributing to genesis.
latitudinal heat balance.
• Most of the migratory atmospheric disturb- General Characteristics
ances such as cyclones and storms originate at
the contact zone between different air masses • The temperature contrast influences the thick-
called as fronts. ness of frontal zone in an inversely propor-
• Characteristics of the air masses involved tional manner.
determine the weather associated with the • That is, two air masses with higher temperature
disturbances. difference do not merge readily.
• Thus, the front is less thick when it is formed
3.2 Fronts between two air masses with higher tempera-
ture difference.
• Understanding front formation and types of • With a sudden change in temperature through
fronts is important to understand the formation a front, there is a change in pressure also.
of mid-latitude cyclones and the dominant • The frontal activity is invariably associated with
weather patterns of mid-latitudes. cloudiness and precipitation because of as-
• Fronts are the typical features of mid-latitudes cent of warm air which cools down adiabatical-
weather (temperate region – 30° - 65° N and ly, condenses and causes rainfall.
S). They are uncommon (unusual) in tropical • The intensity of precipitation depends on the
and polar regions. slope of ascent and amount of water vapour
• Front is a three-dimensional boundary zone present in ascending air.
formed between two converging air masses • Front experiences wind shift since the wind mo-
with different physical properties (tempera- tion is a function of pressure gradient and Cori-
ture, humidity, density). olis force.
• The two air masses don’t merge readily due to
Wind Shift: A change in wind direction of 45 de-
the effect of the converging atmospheric circu- grees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained
lation, different physical properties, relatively wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the
low diffusion coefficient and a low thermal con-
wind shift.
ductivity.
1 knot = 1.852 kmph
1 Nautical Mile = 1.852 km
Front Formation
Classification of Fronts
• The process of formation of a front is known as
frontogenesis (war between two air masses), • Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis and
and dissipation of a front is known as frontoly-
the associated weather, the fronts can be
sis (one of the air masses win against the studied under the following types.
other).
• Frontogenesis involves convergence of two Stationary Front
distinct air masses.
• Frontolysis involves overriding of one of the air • When the surface position of a front does not
masses by another. change (when two air masses are unable to
• In northern hemisphere frontogenesis (conver- push against each other; a draw), a stationary
gence of air masses) happens in anti-clockwise front is formed.
direction and southern hemisphere, clockwise • The wind motion on both sides of the front is
direction. This is due to Coriolis force. parallel to the front.
• Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name
stationary front.

23
• Once this boundary resumes its forward motion,
it becomes a warm front or cold front.

Stationary Front

Cold Front

Weather along a cold front

• The weather depends on a narrow band of

cloudiness and precipitation (because the slope
is steep).
• Severe storms can occur. During the summer
months, thunderstorms are common in warm
sector.
• In some regions, tornadoes occur in warm sec-
Symbols to indicate various fronts, frontogenesis and
tor.
frontolysis.
• Cold fronts produce sharper changes in
Weather along a stationary front weather (because upliftment of air is quite
rapid).
• Cumulonimbus clouds are formed. • Temperatures can drop more than 15 degrees
• Overrunning (uplifted air) of warm air along within the first hour.
such a front causes frontal precipitation.
• Frontal cyclones migrating along a stationary Cloud formation along a cold front
front can dump heavy amounts of precipita-
tion, resulting in significant flooding along the
front.

Cold Front

• Such a front is formed when a cold air mass re-

places a warm air mass by advancing into it or
that the warm air mass retreats and cold air
mass advances (cold air mass is the clear win- Cloud formation along a cold front
ner).
• In such a situation, the transition zone between • The approach of a cold front is marked by in-
the two is a steep sloped cold front. creased wind activity in warm sector and the
• Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as appearance of cirrus clouds, followed by lower,
warm fronts. denser altocumulus and altostratus.
• Frontolysis begins when the warm air mass is • At actual front, dark nimbus and cumulonim-
completely uplifted by the cold air mass. bus clouds cause heavy showers.

24
• A cold front passes off rapidly, but the weather • Such a front is formed when a cold air mass
along it is violent. overtakes a warm air mass and goes under-
neath it.
Warm Front

• It is a sloping frontal surface along which ac-

tive movement of warm air over cold air takes
place (warm air mass is too weak to beat the
cold air mass).
• Frontolysis (front dissipation) begins when the
warm air mass makes way for cold air mass on
the ground, i.e. when the warm air mass com-
pletely sits over the cold air mass.

• Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes,

and the cold air mass completely undertakes
the warm sector on ground.
• Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded
front is formed which could be a warm front
type or cold front type occlusion.
Warm front; There is no cumulonimbus cloud for-
mation along a warm front

Weather along a warm front

• As the warm air moves up the slope, it con-

denses and causes precipitation but, unlike a
cold front, the temperature and wind direction
changes are gradual.
• Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipi-
tation over a large area, over several hours.
• The passage of warm front is marked by rise in Weather along an occluded front
temperature and pressure.
• Weather along an occluded front is complex —
Clouds along a warm front a mixture of cold front type and warm front
type weather. Such fronts are common in
• With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—- western Europe.
cirrus, stratus and nimbus (no cumulonimbus • The formation mid-latitude cyclones involve
clouds as the gradient is gentle). the formation of occluded front.
• Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front
create a halo around sun and moon. Clouds along an occluded front

Occluded Front • A combination of clouds formed at cold front

and warm front.
• Occlusion: a process by which the cold front of • Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on
a rotating low-pressure system catches up the opposite side of the occlusion.
warm front so that the warm air between
them is forced upwards.

25
 masses from the poles and thus a polar front is
formed as a surface of discontinuity.
• Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high,
sub-polar low-pressure belts and along the
tropopause.

Explanation

• In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows

from the south and cold air from the north of
the front.
Stationary • Tie – No clear Winner • When the pressure drops along the front, the
Front warm air moves northwards, and the cold air
Cold Front • Cold Air mass is the clear move towards south setting in motion an anti-
winner. clockwise cyclonic circulation (Coriolis Force;
Warm Front • The warm air mass picks up northern hemisphere).
a fight but fails to beat the
cold air mass.
• Cold Air mass is the winner.
Occluded • Cold Front + Warm Front
Front • Double win for cold air mass
Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are
examples of Temperature Inversion.

3.3 Origin and Development of

Temperate Cyclones

Convergence of air masses

• The warm air glides over the cold air and a se-
quence of clouds appear over the sky ahead of
the warm front and cause precipitation.
• The cold front approaches the warm air from
behind and pushes the warm air up. As a result,
cumulus clouds develop along the cold front.
The isobars are not closed in a temperate Cyclones
• This leads to a well-developed extratropical
Polar Front Theory cyclone, with a warm front and a cold front.
• There are pockets of warm air or warm sector
• According to this theory, the warm-humid air wedged between the warm front and the cold
masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air front.

26
• The cold front moves faster than the warm warm temperate zone, although a high concen-
front ultimately overtaking the warm front. tration of storms occurs over Bering Strait, USA
• The wedged warm air is completely uplifted and Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic zone.
(frontolysis), and the front is occluded (occlud-
ed front), and the cyclone dissipates. Distribution of Temperate Cyclones
• Thus, temperate cyclone is intense fronto-
genesis involving mainly occlusion type 1. USA and Canada – extend over Sierra Nevada,
fronts. Colorado, Eastern Canadian Rockies and the
Great Lakes region,
2. the belt extending from Iceland to Barents Sea
and continuing over Russia and Siberia,
3. winter storms over Baltic Sea,
4. Mediterranean basin extending up to Russia
and even up to India in winters (called western
disturbances) and the Antarctic frontal zone.

Distribution of Temperate Cyclones and Tropical Cy-

clones

Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones

Size and Shape

Cold front moves faster
• The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and
• Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist for
shaped like an inverted ‘V’.
about 3 to 10 days moving in a generally west
• They stretch over 500 to 600 km.
to east direction.
• They may spread over 2500 km over North
• Precise movement of this weather system is
America.
controlled by the orientation of the polar jet
• They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
stream in the upper troposphere.

Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cy-

clones

• The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter,

late autumn and spring.
• They are generally associated with rainstorms
and cloudy weather.
• During summer, all the paths of temperate cy- Shape of a Temperate Cyclone
clones shift northwards, and there are only few
Wind Velocity and Strength
temperate cyclones over sub-tropics and the

27
• The wind strength is more in eastern and up to the Mediterranean region (sometimes
southern portions, moreover North America causing the Mediterranean cyclones or Western
compared to Europe. Disturbances ― they are very important as
• The wind velocity increases with the approach they bring rains to North-West India – Punjab,
but decreases after the cyclone has passed. Haryana).

Orientation and Movement Structure

• Polar jet stream plays a major role in the for- • The north-western sector is the cold sector and
mation and hence influences the path of tem- the north-eastern sector is the warm sector (Be-
perate cyclones. cause cold air masses in north and warm air
masses in south push against each other and
rotate anti-clockwise in northern hemisphere).

Associated Weather

• The approach of a temperate cyclone is marked

by fall in temperature, fall in the mercury level,
wind shifts and a halo around the sun and the
moon, and a thin veil of cirrus clouds.
• A light drizzle follows which turns into a heavy
downpour. These conditions change with the
arrival of the warm front which halts the fall in
mercury level and the rising temperature.
• Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails until
the cold front of an anticyclonic character ar-
Westerly Path of a Frontal Cyclone System
rives which causes a fall in temperature, brings
• Since these cyclones move with the westerlies, cloudiness and rainfall with thunder. After this,
they are oriented east-west. once again clear weather is established.
• If the storm front is east-west, the centre moves • The temperate cyclones experience more
swiftly eastwards. rainfall when there is slow movement and a
• If the storm front is directed northwards, the marked difference in rainfall and temperature
centre moves towards the north, but after two between the front and rear of the cyclone.
or three days, the pressure difference declines Anticyclones generally accompany these
and the cyclone dissipate. cyclones.
• In case the storm front is directed southwards,
the centre moves quite deep southwards-even

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison

Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone

Origin • Thermal Origin. • Dynamic Origin: Coriolis Force, Move-
ment of air masses.
Latitude • Confined to 10-30º N and S of equator. • Confined to 35-65º N and S of equator.
• More pronounced in Northern hemisphere
due to greater temperature contrast.
Frontal system • Absent. • The very cyclone formation is due to fron-
togenesis. (Occluded Front).
Formation • They form only on seas with temperature • Can form both on land as well as seas.
more than 26-270 C.

28
 • They dissipate on reaching the land.
Season • Seasonal: Late summers (Aug-Nov). • Irregular. But few in summers and more in
winters.
Size • Limited to small area. • They cover a larger area.
• Typical size: 100 – 500 kms in diameter. • Typical size: 300 – 2000 kms in diameter.
• Varies with the strength of the cyclone. Varies from region to region.
Shape • Elliptical • Inverted ‘V’
Rainfall • Heavy but does not last beyond a few hours. • In a temperate cyclone, rainfall is slow and
• If the cyclone stays at a place, the rainfall continues for many days, sometimes even
may continue for a few days. weeks.
Wind Velocity and • Much greater. • Comparatively low.
destruction • 100 – 250 kmph • Typical range: 30-150 kmph.
• 200 – 1200 kmph in upper troposphere) • Less destruction due to winds but more
• Greater destruction due to winds, storm destruction due to flooding.
surges and torrential rains.
Isobars • Complete circles and the pressure gradient • Isobars are usually ‘V’ shaped and the
is steep pressure gradient is low.
Lifetime • Doesn’t last for more than a week • Lasts for 2-3 weeks.
Path • East – West. Turn North at 200 latitude and • West – East (Westerlies; Jet Streams).
west at 300 latitude. • Move away from equator.
• Move away from equator.
• The movement of Cyclones in Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal is a little different.
• Here, these storms are superimposed upon
the monsoon circulation of the summer
months, and they move in northerly direc-
tion along with the monsoon currents.
Temperature dis- • The temperature at the centre is almost • All the sectors of the cyclone have differ-
tribution equally distributed. ent temperatures
Calm region • The centre of a tropical cyclone is known as • In a temperate cyclone, there is not a sin-
the eye. The wind is calm at the centre with gle place where winds and rains are inac-
no rainfall. tive.

Driving force • The tropical cyclone derives its energy from • The energy of a temperate cyclone de-
the latent heat of condensation, and the pends on the temperature, humidity and
difference in densities of the air masses does density differences of air masses.
not contribute to the energy of the cyclone.
Influence of Jet • The relationship between tropical cyclones • The temperate cyclones, in contrast, have a
streams and the upper level air-flow is not very clear. distinct relationship with upper level air
flow (jet streams, Rossby waves etc.)
Clouds • The tropical cyclones exhibit fewer varieties • The temperate cyclones show a variety of
of clouds – cumulonimbus, nimbostratus, cloud development at various elevations.
etc.
Surface anti- • The tropical cyclones are not associated with • The temperate cyclones are associated
cyclones surface anticyclones and they have a greater with anticyclones which precede and suc-
destructive capacity. ceed a cyclone.
• These cyclones are not very destructive.
Influence on India • Both coasts affected. But east coast is the • Bring rains to North-West India.
hot spot. • The associated instability is called ‘West-
ern Disturbances’.
Weather Prediction • Tough as the movement can be erratic due • Easy because of the general westerly path
to a lot of factors. of the cyclone, less variable jet stream path
and simple frontal system.

