A

Practical Training

Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of

Award of the degree of

B. TECH.

In

Electronics & Communication Engineering

At

SRI GANGANAGAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SRI GANGANAGAR
Submitted To: Submitted By:
Mr. Deepak Batra Uma Agarwal
HOD & in charge PTS SEM: - -7th SEM

ECE Department Roll no.

Branch: ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

WIRELESS AND TELE-
COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
5. Maintenance of networks
6. Mobile number portability
7. BSNL subscribers
8. Telephony system
9. Wireless system
10. Cellular technology
11. Circuit switching
12. Packet switching
13. BTS in mobile communication
14. Generation of wireless technology
15. Information security model
16. Important reviews of wireless system
17. Mobility management
18. Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This report has benefited from review by a number of people,
who gave generously of their time and expertise. The following
people review all or a large part of the manuscript: Mr. M.Seth,
Mr.S.K.Mahto, general manager of Sikkim circle.
Thanks also to the above many people who provided detailed
technical reviews of different topics.
Finally, I would also like to thank the many people responsible
for providing the information regarding the different aspects of
the working of the BSNL for the north eastern zone.
This includes the staff of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited,
Gangtok and also including the BSNL’s Sikkim circle general
manager S.K.Mahto for letting me complete my training and
proving with all the information required. I am also very
thankful to my friends for providing me with required
knowledge and material for the completion of this report.
ABSTRACT
This report documents the work carried out by me on the basis
of the training obtained from Bharat Sanchar Nigam limited
(BSNL) GANGTOK, SIKKIM. This report basically focuses on
the implementation of wireless network and systems in use
today and new technologies and developments to be coming in
near future. The cellular revolution is apparent in the growth of
the mobile phones. Recently, it had been the telephones. The
invention allowed two parties to communicate by sending each
other alphanumeric characters encoded in an analog signal. The
newer generation devices with access to the internet built-in
digital cameras add to this momentum. Recently, a great deal of
attention has been focused on satellite communications, wireless
networks and cellular technology.
Communication satellites were first launched in the 1960s.
Those first satellites could only handle 240 voice circuits.
Today, satellites carry about one-third of the voice traffic and all
of the television signals between countries. The most recent
topic prevailing in today’s scenario is the development of the
robust coding of video content for 4G applications. An
investigation, comparison, and evaluation of methods how to
send short video messages (video postcards) using a 3G and 4G
systems, using a mobile terminal such as a cell phone will be
carried out.
Submitted by: Submitted to:
Uma Agarwal Deepak Batra
Introduction
Modern Telecommunications network plays a key role in today's
world and are required to be continuously operated even in the
most adverse conditions. The Engineering Electrical Services in
the buildings housing modern telecommunications network must
perform to an exceptional degree of reliability so as to ensure
that there are no breakdowns in the telecommunications system.
Electrical Divisions came into existence in the erstwhile P&T
department in 1963 to cater to the need for undertaking
infrastructure electrical and mechanical works in house rather
than sourcing it from CPWD as per earlier practice. With
bifurcation of P&T, the Electrical unit remained with DOT and
with the Corporatization; the Electrical unit has become part of
BSNL. The two most important trends in today’s
telecommunications industry are the significant developments of
cellular networks and the rapid rise of the use of the Internet.
BSNL has met the demands of the rising population and had
introduced technologies beyond the limits of the costumers. The
rise of mobility and data-oriented applications are fundamentally
changing the environment of the telecommunications network.
Voice will maintain to be an important application, but its
leading position will be weakened in future networks. Future
telecommunications infrastructures will be heavily based on the
Internet Protocol and would be packet switched. An explosive
growth is expected in mobile communications over the next
decade with higher speeds and larger capacities than provided
by third-generation communications mobile systems, which
must be made possible in order to meet the requirements for
faster speeds and more diverse usage formats. Accordingly,
studies are now being carried out to develop the fourth
generation of mobile system.
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. is World's 7th largest
Telecommunications Company providing comprehensive range
of telecom services in India: Wire line, CDMA mobile, GSM
Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN,
VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. Presently, it is one of the
largest & leading public sector units in India. BSNL has
installed Quality Telecom Network in the country and now
focusing on improving it, expanding the network, introducing
new telecom services with ICT applications in villages and
wining customer's confidence. Today, it has about 46 million
line basic telephone capacity, 8 mill2ion WLL capacity, 52
Million GSM Capacity, more than 38302 fixed exchanges,
46565 BTS, 3895 Node B ( 3G BTS), 287 Satellite Stations,
614755 Rk2m of OFC Cable, 50430 R km of Microwave
Network connecting 602 Districts, 7330 cities/towns and 25.6
lakhs villages.
BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts and
planned initiatives to bridge the Rural-Urban Digital Divide ICT
sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in the country to beat
its reach with its wide network giving services in every nook &
corner of country and operates across India except Delhi &
Mumbai.
BSNL serves its customers with its wide bouquet of telecom
services. BSNL is numerous operator of India in all services in
its license area. The company offers wide ranging & most
transparent tariff schemes designed to suite every customer.
BSNL cellular service, Cell One, has 55,140,282 2G cellular
customers and 88,493 3G customers as on 30.11.2009. In basic
services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals, with 35.21 million
Basic Phone subscribers i.e. 85 per cent share2 of the subscriber
base and 92 percent share in revenue terms.
BSNL has more than 2.5 million WLL subscribers and 2.5
million Internet Customers who access Internet through various
modes viz. Dial-up, Leased Line, DIAS. Account less Internet
(CLI). BSNL has been adjudged as the N2UMBER ONE ISP in
the country. BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-
protocol convergent IP infrastructure that provides convergent
services like voice, data and video through the same Backbone
and Broadband Access Network. At present there are 0.6 million
Data One broadband customers. The company has vast
experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and
Maintenance of Switching & Transmission Networks and also
has a world class ISO 9000 certified Telecom Training Institute.
Scaling new heights of success, the present turnover of BSNL is
more than Rs.351, 820 million (US $ 8 billion) with net profit to
the tune of Rs.99, 390 million (US $ 2.26 billion) for last
financial year. The infrastructure asset on telephone alone is
worth about Rs.630, 000 million (US $ 14.37 billion).
Telecommunications is no longer a plain vanilla voice service. It
has now become the key to economic progress and prosperity in
the country. Keeping pace with this transformation, BSNL has
consistently up-graded its operations to state-of-the-art service
offerings. A slew of technological game changers like high-
speed broadband and 3G mobile services have well and truly
established BSNL as a strong market force. With 3G, our
customers will have high speed data, video calls and many more
Value Added Services. Video streaming applications have
become a reality for them. We are continuously striving to offer
more and more innovative value added services to our customers
with a view to make the life of BSNL customers simpler and at
the same time more meaningful.
BSNL has been instrumental in unleashing growth and
prosperity in rural areas through wireless broadband. Provision
of high speed broadband connectivity at Common Service
Centers in rural areas has facilitated the common man in various
ways such as payment of utility bills, issue of birth certificates,
verification of land records, vehicle registration etc. BSNL is
also lending a helping hand to the State Governments in
endeavors associated with e-Governance projects. We believe in
inclusive growth of the economy which can be accelerated by
reaching to rural masses. Backbone infrastructure is being
created by us to provide broadband connectivity to Village
Panchayats, Post Offices, Schools and Universities and
Common Service Centre’s being set up by Department of
Information Technology in the rural areas.
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, the largest Public Sector
Undertaking of the Nation, is certainly on a financial ground
that's sound. 
The Company has a net worth of Rs. 88,634 crores (US$ 17.40
billion), authorized equity capital of Rs. 10,000 crores (US $
1.96 billion), Paid up Equity Share Capital of Rs. 5,000 crores
(US $ 0.98 billion) and Revenues is Rs. 35,812 crores (US $
7.03 billion) in 2008-09.
Electrical System
 Two independent feeders supply from electrical supply
company.
 No. 11 kV/ 433 volt Transformer of 1000 KVA capacity.
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker for 11 kV systems with numerical
relays for 112 kV and electronic release for 415 volts.
  2 nos. DG set of 1000 KVA capacity each with AMF
feature for standby supply.
 Energy efficient Luminaries with time based control of
33%, 66% and 100%.
 Special provision of occupancy based sensors in Board
room, conference hall, CMD, and Directors areas.
 480 KVA UPS backup for emergency lighting at critical
locations and computers and monitoring services
 Provisions of electrical risers by sandwiched insulated
compact bus risers.
Building Management System
 Electronic Access control cards attendance system on each
floor.

