General Action of

UNIT 1 GENERAL ACTION OF Drugs-I

DRUGS-I
Structure

1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Introduction to Pharmacology
1.3 Sources of Drugs
Plant Origin
Animal Sources
From Human Being
From Microorganisms
1.4 Routes of Drug Administration
Local Routes
Systemic Routes
Parenteral Routes
Inhalation route
1.5 Dosage Forms
1.6 Dosage Forms and Routes of Drug Administration
Solid Dosage Form (Internal Use)
Solid Dosage Form (Externally used)
Semisolid/Liquid Dosage Form (Internal Use)
Semisolid/Liquid Dosage Form (External use)
Inhalation Form
1.7 Summary
1.8 Terminal Questions
1.9 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Pharmacology (derived from Greek words, pharmacon-drug; logos-discourse

in) consists of detailed study of drugs – its source, physical and chemical
properties, compounding, biochemical and physiological effects,
pharmacodynamics (its mechanism of action), pharmacokinetics (absorption,
distribution, biotransformation and excretion), therapeutic and other uses of
drugs.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• enumerate the sources of drugs;
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different routes of drug
administration; and
• know the difference between the different dosage forms and their specific
uses. 5
General Pharmacology
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY

According to WHO definition ‘Drug is any substance or product that is used or

intended to be used to modify or explore physiological system or pathological
states for the benefit of the recipient’.

Pharmacology has some major subdivisions:

Pharmacodynamics is the study of the biochemical and physiological effects

of the drugs and their mechanism of action.

Pharmacotherapeutics deals with the use of drugs in the prevention and

treatment of diseases and it utilizes or depends upon the information of drug
obtained by pharmacodynamics studies.

Pharmacokinetics deals with the alterations of the drug by the body which
includes absorption, distribution, binding/storage, biotransformation and
excretion of drugs.

Toxicology deals with the side/adverse effects and other poisonous effects of
drugs, since the same drug can be a poison, depending on the dose.

Chemotherapy deals with the effects of drugs upon microorganisms and

parasites without destroying the host cells.

Pharmacology also includes certain allied fields as:

Pharmacy is the science of preparation, compounding and dispensing of drugs.

It is concerned with collection, identification, purification, isolation, synthesis
and standardization of medicinal/pharmaceutical substances.

Pharmaceutics deals with the manufacture of drugs and pharmaceuticals.

Pharmacognosy deals with the study of the sources of drugs derived from
plants and animal origin.

Materia-medica: This is an older term and deals with the source, description
(physical and chemical properties) and preparation of drugs.

Pharmacopoeia is an official reference containing a selected drugs/medicinal

preparations with their description, tests for their identity, purity and potency
and with their average doses. A few famous pharmacopoeia and other reference
books are the Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP), the British Pharmacopoeia (BP); the
United States Pharmacopoeia (USP); the British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC);
the National Formulary (NF) i.e. British National Formulary (BNF) and
National Formulary (NF) of India.

1.3 SOURCES OF DRUGS

‘Drug’ is derived from French word ‘drogue’ means a dry herb. Drugs are
obtained mainly from plants, animals, microbes and mineral sources, but a
6
majority of them that are used therapeutically are from synthetic or semi- General Action of
synthetic products. Drugs-I

1.3.1 Plant Origin

The pharmacologically active components in plant origin drugs are:

i) Alkaloids are basic substances containing cyclic nitrogen. The important

alkaloids are obtained from:

• Opium: Morphine group.

• Cinchona: Quinine etc.
• Belladonna: Atropine group.
• Pilocarpus sp.: Pilocarpine.
• Vinca: Vincristine, vinblastine.
• Rauwolfia: Reserpine.
• Coca: Cocaine.

ii) Glycosides are ether like organic structure combined with sugars, the non-
sugar component called aglycone or genin. The important glycosides are:
Digitalis.

iii) Oils

a) Fixed oils are glycerides of oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Mostly
fixed oils are edible and used for cooking. The fixed oils used as drug
are: castor oil, olive oil, cocoa butter , cod liver oil and shark liver oil.

b) Volatile oil or essential oil contains the hydrocarbon terpene. The

important volatile oils are : Turpentine oil, from species of pines, used
as a counter-irritant, lemon oil used as flavouring agent, peppermint,
cardamom and fennel used as carminative and flavouring agent and oil
of clove useful in relieving pain in toothache.

iv) Resins are produced by oxidation and polymerization of volatile oils. The
different types of resins are: Oleoresins, gum resins, oleo gum resin and
balsams.

v) Gums are the secretory products of plants. They are pharmacologically

inert substances and mainly employed as suspending and emulsifying agent
in various pharmaceutical products. The widely used preparations are gum
acacia and tragacanth.

vi) Tannins are non-nitrogenous constituents of plant. Tannins are generally

employed in the treatment of diarrhoea and burns. The important plant
which contains tannins is: Amla, Behera, Hirda (in combination form
‘Triphala’).