29
• Titbit: In certain instances, two cyclones move toward each other and revolve around one another, with the
smaller and less intense one moving more quickly. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect.

• The polar vortex will remain in its place when

5. Polar Vortex the westerlies along with the polar jet are
strong (strong polar vortex means that there is
• Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex) is a polar cy- huge temperature contrast between the tem-
clone. perate and polar regions).
• Arctic or polar cyclones occur in polar regions • When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes into
and can reach up to 2,000 km wide. the mid-latitude regions by buckling the gen-
• Polar cyclones differ with others because they eral wind flow pattern. This leads to significant
are not seasonal. They can occur at any time of cold outbreaks in the mid-latitude regions.
the year. • The vortex is capable of delivering sub-zero
• Polar cyclones can also form quickly (some- temperatures to the United States and Canada
times less than 24 hours), and their direction where is occurs the most.
or movement cannot be predicted.
• They can last from a day up to several weeks. How it slips
• Most frequently, polar cyclones develop above
northern Russia and Siberia.
• A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold air,
typically the coldest air in the Northern Hemi-
sphere, which sits over the polar region during
the winter season.
• Polar Vortex is a
✓ Cold;
✓ Circumpolar;
✓ Upper tropospheric low-pressure:
sometimes extending till the lower levels of
stratosphere (at poles, the troposphere ex- • The Polar jet traverses somewhere over 65º N
tends only up to 8-9 km); and S latitudes. When the temperature contrast
✓ Large cyclonic parcel of air (about 1000 km between polar and temperate regions is maxi-
across) (counter-clockwise in the Northern mum, the jet is very strong, and the meandering
Hemisphere) is negligible.
• Polar vortex is closely associated with jet • But when the temperature contrast is low, the
streams (Rossby waves). jet starts to meander (Rossby waves).
• It is formed mainly in winter and gets weaker in • Meandering jet creates alternating low and
summer. high-pressure cells.
• It surrounds polar highs and lie within the polar • High-pressure cells are created below the ridges
front (boundary separating the temperate and and the low-pressure cells below the troughs
polar air masses). (this is because of the upper air circulations cre-
ated by the jet).
5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave • With severe meandering, the high-pressure cells
push over to north and displace the polar cy-
Polar Vortex slipping into Mid-latitudes, clone from its normal position i.e. the cyclone
Breakdown of the polar vortex, moves away from the pole and slips into the
Sudden stratospheric warming, temperate regions.
Polar vortex event. • With the strengthening of the jet, the high-
All the above terms mean the same ― Polar pressure cells become weak and retreat to their
Vortex Cold Wave. normal latitudinal positions.

30
 Polar Vortex slipping into temperate regions

• With the retreat of the high-pressure cells, the Halocarbon: a compound in which the hydrogen
polar cyclone moves back to its normal posi- of a hydrocarbon is replaced by halogens like
tion. chlorine, bromine, iodine etc.
Halogen: group of reactive non-metallic ele-
5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone De- ments like fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
pletion at South Pole etc.

Halogen atoms like chlorine destroy ozone

• Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two dis-
tinct but related phenomena. • Photodissociation (under the influence of sun-
light) of ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
Ozone depletion
like halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, pro-
pellants, and foam-blowing agents (CFCs,
• There is a steady decline of about 4% in the to-
HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride and trichloro-
tal volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere.
ethane, freons, halons) creates free chlorine
• Much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone is
atoms that destroy ozone.
observed around Earth's polar regions.
• Depletion of ozone is due to increase in halo-
carbons in the atmosphere.

Ozone Hole at the South Pole

31
 Photodissociation of ozone-depleting substances cause of concern. What could be the reason
break O3 into O2 for ozone depletion at poles?

But how does a chlorine atom reach to such high a) Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence;
levels of atmosphere? and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons
b) Presence of prominent polar front and strato-
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) spheric Clouds and inflow of chlorofluorocar-
bons
• They are nacreous clouds that extend from 12-
c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds;
22 km above the surface.
and inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons
• Nacreous clouds are rare clouds in frigid re-
d) Increased temperature at polar region due to
gions of the lower stratosphere.
global warming
• They are mostly visible within two hours after
sunset or before dawn. Explanation:
• They are bright even after sunset and before
dawn because at those heights there is still sun- • Ozonosphere lies at an altitude between 20 km
light. and 55 km from the earth’s surface and spans
• They are seen mostly during winter at high lati- the stratosphere and lower mesosphere. But the
tudes. highest concentration occurs between 20 km
• PSCs or nacreous clouds contain water, nitric and 30 km.
acid and/or sulfuric acid. • To destroy ozone, ozone-depleting sub-
• They are formed mainly during the event of stances (ODS) like CFCs, HCFCs, etc. needs to
polar vortex in winter; more intense at south be carried up to the lower levels of strato-
pole. sphere.
• The Cl-catalysed ozone depletion is enhanced • And the only weather phenomenon that can
in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds. reach to this level are Polar Vortex and tow-
• PSCs convert reservoir compounds into reac- ering tropical cumulus clouds.
tive free radicals (Cl and ClO) thereby signifi- • But towering cumulus clouds do not occur at
cantly increasing the reactive halogen radi- the poles.
cals. These free radicals accelerate depletion
Question: The formation of ozone hole in the Ant-
of ozone.
arctic region has been a cause of concern. What
• Thus, polar vortex, in the form of PSCs, ac-
could be the reason for ozone depletion at poles?
celerate ozone depletion.
• Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence:
they don’t reach the stratosphere.
• Presence of prominent polar front: essential to
keep polar vortex in its place. Polar vortex gives
rise to stratospheric Clouds.
• Presence of stratospheric Clouds: they have the
necessary ingredients (nitric acid and/or sulfu-
ric acid) to amplify ozone depletion.
• Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds:
polar vortex slips into the temperate region.
• Inflow of methane: methane (CH4) is not in
the list of ozone-depleting substances.
Ozone Depletion is Enhanced by PSCs • It doesn’t contain a halogen like chlorine, bro-
mine, fluorine, etc. But it reacts with halogens to
Prelims question: The formation of ozone create reservoir compounds.
hole in the Antarctic region has been a

32
• Increased temperature at polar region due to • The Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling
global warming: this doesn’t have any direct off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This brings
impact on ozone depletion at the poles. nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, in-
creasing fishing stocks.

6. El Nino

• Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is

most important in terms of general atmospheric
circulation.

6.1 Normal Conditions

• In a normal year, a surface low-pressure devel-

ops in the region of northern Australia and Normal Conditions: Thunderstorms in equatorial
Indonesia and a high-pressure system over western Pacific and calm conditions in equatorial
the coast of Peru. eastern Pacific
• As a result, the trade winds over the Pacific
Ocean move strongly from east to west.
• The easterly flow of the trade winds carries
warm surface waters westward, bringing con-
vective storms (thunderstorms) to Indonesia
and coastal Australia.
• Along the coast of Peru, cold bottom cold
nutrient-rich water wells up to the surface to
replace the warm water that is pulled to the
west. Atmospheric circulation typically found at the equa-
torial Pacific. (Photo: W.S. Kessler, NOAA/PMEL)
Thermocline: a temperature gradient in a body of
water, separating layers at different temperatures.

6.2 During El Nino year

• El Niño is the name given to the occasional de-

velopment of warm ocean surface waters
along the coast of Ecuador and Peru.
• In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large
Normal Conditions: Warm water accumulation in areas of the central Pacific and along the coast
Western Pacific and cold water upwelling in Eastern of South America.
Pacific • The normal low-pressure system is replaced by
a weak high in the western Pacific (the south-
Walker circulation (Normal Years) ern oscillation).
• This change in pressure pattern causes the
• The Walker circulation (Walker cell) is caused by trade winds to be reduced ― Weak Walker
the pressure gradient force that results from a Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might even get re-
high-pressure system over the eastern Pacif- versed.
ic Ocean, and a low-pressure system over In- • This reduction allows the equatorial counter
donesia. current (west to east current along calm dol-
drums) to accumulate warm ocean water along

33
 the coastlines of Peru and Ecuador replacing • The formation of an El Niño (circulation of
the cool Peruvian current. surface ocean current) is linked with Pacific
Ocean circulation pattern known as the south-
ern oscillation (circulation of atmospheric
pressure).
• Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and cli-
matology, is a coherent inter-annual fluctua-
tion of atmospheric pressure over the tropical
Indo-Pacific region.
• El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide most
of the times hence their combination is called
ENSO – El Nino Southern Oscillation.
• In the years when the ENSO is strong, large-
El Nino conditions: Equatorial counter current flows scale variations in weather occur over the world.
along calm doldrums in west-east direction • The arid west coast of South America receives
heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and
sometimes in India and floods in China.

Only El Nino == Warm water in Eastern Pacific

+ Cold water in Western Pacific.
Only SO == Low-pressure over Eastern Pacific +
High-pressure over Western Pacific
ENSO = (Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Low-
pressure over Eastern Pacific) + (Cold water in
Western Pacific + High-pressure over Western
El Nino conditions: Drought in Northern Australia Pacific).
and floods in Central America
Effects of El Nino
• The accumulation of warm water causes the
thermocline to drop in the eastern part of Pacif- • The warmer waters had a devastating effect
ic Ocean which cuts off the upwelling of cold on marine life existing off the coast of Peru
deep ocean water along the coast of Peru. and Ecuador.
• Climatically, the development of an El Niño • Fish catches off the coast of South America
brings drought to the western Pacific, rains were lower than in the normal year.
to the equatorial coast of South America, and • Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indone-
convective storms and hurricanes to the cen- sia, India and southern Africa.
tral Pacific. • Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and the Gulf
• El Niño normally occurs around Christmas and of Mexico.
usually lasts for a few weeks to a few months.
• Sometimes an extremely warm event can devel-
op that lasts for much longer periods.
• In the 1990s, strong El Niños developed in 1991
and lasted until 1995.

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

• This phenomenon is closely monitored and is

used for long-range forecasting in major parts
of the world.

34
Normal Conditions • This is the difference in pressure between Tahiti
in French Polynesia (Central Pacific), represent-
• Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador ing the Central Pacific Ocean and Port Darwin,
== Cold Ocean Water == Good for Fishing. in northern Australia representing the Eastern
• Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia Pacific Ocean.
== Warm Ocean Water == Plenty of rains. • The positive and negative values of the SOI, i.e.
El Nino Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure are
pointers towards good or bad rainfall in India.
• Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador Positive SOI Negative SOI
== Warm Ocean Water == Fishing industry Tahiti (eastern Pacific) pressure Reverse
takes a hit. greater than that of Port Darwin
• Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia (western Pacific)
== Cold Ocean Water == Drought. Drought conditions in Eastern Pa- Reverse
cific and good rainfall in Western
El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons Pacific
Good for Indian Monsoons Bad for Indian
• El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely re- Monsoons
lated.
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El
• The location of low-pressure and hence the ris-
ing limb over Western Pacific is considered to
Nino year is same in India)
be conducive to good monsoon rainfall in India.
• Its shifting eastward from its normal position, • In the recent decades, the ENSO-Monsoon rela-
such as in El Nino years, reduces monsoon rain- tionship seemed to weaken in the Indian sub-
fall in India. continent. For e.g. the 1997, strong ENSO failed
to cause drought in India.
• The most prominent droughts in India have
• It was discovered that just like ENSO was an
been El Nino droughts, including the recent
event in the Pacific Ocean, a similar seesaw
ones (2014-16).
ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean
• However, not all El Nino years led to a drought
in India. For instance, 1997/98 was a strong El was also at play.
Nino year, but there was no drought (this is be- • It was discovered in 1999 and named the Indi-
an Ocean Dipole (IOD).
cause of Indian Ocean Dipole – IOD).
• On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in 2002 • The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the
resulted in one of the worst droughts. difference in sea surface temperature be-
• El Nino directly impacts India's agrarian econo- tween two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) ― a
my as it tends to lower the production of sum- western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indi-
mer crops such as rice, sugarcane, cotton and an Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern
oilseeds. Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
• IOD starts to develop in the equatorial region of
• The ultimate impact is seen in the form of high
Indian Ocean in April and is best devolved in
inflation, and low gross domestic product
October.
growth as agriculture contributes around 14 per
• With a positive IOD winds over the Indian
cent to the Indian economy.
Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Mon- Bengal towards Arabian Sea).
soons • This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian
Ocean near African Coast) being much warmer
• Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is used to and eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia be-
measure the intensity of the Southern Oscilla- coming colder and dry.
tion.

35
• In the negative dipole year (negative IOD), re- • Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with
verse happens making Indonesia much warmer strong anomalous warming in the central
and rainier. tropical Pacific and cooling in the eastern
and western tropical Pacific.
• Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-
cell Walker Circulation over the tropical Pacif-
ic, with a wet region in the central Pacific and
dry region in the western and eastern Pacific.