 CCTV monitoring and recording inside & outside the

building with digital DVR’s.
 Monitoring and control of Electrical Equipments like Air-
conditioning system, substation, D.G. sets, Elevators sets,
fire fighting system pumps etc.
 4 nos., 12 passenger capacity Elevators up to 9th floor and
2 Nos.12 passengers up to 6th floor and 2000kg capacity
freight Elevators form basement to 9th floor.
 Monitoring of addressable Fire Detection system for
building and various equipment rooms.
 Monitoring of condition based periodical maintenance of
equipments installed
 Emergency Public address system with talk back.
Maintenance of networks
Presently the EW is managing the maintenance contracts for
eight states covering almost 100 percent of their urban
exchanges. This accounts for almost one third of the total
maintenance work in the country. Besides maintenance the
group has also conducted energy surveys in all major exchanges.
The group is also instrumental in introducing new technologies
towards better supply of power and savings in energy.
The electrical assets are valued at over Rs 5,000 crores
(replacement cost). These assets have been growing at 20
percent annually. Maintenance of the electrical assets is
budgeted at four to six percent of the asset value which implies,
at least Rs 225 crores worth of maintenance every year.
Presently the EW is undertaking maintenance worth Rs 75
crores i.e. approximately one third of the total maintenance
budget.

TOWERS OF MANGALORE
Mobile Number Portability (MNP)
BSNL has been efficient in providing safety to its user and their
privacy. There has been cases where other peoples number has
been used by some else. To avoid these circumstances BSNL
has certain norms and regulations. TRAI announced the rules
and regulations to be followed for the Mobile Number
Portability in their draft release on 23 September 2009. Mobile
Number Portability (MNP) allows users to retain their numbers,
while shifting to a different service provider provided they
follow the guidelines set by TRAI. Users are expected to
holding the mobile number with a given provider for at least 90
days, before they decide to move to the other provider.
Telephony Subscribers (Wireless and Landline): 300.51 million
(January 2008)

BSNL Subscribers
Cell phones: 267.23 million (April 2008)
Land Lines: 39.42 million (March 2008)

Yearly Cell phone Addition: 83 million (2007)

Monthly Cell phone Addition: 10.16 million (March 2008)
Tele-density: 26.22% (March 2008)
Projected tele-density: 500 million, 40% of population by 2010.
Broadband connection: 3.47 million (Feb 2008)
Telephony System
Telephone system: The Mobile telecommunications system in
India is the second largest in the world and it was thrown open
to private players in the 1990s. The country is divided into
multiple zones, called circles (roughly along state boundaries).
Government and several private players run local and long
distance telephone services. Competition has caused prices to
drop and calls across India are one of the cheapest in the world.

Basic principles

1896 Telephone from SWEDEN

A traditional landline telephone system, also known as "plain
old telephone service" (POTS), commonly handles both
signaling and audio information on the same twisted pair of
insulated wires: the telephone line. Although originally designed
for voice communication, the system has been adapted for data
communication such as Telex, Fax and dial-up Internet
communication. The signaling equipment consists of a bell,
beeper, light or other device to alert the user to incoming calls,
and number buttons or a rotary dial to enter a telephone number
for outgoing calls. A twisted pair line is preferred as it is more
effective at rejecting electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
crosstalk than an untwisted pair.
The telephone consists of an alerting device, usually a ringer,
that remains connected to the phone line whenever the phone is
"on hook", and other components which are connected when the
phone is "off hook". These include a transmitter (microphone), a
receiver (speaker) and other circuits for dialing, filtering, and
amplification. A calling party wishing to speak to another party
will pick up the telephone's handset, thus operating a button
switch or "switch hook", which puts the telephone into an active
(off hook) state by connecting the transmitter (microphone),
receiver (speaker) and related audio components to the line. This
circuitry has a low resistance (less than 300 ohms) which causes
DC current from the telephone exchange to flow through the
line. The exchange detects this current, attaches a digit receiver
circuit to the line, and sends a dial tone to indicate readiness. On
a modern push-button telephone, the calling party then presses
the number buttons in a sequence corresponding to the telephone
number of the called party. The buttons are connected to a tone
generator circuit that produces DTMF tones which arrive at a
circuit at the exchange. A rotary dial telephone employs pulse
dialing, sending electrical pulses corresponding to the telephone
number to the exchange. (Most exchanges are still equipped to
handle pulse dialing.) Provided the called party's line is not
already active or "busy", the exchange sends an intermittent
ringing signal (about 90 volts AC in North America and UK and
60 volts in Germany) to alert the called party to an incoming
call. If the called party's line is active, the exchange sends a busy
signal to the calling party. However, if the called party's line is
active but has call waiting installed, the exchange sends an
intermittent audible tone to the called party to indicate an
incoming call.
The phone's ringer is connected to the line through a capacitor, a
device which blocks the flow of DC current but permits AC
current to flow. This constitutes a mechanism whereby the
phone draws no current when it is on hook, but exchange
circuitry can send an AC voltage down the line to activate the
ringer for an incoming call. When a landline phone is inactive or
"on hook", the circuitry at the telephone exchange detects the
absence of DC current flow and therefore "knows" that the
phone is on hook with only the alerting device electrically
connected to the line. When a party initiates a call to this line,
and the ringing signal is transmitted. When the called party
picks up the handset, they actuate a double-circuit switch hook
which simultaneously disconnects the alerting device and
connects the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn, draws DC
current through the line, confirming that the called phone is now
active. The exchange circuitry turns off the ring signal, and both
phones are now active and connected through the exchange. The
parties may now converse as long as both phones remain off
hook. When a party "hangs up", placing the handset back on the
cradle or hook, DC current ceases to flow in that line, signaling
the exchange to disconnect the call.
Calls to parties beyond the local exchange are carried over
"trunk" lines which establish connections between exchanges. In
modern telephone networks, fiber-optic cable and digital
technology are often employed in such connections. Satellite
technology may be used for communication over very long
distances
Landlines: Landline service in India is primarily run by
BSNL/MTNL and Reliance Infocomm though there are several
other private players too, such as Touchtel and Tata
Teleservices. Landlines are facing stiff competition from mobile
telephones. The competition has forced the landline services to
become more efficient. The landline network quality has
improved and landline connections are now usually available on
demand, even in high density urban areas.
Dialing System: On landlines, intra circle calls are considered
local calls while inter circle are considered long distance calls.
Currently Government is working to integrate the whole country
in one telecom circle. For long distance calls, you dial the area
code prefixed with a zero (. For calling Delhi, you would dial
011-XXXX XXXX). For international calls, you would dial
“00″ and the country code+area code+number. The country code
for India is 91.2
Call Rates Slashed: Communication rates in India fell sharply
after the year 2000 when infrastructure improvements and entry
of many major players made Indian Telecom a highly
competitive sector.
There is a conversion process underway to make all numbers in
India 10 digits long.
Internet Users: Number of Internet users in India is the 4th
largest in the world. Though the number of internet users is
high, the penetration level is still lower than most countries
across the globe.