1.3.2 Animal Sources

The different animal products after purification in a suitable dosage form for
the treatment of disease are listed in Table 1.1. 7
General Pharmacology Table 1.1: Classification of different animal products used as drug and
surgicals

Drug Category Animal source

Insulin Hormone Pancreas of beef or pig
Thyroid extract/thyroxin Hormone Thyroid gland
Shark liver oil Vitamin A Livers of shark and allied
species
Cod liver oil Vitamin A and D Livers of Gadus species
Antisnake venom Immune serum Blood of horse
Hyaluronidase Enzyme Testis of bull
Pepsin Enzyme Stomach of beef and pig
Surgical ligatures/sutures Used in surgery Intestinal tissues, tendons
of animals.

1.3.3 From Human Being

There are certain products which are obtained from human being e.g.

− Immunoglobulins: From blood.

− Placental extract: From placenta.
− Chorionic gonadotropin: From urine of pregnant women.
− Growth hormone: From pituitary gland.

1.3.4 From Microorganisms

The different classes of drugs obtained/isolated from microbes are:

Penicillin, Streptomycin, Erythromycin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracyclines,

Griseofulvin and Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin

SAQ 1

a) Belladonna is the source of _________________.

b) Tannins are generally used in the treatment of ________ and ________
c) Volatile oils are composed of _______________ units.
d) Alkaloids are chemical moieties containing a cyclic _______________.

1.4 ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

The drugs can be administered by a variety of routes, either locally or

administered orally and by injection. To produce local effects, drugs are
applied topically to the skin or mucous membranes. To produce systemic
effects drugs are administered orally, rectally, parenterally or by inhalation
route.
8
The choice of the route in a given situation depends upon the drug and the General Action of
patient’s condition (e.g. in unconscious and vomiting state), and urgency of Drugs-I
treatment (whether the routine treatment or in emergency condition).

The important routes of administration are:

1.4.1 Local Routes

The dosage forms applied locally to the skin are powders, paste, lotions,
ointments, creams, plasters and jellies. They are used for their antiseptic,
antipruritic, analgesic, local anaesthetic and other related effects.

On the skin, drug is applied in the form of ointment, cream, lotion, paste,
plaster, powder etc.

The topical application is also used on the mucous membranes i.e. nose, throat,
eye, ear, bronchi, rectum, urethra, vagina and rectum.

In case of mouth and pharynx, the drug is used in the form of throat paints,
lozenges, gargles or mouth washes.

In case of corneal application (in the form of ointments, drops), the drug may
penetrate the anterior chamber and affect the ciliary muscle. The nasal mucosa
is treated with drug solution in the form of spray or irrigation.

The bronchial mucosa and lungs are treated with inhalations, aerosols (in the
form of fine powder with the help of nebulizer) e.g. salbutamol (ASTHALIN)
inhaler.

Drugs may also be administered locally in the form of bougies, jellies for
urethra, pessaries, vaginal tablets, creams and douches for vagina and
suppositories for rectal administration.

Due to the rich blood and lymph supply to rectum the unionized and lipid
soluble substances are readily absorbed from the rectum. The advantages of
this route are that gastric irritation is avoided and easy administration by the
patient himself. Administration of drug in the form of liquid into the rectum is
called enema, which may be soap water or glycerine-vegetable oil. It is used to
remove the faecal matter. Certain drugs are administered rectally for producing
systemic effects also (e.g. aminophylline, indomethacin, paraldehyde etc.).

1.4.2 Systemic Routes

The drugs administered through systemic routes (orally or parenterally), are

absorbed into the blood, distributed along through the circulation and produce
their desired effects.