Indian Ocean Dipole El Niño Modoki: Droughts in Western and Eastern

Pacific; copious rainfall in the Central Pacific
• It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index
often negated the effect of ENSO, resulting in 6.4 La Nina
increased Monsoon rains in several ENSO years
like the 1983, 1994 and 1997. • After an El Niño event weather conditions usu-
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of ally return to normal.
the IOD was later discovered and named as • However, in some years the trade winds can be-
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUI- come extremely strong, and an abnormal ac-
NOO: oscillation of warm water and atmos- cumulation of cold water can occur in the cen-
pheric pressure between Bay of Bengal and tral and eastern Pacific. This event is called a La
Arabian Sea). Niña.
Impact of IOD on Cyclogenesis in Northern Indi-
an Ocean

• Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of

Bengal) results in more cyclones than usual in
Arabian Sea.
• Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cy-
clogenesis in Bay of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in
Arabian Sea is suppressed.
La Nina: Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and
6.3 El Niño Modoki Southeast Asia

• El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere Effects of La Nina

phenomenon that is slightly different from El
Niño. • A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and scientists
• Conventional El Niño is characterised by strong believe that it may have been responsible for
anomalous warming in the eastern equatori- the summer drought over central North Ameri-
al Pacific. ca.

36
• During this period, the Atlantic Ocean has seen • Empirical: verifiable by observation or experi-
very active hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999. ence rather than theory or pure logic. E.g. when
• One of the hurricanes that developed, named dropped stone falls to the ground – logic. Drop
Mitch, was the strongest October hurricane ev- a stone to confirm that it falls to the ground –
er to develop in about 100 years of record empirical.
keeping. • Koppen identified a close relationship between
the distribution of vegetation and climate.
Some of the other weather effects of La Niña in- • He selected certain values of temperature and
clude precipitation and related them to the distribu-
• Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and tion of vegetation and used these values for
Southeast Asia, classifying the climates.
• Cool and wet winter weather in south-eastern • Koppen recognized five major climatic groups;
Africa, wet weather in eastern Australia, four of them are based on temperature and one
• Cold winter in western Canada and north- on precipitation.
western United States, • The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate
• Winter drought in the southern United States. humid climates and B dry climates.
• The climatic groups are subdivided into types,
designated by small letters, based on seasonali-
ty of precipitation and temperature characteris-
tics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the
small letters: f, m, w and s.

f no dry season
m monsoon climate
w winter dry season
s summer dry season
• The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the de-
gree of severity of temperature.
• The small letters h and k refer to tropical and
mid-latitude regions respectively.
• The B - Dry Climates are subdivided using the
capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W
for deserts.
7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classi-
S Steppe
fication of Climate W Desert

• The most widely used classification of climate is Climatic Groups According to Koppen
the empirical climate classification scheme de-
veloped by V. Koppen.
Climatic Group Characteristics
A – Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18 °C or higher
B – Dry Climates Potential evapouration exceeds precipitation
C – Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3 °C but below 18 °C (-3 °C to 18 °C)
D – Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3 °C or below
E – Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10 °C
H – High Land Cold due to elevation

37
Climatic Types According to Koppen

Climatic Group Type Code Characteristics

A-Tropical Humid Climate Tropical wet Af No dry season
Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal. Short dry season
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
B-Dry Climate Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi-arid or dry
Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi-arid or dry
Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
C-Warm temperate (Mid-latitude) Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
Climates Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
Marine west coast Cf No dry season, warm and cool summer
D-Cold Snow-forest Climates Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter
Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
E-Cold Climates Tundra ET No true summer
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover

7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates

• Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of

Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
• The sun being overhead throughout the year
and the presence of Inter Tropical Conver-
gence Zone (ITCZ) make the climate hot and
humid.
• Annual range of temperature is very low, and ITCZ in summer and winter
annual rainfall is high.

38
• The tropical group is divided into three types, • Temperature is uniform throughout the year.
namely • The mean monthly temperatures are always
1) Af – Tropical wet climate; around 27°C with very little variation.
2) Am – Tropical monsoon climate; • There is no winter (typical to equatorial rain-
3) Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate. forest climate).
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderate
Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f the daily temperature.
– no dry season) • Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintain-
ing a truly equable climate.
• Also known as The Hot, Wet Equatorial Cli- • The diurnal range of temperature is small, and
mate, Equatorial Rainforest Climate. so is the annual range.
• The regions are generally referred as Equatorial
Rainforests, Equatorial Evergreen Forests, Climate Graphs
Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forest, Lowland
Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest.

Evergreen forest

Distribution

• Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator. (little

or no Coriolis Force == no tropical cyclones)
• Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of
the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the
East Indies.

Distribution of tropical wet climate

Equatorial Climate

• The climate is dominated by maritime tropical

air masses (high humidity).

Temperature

39
Climate Graphs for regions with tropical wet climate is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultiva-
tion.
Precipitation

• Heavy thunderstorms occur almost every day

in the afternoons.
• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed
throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm.
• In some regions, the annual average may be as
high as 250-300 cm. Canopy
• There is no month without rain (distinct dry • All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes)
season is absent). for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer ar-
• The monthly average is above 6 cm most of the rangement.
times.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall,
April and October (shortly after the equinox).
• Least rainfall occurs in June and December (sol-
stice: sun is farthest from the equator).
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the
equinoxes is typical to equatorial climates
(not found in any other type of climate).

Equatorial Vegetation Epiphytes

Epiphyte: An epiphyte is a plant that grows harm-
• High temperature and abundant rainfall support lessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and de-
a luxuriant tropical rain forest. rives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain,
• In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
that it is called selvas.
• The tallest trees attain a height close to 50 m.
Selvas: A dense tropical rainforest usually having a • The smaller trees beneath form the next layer.
cloud cover (dense canopy). • The ground is rooted with ferns and herbaceous
plants which can tolerate shade.
• The growing season here is all the year round
• Because the trees cut out most of the sunlight,
― seeding, flowering, and decaying do not take
the undergrowth is not dense.
place in a seasonal pattern.
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multi-
Multiple species
tude of evergreen trees that yield tropical
hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods In spite of dense forests, countries in equatorial
etc. regions are net importers of timber. Comment.
• Many parts of the tropical rain forests have
been cleared either for lumbering or shifting • Though the tropics have great potential in tim-
cultivation. ber resources, commercial extraction is diffi-
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, cult.
mangrove forests thrive. • Multiple species of trees occur in a particular
area (trees do not occur in homogenous
Canopy stands or pure stands) making commercial ex-
ploitation a difficult task.
• From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like
a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it

40
• Many of the tropical hardwoods (very heavy) do • The climate is very Favourable for the cultiva-
not float readily on water, and this makes tion of certain crops that are highly valued in
transportation an expensive matter. the industrial West. The most important is natu-
• It is therefore not surprising that many tropical ral rubber.
countries are net timber importers. • Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading pro-
ducers. The home country, Brazil exports prac-
Life and Economy tically no natural rubber.
• Cocoa is another important crop which is culti-
Agriculture vated in West Africa, bordering the Gulf of
Guinea. The two most important producers are
• The forests are sparsely populated. Ghana and Nigeria. All the cocoa here goes in-
• In the forests, most primitive people live as to American and European chocolate industry.
hunter-gatherers. • From the same area another crop, oil palm, has
• The more advanced ones practice shifting cul- done equally well and many countries like In-
tivation. donesia have now taken to its cultivation.
• Food is abundantly available. People generally
don’t stock food for the next day.

Commercial

• In the Amazon Basin, the Indian tribes collect

wild rubber.
• In the Congo Basin, the Pygmies gather nuts.
• In the jungles of Malaysia, the Orang Asli make
Palm plantations in Indonesia
all sorts of cane products.
• Other important crops include coconuts, sugar,
The names of the tribes come under Social Geogra-
coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, spices, etc.
phy – Prelims
• The plantations destroyed nearly half of equa-
Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn Cultiva- torial forests.
tion. Plantations Region(s)
Palm Malaysia, Indonesia
• This type of cultivation is followed in many parts
Sugarcane Brazil
of the world where dense forests are common
Coffee Brazil
(In India, North-East is known for this type of
Rubber Malaysia, Indonesia
cultivation).
Cocoa Ghana, Nigeria
• Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them and
cultivate the plot till the fertility is exhausted.
Factors Affecting the Development of Equa-
• Once the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is
abandoned, and they move on to a new plot. torial Regions
• In the clearings for shifting cultivation, crops
Equatorial climate and health
like, maize, bananas and groundnuts are grown.

Plantation Boom • Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high humidity

creates serious physical and mental handicaps.
• With the coming of the Europeans, many large • High humidity feeds many tropical diseases
plantations have been established, especially in such as malaria and yellow fever.
Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and • Communicable diseases are rampant as germs
Central America. and bacteria are transmitted through moist air.

41
• Insects and pests not only spread diseases but Mineral resources
are injurious to crops.
• Gold, copper, diamonds, and other precious
Jungle hinders development metals and gemstones are important resources
that are found in rainforests around the world.
• The construction of roads and railways is a risky • Extracting these natural resources is a destruc-
business as workers are exposed to wild ani- tive activity that damages the rainforest ecosys-
mals, poisonous snakes, insects and most im- tem.
portantly tropical diseases. • Examples are gold mining in the Brazilian and
• Once completed, they have to be maintained at Peruvian Amazon, rare earth mining in the
a high cost. Congo, and gold and copper mining in Indo-
nesia and Papua New Guinea.
Rapid deterioration of tropical soil
• Some of the world’s most promising oil and gas
deposits lie deep in tropical rainforests.
Why does restoration of lost forests take dec-
• Oil and gas development often take a heavy
ades in equatorial regions?
toll on the environment and local people (this
• The fertility of topsoil in rainforest regions is happened in Ecuador ― resource curse).
very poor. • More than 70 per cent of the Peruvian Amazon
• Torrential downpours leach out most of the is now under concession for oil and gas.
topsoil nutrients.
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A –
Leaching: percolation and draining way of nutrients Tropical, m – monsoon)
due to rainwater action.
• Monsoons are land and sea breezes on a much
• The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent
larger scale.
soil erosion and soil impoverishment.
• Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon climate
• It takes decades to replenish the soil of lost nu-
is characterized by distinct wet and dry sea-
trients.
sons associated with seasonal reversal of
• Thus, a seed doesn’t usually germinate, and
winds.
even if it does, its development is hindered due
• Floods in wet season and droughts in dry sea-
to little availability of sunlight.
son are common.
• Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth
spring up as soon as the trees are cut. They
choke the restoration of forests.
• Indonesian island of Java is an exception be-
cause of its rich volcanic ashes.

Difficulties in livestock farming

Tropical Monsoon Climate: Floods in wet season and
• Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an
droughts in dry season
absence of meadow grass.
• The grass is so tall and coarse that it is not nu- • Usually, there are three seasons namely sum-
tritious. mer, winter and rainy season.
• The few animals like buffaloes are kept mainly
for domestic use. Their yield in milk or beef is Distribution
well below those of the cattle in the temperate
grasslands. • Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator.
• In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by • On-shore (winds flowing from sea to land)
tsetse flies that cause ngana, a deadly disease. tropical monsoons occur in the summer and

42
 off-shore (winds flowing from land to sea) dry The cool, dry season (October to February)
monsoons in the winter.
• They are best developed in the Indian sub- • Out blowing dry winds, the North-East Mon-
continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, soon, bring little or no rain to the Indian sub-
parts of Vietnam and south China and north- continent.
ern Australia. • However, a small amount of rain falls in Punjab
from cyclonic sources (Western Disturbances:
Frontal precipitation brought by jet streams),
and this is vital for the survival of winter cereals.
• North-East Monsoons blowing over the Bay of
Bengal acquires moisture and bring rains to the
south-eastern tip of the peninsula at this time
of the year (Nov-Dec).

The hot dry season (March to mid-June)

Tropical Monsoon Climate Distribution
• The temperature rises sharply with the sun’s
Climate northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer.
• Day temperatures of 35 °C are usual in central
• The basic cause of monsoon climates is the dif- India and the mean temperature in Sind, and
ference in the rate of heating and cooling of south India may be as high as 44 °C.
land and sea (This is old theory. New theory ex- • Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea
plained in Indian Climate). breezes.
• There is practically little rain. Hailstorms occurs
Temperature here and there in April, May.

• Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C. The rainy season (mid-June to September)
• Temperatures range from 30-45 °C in summer.
Mean summer temperature is about 30 °C. • With the ‘burst’ of the South-West Monsoon in
• In winters, temperature range is 15-30 °C with mid-June, torrential downpours sweep across
mean temperature around 20-25 °C. the country. Almost all the rain for the year falls
within this rainy season.
Precipitation • This pattern of concentrated heavy rainfall in
summer is a characteristic feature of the tropical
• Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. monsoon climate.
In some regions, it is around 350 cm.
• Places like Cherrapunji and Mawsynram re- The Retreating Monsoon
ceive an annual rainfall of about 1000 cm.
• The amount and frequency of rain decreases
Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (wettest places on towards the end of the rainy season.
earth by annual rainfall ― a little over 1150 cm per • It retreats gradually southwards after mid-
year) lie on the windward side of the Meghalaya September until it leaves the continent alto-
hills, so the resulting orographic lift (orographic gether.
rainfall) enhances precipitation. Also, they are • The skies are clear again and the cool, dry sea-
located between mountains which enhances cloud son returns in October, with the out blowing
concentration due to funnelling effect. North-East Monsoon.