WIRELESS SYSTEM
Consumers demand more from their technology. Whether it is a
television, cellular phone, or refrigerator, the latest technology
purchase must have new features. With the advent of the
Internet, the most-wanted feature is better, faster access to
information. Cellular subscribers pay extra on top of their basic
bills for such features as instant messaging, stock quotes, and
even Internet access right on their phones. But that is far from
the limit of features; manufacturers entice customers to buy new
phones with photo and even video capability. It is no longer a
quantum leap to envision a time when access to all necessary
Information — the power of a personal computer — sits in the
palm of one’s hand. To support such a powerful system, we
need pervasive, high-speed wireless connectivity. A number of
technologies currently exist to provide users with high-speed
digital wireless connectivity; Bluetooth and 802.11 are
examples. These two standards provide very high speed network
connections over short distances, typically in the tens of meters.
Meanwhile, cellular providers seek to increase speed on their
long-range wireless networks. The goal is the same: long-range,
high-speed wireless. Such a system does not yet exist, nor will it
exist in today’s market without standardization. Fourth-
generation wireless needs to be standardized throughout the
United States due to its enticing advantages to both users and
providers.
Cellular Technology
The mobile service has seen phenomenal growth since 2000. In
September 2004, the number of mobile phone connections has
crossed fixed-line connections. Currently there are an estimated
201.29 million mobile phone users in India compared to 39.73
million fixed line subscribers. India primarily follows the GSM
mobile system, in the 900 MHz band. Recent operators also
operate in the 1800 MHz band. The dominant players are Airtel,
Reliance Infocomm, Vodafone, Idea cellular and BSNL/MTNL.
There are many smaller players, with operations in only a few
states. International roaming agreements exist between most
operators and many foreign carriers.

Most modern cellular phones are based on one of two

transmission technologies: time-division multiple access
(TDMA) or code-division multiple access (CDMA).These two
technologies are collectively referred to as second-generation.

Circuit-switching
Circuit switching has been the dominant technology for both
voice and data communications. Communication via circuit
itching implies that there is a dedicated communication path
between two stations. That path is a connected sequence of links
between the network nodes. On each physical link, a channel is
dedicated to the connection. The most common example of
circuit switching is the telephone network.

Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:

Circuit Establishment: Before any signal can be transmitted, an
end to end circuit must be established. For example, station A
sends a request t node 4 requesting a connection to station E.
Typically, a link from A to E is a dedicated line.
Information Transfer: Information can now be transmitted from
A to E. Generally, the connection is full duplex. Signals may be
transmitted in both directions.
Circuit disconnect: After the signal transmission has been
completed, the connection is terminated, usually by the action of
one or more stations.
Circuit Switching

Packet switching
In comparison to circuit switching packet switching has greater
efficiency. A packet switching network can carry out data rte
conversion. Two stations o different data rates can exchange
packets, since each connects to its node at its proper data rate.
When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit switching network,
some calls are blocked. On a packet switching network packets
are still accepted.
BTS System
BTS in Mobile Communication
A GSM network is made up of three subsystems:
 The Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) –
comprising an MSC and associated registers.
 The Base Station subsystem (BSS) – comprising a BSC and
several BTS.
 The Operations support system (OSS) - for maintenance of
the network.

Though the term BTS can be applicable to any of the wireless

communication standards, it is generally and common associated
with mobile communication technologies like GSM and CDMA.
In this regard, a BTS forms part of the base station subsystem
(BSS) developments for system management. It may also have
equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications,
spectrum filtering tools (band pass filters) etc. antennas may also
be considered as components of BTS in general sense as they
facilitate the functioning of BTS. Typically a BTS will have
several transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve several
different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case
of base stations).
A BTS is controlled by a parent base station controller via the
base station control function (BCF). The BCF is implemented as
a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base
stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance
(O&M) connection to the network management system (NMS),
and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software
handling and alarm collection. The basic structure and functions
of the BTS remains the same regardless of the wireless
technologies.
General Architecture
Transceiver (TRX): Basically does transmission and reception of
signals. Also does sending and reception of signals to/from
higher network entities (like the base station controller in mobile
telephony)
Power amplifier (PA): Amplifies the signal from DRX for
transmission through antenna; may be integrated with DRX.
Combiner: Combines feeds from several DRXs so that they
could be sent out through a single antenna. It allows reducing
the number of antenna used.
Duplexer: This is used for sending and receiving signals to/from
antenna and also for sending and receiving signals through the
same antenna ports (cables to antenna).
Antenna: This is also considered a part of the BTS.
Alarm extension system: Collects working status alarms of
various units in the BTS and extends them to operations and
maintenance (O&M) monitoring stations.
Control function: Control and manages the various units of BTS
including any software. On-the-spot configurations, status
changes, software upgrades, etc. are done through the control
function. Baseband receiver unit (BBxx), Frequency hopping,
signal DSP, etc.
 TDMA

TDMA, or Time Division Multiple Access, is a technique for

dividing the time domain up into sub channels for use by
multiple devices. Each device gets a single time slot in a
procession of devices on the network. During that particular
time slot, one device is allowed to utilize the entire bandwidth of
the spectrum, and every other device is in the quiescent state.
There are n timeslots in each frame, one each for n devices on
the network. In practice, every device gets a timeslot in every
frame. This makes the frame setup simpler because there is no
time wasted on setting up the order of transmission. This has
side effect of wasting bandwidth and capacity on devices that
have nothing to send.
One optimization that makes TDMA much more efficient is the
addition of a registration period at the beginning of the frame.
During this period, each device indicates how much data it has
to send. Devices with lots of pending data can have extra time
with which to send it. This is called ETDMA (Extended TDMA)
and can increase the efficiency of TDMA to ten times the
capacity of the original analog cellular phone network.
The benefit of using TDMA with this optimization for network
access comes when data is “burst.” That means, at an arbitrary
time, it is not possible to predict the rate or amount of pending
data from a particular host. This type of data is seen often in
voice transmission, where the rate of speech, the volume of
speech, and the amount of background noise are constantly
varying. Thus, for this type of data, very little capacity is wasted
by excessive allocation.