Oral Route

This is the most commonly used route for drug administration. It is also the
safest, most convenient and economical.
9
General Pharmacology Enteric Coated Tablets

The drugs which are destroyed by the gastric juices in the stomach are coated
with keratin, shellac and cellulose acid phosphate. These substances are not
dissolved by the acid juice of the stomach, but are dissolved in the intestinal
juice (alkaline) only, which is useful in:

Time Release/Sustained Release Capsules

It is a useful solid dosage form of drug, where the particles of the drug dissolve
at different time intervals.

Sublingual Administration

The highly lipid soluble and non-irritating drugs (i.e. nitroglycerine,

isoprenaline, methyl testosterone) in the form of tablets or pellet is placed
under the tongue, where they rapidly dissolve and are absorbed quickly into the
general circulation.

1.4.3 Parenteral Routes

(par = beyond, enteral = intestinal)

The administration of drugs by injection directly into the tissue fluid or blood
without having to cross the intestinal mucosa. The advantages of parenteral
routes are:

• Rapid action of drug.

• Can be employed in unconscious/uncooperative patients.
• Drugs, which are modified by alimentary juices and liver, can be given by
this route.
• Drugs, which are not absorbed in small intestine or irritate the stomach can
be administered by this route.
Disadvantages are:

• Less safe, more expensive.

• Inconvenient (painful) for the patient.
• Self medication is difficult.
• Chances of local injury at the site of injection.

The important parenteral routes are:

Subcutaneous

The non-irritant substances can be injected by this route. The site of injection is
usually the outer surface of the arm, or front of the thigh. Self medication (e.g.
insulin) is possible because deep penetration is not needed. Other drugs which
are administered subcutaneously are adrenaline, morphine and certain
hormonal preparations.

The other related subcutaneous routes are dermojet (by which, drug is
projected from a microfine orifice using a high velocity jet) and pellet
10
implantation (which provides sustained release of the drug over weeks and General Action of
months e.g. testosterone). Drugs-I

Intramuscular

The soluble substances, mild irritants and suspensions can be injected by this
route in the large skeletal muscles (deltoid, triceps, gluteus maximus, rectus
femoris etc.). These muscles are less richly supplied with sensory nerves and
are more vascular, so irritant solutions can be injected. Small volumes (up to 2
ml) are injected into the deltoid muscle, and small or large volumes (up to 10
ml) are injected into the gluteal mass.

The rate of absorption is reasonably uniform and the onset of action is rapid.

Intravenous

The drug is injected as a bolus or infused slowly directly into a vein to produce
rapid action. It is also useful for certain irritant and hypertonic solutions, as
they are rapidly diluted by the blood. Drugs in an oily vehicle or those which
precipitate blood constituents or haemolyze erythrocytes should not be given
by this route.

Intravenous route is the most rapidly effective and the desired blood
concentration can be obtained with a definite dose but at the same time it is the
most dangerous route of administration. For once the drug is injected there is
no retreat. So, intravenous injection must usually be performed slowly and with
constant monitoring of the patient. This route is usually reserved for
emergencies when a rapid action is required.

Intradermal

The drug is injected into the skin raising a bleb. This route is employed for
vaccination e.g. BCG vaccine and for testing the sensitivity e.g. penicillin
injection.

Intra-arterial

This route is useful in diagnostic studies, by which arterial blood sample may
be withdrawn for blood gas studies. Certain cytotoxic compounds are
administered by intra-arterial perfusion in localised malignancies.

Intrathecal or Intraspinal

For local and rapid effect of drugs on the meninges or cerebrospinal axis, drugs
are injected directly into the spinal subarachnoid space. This is also used to
produce spinal anaesthesia, or for introduction of a radio-opaque contrast-
medium into the subarachnoid space for visualising the spinal cord.

Intramedullary

By this method, the drug is introduced into the bone marrow of the sternum or
tibia. Blood is occasionally given by this route.
11
General Pharmacology Intracardiac

In sudden cardiac arrest and other cardiac emergencies, the adrenaline is

directly injected into the heart by a long needle in the left fourth intercostal
space close to the sternum.

Intraperitoneal

This route is a common laboratory procedure, but it is seldom employed

clinically in infants for giving fluids like glucose saline, as the peritoneum
offers a large surface for absorption.

Intra-articular

Certain drugs (i.e. glucocorticoids) can be administered directly into a joint

space for the treatment of local condition i.e. rheumatoid arthritis.

1.4.4 Inhalation Route

The volatile liquids and gases are given by inhalation route. The drugs may be
given as solid particles, as nebulized particles from solutions or in the form of
vapours. The volatile substances include gaseous anaesthetics, amyl nitrite and
vapours of liquid anaesthetics, gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and helium.