Seasons Climate Graph

• Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon

climate.
43
 • The forests are more open and less luxuriant
than the equatorial jungle, and there are far
fewer species.
• Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in southern
Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and
coastal regions with a tropical marine climate,
the resultant vegetation is luxuriant.
• With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the for-
ests thin out into thorny scrubland or savanna
with scattered trees and tall grass.
Climate Graphs of regions with Tropical Monsoon • In parts of the Indian sub-continent (rain shad-
Climate ow regions ― regions east of Western Ghats
like north Karnataka, Telangana, Vidarbha), rain-
Tropical Marine Climate fall is so deficient that semi-desert conditions
are found in summer.
• Outside the monsoon zone, the climate is mod- • Monsoonal vegetation is thus most varied,
ified by the influence of the on-shore trade ranging from forests to thickets, and from sa-
winds all the year round. This type of climate vanna to scrubland.
is called Tropical Marine Climate.
• Such a climate has a more evenly distributed Population and Economy in Monsoon Cli-
rainfall. mate
• Such a climate is experienced in Central Ameri-
ca, West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the • Monsoon climatic regions support high popu-
Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the lation density.
Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil. • Income levels are low as most of these regions
• The rainfall is both orographic where the moist are still developing.
trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, • Subsistence farming is the main occupation.
and convectional due to intense heating dur-
ing the day and in summer. Subsistence farming: crops grown with an intention
• Its tendency is towards a summer maximum to secure food for the season. The crops are not sold
without any distinct dry period. as the production is very low.
• Due to the steady influence of the trades, the
• Intensive cultivation is common in regions with
Tropical Marine Climate is more favourable for
irrigational facilities.
habitation, but it is prone to severe tropical
• Shifting cultivation is followed in North-East
cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.
India and South-East countries.
• Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton, jute,
Tropical Monsoon Forests
spices, etc.
• Cattle and sheep rearing are carried out for
• Also known as drought-deciduous forest; dry
domestic and commercial purposes.
forest; dry-deciduous forest; tropical decid-
• Livestock industry is not as profitable as in
uous forest.
temperate regions.
• Broad-leaved hardwood trees are found
here. They are well developed in southeast Lumbering
Asia.
• Trees are normally deciduous, because of the • Most of the forests yield valuable timber and
marked dry period, during which they shed their are prized for their durable hardwood.
leaves to withstand the drought (they shed their • Lumbering is undertaken in the more accessible
leaves to prevent loss of water through transpi- areas. This is particularly important in continen-
ration). tal South-East Asia.

44
• Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of which • Some of the major producers include India, Ja-
Burma is the leading producer (three – quarters va, Formosa, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and
of the world’s production), is the most sought Barbados.
after. • Jute is confined almost entirely to the Ganges -
• It is valuable on account of its durability, Brahmaputra delta, in India and Bangladesh.
strength, immunity to shrinkage, fungus at- • Other crops include cotton, a major commercial
tack and insects. crop of the Indian sub-continent.
• Teak logs are so heavy that they will not float
readily on water. It is therefore necessary to Highland plantation crops
‘poison’ the tree several years before actual
felling so that it is dry and light enough to be • The colonisation of tropical lands by Europeans
floated down the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy gave rise to a new form of cultivated landscape
to reach the sawmills at Rangoon. in the cooler monsoonal highlands.
• Other kinds of timber include Neem, Banyan, • Thousands of acres of tropical upland forests
Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia, Eucalyptus. were cleared to make way for plantation agri-
• Together with the forests are bamboo thickets, culture in which tea and coffee are the most
which often grow to great heights. important crops.

Agricultural Development in the Monsoon Coffee

Lands • Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia.
• But Brazil accounts for almost half the world’s
• Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared
production of coffee.
for agriculture to support the very dense popu-
• It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the
lation.
Brazilian plateau.
• Farms are small, and the people are forever
• The crop is also cultivated on the highland
land hungry. Industrialisation makes things
slopes in the Central American states, India and
worse.
eastern Java.
• Farming is the dominant occupation of the In-
dian sub-continent, China, South- East Asia, Tea
eastern Brazil and the West Indies. The follow-
ing types of agriculture are recognisable. • Tea originated in China and is still an important
crop there.
Crops • It requires moderate temperatures (about
15°C), heavy rainfall (over 150 cm) and well-
• Rice is the most important staple crop. drained highland slopes.
• Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams or • It thrives well in the tropical monsoon zone
wells is extensively used in the major rice pro- (highlands).
ducing countries. • The best regions are thus the Himalayan foot-
• Other food crops like maize, millet, sorghum, hills of India and Bangladesh, the central
wheat, gram and beans are of subsidiary im- highlands of Sri Lanka and western Java,
portance. They are cultivated in the drier or from all of which it is exported.
cooler areas where rice cannot be grown. • In China, tea is grown mostly for local consump-
tion.
Lowland cash crops
Shifting Cultivation
• The most important crop in this category is
cane sugar. • This most primitive form of farming is widely
• As much as two-thirds of world’s sugar practised.
production comes from tropical countries.

45
• Instead of rotating the crops in the same field
to preserve fertility, the tribesmen move to a
new clearing when their first field is exhausted.
• Farming is entirely for subsistence.
• As tropical soils are rapidly leached and easily
exhausted, the first crop may be bountiful,
but the subsequent harvests deteriorate.
Savanna climate distribution: transitional zones be-
Region Name of Shifting Culti-
tween the equatorial rainforests and hot deserts
vation
Malaysia Lacking African Savanna
Burma Taungya
Thailand Tamrai • The belt includes West African Sudan and then
Philippines Caingin curves southwards into East Africa and southern
Java Humah Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
Sri Lanka Chena
Africa and Central Milpa South American Savanna
America
North-east India Jhum • There are two distinct regions namely the Lla-
nos of the Orinoco basin (north of the equator)
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate and the Compos of the Brazilian Highlands
(south of the equator).
(Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter)
Australian savanna
• Savanna climate has alternate wet and dry
seasons • The Australian savanna is located south of the
• There is no distinct rainy season like in mon- monsoon strip (northern Australia) running
soon climate. from west to east north of the Tropic of Capri-
• Rains occur in warm summer months. corn.
• Floods and droughts are common.
• Vegetation, wildlife and human life are quite Indian Savanna
different from monsoon climate regions.
• Certain parts across Northern Karnataka, South-
ern Maharashtra and Telangana exhibit charac-
teristics of both semi-arid and savanna climate.
• Irrigational projects that came up after inde-
pendence have drastically modified the savanna
characteristic of the region.

Savanna Climate
Typical savanna climate conditions
Rainfall
Distribution of Savanna Climate
• Savanna climate receives considerably less an-
• It is confined within the tropics and is best nual rainfall.
developed in Sudan, hence its name the Sudan • Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – 160 cm.
Climate. • Rainfall decreases with distance from equa-
• It is a transitional type of climate found be- tor.
tween the equatorial rainforests and hot de- • In the northern hemisphere, the rainy season
serts. begins in May and lasts till September.

46
• In the southern hemisphere, the rainy season is • Grasses die down in the dry season increasing
from October to March. the risk of forest fires.
• The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves
Temperature in the cool, dry season to prevent transpiration,
e.g. acacias.
• Mean annual temperature is greater than 18°C. • Trees usually have broad trunks, with water-
• The monthly temperature hovers between 20 °C storing devices to survive through the pro-
and 32 °C for lowland stations. longed drought.
• Highest temperatures do not coincide with • Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only
the period of the highest sun (e.g. June in the a narrow edge to the strong winds.
northern hemisphere) but occur just before the • As the rainfall diminishes towards the deserts,
onset of the rainy season, i.e. April in Northern the savanna merges into thorny scrub (semi-
Hemisphere and October in Southern Hemi- arid).
sphere.
• Days are hot and nights are cold. This ex-
treme diurnal range of temperature is another
characteristic feature of the Sudan type of cli-
mate. Vegetation in the savanna regions

Winds Animal Life of the Savanna

• The prevailing winds of the region are the trade • Rich animal diversity is the characteristic of sa-
winds, which bring rain to the coastal areas. vanna climate.
• They are strongest in the summer (favourable • Most of the National Geographic and Animal
position of ITCZ) but are relatively dry by the Planet documentaries on wild animals are shot
time they reach the continental interiors or the in savanna regions.
western coasts (trade winds are easterlies – flow • The herbivorous include the zebra, antelope,
from east to west. Hence, rainfall decreases deer, elephant etc. and carnivorous animals in-
from east to west). clude the lion, tiger, leopard, hyena, panther,
• In West Africa, the North-East Trades blow off- jaguar, jackal etc.
shore (continent to sea) from the Sahara Desert • Species of reptiles and mammals including
and reach the Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden crocodiles, alligators, giant lizards live together
winds. with the larger rhinoceros and hippopotamus in
rivers and marshy lakes.
What is the reason for alternating wet and dry
• Seasonal migration of animals in search of food
seasons in Savanna type climate?
is typical characteristic of savanna animal life.
• On-shore winds is summer bring rains. • The savanna is known as the big game country
• Off-shore winds in winter keep the climate dry. as animals are hunted down both legally and il-
legally.
Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate
Life and Economy in the Savanna
• The savanna landscape is typified by tall and
coarse grass (6 to 12 feet high) and short • Many tribes live in savanna region.
trees. • Tribes like the Masai tribes of the East African
• The elephant grass may attain a height of even plateau are pastoralists whereas Hausa of
15 feet. northern Nigeria are settled cultivators.
• The grasslands are also called as bush-veld. • The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in the
• Grasses appear greenish and well-nourished in Kenyan Highlands were taken over by the
the rainy season.

47
 white immigrant settlers for plantation agricul- • The savanna is said to be the natural cattle
ture (coffee, tea, cotton) and dairy farming. country, and many of the native people are
• The cattle kept by the Masai are kept entirely pastoralists.
for the supply of milk. They don’t slaughter cat- • But the quality of grass doesn’t support large
tle for meat. Agriculture is barely practised. scale ranching (typical to all tropical cli-
• The Hausa are a tribe of settled cultivators who mates).
inhabit the savanna lands of the Nigeria. They • Grasses here are no match to nutritious and soft
are more advanced in their civilisation. grasses of temperate grasslands.
• They do not practice shifting cultivation. In- • The cattle varieties are also poor and yield little
stead, they clear a piece of land and use it for meat or milk.
several years. • The export of either beef or milk from the tropi-
cal grasslands is so far not important.
Farming • Few regions progressed with the adaptation of
science and technology.
• Droughts are long due to unreliable rainfall. • Queensland has become Australia’s largest cat-
• Political instability hinders the development of tle producing state. Both meat and milk are
agricultural infrastructure. exported.
• The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry
periods, is also responsible for the rapid dete-
7.3 B – Dry Climate
rioration of soil fertility.
• During the rainy season, torrential downpours
• Grasslands and deserts are classified under B –
of heavy rain cause leaching of nitrates, phos-
dry climate.
phates and potash.
• Grasslands include subtropical savanna grass-
• During the dry season, intense heating and
lands (BSh) and temperate steppe grasslands
evapouration dry up most of the water.
(BSk).
• Many savanna areas, therefore, have poor lat-
• Deserts are regions where evapouration ex-
eritic soils which are incapable of supporting
ceeds precipitation.
good crops.
• There are mainly two types:
1. hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type
Crops in Savanna
(BWh) and
• Settlements in central Africa, northern Australia 2. temperate or mid-latitude deserts like the
and eastern Brazil have shown that the savan- Gobi Desert (BWk).
nas have immense agricultural potential for
plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W –
coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical Desert, h – low latitude)
fruits.
• Tropical Queensland, despite its scarcity of la- • The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to
bour force, has been very successful in develop- the effects of off-shore trade winds; hence
ing its huge empty land. they are also called trade wind deserts.
• Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi have al- • The major hot deserts of the world are located
ready taken to large-scale production of cotton. on the western coasts of continents between
• In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of latitudes 15° and 30°N and S.
groundnuts, oil palm and cocoa have been • They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5
gradually extended into the savanna lands. million square miles), Great Australian Desert,
• In the cooler highlands, temperate crops have Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert,
been successfully raised. Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
• In North America, the desert extends from Mex-
Cattle rearing ico into U.S.A. and is called by different names

48
 at different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Desert Climate
Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)
Desert is the driest of all deserts (driest place
on earth ― rain shadow effect of the Andes, • Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an
off-shore trade winds, westerlies blow to the annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.
south of Tropic of Capricorn, cold ocean cur- • Atacama (driest place on earth) has practically
rents: upwelling of cold water due to Walker no rain at all.
Circulation) with less than 2 cm of rainfall an- • Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms
nually. of the convectional type occasionally causing
flash floods.