CDMA
CDMA, or Code Division Multiple Access, allows every device
in a cell to transmit over the entire bandwidth at all times. Each
mobile device has a unique and orthogonal code that is used to
encode and recover the signal .The mobile phone digitizes the
voice data as it is received, and encodes the data with the unique
code for that phone. This is accomplished by taking each bit of
the signal and multiplying it by all bits in the unique code for the
phone. Thus, one data bit is transformed into a sequence of bits
of the same length as the code for the mobile phone. Once
encoded, the data is modulated for transmission over the
bandwidth allocated for that transmission.

GENERATIONS OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

First Generation Wireless Technology
The first generation of wireless mobile communications was
based on analog signaling. Analog systems, implemented in
North America, were known as Analog Mobile Phone Systems
(AMPS), while systems implemented in Europe and the rest of
the world was typically identified as variation of Total Access
Communication Systems (TACS). Analog systems were
primarily based on circuit-switched technology and designed for
voice, not data.

Second Generation Wireless Technology

The second generation (2G) of the wireless mobile network was
based on low-band digital data signaling. The most popular 2G
wireless technology is known as Global Systems for Mobile
Communications (GSM). GSM systems, first implemented in
1991, are now operating in about 140 countries and territories
around the world. An estimated 248 million users now operate
over GSM systems. GSM technology is a combination of
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA). The first GSM systems used
a 25MHz frequency spectrum in the 900MHz band. FDMA is
used to divide the available 25MHz of bandwidth into 124carrier
frequencies of 200 kHz each. Each frequency is then divided
using a TDMA scheme into eight time slots. The use of separate
timeslots for transmission and reception simplifies the
electronics in the mobile units. Today, GSM systems operate in
the 900MH2z and 1.8 GHz bands throughout the world with the
exception of the Americas where they operate in the 1.9 GHz
band.
In addition to GSM, a similar technology, called Personal
Digital Communications (PDC), using TDMA-based
technology, emerged in Japan. Since then, several other TDMA-
based systems have been deployed worldwide and serve an
estimated 89 million people worldwide. While GSM technology
was developed in Europe, Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) technology was developed in North America. CDMA
uses spread spectrum technology to break up speech into small,
digitized segments and encodes them to identify each call.
CDMA systems have been implemented worldwide in about 30
countries and serve an estimated 44 million subscribers.

Second Generation (2G+) Wireless Networks

As stated in a previous section, the virtual explosion of Internet
usage has had a tremendous impact on the demand for advanced
wireless data communication services. However, the effective
data rate of 2G circuit-switched wireless systems is relatively
slow, too slow for today's Internet. As a result, GSM, PDC and
other TDMA-based mobile system providers and carriers have
developed 2G+ technology that is packet-based and increases
the data communication speeds to as high as 384kbps. These
2G+ systems are based on the following technologies: High
Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution
(EDGE) technologies. HSCSD is one step towards 3G wideband
mobile data networks. This circuit-switched technology
improves the data rates up to 57.6kbps by introducing 14.4 kbps
data coding and by aggregating 4 radio channels timeslots of
14.4 kbps.

GPRS is an intermediate step that is designed to allow the GSM

world to implement a full range of Internet services without
waiting for the deployment of full-scale 3G wireless systems.
GPRS technology is packet-based and designed to work in
parallel with the 2G GSM, PDC and TDMA systems that are
used for voice communications and for table look-up to obtain
GPRS user profiles in the Location Register databases. GPRS
uses a multiple of the 1 to 8 radio channel timeslots in the 200
kHz frequency band allocated for a carrier frequency to enable
data speeds of up to 115kbps. The data is packetized and
transported over Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN) using
an IP backbone so that mobile users can access services on the
Internet, such as SMTP/POP-based e-mail, ftp and HTTP-based
Web services.
EDGE technology is a standard that has been specified to
enhance the throughput per timeslot for both HSCSD and GPRS.
The enhancement of HSCSD is called ECSD, whereas the
enhancement of GPRS is called EGPRS. In ECSD, the
maximum data rate will not increase from 64 kbps due to the
restrictions in the A interface, but the data rate per timeslot will
triple. Similarly, in EGPRS, the data rate per timeslot will triple
and the peak throughput, including all eight timeslots in the
radio interface, will exceed 384 kbps.
GPRS networks consist of an IP-based Public Mobile Land
Network (PLMN), Base Station Services (BSS), Mobile
handsets (MS), and Mobile Switching Centers (MSC) for
circuit-switched network access and databases. The Serving
GPRS Support Nodes (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support
Nodes (GGSN) make up the PLMN. Roaming is accommodated
through multiple PLMNs. SGSN and GGSN interface with the
Home Location Register (HLR) to retrieve the mobile user's
profiles to facilitate call completion. GGSN provides the
connection to external Packet Data Network (PDN), e.g. an
Internet backbone or an X.25 network. The BSS consists of Base
Transceiver Stations and Base Station Controllers. The Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) receives and transmits over the air
interfaces (CDMA, TDMA), providing wireless voice and data
connectivity to the mobile handsets. Base Station Controllers
(BSC) route the data calls to the packet-switched PLMN over a
Frame Relay (FR) link and the voice calls to the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC). MSC switches the voice calls to
circuit-switched PLMN network such as PSTN and ISDN. MSC
accommodates the Visitor Location Register (VLR) to store the
roaming subscriber information. The reverse process happens at
the destination PLMN and the destination BSS. On the data side,
the BSC routes the data calls to the SGSN, and then the data is
switched to the external PDN through the GGSN or to another
mobile subscriber. The First generation wireless mobile
communication systems were introduced in early eighties and
second generations’ systems in the late 1980s was intended
primarily for transmission of voice. The initial systems used
analog frequency modulation where as the second as well as the
subsequent mobile systems use digital communication
techniques with time division multiplexing (TDM), frequency
division multiplexing (FDM) or the code division multiple
access (CDMA). The third generation wireless systems which
are just getting introduced in the world markets offer
considerably higher data rates, and allow significant
improvements over the 2G systems. The 3G Wireless systems
were proposed to provide voice and paging services to provide
interactive multimedia including teleconferencing and internet
access and variety of other services. However, these systems
offer wide area network (WAN) coverage of 384 kbps peak rate
and limited coverage for 2 Mbps. Hence providing broadband
services would be one of the major goals of the 4G
Wireless-systems.
 The following is a brief description of each protocol layer in the
GPRS network infrastructure:
Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol
(SNDCP): protocol that maps a network level protocol, such as
IP or X.25, to the underlying logical link control. SNDCP also
provides other functions such as compression, segmentation and
multiplexing of network-layer messages to a single virtual
connection.
Logical Link Control (LLC): a data link layer protocol for
GPRS which functions similar to Link Access Protocol – D
(LAPD). This layer assures the reliable transfer of user data
across a wireless network.
Base Station System GPRS Protocol (BSSGP): processes
routing and quality of service (QoS) information for the BSS.
BSSGP uses the Frame Relay Q.922 core protocol as its
transport mechanism.
GP2RS Tunnel Protocol (GTP): protocol that tunnels the
protocol data units through the IP backbone by adding routing
information. GTP operates on top of TCP/UDP over IP.
GPR2S Mobility Management (GMM/SM): protocol that
operates in the signaling plane of GPRS handles mobility issues
such as roaming, authentication, selection of encryption
algorithms and maintains PDP context.
Network Service: protocol that manages the convergence
sub-layer that operates between BSSGP and the Frame Relay
Q.922 Core by mapping BSSGP's service requests to the
appropriate Frame Relay services.
BSSAP+: protocol that enables paging for voice
connections from MSC via SGSN, thus optimizing paging for
mobile subscribers. BSS2AP+ is also responsible for location
and routing updates as well as mobile station alerting.
SCCP, MTP3, MTP2 are protocols used to support Mobile
Application Part (MAP) and BSSAP+ in circuit switched
PLMNs
Mobile Application Part (MAP): supports signaling
between SGSN/GGSN and HLR/AuC/EIR.

Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks

3G wireless technology represents the convergence of various
2G wireless telecommunications systems into a single global
system that includes both terrestrial and satellite components.
One of the most important aspects of 3G wireless technologies is
its ability to unify existing cellular standards, such as CDMA,
GSM, and TDMA, into one umbrella. The following three
interfaces modes accomplish this result: wideband CDMA,
CDMA2000 and the Universal Wireless Communication (UWC-
136) interfaces.
The second radio interface is CDMA2000 which is backward
compatible with the second generation CDMA IS-95 standard
predominantly used in US. The third radio interface, Universal
Wireless Communications – UWC-136, also called IS-136HS,
was proposed by the TIA and designed to comply with ANSI-
136, the North American TDMA standard. 3G wireless networks
consist of a Radio Access Network (RAN) and a core network.
The core network consists of a packet-switched domain, which
includes 3G SGSNs and GGSNs, which provide the same
functionality that they provide in a GPRS system, and a circuit-
switched domain, which includes 3G MSC for switching of
voice calls. Charging for services and access is done through the
Charging Gateway Function (CGF), which is also part of the
core network. RAN functionality is independent from the core
network functionality.
The Radio Access Network consists of new network elements,
known as Node B and Radio Network Controllers (RNCs). Node
B is comparable to the Base Transceiver Station in 2G wireless
networks. RNC replaces the Base Station Controller. It provides
the radio resource management, handover control and support
for the connections to circuit-switched and packet-switched
domains. The interconnection of the network elements in RAN
and between RAN and core network is over Iub, Iur and IU
interfaces based on ATM as a layer 2 switching technology.
Data services run from the terminal device over IP, which in
turn uses ATM as a reliable transport with QoS. Voice is
embedded into ATM from the edge of the network (Node B) and
is transported over ATM out of the RNC. The IU interface is
split into 2 parts: circuit switched and packet-switched. The IU
interface is based on ATM with voice traffic embedded on
virtual circuits using AAL technology and IP-over-ATM for
data traffic using AAL5 technology. These traffic types are
switched independently to either 3G SGSN for data or 3G MSC
for voice.
Evolution of 3G technology
Initial coverage
NTT Docomo is deploying 3G wireless services in Japan in the
third quarter of 2000. In contrast, there is no similar mandate in
North America and it is more likely that competition will drive
the deployment of 3G wireless technology in that region. For
example, Nextel Communications has announced that it will be
deploying 3G wireless services in North America during the
fourth quarter of 2000.
The existence of legacy networks in most regions of the world
highlights the challenge that communications equipment
manufacturers face when implementing next generation wireless
phone. Compatibility and interworking between the new 3G
wireless systems and the old legacy networks must be achieved
in order to ensure the acceptance of new 3G wireless phones by
service providers and end-users.
The existing core technology used in mobile networks is based
on traditional circuit-switched technology for delivery of voice
services. However, this traditional technology is inefficient for
the delivery of multimedia services. The core switches for next-
generation of mobile networks will be based on packet-switched
technology which is better suited for data and multimedia
services.
IP technology is used end-to-end for multimedia applications
and ATM technology is used to provide reliable transport with
QoS.
The BSC may evolve into an RNC by using add-on cards or
additional hardware that is co-located. The carrier frequency (5
MHz) and the bands (2.5 to 5 GHz) are different for 3G wireless
technology compared to 2G/2G+ wireless technology. Evolution
of BSC to RNC requires support for new protocols such as
PDCP, RRC, RANAP, RNSAP and NBAP. Therefore, BTS'
evolution into Node B may prove to be difficult and may
represent significant capital expenditure on the part of network
operators. MSC evolution depends on the selection of a fixed
network to carry the requested services. If an ATM network is
chosen, then ATM protocols will have to be supported in 3G
MSC along with interworking between ATM and existing
PSTN/ISDN networks.
ATM protocols need to be incorporated to transport the services.
Finally, global roaming requires compatibility to existing
deployment and graceful fallback to an available level when
requested services are not available in the region. Towards this
end, the Operator Harmonization Group (OHG) is working
closely with 3G Partnership Projects (3GPP and 3GPP2) to
come up with global standards for 3G wireless protocols.
 The most telling example is growth of the Internet over the last
10 years. Wireless networks provide a unique twist to this
product: mobility. This concept is already beginning a
revolution in wireless networking, with instant access to the
Internet from anywhere.

4G Technology
The 4G technology will be able to support Interactive services
like Video Conferencing (with more than 2 sites
simultaneously), Wireless Internet, etc. The bandwidth would be
much wider (100 M2Hz) and data would be transferred at much
higher rates. The cost of the data transfer would be
comparatively very less and global mobility would be possible.
The networks will be all IP networks based on IPv6. The
antennas will be much smarter and improved access
technologies like OFDM and MC-CDMA (Multi Carrier
CDMA) will be used. Also the security features will be much
better.
The entire network would be packet switched (IP based). All
switches would be digital. Higher bandwidths would be
available which would make cheap data transfer possible. The
network security would be much tighter. Also QoS will
improve. More efficient algorithms at the Physical layer will
reduce the Inter-channel Interference and Co-channel
Interference. The Wi-Max lobby and the people who are
working with the Wi-Max technology are trying to push Wi-
Max as the 4G wireless technology. At present there is no
consensus among people to refer to this as the 4G wireless
technology. I do not think this is popular with the researching
community. Wi-Max can deliver up to 70 Mbps over a 50Km
radius. As mentioned above, with 4G wireless technology
people would like to achieve up to 1Gbps (indoors). Wi-Max
does not satisfy the criteria completely. Also Wi-Max
technology (802.16d) does not support mobility very well. To
overcome the mobility problem, 802.16e or Mobile Wi-Max is
being standardized. The important thing to remember here is that
all the researches for 4G technology are based around OFDM.
Wi-Max is also based on OFDM. This gives more credibility to
the Wi-Max lobby who would like to term Wi-Max as a 4G
technology. Since there is no consensus for the time being, we
have to wait and see who would be the winner.