Nonvolatile substances have to be broken down into small particles, and then
inhaled as aerosols.

Drugs given by this route are quickly absorbed, which takes place from the vast
surface of alveoli and produce rapid action. Various bronchodilators and mast
cell stabilizers are used in the treatment and prophylaxis of bronchial asthma
i.e. salbutamol (ASTHALIN) and sodium cromoglycate (FINTAL) inhaler.

SAQ 2

a) Only non-irritant substances can be injected by the ___________ route.

b) BCG vaccine is administered by the ____________________ route.
c) In sudden cardiac arrest adrenaline is administered by the ______ route.

1.5 DOSAGE FORMS

A dosage form is a medicated product specially designed for administration to

the patient for the diagnosis and treatment of disease.

The dosage form is broadly divided into solid dosage form, liquid dosage form
and inhalation which are used both internally as well as externally.

Solid dosage form includes capsules, granules, effervescent granules,

powders, tablets, insufflations, suppositories (pessaries, bougies and ear cone)
etc.

Semisolid/liquid dosage form includes elixirs, emulsions, gels, linctus,

12 mixtures, drops, solutions, syrups, tinctures, applicators, creams, enema,
gargles, jellies, liniments, lotions, mouth washes, ointments, paints, paste, General Action of
poultices etc. Drugs-I

Inhalation forms include aerosols, sprays etc.

1.6 DOSAGE FORMS AND ROUTES OF DRUG

ADMINISTRATION

A dosage form is a medicated product specially designed for administration

depending upon the routes to the patient for the diagnosis and treatment of
disease.

The dosage form is broadly divided into solid dosage form, liquid dosage form
and inhalations which are used both internally as well as externally.

1.6.1 Solid Dosage Form (Internal Use)

Capsules: These are small gelatin contains shells. Capsules are of two types –
hard & soft capsules.

Hard capsules are used for powdered drugs e.g. capsules ampicillin,
tetracycline. In hard capsules, certain sustained released substance, which
gradually release the drug in the respiratory tract (e.g. cap. theophylline).

Soft capsules are used for oils and solution of active drugs e.g. cap. vitamins
A, A & D, E, garlic pearls, seven seas etc.

Soft capsules are also used for semisolid (ointment) e.g. eye applicaps of
chloromycetin.

Granules: These are mixture of active medicament, sugar and some flavouring
agent and then moistened to produce a coherent mass which is then passed
through a sieve to form a granule. Granules are the unusual means of
administering drug that possess an unpleasant taste e.g. PAS (para-amino
salicylic acid) granules.

Effervescent granules: It is a mixture of citric and tartaric acids with sodium

bicarbonate and usually some sweetening agents (saccharin or glucose) may be
added.

The powder granules should be dissolved with a prescribed amount of water

and taken when it produce effervescence e.g. ENO powder used for
indigestion, flatulence and heartburn etc.

Powder: Powder are medicaments in dried form. The powders are of different
types:

• Powders enclosed in cachets (e.g. ALCOPAR, ORS powder) and in

capsules (e.g. ampicillin powder).

• Effervescent powder. 13
General Pharmacology • Powder for external use e.g. NEBASULF, boric acid powder, zinc oxide
powder, talc etc. Tooth powder may also be classified under this group.
• Powder with metal (e.g. mercury with chalk) used as purgative.
• Powder use after reconstitution e.g. syr. ampicillin for paediatric use.

Tablets: These are the most extensively used solid dosage form containing
granulated or powdered drugs that are compressed or moulded into different
shapes. These are different types of tablets according to their size, shape and
uses:

• Simple tablets: are disintegrated readily e.g. tab aspirin.

• Soluble tablets: Are dissolved in water to form solution for internal and
external use (gargles) e.g. tab DISPRIN.
• Scored tablets: They may be easily divided if smaller doses are required.
• Lozenges: Are solid preparation consisting mainly of sugar and gum and
ensures slow release of medicaments and generally used for local action
e.g. cough remedies – STREPCILS, VOCACIL.
• Pastilles: Are solid medicated preparation intended to dissolve slowly in the
mouth and softer than lozenges.
• Chewable tablets: Are chewed in the mouth for systemic action e.g. tab.
DIGENE and vitamin C (SUCKCEE).
• Buccal or sublingual tablets: Are chewed and placed under the tongue. When it
dissolved and exert their action e.g. tab. nitroglycerine.
• Implants: Are tablets use for sustained action and implanted under the skin
e.g. Deoxycortone acetone (for contraception).
• Depot tablets: Are compressed tablets used for sustained systemic action
e.g. tab. ASMAPAX DEPOT for asthmatic patients.
• Enteric-coated tablets: Are coated with keratin, cellulose acetate phthalate,
which do not dissolve in the stomach and only dissolve in alkaline juice of
the intestine where the drug is liberated e.g. tab. erythromycin.