Temperature of Hot deserts

• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and

the average summer temperature is high
around 30°C.
• The highest temperature recorded is 57.77 °C
in 1922 at Al Azizia, Libya.
• The reasons for the high temperatures are ob-
vious — a clear, cloudless sky, intense insola-
tion, dry air and a rapid rate of evapouration.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influ-
ence and the cooling effect of the cold currents
have much lower temperatures.
• The desert interiors, however, experience much
higher summer temperatures and the winter
months are rather cold.
Atacama Desert is the driest place on earth with less • The diurnal range of temperature in the de-
than 2 cm annual rainfall. serts is very great. Intense insolation by day in
a region of dry air and no clouds causes the
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – temperature to rise with the sun.
Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) • But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat
very quickly by radiation and the mercury levels
• The temperate deserts are rainless because of drop.
either continentality (e.g. Gobi Desert) or • High diurnal temperature range is a typical
rain-shadow effect (e.g. Patagonian Desert feature of hot deserts. Average diurnal range
due to rain-shadow effect of Andes). (difference between maximum and minimum
• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are temperature that occur within a day) varies from
found on plateau and are at a considerable dis- 14 to 25 °C.
tance from the sea. • Frosts may occur at night in winter.
• These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan,
Climatic Conditions in the Mid-latitude deserts
Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of Central Asia,
drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of • These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from
the western United States and Patagonian the sea and are sheltered by the high moun-
Deserts of Argentina etc. tains all around them. As a result, they are cut
• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain- off from the rain-bearing winds.
shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
Andes than due to continentality.

49
 Major Deserts of the World
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the When the ice thaws in early summer, floods oc-
Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall cur in many places.
in winter. Due to their coldness and elevation,
snow falls in winter. Desert Vegetation
• The annual range of temperature is much
greater than that of the hot deserts. • The predominant vegetation of both hot and
• Continentality accounts for these extremes in mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-
temperature. resistant.
• Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and riv- • This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-
ers, and strong cold winds blow all the time. rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant
groundwater to support clusters of date palms.
50
• Along the western coastal deserts washed by • Modem concrete dams constructed across the
cold currents as in the Atacama Desert, support Nile, e.g. Aswan and Sennar Dams improved
a thin cover of vegetation. agriculture.
• Intense evapouration increases the salinity of • In the same way, desert cultivators rely on the
the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to ac- Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-Euphrates in
cumulate on the surface forming hard pans (Ba- Iraq, and the Colorado in the Imperial Valley
jada, Palaya). of California.
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decom- • In the deserts, wherever there are oases (de-
position and desert soils are very deficient in pressions where underground water reaches the
humus. surface), some form of settled life is bound to
• Most desert shrubs have long roots (in search follow.
of groundwater) and are well spaced out to • Some of them are abnormally large like the Ta-
gather moisture. filalet Oasis in Morocco which measures 5,000
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is square miles.
either way, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped • A wall is usually constructed around the oasis to
to reduce the loss of water through transpira- keep out the violent dust storms called si-
tion. mooms.
• The seeds of grasses and herbs have thick, • The most important tree is the date palm. The
tough skins to protect them while they lie fruit is consumed locally and also exported.
dormant for years. • Other crops cultivated include maize, barley,
wheat, cotton, cane sugar, fruits and vegetables.

The mining settlers

• Gold is mined in Great Australian Desert. Kal-

goorlie and Coolgardie have become large
towns.
• In the Kalahari Desert (thirstland), the discovery
of diamonds and copper has brought many
white men.
• In Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining
camps have been established for the mining of
caliche (cemented gravels) from which sodi-
Desert vegetation um nitrate, a valuable fertiliser, is extracted.
• Besides nitrates, copper is also mined. Chu-
Life in the Deserts quicamata is the world's largest copper town.
• In the deserts of North America, silver is mined
• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always in Mexico, uranium in Utah and copper in
been peopled by different groups of inhabit- Nevada.
ants. • Discovery of oil, in many parts of the Saharan
Tribe Desert Occupation and Arabian Deserts, has transformed the re-
Bedouin Arabs Arabia nomadic herdsmen gion.
Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen
Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate
Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters
and collectors.
(BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high lati-
Bindibu Australia primitive hunters tude)
and collectors.
• Steppe climate is also known as Temperate
The settled cultivators Continental Climate.

51
 Distribution of temperate and tropical grasslands

Steppe grasslands in the Mongolian region

Distribution

• Most of the temperate grasslands lie in the in-

teriors of the continents in the westerly wind
belt.
• Some of the grasslands are formed due to rain
shadow effect of the mountains (good rains on
the windward side; on the leeward side deserts
or grasslands are formed).

52
• Grasslands are practically treeless due to con- • In Eurasia, they are called the steppes and
tinentality (deep within the interiors of the con- stretch eastwards from the shores of the Black
tinents where rain-bearing winds don’t reach) Sea to the foothills of the Altai Mountains.
and/or rain shadow effect.
Temperate Grassland Region
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
Prairies North America (between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great
Lakes)
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow effect)
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
High Veld (more temperate) Southern South Africa
Downs Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia
Canterbury New Zealand (rain shadow effect of Southern Alps)
Climate • It comes with the depressions in winter from the
Pacific coast ascending the Rockies and then
Temperature descending to the Prairies (katabatic wind).
• It is a hot wind and may raise the temperature
• Climate is continental with extremes of tem- by 5 °C within a matter of 20 minutes.
perature. • It melts the snow-covered pastures and benefits
• The summers are hot, and the winters are cold. agriculture and animal ranching.
• Summers are very warm and over 18-20 °C.
• In the southern hemisphere, the summers are Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate
never severe due to very narrow landmasses.
Grasses
Precipitation
• Greatest difference from the tropical savanna is
• The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 that steppes are practically treeless, and the
cm. grasses are much shorter.
• But precipitation varies according to location • Grasses are tall, fresh and nutritious. This is
from 25 cm to 75 cm (below 25 cm it is de- typical of the grass of the wheat-lands in North
sert climate). America, the rich black earth or chernozem
• The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late areas of Ukraine and the better-watered areas
spring and early summer). of the Asiatic Steppes.
• Most of the winter months have about 2.5 cm • Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or the
of precipitation, brought by the occasional de- soil is poor, as in the continental interiors of
pressions of the Westerlies and coming in the Asia the short steppe type of grass prevails.
form of snow. • The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry
• The maritime influence in the southern (lean, tough) and sparse (thinly dispersed or
hemisphere causes more rainfall. scattered).
• These areas are less suitable for arable farm-
Chinook (Snow eaters) ing and are used for some form of ranching as
in the High Plains of U.S.A.
• Chinook is a hot local katabatic wind that • The growth of grasses is not abruptly checked
blows down the eastern slopes of the Rockies. by summer droughts or winter cold.
• It is similar to the Fohn in Switzerland and
comes in a south-westerly direction to the Prai- Trees
ries.

53
• Poleward, an increase in precipitation gives rise Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes
to a transitional zone of wooded steppes where
some conifers gradually appear. • This type of migratory animal grazing has al-
• In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat most disappeared from the major grasslands.
farms of the Prairies, double rows of trees are • The herders were wandering tribes, e.g. the Kir-
planted around the house to shield the occu- ghiz, and the Kazakhs.
pants from the strong wind. • Now under the Communist regime, they are
being forced to settle down.
Animals • The steppes have been made into huge collec-
tive farms and state farms for ranching or pro-
• Temperate grasslands do not have much animal ducing cereals.
diversity (Savanna: high animal diversity).
• Horses are common in Asian Steppes. Extensive mechanised wheat cultivation

Economic Development of Steppes • The temperate grasslands are ideal for exten-
sive wheat cultivation.
Wheat and Maize Cultivation • The levelness of the Steppes and other tem-
perate grasslands all over the world makes
• Cultivation was unknown just before a century, ploughing and harvesting a comparatively easy
and the region was one of the most sparsely job.
populated parts of the world. • In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas, the
• In recent years, the grasslands have been Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of Austral-
ploughed up for extensive, mechanised wheat ia, agriculture is completely mechanised.
cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the
world’ (Prairies). Pastoral farming
• Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated
in the warmer and wetter areas. • The natural conditions suit animal farming.
• With the development of refrigerated ships in
Ranching the late nineteenth century, the temperate
grasslands became major pastoral regions, ex-
• The tufted grasses have been replaced by the porting large quantities of beef, mutton, wool,
more nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa grass for hides.
cattle and sheep rearing. • Milk, butter, cheese and other dairy products
• These temperate grasslands are now the lead- are also important in some parts of the North
ing ranching regions of the globe (e.g. Pam- American grasslands.
pas of Argentina).
Grassland Major Economic Activity
Prairies • Wheat Granaries
• Extensive Ranching
Pustaz • Rich black soil
• Abundant wheat production
• Sugar from Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose root contains a
high concentration of sucrose)
• Countries like Hungary, Ukraine, Romania etc.
Pampas • Alfalfa: nutrient-rich grass
• Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
• Extensive wheat producing region
• Economy depends on wheat and beef export

54
Downs and Canterbury • Sheep and Cattle rearing,
• Merino sheep: wool production
Veldts • Maize farms
• Sheep and Cattle rearing
7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-
latitude) Climates
C-Warm temperate (Mid-latitude) Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
Climates Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
Marine west coast Cf No dry season, warm and cool summer
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm • Southern Australia, and south-west Australia
Temperate, s – Dry summer) (Swanland).

Climate
• Mediterranean Climate is also known as Warm
Temperate Western Margin Climate or Warm
• Climate is characterised by clear skies and high
Temperate West Coast Climate.
temperatures.
• The summers are hot and dry, and the win-
ters are cool and wet.
• Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35-90
cm.
• Temperature of warmest month is greater than
or equal to 10° C.
• Temperature of coldest month is less than 18° C
but greater than –3° C.
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling
from water bodies.
Distribution of Mediterranean Climate A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades

Distribution • In summer, the belt of influence of the Wester-

lies is shifted a little poleward.
• They are confined to the western portion of
• Rain-bearing winds are therefore not likely to
continents, between 30° and 45° N and S of the
reach the Mediterranean lands.
equator.
• The prevailing trade winds (tropical easter-
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the
lies) are off-shore, and there is practically no
shifting of the wind belts (westerly wind
rain.
belt).
• Strong winds from inland desert regions pose
• Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of
the risk of wildfires.
this type of winter rain climate (winter maxi-
ma). Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies
• The best-developed form of this climatic type is
found in central Chile. • The Mediterranean lands receive most of the
precipitation in winter when the westerlies shift
Other Mediterranean regions include:
equatorward.
• California (around San Francisco), • In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-
• The south-western tip of Africa (around shore westerlies bring much cyclonic rain from
Cape Town), the Atlantic (winter rain is a characteristic fea-
ture of Mediterranean Climate).

55
• The rain comes in heavy showers and only on Mistral
a few days with bright sunny periods be-
tween them. This is another characteristic fea- • Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing
ture of the Mediterranean winter rain. down the Rhone valley in violent gusts.
• Though the downpours are infrequent, they are • The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the
often very torrential, and in mountainous dis- funnelling effect in the valley between the
tricts, destructive floods occur. Alps and the Central Massif (Plateau in
France).
Climate Graphs

Local winds in the Mediterranean

• A similar type of cold north-easterly wind expe-

rienced along the Adriatic coast is called the
Bora.
• Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold
winds of the Mediterranean Sea.
Climate graphs of cities with Mediterranean climate
Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean
Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate Climate

• Many local winds, some hot, others cold are

common around the Mediterranean Sea.

Sirocco

• This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in

the Sahara Desert.
• After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Siroc-
co is slightly cooled by the absorption of the
water vapour.
• Its scorching heat withers
(dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture) vegeta-
Mediterranean Climate
tion and crops.
• This may be blood rain because the wind is • Trees with small broad leaves are widely
carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert. spaced and never very tall.
56
• The absence of shade is a distinct feature of • The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per
Mediterranean lands. cent of the world’s exports of citrus fruits.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, • The olive tree is probably the most typical of all
dry air, excessive evapouration and prolonged Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
droughts. • A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges,
• They are, in short xerophytic (drought toler- lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown.
ant). • Besides citrus fruits, many nut trees like chest-
nuts, walnuts, and almonds are grown.
Mediterranean evergreen forests • The fruit trees have long roots to draw water
from considerable depths during the long
• These are open woodlands with evergreen summer drought.
oaks found only in the climatically most fa- • The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits pre-
voured regions. vents excessive transpiration.
• The trees are stunted, with massive trunks, small • The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be
leathery leaves and a wide-spreading root sys- ripened and harvested.
tem.
• The cork oaks are valued for their thick barks, Crop cultivation and sheep rearing
used for making wine-bottle corks.
• In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the • Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the
evergreen oak. next most popular cereal.
• The giant redwood is typical of the Californian • The mountain pastures, with their cooler cli-
trees. mate, support a few sheep, goats and some-
times cattle.
Evergreen coniferous trees • Transhumance is widely practised (seasonal
movement up and down the hills in search of
• These include the various kinds of pines, firs, pastures).
cedars and cypresses which have evergreen,
needle-shaped leaves and tall, straight trunks. Wine production

Mediterranean bushes and shrubs • Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean oc-

cupation.
• This is perhaps the most predominant type of • The Mediterranean regions account for three-
Mediterranean vegetation. quarters of the world’s production of wine.
• Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into
Grass
wine.
• Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit
Economy
grass, because most of the rain comes in the
cool season when growth is slow. • The regions are a net exporter of citric fruits
• Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry (lean,
and net importer of dairy products.
tough) and bunchy that they are not suitable
• Clear skies in summer and good landscapes en-
for animal farming. Cattle rearing is thus un-
courage tourism (a lot of Indian Songs are
important in the Mediterranean.
shot here).
• European Mediterranean has many ancient cit-
Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate
ies and are famous for their health and pleasure
resorts.
Orchard farming

