ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE

Occurrence: Aluminium hydroxide, similar to other metals carbonates,

hydroxides and sulfates, is found in mineral ores of gibbsites, bayertute,
doyleite and strandite.
Preparation: Although aluminium hydroxide is largely found in many geological
systems in nature, it is mostly produced by the Bayer and sintering processes to
obtain alumina from the mineral bauxite. Thus, 97% of the world aluminium
hydroxide is obtaining through the treatment of bauxite with caustic soda
yielding sodium aluminate, which is decomposes by stirring to obtain an
aluminium hydroxide precipitate:
NaAl(OH)4 → Al(OH)3 + NaOH
Other processes to obtain aluminium hydroxide are the hydrothermal technique,
the micro-emulsion or the Sol-gel. These methods have the advantage of
producing an compound with a higher level of purity.
Physical properties: Aluminium hydroxide is an odorless, white amorphouse
solid. Its density is 2.42 g mL-1. Aluminium hydroxide melting point is 300 ºC. It
is insoluble in water and ethanol, but soluble in acids and alkalis solutions.
Chemical properties: Aluminium hydroxide is an amphoteric compound, which
means that the substance presents basic or acid characteristics. Consequently,
the aluminium hydroxide is soluble in both: acids (reaction I) or alkalis (reaction
II) solutions:
Al(OH)3 + 3 H+ → Al+3 + H2O (I)
Al(OH)3 + OH- → AlO2- + H2O (II)
Uses: Aluminium hydroxide has a great variety of application in chemical
industry, some of these uses are as plastic, rubber, polymer and epoxy resin
filler, flame retardant, additive for glass and paper. In pharmacy, it is used as
an antacid for the gastritis and ulcer treatment and it is also an additive in some
vaccines and works as excipient in the production of some drugs. However,
aluminium hydroxide is mostly used as raw material in the production of
alumina (aluminium oxide) to produce aluminium metal.
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
Occurrence: Ammonium chloride is found in mineralogical formations and in
this form is called as salt ammoniac. It has also been found in some volcanic
vents and ashes.
Preparation: Ammonium chloride can also be obtained by various
methodologies. The first one is through the neutralization with HCl of the
ammoniacal residue formed in the distillation of coal:
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
The second strategy is through the Solvay process to obtain sodium carbonate
(or bicarbonate) and where the ammonium chloride is produce as by-product:
NH3 + CO2 + NaCl + H2O → NH4Cl + NaHCO3
In Solvay process the sodium bicarbonate is recovery by filtration and then the
ammonium chloride that remains in solution crystallize.
Physical properties: Ammonium chloride is a white, odorless solid. Its density
is 1.5274 g mL-1 and the melting and boiling points are 338 ºC and 520 ºC.
Ammonium chloride is soluble in water, ethanol, methanol and glycerol and
slightly soluble in acetone. It is insoluble in organic solvents as ethyl acetate.
Chemical properties: Ammonium chloride may suffer different reactions of the
great value to the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. It can decompose
when heated into hydrochloric acid and ammonia (reaction I). Additional, it can
react with bases like sodium or potassium hydroxide to also produce ammonia
gas. Other important reaction where is used ammonia chloride is the
decomposition of carbonates and bicarbonates, forming a salt and ammonia
(reaction III).
NH4Cl → NH3 + HCl (I)
NH4Cl + NaOH → NH3 + NaCl + H2O (II)
2 NH4Cl + Na2CO3 → 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O + 2 NH3 (III)
Uses: Ammonium chloride has a large nitrogen source, so that and similarly to
urea it is used as fertilizers and it is added to bacteria and yeast growth media.
It is also used to preparing some metals before galvanization that needs a
surface free of metal oxides. Moreover, ammonium chloride is used by the
pharmaceutical industry to produce cough syrop and expectorants and it is also
included in the treatments of metabolic alkalosis and to maintain the urine pH.
SODIUM CARBONATE
Occurrence: Sodium carbonate occurs naturally in mineral form as its hydrate
salts (such as trona, natron, natrite, etc.). There are several of its mineral
deposits found in dry regions around the world.
Preparation: Sodium carbonate is obtained commercially through two different
methods. The first method involves mining the mineral deposits of sodium
carbonate, which is the main production method in the USA. In the second
method, called the Solvay process, sodium chloride is reacted with ammonia to
give sodium bicarbonate, which is then heated to give sodium carbonate.
Physical properties: Sodium carbonate is a white crystalline powder with a
density of 2.54 g/mL, and a melting point of 851 °C.
Chemical properties: Sodium carbonate is a stable but hygroscopic solid
(absorbs water from air) and readily dissolves in water to form weakly acidic
carbonic acid and the strong base, sodium hydroxide. Thus, the aqueous
solution of Na2CO3 is overall a strong base. It reacts violently with many acids.
When heated to high temperatures, it decomposes to emit toxic fumes of
disodium oxide (Na2O).
Uses: The main uses of sodium carbonate are as water softener, food
processing aid, pH modifier, swimming pool chemical and electrolyte. It is also
used in the manufacture of glass, paper, soaps and detergents, and many other
useful chemicals.
LITHIUM CARBONATE
Occurrence: Lithium carbonate is found in ores together other minerals. It can
be extracted easily because it is insoluble in water, thus the hot water is used to
isolate from other chemical compounds present in ores.
Preparation: Lithium carbonate can be produced through chemical synthesis;
however it is most commonly extracted from minerals. There are some chemical
methods to produces lithium carbonate:, but the most widespread is the
reaction between the lithium hydroxide or lithium chloride and sodium
carbonate in water, which produces a precipitate of lithium carbonate:
2 LiOH + Na2CO3 → Li2CO3 + 2 NaOH
2 LiCl + Na2CO3 → Li2CO3 + 2 NaCl
Physical properties: Lithium carbonate is an odorless white powder. Its
density is 2.11 g mL-1. Lithium carbonate melting point is 724 ºC and its boiling
point is 1310 ºC. It is insoluble in hot water, acetone, ammonia and ethanol. It
is poorly soluble in cold water (its solubility in water decrease with the
increasing the temperature). It is soluble in acetic acid.
Chemical properties: Lithium carbonate is a salt of lithium most used and it is
widely commercialized to the bipolarity treatment. Lithium is the ion most
similar to sodium, by size and charge, thus it is a competitor of sodium in the
transmembrane exchange in nerve cells, thus it can be affected the release of
neurotransmitters. Lithium carbonate can also be used to elevate the peripheral
leukocytes.
Uses: Lithium carbonate is mainly used by the pharmaceutical industry in
treatments against manic-depressive psychosis. It is also used by the chemical
industry in the production of other lithium compounds, especially lithium salts
as lithium chloride and lithium bromide. Lithium carbonate is also a raw material
to manufacture glass and porcelain. It is also added into electrolytic cells for
electrolysis of aluminium due it helps to increase the efficiency of the cell and it
is component of many semiconductors and chemical catalysts.
SODIUM NITRITE
Sodium nitrite represented by the chemical formula NaNO2 is a nitrous acid sodium salt [1] that is soluble
in water and aqueous acid [4]. It is non-combustible itself but assists the burning of combustible
material [1]. It is an ionic compound and a strong reducing agent [3]. In acidic solution, though, it mainly
executes oxidation reactions [4].