1.6.2 Solid Dosage Form (Externally used)

Collodions: These are the fluid preparation intended for external use. It is
generally used for small cuts and abrasions.

Dusting powder are free flowing and very fine in nature for external use.

Insufflations are dusting powder consisting medicaments that are blown by

insufflators (similar to atomizers) into various body cavities, nose, throat, ear
etc., where it would be difficult to apply the powder directly.

Suppositories are conical or ovoid shape solid preparation made up of fat

(cocoa butter oil or theobroma oil), a wax or a glycerine-gelatin jelly. They are
used for insertion into the rectum, where they melt, dissolve and disperse and
14 exert their action – local as well as systemic.
Pessaries are the same as suppositories for introduction into vagina. Pessaries General Action of
are of two types: Moulded pessaries (as suppositories) and compressed Drugs-I
pessaries – in different shapes.

Bougies used for nasal and urethral administration of drugs.

Ear cone for administration of drugs in ear.

Plasters are solid adhesive (with cloth) preparation applied to the skin to
protect, soothe and lessen pain e.g. Mustard plaster, Capsicum plaster.

1.6.3 Semisolid/Liquid Dosage Form (Internal Use)

Elixir are liquid, oral preparation of potent or nauseous medicaments, which

are pleasantly flavoured and coloured with suitable agents.

Emulsions are suspensions of fats or oils in water with the inclusion of an

suitable emulsifying agent (e.g. gum acacia, gum tragacanth) e.g. Castor oil
emulsion, Cod liver oil emulsion for internal use. One such emulsion is also
used externally e.g. benzyl benzoate emulsion.

Gels are the aqueous colloidal suspension of insoluble medicaments (e.g.

aluminum hydroxide as antacid in DIGENE GEL).

Linctus are viscous, liquid oral preparation containing high proportions of

syrup (sugar) and glycerin (for viscosity and its sweet nature) which produce a
demulcent affect on the mucous membrane of the throat.

Mixture are liquid oral preparation, where the medicaments are in solution or
suspension form. Mixture are generally not formulated for a long life and
prepared freshly.

Paediatric drops are liquid oral preparation of small dose giving by a

calibrated dropper intended for paediatric use.

Solutions are aqueous solution containing one or more drugs. They are divided
into different categories:
• Solution in dosage forms for oral use/external use e.g. strong iodine
solution, hydrogen peroxide solution.
• Parenteral solution are sterile liquid or suspensions packaged in sterile
containers, intended for parenteral administration.

There are other type of solutions that are used for peritoneal dialysis,
anticoagulant solution, bladder irrigation and certain dermatological solution
intended for application to broken surface.

Syrups are the liquid oral preparation made in concentrated sugar solution,
mainly for paediatric use and for drugs which are unpleasant in taste.

Tinctures are the concentrated alcoholic preparation of vegetable drugs made

by maceration process. (e.g. Tr. opium, Tr. lemon) used in different
pharmaceutical preparation for oral use. Tr. Benzoin Co. is used externally. 15
General Pharmacology 1.6.4 Semisolid/Liquid Dosage Form (External use)

Applications are liquid or semi-liquid preparation applied to the skin, and is

usually emulsion or suspension in nature (e.g. antiparasitics application).

Creams are semisolid preparation (usually emulsion) for external use. They
are oily and non-greasy in nature.

Ear/eye/nasal drops are solution of drugs that are instilled into a ear, eye and
nose with a dropper. The eye drops are sterile solutions.

Enemas are solution, suspension or emulsion (oil/water type) of medicament

intended for rectal administration.

Gargles are aqueous solution used to prevent and for treatment of throat
infections.

Irrigators are medicated solution used to treat urinary bladder, vagina and less
often the nose infections. They are administered with a help of catheter (in
bladder), vulcanite (for vagina) which are made up of thin, soft rubber or
plastic tube. The nose irrigator is made up of glass.