• The Mediterranean lands are also known as the

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Cli-
world’s orchard lands. mate (Cfa)

57
• Cfa: C – warm temperate, f – no dry season, a – Gulf Type
hot summer.
• It is also known as Humid subtropical climate. • Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the
• This type of climate is found between 20° and Gulf of Mexico where continental heating in
35° N and S latitude (warm temperate lati- summer induces an inflow of air from the cooler
tudes or subtropics; hence it is also known as Atlantic Ocean.
Humid subtropical climate); on the east coast in • Monsoonal characteristics are less intense
both hemispheres. compared to China type.
• There is no complete seasonal wind reversal.
Different variants of Warm Temperate Eastern Mar- • Hurricanes occur in September and October.
gin Climate include the
Natal Type
a) Temperate monsoon Climate or China Type
Climate,
• Found in in New South Wales (Australia), Na-
b) Gulf Type Climate and
tal (South Africa), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay
c) Natal Type Climate.
basin (South America).
• Natal type is different from temperate monsoon
or China type as it receives rainfall from on-
shore Trade Winds all the year round.
• The narrowness of the continents and the dom-
inance of maritime influence eliminate the
monsoonal elements.
• The South-East Trade Winds bring about a
more even distribution of rainfall throughout
China Type
the year
• Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate is Climate type Feature
observed in most parts of China. China type Temperate monsoonal
• The climate is also observed in southern parts Gulf type Slight-monsoonal
of Japan. Natal type Non-monsoonal
Summer
Climate
• Intense heating within interiors (Tibet, desert
• Characterised by a warm moist summer and a
region) sets up a region of low-pressure in
cool, dry winter (winters are also moist in Natal
summer attracting tropical Pacific air stream
Type).
(South-East Monsoon).
• Monsoon does not ‘burst’ as suddenly, nor Temperature
‘pour’ as heavily as in India.
• Typhoons form mostly in late summer, from July • The mean monthly temperature varies between
to September. 4 °C and 25 °C and is strongly modified by mar-
itime influence.
Winter
• Occasionally, the penetration of cold air (Polar
Vortex) from the continental interiors may
• In winter, there is intense pressure over Sibe-
bring down the temperature to freezing point.
ria, and the continental polar air stream flows
• Though frosts are rare, they occasionally occur
outwards as the North-West Monsoon, bitterly
in the colder interiors.
cold and very dry.
• There is little rain but considerable snow on the Precipitation
windward slopes.

58
• Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from Climate graphs of places with Humid subtropical
60 cm to 150 cm. climate
• This is adequate for all agricultural purposes
and hence supports a wide range of crops. Natural Vegetation
• Areas which experience this climate are very
densely populated. • Supports a luxuriant vegetation.
• There is a fairly uniform distribution of rain- • The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-
fall throughout the year. leaved forests and deciduous trees (hard-
• Rain comes either from convectional sources or wood).
as orographic rain in summer, or from depres- • On the highlands, are various species of conifers
sions in prolonged showers in winter. such as pines and cypresses which are im-
• In summer, the regions are under the influ- portant softwoods.
ence of moist, maritime airflow from the • Perennial plant growth is not checked by either
subtropical anticyclonic cells. a dry season or a cold season.
• Local storms, e.g. typhoons, and hurricanes,
also occur. Timber

Climate Graphs • The forests of China and southern Japan also

have considerable economic value and include
oak, camphor, etc.
• South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-
eastern Argentina have Parana pine, and the
quebracho (axe-breaker, an extremely hard
wood used for tanning).
• Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests.
• In Natal, palm trees thrive.
• The Gulf states of U.S.A. have lowland decidu-
ous forests.

Economic Development
Region Major Cropping Patterns
South-Eastern China • Rice, tea and mulberries (sericulture)
• Sericulture is declining
South-Eastern USA • Widespread cultivation of maize and cotton in the Corn and Cotton
Belts of U.S.A
• Fruit and tobacco are also grown
Natal, South Africa • Sugarcane
South America • Coffee and maize and dairying
Farming in monsoon China • As the flat lands are insufficient for rice cultiva-
tion, farmers move up the hill-slopes and grow
• A third of the world’s rice is grown in China, padi on terraced uplands.
though the huge population leaves very little
for export. Agriculture in the Gulf states
• Monsoon China has all the ideal conditions for
padi cultivation; a warm climate, moderately • Lack of population pressure and the urge to ex-
wet throughout the year, and extensive low- port gave rise to corn, cotton and tobacco.
lands with fertile moisture-retentive alluvial soil,
which if necessary, can be easily irrigated. Corn

59
• The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy Tobacco
showers suit the crop well.
• It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the Mid- • It is a native crop of America.
west south of the Great Lakes, with the greatest • Virginia tobacco is famous.
concentration in the Corn Belt of Nebraska, Io- • The humid atmosphere, the warmth and the
wa, Indiana and Ohio. well-drained soils of the Gulf states, enable to-
• The region accounts for more than half the bacco to be successfully cultivated in many of
world’s production of corn, but only 3 per cent the eastern states of U.S.A.
of the world’s export. • No less than half the tobacco that enters inter-
• This is because most of the corn is used for fat- national trade comes from these states.
tening animals, mostly cattle and pigs (thriv-
ing beef and pork industry). Crops in Southern Hemisphere
• The fattened animals are then sold to the meat
• In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the
plants in Chicago and Cincinnati to be
dominant crop, followed by cotton and tobac-
processed into ‘corned beef’ (from here the
co in the interior.
beef is exported through Great Lakes and St
• Maize is extensively cultivated for use both as
Lawrence waterway).
food and animal fodder for cattle rearing.
• Apart from its ease of cultivation, corn’s most
• In South America where rainfall is less than 120
outstanding feature is its prolific yield.
cm, there is much grassland on which many cat-
• It gives almost twice as much food (mainly
tle and sheep are kept for meat, wool and hides.
starch) per acre as wheat or other cereals.
• The extensive natural pastures provide valuable
• This explains why it is so widely cultivated in
forage for both cattle and sheep.
both the warm temperate and the tropical lati-
• Further north in southern Brazil, the rainfall in-
tudes.
creases to more than 120 cm, and forest gradu-
Cotton ally replaces grass.
• Here the important occupations are the cultiva-
• Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states, none tion of yerba mate (Paraguay tea) and the lum-
is comparable with cotton. bering of araucaria or Parana pine. Cattle and
• The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the sheep are reared, and maize and cane sugar are
best for cotton growing. grown.
• Its long, hot growing season with 200 days frost • In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus trees rise
free and a moderately high temperature per- one above the other right up the Eastern High-
mits the crop to grow slowly and mature within lands.
six months. • But with the influx of European immigrants,
• In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the heavy much of the forest has been cleared for settle-
rainfall damages the lint. This area is, therefore, ment and dairying.
less suitable for cotton and is devoted to citrus • The eastern margin of New South Wales is now
fruits, cane sugar and market gardening, as in the chief source of Australia’s milk, butter and
Florida. cheese, besides cotton, cane sugar and maize
• The commercial cultivation of cotton is now which are increasingly grown in the north.
concentrated only in the most favourable areas
which are the Mississippi flood plains and At- British Type Climate or Cool Temperate
lantic coastlands. Western Margin Climate (Cf)
• The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is
the boll-weevil. The pest multiplies rapidly. The • Cf: C – Warm temperate, f – no dry season
pest is responsible for the westward migration • It is also known as North-West European Mari-
of the Cotton Belt. time Climate.

60
• The cool temperate western margins are under Temperature
the influence of the Westerlies all-round the
year. • The mean annual temperatures are usually be-
• They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activi- tween 5 °C and 15 °C.
ty (temperate cyclones). • Summers are moderately warm.
• This type of climate is typical to Britain, hence • Winters are abnormally mild because of the
the name ‘British Type’. warming effect brought by warm North Atlan-
• Also called as North-West European Maritime tic Drift.
Climate due to greater oceanic influence. • Sometimes, unusual cold spells are caused by
the invasion of cold polar continental air from
Distribution of British Type Climate the interiors.
• Ports are never frozen, but frosts do occur on
cold nights.

Precipitation

• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with

winter maxima (due to frontal cyclones).
• Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due
to westerlies.
Distribution of British Type Climate • In New Zealand, the western margins are sub-
jected to heavy orographic rainfall whereas the
Europe eastern Canterbury plains receive compara-
tively less rainfall due to rain-shadow effect.
• Most pronounced in and around Britain.
• In Europe, the climate extends far inland into
the lowlands of North-West Europe (northern
and western France, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Denmark, western Norway and also north-
western Iberia).

North America

• High Rockies prevent the on-shore westerlies

from penetrating far inland.
• Hence, it is confined mainly to the coastlands of Canterbury Plains are to the east of Southern Alps
British Columbia.
The seasons
Southern Hemisphere
• As in other temperate regions, there are four
• The climate is experienced in southern Chile, distinct seasons (something that is conspicu-
Southern Australia, Tasmania and most parts ously absent in the tropics).
of New Zealand (regions east of Southern
Rainforest: Only Rainy season; Tropical Monsoon:
Alps).
Summer, Winter and Rainy: Tropical Savanna: Sum-
mer (rains) and Winter.
Climate .
• Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy
• The climate is very favourable for maximum mornings, and many rainy days from the pass-
human output. ing depressions.

61
• Spring is the driest and the most refreshing sea- • Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous
son when people emerge from the depressing trees occur in pure stands and have greater
winter. lumbering value.
• This is followed by the long, sunny summer. • The open forests with sparse undergrowth
• Next is the autumn with the roar of gusty winds; mean that logging, transportation are easy and
and the cycle repeats itself. economical.
• The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for
Climate Graph British Type Climate both fuel and industrial purposes.
• In Tasmania, the temperate eucalypts are also
extensively felled for the lumbering industry.
• Higher up the mountains, conifers (softwood)
are felled and transported to paper and pulp
industry.
• They are extensively used in cardboard making.

Industrialisation

• The regions are highly industrialized with high

standard of living.
• Britain, France and Germany have significant
mineral resources and are heavily industrialised.
• The countries are concerned in the production
of machinery, chemicals, textiles rather than ag-
riculture, fishing or lumbering, though these ac-
Climate graph of London tivities are well represented in some of the
countries.
Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate • Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire, Man-
chester and Liverpool regions in Britain are
• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is significant for wide-ranging manufacturing in-
deciduous forest (trees shed their leaves in the dustries.
cold season). • Automobile industry is the most significant
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves (BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Mercedes-Benz and
against the winter snow and frost. many other world leading car manufacturers
• Shedding begins in autumn, the fall season. have their headquarters in Germany).
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, • Industries based on dairy products thrive in
ash, birch, beech, and poplar. Denmark, Netherlands and New Zealand.
• In the wetter areas grow willows (lightweight • Tasmania is important for merino wool pro-
cricket bats are made from willows. In India wil- duction. Wool produced here is exported to
lows are found in Kashmir). textile factories in England, Japan, China etc.
• Higher up the mountains, deciduous trees are • Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Nor-
generally replaced by the conifers which can way and British Columbia.
survive a higher altitude, a lower temperature
and poorer soils. Agriculture

Economy in British Type Climate • A large range of cereals, fruits and root crops
are raised, mainly for home consumption.
Lumbering is quite profitable • North-West Europe, which includes some of the
most crowded parts of the globe, has little sur-

62
 plus for export. It is, in fact, a net importer of • From Denmark and New Zealand comes high-
food crops, especially wheat. quality butter.
• Milk is converted to cream (less perishable
Market gardening than fresh milk) and is exported to all regions
across the globe.
• All the north-western European countries are • Fresh milk is converted into various forms of
highly industrialised and have high population condensed or evapourated milk, and exported
densities. around the world for baby-feeding, confection-
• There will normally be great demand for fresh ery, ice-cream and chocolate making.
vegetables, eggs, meat, milk and fruits.
• As the crops are perishable, a good network of Beef cattle
transport is indispensable.
• The produce is shipped by high-speed trucks • Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef
(truck farming, which is commonly used in the cattle.
United States) • In Argentina or Australia, meat production is the
• In Australia, high-speed boats ply across the primary concern.
Bass Strait daily from Tasmania (garden state) • The high rate of beef consumption in Europe
to rush vegetables and fruits to most of the necessitates large imports of frozen and
large cities in mainland Australia. chilled beef.
• The pigs and poultry act as scavengers that
Mixed farming feed on the left-overs from root-crops and dairy
processes.
• Arable farms are devoured by factories and • In this way, Denmark is able to export large
wheat is now a net import item in Europe. quantities of bacon (cured meat from the back
• Throughout north-western Europe, farmers or sides of a pig) from pigs that are fed on the
practice both arable farming (cultivation of skimmed milk, a by-product of butter-
crops on ploughed land) and pastoral farming making.
(keeping animals on grass meadows).
• Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most exten- Sheep rearing
sively grown, almost entirely for home con-
sumption. • Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton.
• The next most important cereal raised in the • Britain is the home of some of the best-known
mixed farm is barley. sheep breeds.
• The better quality barley is sold to the breweries • With the greater pressure exerted on land by
for beer-making or whisky distilling. increased urbanisation, industrialisation and ag-
• The most important animals kept in the mixed riculture, sheep rearing is being pushed further
farm are cattle. and further into the less-favoured areas.
• The countries bordering the North Sea (Britain, • Britain was once an exporter of wool (but now it
Denmark, the Netherlands) are some of the imports from Australia).
most advanced dairying countries where cattle • Today it exports only British pedigree animals to
are kept on a scientific and intensive basis. the newer sheep lands of the world (Austral-
ia).
Dairying • In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is
the chief occupation of New Zealand, with its
• The temperate western margin type of climate greatest concentration in the Canterbury Plain
is almost ideal for intensive dairying. (the rain shadow region).
• Cheese is a specialized product of the Nether- • Favourable conditions include extensive mead-
lands. ows, a mild temperate climate, well-drained lev-
el ground, scientific animal breeding, refrigera-

63
 tion (enables the export of chilled Canterbury rope and most of central and southern Rus-
lamb and Corriedale mutton to every corner of sian.
the globe).