Problems with the Current System

After all, wireless providers are already moving in the direction
of expanding the bandwidth of their cellular networks. Almost
all of the major cell phone networks already provide data
services beyond that in standard cell phones. Unfortunately, the
current cellular network does not have the available bandwidth
necessary to handle data services well. Not only is data transfer
slowly — at the speed of analog modems — but the bandwidth
that is available is not allocated efficiently for data. Data transfer
tends to come in bursts rather than in the constant stream of
voice data. Cellular providers are continuing to upgrade their
networks in order to meet this higher demand by switching to
deferent protocols that allow for faster access speeds and more
efficiently transfers. These are collectively referred to as third
generation, or 3G, services. However, the way in which the
companies are developing their networks is problematic all are
currently proceeding in directions with their technology
improvements.
The equipment and technology needed for 4G will be cheap,
because of all of the cellular manufacturers investing in it.
Cellular providers will market additional services to its
customers. Some of the developers make the conversion to 4G
because not all of the players have chosen 4G, the equipment
will be more expensive than the second scenario. Even though
converters will be able to sell more services to their customers, it
will not be enough to cover the higher costs of converting to 4G.
Therefore, if a player chooses the 4G strategy, but nobody else
follows suit, that player will be at a significant disadvantage. No
cellular provider has incentive to move to 4G unless all
providers move to 4G. An outside agent — the national
government — must standardize on 4G as the wireless standard
for the United States.
A common concern is the similarity of this proposal to the
forced introduction of HDTV 4G Wireless Systems 6 in the US,
which has (thus far) failed miserably. There are two key
differences, however, between 4G and HDTV. The first is the
nature of the service providers. There are many small television
broadcasters in rural areas whose cost of conversion would be as
much as 15 years of revenue. The cellular industry, however,
does not have this problem. The players are multi-billion dollar
companies, who already have enough capital; continual network
upgrades are part of their business plan. Our proposal is simply
choosing a direction for their growth. An often overlooked area
of financial liability for cellular providers is in the area of
information security. Providers could lose money through
fraudulent use of the cellular system or unauthorized disclosure
of user information over the airwaves.
In attempting to avoid security problems like those that plagued
the first-generation cellular systems, engineers must design
security into any new technology it cannot be added as an after
thought. Unfortunately, this is no easy task. Implementing good
security requires that security be designed into every aspect of
the system; otherwise, a security leak exists. Thus, the following
entities must cooperate to create the secure wireless system:
• Government regulator
• Network infrastructure provider
• Wireless service provider
• Wireless equipment provider
• Wireless user (Russell 2001, 172)

Information Security Model

Before seeking to design and implement wireless security,
however, one first needs to understand what this elusive concept
of security really means. In this case, wireless security is really a
combination of wireless channel security (security of the radio
transmission) and network security (security of the wired
network through which the data flows). These collectively can
be referred to as “wireless network security” (Russell 2001,
173). But this still does not explain the security aspect. In a
digital realm, security almost always means “information
security.” Therefore, we can use the information security model
proposed by the National Security Telecommunications and
Information Systems Security Committee (NSTISSC).

Along the top edge of the cube is the three states information
while the rows on the left side of the cube are the information
characteristics that the security policy should provide. The
columns on the right side of the cube detail the three broad
categories of security measures that can be pursued to protect
the information. The cube is thus split into 27 smaller cubes,
each of which must be examined for risks and solutions in any
extensive security audit. This document, on the other hand, is
not meant to contain such an audit, but rather to present the
major issues of wireless security, the objectives of future
wireless technology, and the security measures needed to reach
those goals.
Wireless Security Issues
Wireless systems face a number of security challenges, one of
which comes from interference. As more wireless devices begin
to use the same section of electromagnetic spectrum, possibility
of interference increases. This can result in a loss of signal for
users. Moreover, an abuser can intentionally mount a denial-of-
service attack (lowering availability) by jamming the
frequencies used. Iowa State University professor Steve Russell
comments that “an RF engineer using $50 worth of readily-
available components can build a simple short-range jammer for
any of the common microwave frequencies” (Russell 2001,
174).Physical security can pose problems as well. Cellular
phones and other handheld devices were designed to be small
and mobile, but this also means that they are more likely than
other pieces of technology to get lost or stolen, and thieves can
easily conceal them. Because of their size, these devices often
have extremely limited computing power. This could manifest
lower levels in the encryption that protects the information
(NIST, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 5-26). As encryption is
improved in the same device, speed is consequently lowered, as
is available bandwidth (Russell 2001, 174). Every new
technology must be analyzed for security issues before it is fully
implemented. Even then, one must keep a careful eye on any
new issues that may develop.
• To ensure that information generated by or relating to a user is
adequately protected against misuse or misappropriation.
• To ensure that the resources and services provided to users are
adequately protected against misuse or misappropriation.
• To ensure that the security features are compatible with world-
wide availability.
• To ensure that the security features are adequately standardized
to ensure world-wide interoperability and roaming between
providers.
• To ensure that the level of protection to users and providers of
services is considered to be better than that provided in
contemporary fixed and mobile networks.
• To ensure that the implementation of security features and
mechanisms can be extended and enhanced as required by new
threats and services.
• To ensure that security features enable new ‘e-commerce’
services and other advanced applications. These goals will help
to direct security efforts, especially when the system is faced
with specific threats.

4G HARDWARE-Ultra Wide Band Networks

Ultra Wideband technology, or UWB, is an advanced
transmission technology that can be used in the implementation
of a 4G network. The secret to UWB is that it is typically
detected as noise. This highly specific kind of noise does not
cause interference with current radio frequency devices, but can
be decoded by another device that recognizes UWB and can
reassemble it back into a signal. Since the signal is disguised as
noise, it can use any part of the frequency spectrum, which
means that it can use frequencies that are currently in use by
other radio frequency devices. An Ultra Wideband device works
by emitting a series of short, low powered electrical pulses that
are not directed at one particular frequency but rather are spread
across the entire spectrum). Ultra Wideband uses a frequency of
between 3.1to 10.6 2GHz.

The pulse can be called “shaped noise” because it is not flat, but
curves across the spectrum. On the other hand, actual noise
would look the same across a range of frequencies it has no
shape. For this reason, regular noise that may have the same
frequency as the pulse itself does not cancel out the pulse.
Interference would have to spread across the spectrum uniformly
to obscure the pulse.
UWB provides greater bandwidth — as much as 60 megabits
per second, which is 6 times faster than today’s wireless
networks. It also uses significantly less power, since it transmit
pulses instead of a continuous signal. UWB uses all frequencies
from high to low, thereby passing through objects like the sea or
layers of rock. Nevertheless, because of the weakness of the
UWB signal, special antennas are needed to tune and aim the
signal.