Jellies are transparent or translucent, non-greasy medicated semi-solid

preparation used externally, sometime containing local anaesthetic agent also
e.g. Lignocaine jelly.

Liniments are liquid, semi-liquid and some-times semi-solid preparation used

externally on the skin. Liniments are counter-irritant and stimulating type and
are massaged or rubbed into the skin, and must not be applied to the broken
skin e.g. liniment turpentine.

Lotions are liquid preparation applied to skin without friction. Lotions are used
for soothing, astringent and antipruritic affects e.g. calamine lotion.

Mouth washes are liquid preparation similar to gargles but are use for oral
hygiene.

Ointments are semi-solid greasy preparation for local application to the skin,
rectum and mucous membrane also. The ointment base is usually anhydrous
and contains the medicaments in solution or suspension. Ointments are used for
its soothing, astringent, antiseptic and other selected actions e.g. chloromycetin
eye ointment.

Paints are liquid preparation containing volatile solvent which quickly

evaporate to leave a dry and resinous film of medicaments on the skin.

Throat paints are more viscous in nature (due to the high proportion of
glycerine) which being sticky and adhere to the affected site and prolongs the
action of the drug.
Pastes are semi-solid preparation for external application that differs from
similar products (i.e. ointment) in containing a high proportion of finely
powdered medicaments. They afford greater protection and are more
16 absorptive. The base may be anhydrous or water soluble e.g. zinc oxide paste.
1.6.5 Inhalation Form General Action of
Drugs-I
Aerosols are suspension of fine, solid or liquid particles in a medium like air or
oxygen and administered with the help of nebulizers. They are used to apply
drugs to the respiratory tract in asthmatic patients e.g. ASTHALIN
(salbutamol) inhaler, FINTAL (sodium cromoglycate) inhaler.

Sprays are preparation of drugs in oil or water, usually administered by

atomizer or nebulizer. They are applied to the mucosae of nose or throat e.g.
Tyrothricin spray.

SAQ 3

a) ________ are the most commonly used solid dosage forms.

b) _________ are aqueous solution used to prevent and for treatment of throat
infections.
c) ___________ are used for nasal and urethral administration of drugs.
d) ___________ are paste like preparation for external application to reduce
inflammation due to its heat retaining capacity.

1.7 SUMMARY

• Pharmacology consists of detailed study of drugs – its source, physical and

chemical properties, compounding, biochemical and physiological effects,
pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic and other uses of drugs.
• Drugs are obtained mainly from plants, animals, microbes and mineral
sources, but a majority of them that are used therapeutically are from
synthetic or semi-synthetic products.
• The important chemicals obtained from plant sources are glycosides,
alkaloids, tannins, oils, gums, resins, etc.
• Drugs obtained from animal and human sources are hormones, blood and
blood products.
• Drugs generally obtained from microorganisms and antibiotics and
vitamins B12.
• Local routes of drug administration are employed when the drug action is
desired only at the site of application.
• The most commonly used routed for systemic administration is the oral
route.
• Intravenous route is generally reserved for severe or life threatening
conditions.

1.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the different natural sources of drugs? 17

General Pharmacology 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of parenteral route of drug
administration?

3. What dosage forms are used for inhalation?

4. What are the different dosage forms available for oral administration of
drugs?

1.9 ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions 1

1. a) Atropine b) Diarrhoea, burns c) Terpene d) Nitrogen

2. a) Subcutaneous b) Intradermal c) Intracardiac

3. a) Tablets b) Gargles c) Bougies d) Poultices

Terminal Questions

1. Drugs are obtained mainly from plants, animals, microbes and mineral
sources, but a majority of them that are used therapeutically are from
synthetic or semi-synthetic products.

Plant Origin

The pharmacologically active components in plant origin drugs are:

i) Alkaloids are basic substances containing cyclic nitrogen. The

important alkaloids are obtained from:

• Opium : Morphine group.