Other agricultural activities

Potatoes

• Potatoes feature prominently in the domestic

economy of the cool temperate regions.
• It is the staple food in supplementing wheat or Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate
bread for millions of people.
• Potato yields far more starch than any cereals Taiga Climate
and can be cultivated over a range of climatic
and soil types.

Beet Sugar

• Found almost exclusively in north-western

Europe (including European Russia) and parts of Taiga Vegetation
U.S.A.
• The beet is crushed for sugar, and the green Temperature
tops are used as animal fodder. Producing sug-
ar from beet sugar started during the Napole- • Summers are brief and warm (20-25 °C) where-
onic Wars when military blockades caused a as winters are long and cold (30-40 °C below
scarcity of sugar. freezing).
• Some of the lowest temperatures in the world
7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68° N) where -67
°C was once recorded.
• Annual temperature range of is the greatest
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f –
due to continentality (almost 50-60 °C in Sibe-
no dry season, c – cold summer) ria).
• In North America, the extremes are less severe,
• It is also known as Siberian Climate OR Cool because of the continent’s lesser east-west
Temperate Continental Climate OR Continental stretch.
Sub-Polar Climate (just below Arctic circle ― • All over Russia, nearly all the rivers are frozen.
50° to 70° N). In normal years, the Volga is ice-covered for
• Taiga Climate is found only in the northern about 150 days.
hemisphere due to great east-west extent. • Occasionally cold, polar local winds such as the
• It is absent in the southern hemisphere because blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia
of the narrowness of landmasses and strong blow violently.
oceanic influence in the high latitudes. • Permafrost (subsurface layer of soil that remains
• On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic below freezing throughout the year) are gener-
tundra; equatorward it fades into steppe cli- ally absent as snow is a poor conductor of
mate. heat and protects the ground from the severe
cold above.
Distribution
Precipitation
• It stretches along a continuous belt across cen-
tral Canada, some parts of Scandinavian Eu- • Maritime influence in the interiors is absent.

64
• Frontal disturbances might occur in winter. • Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is no
• Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm annual replacement of new leaves as in decidu-
to 63 cm. ous trees.
• It is quite well distributed throughout the • The same leaf remains on the tree for as long as
year, with a summer maximum (convectional five years.
rains). • Food is stored in the trunks, and the bark is
• In winter the precipitation is in the form of thick to protect the trunk from excessive cold.
snow. • Conifers are conical in shape with sloping
branches that prevent snow accumulation.
Climate Graph • Their shape also offers little grip to the violent
winds.
• Transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm
summer. So, leaves are small, thick, leathery
and needle-shaped to check excessive tran-
spiration.
• The soils of the coniferous forests are poor.
They are excessively leached and very acidic.
• Humus content is also low as the evergreen
leaves barely fall and the rate of decomposition
is slow.
• Under-growth is negligible because of the poor
Climate graphs of places with Taiga Climate
soil conditions.
• Absence of direct sunlight and the short dura-
Natural Vegetation
tion of summer are other contributory factors.
• Coniferous forests are also found in regions
• The predominant vegetation is evergreen co-
with high elevation (Example: the forests just
niferous forest as they require little moisture.
below the snowline in Himalayas).
• Pine, fir (e.g. douglas fir and balsam fir), spruce
• But on very steep slopes where soils are imma-
and larch are the four major species of conifers.
ture or non-existent, even the conifer cannot
• The greatest single band of the coniferous for-
survive (Example: Southern slopes of Greater
est is the taiga (Russian word for coniferous
Himalayas).
forest) in Siberia.
• In Europe, the countries that have a similar type
Economic Development
of climate and forests are Sweden and Finland.
• There are small amounts of natural coniferous
• Lot of coniferous forests in the northern hemi-
forest in Germany, Poland, Switzerland, and
sphere are still untouched due to remoteness.
other parts.
• Only a small fraction of coniferous forests in
• In North America, the belt stretches from Alas-
Canada, Russia etc. are exploited.
ka across Canada into Labrador.
• Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops can
• In the southern hemisphere, coniferous forests
survive in the sub-Arctic climates.
are found only on the mountainous uplands of
southern Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania and Trapping
south-east Australia.
• Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in nor-
Characteristics of Coniferous forests therly lands of Canada and Eurasia.
• Wherever the cold is severe, the quality and
• Coniferous forests are of moderate density
thickness of the fur increases.
and are more uniform.
• In Canada trappers and hunters, armed with au-
• The trees in coniferous forests grow straight
tomatic rifles, reside in log cabins in the midst
and tall.
65
 of the coniferous forests to track down these • The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North
animals. America are the richest sources of softwood.
• Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are the
most important fur-bearing animals. Demand
• To ensure a more regular supply of furs, many
fur farms have been established in Canada and • Softwood is used in construction, furniture,
Siberia. matches, paper and pulp, rayon and chemical
industry.
Lumbering
Limited species
• This is the most important occupation of the
• The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce
Siberian type of climate.
and fir in the northern forests and larch in the
• The vast reserves of softwood coniferous forests
warmer south are the most important.
provide the basis for the lumbering industry.
• The world’s greatest softwood producers are Pure stands
Russia, U.S.A., Canada and the Fennoscandian
countries (Finland, Norway and Sweden). • Unlike rainforests, they occur in homogeneous
• Contract labourers called lumberjacks used to groups (pure stands).
temporarily move to the forest regions to fell • This saves time, costs and enhances the com-
the trees. Now felling is done by machines. mercial value of the felled timber.
• Rivers for transportation: The softwood logs • Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter
easily float on rivers. Hence rivers are used to when the sap ceases to flow (sap stays in the
transport logs to the sawmills located down the ground, and the wood is lighter).
stream.
• Sawmilling: Logs are processed in sawmills into Cheap means of transportation
timber, plywood, and other constructional
woods. • The snow-covered ground makes logging and
• Paper and pulp industry: Timber is pulped by haulage (commercial transport) a relatively easy
both chemical and mechanical means to make job.
wood pulp. Wood pulp is the raw material for • The logs are dragged to the rivers and float to
paper-making and newsprint. U.S.A. is the lead- the saw-mills downstream when the rivers thaw
er. in spring.
• But in the field of newsprint, Canada accounts • It is quite easy in Canada, Norway and Sweden
for almost half of the world’s total annual pro- as the rivers are not frozen for a greater part of
duction. the year.
• As a fuel: Very little softwood is burnt as fuel as • But in Russian taiga, most of Siberian rivers
its industrial uses are far more significant. drain poleward into the Arctic Ocean which is
• As an industrial raw material: In Sweden, frozen for three-quarters of the year, and there
matches form a major export item. are few saw-mills there.
• From the by-products of the timber, many • However, with the use of the Northern Sea
chemically processed articles are derived such Route, which links Murmansk and Vladivostok
as rayon turpentine, varnishes, paints, dyes, liq- via the Arctic Ocean, development is increasing.
uid resins, wood-alcohols, disinfectants and
cosmetics. Cheap electricity

Factors that favour lumbering in Taiga climate • Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the saw-mills
is harnessed in the mountainous uplands of
Softwood trees North America and Europe and has greatly as-
sisted the lumbering industry.

66
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate • Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm,
Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc) wet summers.
• Winter temperatures is below freezing-point
• Dfb: f – no dry season, b – warm summer. and snow fall is quite natural.
• It is an intermediate type of climate between • Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25 °C).
the British Type Climate (moderate) and the
Precipitation
Taiga Type Climate (extreme).
• It has features of both the maritime and the
• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with sum-
continental climates.
mer maxima (easterly winds from the oceans
bring rains).
Distribution of Laurentian Climate
• Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm (two-
thirds of rainfall occurs in the summer).
• Laurentian type of climate is found only in two
• Dry westerlies that blow from continental inte-
regions and that too only in the northern hemi-
riors dominate winters.
sphere.
• North-eastern North America, including eastern The North American region
Canada, north-east U.S.A., and
Newfoundland. This may be referred to as the • In summer, prolonged heat waves cause dis-
North American region. comfort.
• Eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern • In winter, the temperature drops below freezing
Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and and snowfall occurs.
northern Japan. • Precipitation occurs all-round the year due to
the influence of warm Gulf Stream (increases
the moisture of easterly winds in summer) and
the Great Lakes (westerlies, temperate cyclones
in winter).
• The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture
of easterly winds.
• Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the
cold Labrador Current near Newfoundland pro-
duces dense mist and fog and gives rise to
much precipitation.
Absent in Southern Hemisphere
• It is said that Newfoundland experiences more
drizzles than any other part of the world.
• In the southern hemisphere only a small section
of continents extends south of 40° S latitude.
• Some of these small sections come under the
rain-shadow region of Andes (Patagonia).
• So, these regions are subjected to aridity rather
than continentality.
• In other regions, the oceanic influence is so pro-
found that neither the continental nor the east-
ern margin type of climate exists.

Climate Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off New-
foundland
Temperature
The Asiatic region

67
• Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region is far Climate Graph
less uniform when compared to North Ameri-
can Region.
• Winters are cold and very dry while summers
are very warm and exceptionally wet.
• The rainfall regime resembles the tropical
monsoon type in India.
• Intense heating in interior of China in summer
creates a region of low-pressure, and moisture-
laden winds from the Pacific Ocean and the Sea
of Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon.
• Thus, the Laurentian type of climate in China is
often described as the Cool Temperate Mon- Climate graph of places with Laurentian climate
soon Climate.
• It has a very long, cold winter, and a large an- Natural Vegetation
nual range of temperature.
• The predominant vegetation is cool temperate
• Much of the winter precipitation in northern
forest.
China, Korea and Hokkaido, Japan, is in the
• The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the
form of snow.
damp air from fogs, all favour the growth of
Japan trees.
• Forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50° N
• The climate of Japan is modified by the meet- latitude.
ing of warm and cold ocean currents. • In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea),
• It receives adequate rainfall from both the the coniferous forests are a continuation of the
South-East Monsoon in summer and the North- great coniferous belt of the taiga.
West Monsoon in winter (western coasts of Ja-
pan) Lumbering
• The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of Japan
• From Laurentian Climate regions, both temper-
less extreme.
ate hardwood and temperate softwood are ob-
• The meeting zone between warm Kuroshio
tained.
from south and cold Oyashio from the north
• Much of the coniferous forests of fir, spruce and
produce fog and mist, making north Japan a
larch are exploited to a great extent.
second Newfoundland.
• Conifers are present in pure stands with only a
• Fishing replaces agriculture as the main occu-
handful of species.
pation in many of the indented coastlands.
• Eastern Canada is the heart of the Canadian
timber and wood pulp industry (St. Lawrence
River helps in export).
• South of latitude 50° N., the coniferous forests
give way to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, ma-
ple and birch are most common.
• They have been extensively felled for the extrac-
tion of temperate hardwood.
• In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the forests have
made way for the agriculture.