Composition and Synthesis

Sodium nitrite can be prepared by heating sodium nitrate and lead [7].
NaNO3 + Pb = NaNO2 + PbO

Sodium Nitrite Formula

Properties and Characteristics of Sodium Nitrite

General Properties

Molar mass/molecular
weight 68.995 g/mol [1]

Physical Properties

Yellowish white
Color/appearance crystals [1]

Melting point/freezing
point 271°C, 519.8°F [5]

320°C, 608°F
Boiling point (decomposes) [1]

Density 2.17 g cm-3 [5]

 State of matter at room
temperature (normal
phase) Solid [1]

Vapor pressure 0.2 [6]

Chemical Properties

Solubility in water 820 g/l (at 20oC) [4]

pH 9 (basic) [

Sodium Nitrite Uses

1. In meat curing, preservation and coloring [1].
2. As a reagent in techniques involving analytical chemistry [1].
3. As a corrosion inhibitor, food additive, hog poison and an antidote to cyanide poisoning (used in
combination with sodium thiosulfate) [1, 4].
4. For the production of various dyes and fertilizers [1, 4].
5. For bleaching fibers and printing textile fabrics [3].
6. As a laxative, bronchodilator and vasodilator in the medical field [3]
FERROUS SULPHATE
Occurrencee: Ferrous sulfate is mainly present in nature as heptahydrated
salt. However, the other hydrated salts are also found in nature constituting
some minerals.
Preparation: Anhydrous ferrous sulfate is obtained from the reaction between
elemental iron and sulfuric acid, to yield ferrous sulfate and hydrogen gas
(reaction I) or by oxidation of pyrite (reaction II).
Fe + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2 (reaction I)
2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O → 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4 (reaction II)
Physical properties: Ferrous sulfate in their different hydrated states are
turquoise or blue-green, odorless and crystal solid. Anhydrous ferrous sulfate
has a melting point of 680 ºC, however it decomposes over 300 ºC. Its density
is 1.898 g mL-1. All ferrous sulfate salts are soluble in water.
Chemical properties: Ferrous sulfate salts tend to lose or gain water
molecules depending of the medium. In water, ferrous sulfate salts are
hydrolyzed, forming the aquo complex [Fe(H2O)6]+2. By the other side, these
salts lose water molecules when are in contact with the air. In humidity
ambient, ferrous sulfate salts oxide to ferric sulfate.
Uses: in medicine, ferrous sulfate is a supplement of iron in human body. Thus,
it is used to treat anemia and it is suministrated to pregnant women as iron
source. Ferrous sulfate was used for many centuries to manufacture inks and
wool/fabric dyeing; particularly it was used to obtain indigo dye. Similar to ferric
sulfate, ferrous sulfate is used to purify wastes by flocculation.