• Cinchona : Quinine etc.
• Belladonna : Atropine group.

ii) Glycosides are ether like organic structure combined with sugars, the
non-sugar component called aglycone or genin. The important
glycosides are: Digitalis.

iii) Oils

a) Fixed oils are glycerides of oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Mostly
fixed oils are edible and used for cooking. The fixed oils used as
drug are: castor oil, olive oil, cocoa butter, cod liver oil and shark
liver oil.
b) Volatile oil or essential oil contains the hydrocarbon terpene. The
important volatile oils are: Turpentine oil, from species of pines,
used as a counter-irritant, lemon oil used as flavouring agent,
peppermint, cardamom and fennel used as carminative and
flavouring agent and oil of clove useful in relieving pain in
toothache.
18
iv) Resins are produced by oxidation and polymerization of volatile oils. The General Action of
different types of resins are: Oleoresins, gum resins, oleo gum resin and Drugs-I
balsams.

v) Gums are the secretory products of plants. They are pharmacologically

inert substances and mainly employed as suspending and emulsifying agent
in various pharmaceutical products. The widely used preparations are gum
acacia and tragacanth.

vi) Tannins are non-nitrogenous constituents of plant. Tannins are generally

employed in the treatment of diarrhoea and burns. The important plant
which contains tannins is: Amla, Behera, Hirda (in combination form
‘Triphala’).

Animal Sources

The different animal products after purification in a suitable dosage form

for the treatment of disease are listed in table.

Drug Category Animal source

Insulin Hormone Pancreas of beef or pig

Thyroid Hormone Thyroid gland

extract/thyroxin

Shark liver oil Vitamin A Livers of shark and allied species

Cod liver oil Vitamin A and D Livers of Gadus species

From Human Being

There are certain products which are obtained from human being e.g.

• Immunoglobulins: From blood.

• Placental extract: From placenta.
• Chorionic gonadotropin: From urine of pregnant women.
• Growth hormone: From pituitary gland.

From Microorganisms

The different classes of drugs obtained/isolated from microbes are:

Penicillin, Streptomycin, Erythromycin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracyclines,
Griseofulvin and Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)

2. The administration of drugs by injection directly into the tissue fluid or

blood without having to cross the intestinal mucosa. The advantages of
parenteral routes are:

• Rapid action of drug.

• Can be employed in unconscious/uncooperative patients. 19
General Pharmacology • Drugs, which are modified by alimentary juices and liver, can be given
by this route.
• Drugs, which are not absorbed in small intestine or irritate the stomach
can be administered by this route.

Disadvantages are:

• Less safe, more expensive.

• Inconvenient (painful) for the patient.
• Self medication is difficult.
• Chances of local injury at the site of injection.

3. The dosage forms used for inhalation are as follows:

Aerosols are suspension of fine, solid or liquid particles in a medium like

air or oxygen and administered with the help of nebulizers. They are used
to apply drugs to the respiratory tract in asthmatic patients e.g. Asthalin
(salbutamol) inhaler, Fintal (sodium cromoglycate) inhaler.

Sprays are preparation of drugs in oil or water, usually administered by

atomizer or nebulizer. They are applied to the mucosae of nose or throat
e.g. Tyrothricin spray.

4. The various dosage forms available for oral administration of drugs are as
follows:
Capsules: These are small gelatin contains shells. Capsules are of two
types – hard & soft capsules.
Granules: These are mixture of active medicament, sugar and some
flavouring agent and then moistened to produce a coherent mass which is
then passed through a sieve to form a granule. Granules are the unusual
means of administering drug that possess an unpleasant taste e.g. PAS
(para-amino salicylic acid) granules.
Effervescent granules: It is a mixture of citric and tartaric acids with
sodium bicarbonate and usually some sweetening agents (saccharin or
glucose) may be added. The powder granules should be dissolved with a
prescribed amount of water and taken when it produce effervescence e.g.
ENO powder used for indigestion, flatulence and heartburn etc.
Powder: Powder are medicaments in dried form. The powders are of
different types:

Tablets: These are the most extensively used solid dosage form containing
granulated or powdered drugs that are compressed or moulded into
different shapes.
Elixir are liquid, oral preparation of potent or nauseous medicaments,
which are pleasantly flavoured and coloured with suitable agents.

Emulsions are suspensions of fats or oils in water with the inclusion of an

20 suitable emulsifying agent (e.g. gum acacia, gum tragacanth) e.g. Castor oil
emulsion, Cod liver oil emulsion for internal use. One such emulsion is also General Action of
used externally e.g. benzyl benzoate emulsion. Drugs-I

Mixture are liquid oral preparation, where the medicaments are in solution
or suspension form. Mixture are generally not formulated for a long life
and prepared freshly.

Paediatric drops are liquid oral preparation of small dose giving by a

calibrated dropper intended for paediatric use.

Solutions are aqueous solution containing one or more drugs.

21