Smart Antennas
Multiple “smart antennas” can be employed to help find, tune,
and turn up signal information. Since the antennas can both
“listen” and “talk,” a smart antenna can send signals back in the
same direction that they came from. This means that the antenna
system cannot only hear many times louder, but can also
respond more loudly and directly as well. There are two types of
smart antennas:
Switched Beam Antennas (Figure 7) have fixed beams of
transmission, and can switch from one predefined beam to
another when the user with the phone moves throughout the

sector.
Adaptive Array Antennas (Figure 8) represent the most
advanced smart antenna approach to date using a variety of new
signal processing algorithms to locate and track the user,
minimize interference, and maximize intended signal reception.
Smart antennas can thereby:
• Optimize available power
• Increase base station range and coverage
• Reuse available spectrum
• Increase bandwidth

4G will likely become a unification of different wireless

n2etworks, including wireless LAN technologies (e.g. IEEE
802.11), public cellular networks (2.5G, 3G), and even personal
are2a networks. Under this umbrella, 4G needs to support a wide
range of mobile devices that can roam across different types of
network. These devices would have to support different
networks, meaning that one device would have to have the
capability of working on different networks. One solution to this
“multi-network functional device” is a software defined radio.

MAGIC of 4G Technology referred to as mobile Multimedia

Anytime Anywhere Global mobility support, integrated wireless
and personalized services. 4G can greatly anticipate in evolving
and advancing the pervasive computing. The aim of pervasive
computing is to attach itself to every living space possible, so
that human beings remain intact with the wireless technology
intentionally and unintentionally. Therefore 4G is  be able to
connect various high speed networks together, which would 
enable each one of us to carry digital devices even in dispersed
locations. 
The network operators worldwide would be able to deploy
wireless mesh networks and make use of cognitive radio
technology for widespread coverage and access. 4G can use
both orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and
orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA).
OFDM mechanism splits a digital signal into different
narrowband and frequencies. The reason why 4G makes use of
this technology lies in its ability to minimize the intervention
among symbols and channels associated to data streaming.4G is
also capable of using multiple input / multiple output technology
(MIMO). This antenna technology is used to optimize the data
speed and reduce the errors in the networks. Universal Mobile
Telecommunication Service (UMTS) which is basically a
broadband 3G technology is also a part of 4G. This broadband
technology transfers data in the form of frames or packets.
Another wireless telecommunication technology known as time
divis2ion synchronous code division multiple accesses (TD-
SCDMA) provides support to 4G to transfer both circuit
switched data like video and voice and packet switched data.

5G GENERATION
The gigantic array of innovative technology being built into new
cell phones is stunning. 5Gsystem which is on hand held phone
offering more power and features than at least 1000 lunar
modules. A user can also hook their 5G technology cell phone
with their Laptop to get broadband internet access. 5G
technology including camera, MP3 recording, video player,
large phone memory, dialing speed, audio player and much
more you never imagine. For children rocking fun Bluetooth
technology and Piconets has become in market.
This technology also strikes the china mobile market and a user
being proficient to get access to Germany phone as a local
phone. With the coming out of cell phone alike to PDA now
your whole office in your finger tips or in your phone. 5G
technology has extraordinary data capabilities and has ability to
tie together unrestricted call volumes and infinite data broadcast
within latest mobile operating system.
The Router and switch technology used in 5G network
providing high connectivity. The 5G technology distributes
internet access to nodes within the building and can be deployed
with union of wired or wireless network connections
5G Features
       5G technology offer high resolution for crazy cell phone
user and bi-directional large bandwidth shaping.
       advanced billing interfaces of 5G technology makes it
more attractive and effective.
       5G technology is providing large broadcasting of data in
Gigabit which supporting almost 65,000 connections.
       5G technology offer transporter class gateway with
unparalleled consistency.
       Traffic statistics by 5G technology makes it more
accurate.
       5G technology is providing up to 25 Mbps connectivity
speed.
       5G technology also support virtual private network.

IMPORTANT REVIEWS OF WIRELESS SYSTEM

Packet Layer
The packet layer is a layer of abstraction that separates the data
being transmitted from the way that it is being transmitted. The
Internet relies on packets to move files, pictures, video and other
information over the same hardware. Without a packet layer,
there would need to be a separate connection on each computer
for each type of information and a separate network with
separate routing equipment to move that information around.
Even though the loss is usually negligible, it still can cause
major problems with sensitive devices and can garble voice
information to a point where it is unintelligible. All of these
problems contribute to a low Quality of Service (Qos).
Packets only require that there is an origin, a destination, and at
least one route between them. If something happens to one of
the routes that a packet is using, the routing equipment uses
information in the packet to find out where it is supposed to go
and gives it an alternate route accordingly. Error correction data
is encoded in the last part of the packet, so if the transmission
garbles even one bit of the information, the receiving device will
know and ask for the data to be retransmitted. Packets are also
numbered so that if one goes missing, the device on the
receiving end will know that something has gone wrong and can
request that the packet(s) in question be sent again.

An example of the format of a packet carrying 896 bits of actual

information can be seen in Figure 9: The “Protocol” section
would contain whatever information was needed to explain what
type of data was encoded; in the case of voice using Voice over
IP (VoIP), it would read: H.323 (Protocols.com ). As shown by
the growth of the Internet over the past few years, the capacity
of packets is expandable. They have moved from carrying short
text messages to carrying video, audio, and other huge types of
data. As long as the capacity of the transmitter is large enough, a
packet can carry any size of information, or a large number of
packets can be sent carrying information cut up into little pieces.
As long as a packet obeys the standard for how to start and end,
any data of any size can be encoded inside of it; the transmission
hardware will not know the difference.

Voice over IP (VoIP)