Economic Development
Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off Japan

68
• Lumbering, timber, paper and pulp industries Russia and Japan, also send fishing fleets to the
are the most important economic undertakings. Grand Banks.
• Agriculture is less important because of long • Over-fishing is a growing problem.
and severe winters.
• In the North American region, farmers are en- Fishing off Japan
gaged in dairy farming.
• The Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia is the • North-west Pacific surrounding the islands of
world’s most renowned region for apples. Japan is another very important fishing grounds
• Fishing is, however, the most outstanding eco- of the world.
nomic activity. • Majority of the people in the region depend on
fishing for survival.
Fishing off Newfoundland • Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports
with complete refrigeration facilities.
• Regions around the Grand Banks of New- • Japan accounts for a sixth of the world’s total
foundland are the world’s largest fishing annual fish caught.
grounds. • The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and
• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labra- wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlantic
dor currents make the region the most produc- waters.
tive fishing ground on earth. • Large whaling fleets with processing plants ven-
• The gently sloping continental shelves stretch ture into distant regions as far as Arctic and
for over 200 miles south-east of Newfoundland, Antarctic (Japan is criticized for its whaling
and off the coasts of the Maritime Provinces operations).
and New England. Hence microscopic plankton • The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal
are abundant. and seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms.
• Japan is one of the few countries that has taken
Fish feed on minute marine organisms called to seaweed cultivation (India is taking baby
plankton. Plankton is abundantly available in steps).
shallow waters (continental shelves) where they • Coastal farms that are submerged in water grow
have access to both sunlight as well as nutrients. weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical ingredient
Also, cold and warm water mixing creates and food.
upwelling of cold nutrient-rich water to the sur- • Another aspect of Japanese fishing is pearl cul-
face. ture. Pearls are harvested from pearl oysters.
• Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here • As natural pearls are difficult to obtain, the Jap-
and support a thriving fishing industry. anese have begun to harvest cultured pearls.
• In Newfoundland, fishing industry employs al-
Why is fishing the dominant occupation of Ja-
most the entire population.
pan?
• Further inland, in lakes and rivers (St. Lawrence
and the Great Lakes), freshwater fish like salmon • The mountainous nature of Japan and parts of
are caught. mainland eastern Asia support little agricultural
• All the fishing activities are carried out by highly activity (80 per cent land in Japan is classified as
mechanised trawlers which can store fish in re- ‘non-agricultural’. Around 50% of the total land
frigerated chambers for months.
is covered by forests).
• St. John’s, chief port of Newfoundland is the
• Japan is not well endowed with natural re-
headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing indus- sources. Hence fishing forms a dominant aspect
tries. of the economy.
• All processing activities like cutting, cleaning, • The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in
packing for disposal are done at the ports itself. Japan for livestock farming of any kind)
• Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like popularised fish as the principal item of diet
Norway, France, Britain, Portugal, Denmark,

69
 and the chief protein food of the Japanese and • In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the
the Chinese as well. greatest single stretch of ice-cap (10,000 feet
• There exists a great demand for fish and fish thick).
products in the nearby countries where fishing • The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the
industry is under-developed. barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska
• Japan has huge stakes in international fishing and the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra
enterprises and her advanced fishing tech- climate.
niques give her an edge over competitors.
• Advanced financial services, encouraging gov- Climate
ernment policy, advanced technology at hand,
skilled workforce with decades of experience in Temperature
fishing and the only available natural resource
to exploit, make Japan a leader in fishing indus- • The tundra climate is characterized by a very
try. low mean annual temperature.
• In mid-winter temperatures are as low as 40 –
Geographical advantage 50 °C below freezing. Summers are relatively
warmer.
• The continental shelves around the islands of • Normally not more than four months have tem-
Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting peratures above freezing-point.
of the warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio cur- • Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are
rents and provide excellent breeding grounds weeks of continuous darkness (earth’s tilted axis
for all kinds of fish. and revolution around the sun).
• The indented coastline of Japan provides • The ground remains solidly frozen and is inac-
sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe cessible to plants.
landing places, ideal for the fishing industry. • Frost occurs at any time and blizzards, reaching
a velocity of 130 miles an hour is not infrequent.
7.6 E – Cold Climates
Precipitation
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic
• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and
Climate sleet.
• Convectional rainfall is generally absent.

Natural Vegetation

• There are no trees in the tundra.

• Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens
etc. are found here and there.
• Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands
are a little favourable.
• Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses and
reindeer moss which provide the only pasturage
Distribution of Tundra Climate
for reindeers.
• In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes and
Distribution
Arctic flowers bloom.
• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle • In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on
and south of Antarctic Circle. the numerous insects which emerge when the
• The ice-caps are confined to highlands and high snow thaws.
latitude regions of Greenland and Antarctica.

70
• Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic In the context of the above two statements, which
hare and lemmings also live in tundra regions. one of the following is correct?
• Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.
a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct ex-
Human Activities planation of A
b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct expla-
• Human activities of the tundra are largely nation of A
confined to the coast. c) A is true but R is false
• People live a semi-nomadic life. d) A is false but R is true
• In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live
Q2.
the Eskimos.
Assertion (A): Areas lying within five to eight
• During winter they live in compact igloos.
degrees latitude on either side of the equator
• Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses
receive rainfall throughout the year.
and polar bears.
Reason (R): High temperatures and high humidi-
• Nowadays rifles instead of traditional harpoons
ty cause convectional rain to fall mostly in the
are used to track down animals.
afternoons near the equator. [2003]
Recent Development of the Arctic Region a) Both A and R are individually true, and R is the
correct explanation of A
• New settlements have sprung up because of the
b) Both A and R are individually true, but R is not
discovery of minerals.
the correct explanation of A
• Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the Kenai
c) A is true but R is false
Peninsula, Alaska; and copper at the Rankin In-
d) A is false but R is true
let, Canada.
• With the declining reserves of iron ore around Q3.
the Great Lakes, iron ore deposits in Labrador A geographic area with an altitude of 400 me-
are gaining importance. New railway lines have tres has following characteristics. [2010]
been constructed to bring the ores to the St.
Lawrence River.
• Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and Galliva-
re helped Sweden enjoy a prosperous export
trade in iron and steel and other metallurgical
products.
• New ports on the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia has
made it possible to ship timber and fur from Si-
If this geographic area were to have a natural
beria. Modern ice-breakers makes the frozen
forest, which one of the following would it most
seas navigable.
likely be?

7.7 Questions a) Moist temperate coniferous forest

b) Montane subtropical forest
Previous prelims questions c) Temperate forest
d) Tropical rain forest
Q1.
Assertion (A): Areas near the equator receive Q4.
Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the
rainfall throughout the year.
Reason (R): High temperatures and high humidi- tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield produc-
ty cause convectional rain in most afternoons tive farmland that can support intensive agricul-
near the equator. ture for several years even without chemical
fertilizers.

71
Reason (R): The primary productivity of the 1) Biodiversity hotspots are located only in tropical
tropical rain forest is very high when compared regions.
to that of temperate forests. [2003] 2) India has four biodiversity hotspots, i.e., Eastern
Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats
a) Both A and R are individually true, and R is the and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are individually true, but R is not Which of the statements given above is/are cor-
the correct explanation of A rect?
c) A is true, but R is false
d) A is false, but R is true a) 1 only
b) 2 only
Q5. c) Both 1 and 2
Consider the following statements: [2010] d) Neither I nor 2

Biodiversity Hotspots Across the World

Q8.
Q6. A geographic region has the following distinct
The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristics: [2010]
characteristic of
1. Warm and dry climate
a) Equatorial climate 2. Mild and wet winter
b) Mediterranean climate 3. Evergreen Oak trees
c) Monsoon climate
d) All of the above climates The above features are distinct characteristics of
which one of the following regions?
Q7.
Which one of the following is the characteristic a) Mediterranean
climate of the Tropical Savannah Region? [2012] b) Eastern China
c) Central Asia
a) Rainfall throughout the year d) Atlantic coast of North America
b) Rainfall in winter only
c) An extremely short dry season Q9.
d) A definite dry and wet season

72
Which one among the following covers the • Eastern China (China Type – it is not dry)
highest percentage of forest area in the world? • Central Asia (Temperate Desert – it is dry but
[2003] there are no oaks)
• Atlantic coast of North America (it is not dry)
a) Temperate coniferous forests
b) Temperate deciduous forests Q9. Ans: a) Temperate coniferous forests
c) Tropical monsoon forests
d) Tropical rain forests • In Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous (37%)
cover the highest percentage followed by Trop-
Answers: ical Dry Deciduous (28%)
Q1. a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct
explanation of A Descriptive questions
Q2. a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct
explanation of A 1. Distinguish between hardwoods and softwoods.
Q3. d) Tropical rain forest What are industrial uses made of them? Ac-
Q4. d) A is false but R is true count for their large scale production for export
in any one country.
• The tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield 2. What is meant by
productive farmland: this statement is wrong. ✓ the taiga
The tropical soils are heavily leached. Some fer- ✓ the veld
tility is added by burning down the felled trees. ✓ the selvas
This little fertility is lost after 2-3 crops. 3. Describe the role played by forest products in
• Can support intensive agriculture for several the economy of either Canada or Sweden.
years even without chemical fertilizers: this is al- 4. Compare and contrast the climate of the follow-
so wrong. Intensive agriculture for several years ing pairs of areas.
is not possible without adding fertilizers. ✓ Laurentian Climate in the North American
region and the Asiatic region.
Q5. d) Neither
✓ Tropical monsoon Climate of India and the
• Biodiversity hotspots are located even outside Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China
tropics. E.g. Eastern Himalayas, Parts of Mediter- type) Climate in S. China.
ranean, etc. ✓ The Steppe type of climate in Eurasia and
• India has three biodiversity hotspots i.e., Eastern the Siberian type (Taiga climate) of climate
Himalayas, Western Ghats and Andaman and in northern Canada.
Nicobar Islands. ✓ The Tundra Climate of Greenland and Trade
• The is no biodiversity hotspot called Western Wind Desert Climate of central Australia.
Himalaya. 5. Name the major fishing areas of the world. Ex-
plain the geographical factors which have con-
Q6. C) Monsoon tributed to its importance.
Q7. d) A definite dry and wet season 6. Write brief notes on
✓ The economy of the forests of the Lauren-
• Equatorial Rainforest: Rainfall throughout the
tian regions.
year
✓ Fishing in Japan.
• Mediterranean: Rainfall in winter only
7. Why does tropical cyclone originate over the
• An extremely short dry season: I don't think
seas? In which part of the tropical cyclone do
there is any specific climate that fits this de-
torrential rains and high-velocity winds blow
scription
and why?
• Savanna: A definite dry winter and wet summer
8. What type of climate is characterized by two
Q8. Ans: a) Mediterranean (Evergreen oaks and periods of maximum rainfall? Explain why this is
winter maxima) so.

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• Hint: Equatorial Rainforest. Sun is overhead dur- ✓ Cotton cultivation in the United States of
ing Equinoxes. So, the ITCZ passes twice over America.
the region. ✓ Padi growing in monsoon China.
9. Write brief notes on any three of the following ✓ Dairying in eastern Australia.
statements about the equatorial regions. ✓ Lumbering in Canada.
✓ Large-scale livestock farming is least 15. Give an explanatory account of any three of the
developed in wet equatorial areas. following.
✓ The greatest single drawback to commer- ✓ Local storms (e.g. typhoon, hurricane, pam-
cial lumbering in equatorial regions is inac- pero) are often associated with the Warm
cessibility. Temperate Eastern Margin Climate.
✓ The equatorial environment is best suited ✓ U.S.A. accounts for more than 50 per cent of
to plantation agriculture (Good rainfall, world production of corn (i.e. maize) but on-
humid climate, cheap labour, good markets ly 3 per cent of world exports.
in Europe and North America). ✓ Farming in monsoon China is usually on a
10. Explain the following statements. subsistence basis, and the peasants are
✓ The east coasts of continents within the permanently ‘land-hungry’.
tropics have much heavier rainfall than the 16. Explain how the aridity of the desert is related
interiors or the west coasts [Hint: Easterly to
trade winds]. ✓ off-shore Trade Winds
✓ Near the equatorial latitudes, the period of ✓ the Sub-Tropical High-pressure Belts (the
maximum rainfall is closely related to the Horse Latitudes)
movements of the overhead sun [Hint: Inter- ✓ cold ocean currents
Tropical Convergence Zone shifts according 17. Bring out any distinct differences between the
to the apparent movement of the Sun]. hot deserts and mid-latitude deserts in
✓ There is a marked difference in temperature ✓ climate
between the east and west coasts of coun- ✓ vegetation
tries in latitudes 20° to 35°N [Hint: Ocean ✓ way of life
currents]. 18. Explain any three of the following.
11. Explain why ✓ The hot deserts of the world are located on
✓ The savanna is the natural home of cattle. the western coasts of continents.
✓ Rainfall in the Sudan Climate is ✓ Patagonia is a desert in the rain shadow of
concentrated in the summer. the Andes.
12. Give an explanatory account of any two of the ✓ The annual range of temperature is much
following. greater at Kashgar (Gobi) than at Iquique
✓ Sheep outnumber the population of New (Atacama).
Zealand by 20:1. 19. Write brief notes on any three of these topics.
✓ No country produces and exports more ✓ Date palm cultivation in an oasis.
wool than Australia. ✓ The role of oil in the development of desert
✓ Market-gardening is a product of economy.
urbanisation. 20. Compare and contrast tropical and temperate
13. Write a geographical account of the following grasslands in respect of
economic activities. ✓ their seasonal responses to climatic changes
✓ Mixed farming ✓ their economic importance
✓ Beet sugar cultivation 21. Give a reasoned account
✓ Cool temperate orchard farming ✓ Asiatic Steppes: nomadic herding
✓ Sheep rearing ✓ Canadian Prairies: spring wheat cultivation
✓ Woollen textile industry ✓ Argentine Pampas: beef cattle ranching
14. Give a reasoned account of any two of the fol- ✓ S. African Veld: maize growing
lowing. ✓ Australian Downs: sheep grazing

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22. Explain why when Chinooks are more frequent 24. Write geographical notes on any three of the
in the Prairies, the winters are milder. following.
23. Give an explanatory account of the following ✓ The Mediterranean Climate is typified by
statements about economic activities of the dry, sunny summers and wet, mild winters.
Mediterranean lands. ✓ Hot, dusty Sirocco and cold stormy Mistral.
✓ Orchard farming is the predominant occu- ✓ Mediterranean woodlands, shrubs and
pation. scrub.
✓ The chief cereal cultivated is hard, winter ✓ Three-quarters of the world’s wine comes
wheat. from the Mediterranean regions of Europe.
✓ Pastoral farming is of little importance.

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