Voice over IP is the current standard for voice communication
over data networks. Several standards already exist for VoIP, the
primary one being International Multimedia
Telecommunications and by several companies that has cheap
long distance phone calls over the Internet, such as NetPhone
and Go Call. VoIP allows for flexibility the same way that data
packets do; as far as the network is concerned, VoIP packets are
the same as any other packet. They can travel over any
equipment that supports packet-based communication and
They receive all of the error correction and other benefits that
packets receive.
One other thing that VoIP allows is slow transition from direct,
connection based communication to VoIP communication.
Backbones can be replaced, allowing old-style telephone users
to connect to their central office (CO) the same way. However,
the CO will then connect to an IPv6 Internet backbone, which
will then connect to the destination CO.
Encryption
Two encryption/decryption techniques are commonly used:
asymmetric and symmetric encryption. Symmetric encryption is
the more traditional form, where both sides agree on a system of
encrypting and decrypting messages — the reverse of the
encryption algorithm is the decryption algorithm. Modern
symmetric encryption algorithms are generic and use a key to
vary the algorithm. Thus, two sides can settle on a specific key
to use for their communications. The problem then is the key
transportation problem: How do both sides get the key without a
third party intercepting it? If an unauthorized user receives the
key, then he too can decrypt the messages.
The solution to this problem is asymmetric encryption. In
symmetric encryption, the encryption and decryption algorithms
are inverses, but the key is the same. In asymmetric encryption,
the keys are inverses, but the algorithm is the same. The trick is
that one cannot infer the value of one key by using the other. In
an asymmetric (also called public key) system, an end user
makes one key public and keeps the other private. Then all
parties know the algorithm and the public key. If any party
wishes to communicate with the users, that party can encrypt the
message using the public key, and only the user (with her private
key) can decrypt the message. Moreover, the user can prove that
she generated a message by encrypting it with her private key. If
the encrypted message makes sense to other parties when
decrypted with the public key, then those parties know that the
user must have generated that message.
Situations exist in cellular wireless systems where either
symmetric or asymmetric keys are particularly useful.
Asymmetric keys are useful for one-time connections, especially
when used to create a symmetric key for an extended
connection. Meanwhile, symmetric keys are smaller and faster,
and thus are strongly preferred if key transportation is not a
problem.
An excellent example of this is the GSM system’s subscriber
information card placed into each phone. The card holds a
unique symmetric key for each subscriber.
GSM has its origin from the Group special Mobile, in Europe.
GSM (Global system for mobile communication) is the most
admired standard of all the mobile technologies. Although this
technology originates from the Europe, but now it is used in
more than 212 countries in the world. GSM technology was the
first one to help establish international roaming. Unlike 1G
technologies which were used to transfer analogue signals. GSM
has enabled the users to make use of the short message services
(SMS) to any mobile network at any time. SMS is a cheap and
easy way to send a message to anyone, other than the voice call
or conference.
  Docomo launched its first digital service of PDC in
1993.Integrated digital enhanced network (iDEN) was
developed by MOTOROLA, as a major mobile technology. It
enabled the mobile users to make use of complex trunked radio
and mobile phones. iDEN has a frequency of about 25Khz.
iDEN allows three or six user per mobile.iS-136 is a second
generation cellular phone system. It is also known as digital
AMPS. D-AMPS were widely popular in America and Canada.
However now it is in the declining phase. Interim standard 95 is
a first and the foremost CDMA cellular technology. It is most
famous by its brand name known as cdmaOne. It makes use of
the CDMA to transfer the voice signals and data signals from
cellular phones to cell sites (cell sites is cellular network). There
are many 3G technologies as W-CDMA, GSM EDGE, UMTS,
DECT, Wi-Max and CD2MA 2000.Enhanced data rates for
GSM evolution or EDGE is termed to as a backward digital
technology, because it can operate with older devices. EDGE
allows for faster data transfer than existing GSM.EDGE was
introduced by AT& T in 2003.EDGE has increased the GSM
coverage up to three times more. EDGE is a 3G technology
therefore it can be used for packet switched systems. Universal
mobile telecommunications systems, UMTS conforms to ITU
IMT 2000 standard. It is complex network and allows for
covering radio access, core network and USIM (subscriber
identity module). It is a relatively expensive technology for the
network operators because it requires new and separate
infrastructure for its coverage. The GSM is the base of this
technology. Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications
(DECT) is another 3G Technology (Third Generation
Technology). DETC was developed by European
telecommunications standards institute; however it is now
widely popular in the other countries of the world as well. It
runs over a frequency of 19002Mhz. Wi-Max is a 3G
Technology (Third Generation Technology) and it is referred to
as worldwide interoperability for microwave access. It is a
wireless technology. It transmits variety of wireless signals. It
can be operated on the multi point and point modes. It is
portable technology. This technology is based on the wireless
internet access. Name of the Wi-Max was developed in 2001 by
Wi-Max forum. This technology removes the need for wires and
is capable enough to provide 10mbits/sec. it can connect you to
hotspot. The technologies that fall in the 4G categories are
UMTS, OFDM, SDR, TD-SCDMA, MIMO and Wi-MAX to
the some extent. The word “MAGIC” also refers to 4G wireless
technology which stands for Mobile multimedia.
GSM or global system for mobile communication is a digital
cellular system. It was originated in Finland Europe.GSM
accounts for 80% of total mobile phone technologies market.
There are over more than 3 billion users of GSM. The use of
GSM is possible due to the SIM (subscriber’s identity module)
GSM. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a 2G
technology.GSM offers moderate security. It allows for
encryption between the end user and the service base station.
The use of various forms of cryptographic modules is part of
GSM technology.
  These cells are of five different sizes. These cells include
macro, micro, femto, umbrella and Pico cells. Macro cells are
the largest cells that cover radio signals. Macro cells are
distributed over larger geographical areas. Micro cells cover a
small geographical are such as hotels. These cells are supported
by powerful cellular stations or in other words tower. Pico cell is
a wireless communication scheme. Pico cells also cover a small
geographical area. Femto cell is a small base station designed to
cater the needs of minor business area. It is connected using
DSL technology. Some countries in the world use GSM-900 or
E-GSM. The frequency in E-GSM is extended to about 920 to
960MHZ.latest mobile phones support E2-GSM. All 2G and 3G
cell phones have GSM in them. So while you’re traveling you
can replace your SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) and still
remain connected to the GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communication).
   'Super-3G' is an intermediate stage between 3G and 4G. In this
stage the operators are planning to achieve data rates up to
100Mbps when travelling at speeds up to 1200Kmph. Long-
Term (Radio) Evolution or LTE is also part of 3G technology.
It’s a 3GPP research item for Release 8. It’s also known as 3.9G
or “Super 3G” by some researchers.

Mobility Management
Mobility Management includes location registration, paging and
handover. The MT should be able to access the services at any
place possible. The global roaming can be achieved by with the
help of multi-hop networks that can include the WLANs or the
satellite coverage in remote areas. A seamless service (Ex: soft
handover of the MT from one network to another or from one
kind of service to other) is also important.

New techniques in location management might be implemented.

Each MT need not do location registration every time. They can
instead do concatenated location registration, which reports to
the network that they are concatenated to a common object. Ex-
MTs in a train need to re-register only when they get off the
train and till the network knows that they are in the train.

Congestion-Control
                Congestion control will be other critical issues in the
high performance 4G networks. Two basic approaches can be
taken towards the congestion control: avoidance or prevention of
the congestion and detection and recovery after congestion. The
avoidance scheme will require the network to suitably
implement the admission control (measurement based or pre-
computed model) and scheduling techniques. The detection and
recovery would require flow control and feedback traffic
management. A conservative approach might be proposed for
the 4G systems because of the wide variety of QoS
requirements.

 
Conclusion
Consumers demand that software and hardware be user-friendly
and perform well. Indeed, it seems part of our culture that
customers expect the highest quality and the greatest features for
what they buy. The cellular telephone industry, which now
includes a myriad of wireless devices, is no exception.
Combining these patents into one single license fee will be quite
challenging. Hardware-based codec’s will be preferred in mobile
phones as they consume a smaller amount of power and are
faster than software routines. Some hardware codec’s are
currently available in the market, but current products need to
evolve in order to reduce cost and power requirements.
However, significant increase in computational capacity is
needed for software-based encoders. Therefore, they will most
likely be used to record and play video (and audio) on PCs,
using the computer’s CPU for processing. One of the key issues
for the operator consists of the definition of an “ideal” service
roadmap. The mobile operator must take advantage of the
opening offered by mobile video services as a means to produce
traffic, revenue, and customer loyalty. Meanwhile, competition
in the industry is heating up. Providers are slashing prices while
scrambling for the needed infrastructure to provide the latest
features as incentives, often turning to various solutions.
Unfortunately, this will only serve to bewilder customers in an
already confusing market.
Customers want the features delivered to them, simple and
straightforward. Gadgets providers want to make money in a
cutthroat industry. If the government wants to help, the best way
to help all parties is to enforce new technologies which are both
beneficial to the company and the user and also eco-friendly.