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CE 6403 APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

UNIT I
UNIFORM FLOW
Definition and differences between pipe flow and open channel flow
- Types of Flow - Properties of open channel - Fundamental
equations - Velocity distribution in open channel - Steady uniform
flow: Chezy equation, Manning equation - Best hydraulic sections
for uniform flow – Computation in Uniform Flow - Specific energy
and specific force - Critical depth and velocity.

BY.
MR.KUMAR.G M.E. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SRIPERUMBUDUR – 602 117

FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

Flow in open channels is defined as the flow of a liquid with a

free surface. A free surface is a surface having constant
pressure such as atmospheric pressure.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW IN CHANNELS

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(a) Steady flow

The flow properties, such as the depth of flow, velocity of flow, rate
of flow at any point in open channel flow do not change. With
respect to time, the flow is said to be steady flow.

i.e. v Q y
 0,  0,  0
t t t

Where,
V = Velocity
Q = rate of flow
y = depth of flow.

(a) Unsteady flow

If at any point in open channel flow, the velocity of flow, depth of
flow or rate of flow changes with respect to time, the flow is said to
be unsteady flow.
v y Q
i .e .  0,  0,  0,
t t t

(b) Uniform flow

If the flow properties, say the depth of flow, in an open channel
remain constant along the length of the channel, the flow is said to
be uniform flow.

y v
i. e .  0,  0
s s

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(b) Non-uniform (or) varied flow

Flow properties, such as depth of flow ,velocity of flow are not
constant with respect to distance is called as non-uniform flow or
varied flow.

Types of non-uniform (or) varied flow

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Non-uniform flow

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(c) Laminar Flow

(c)Turbulent Flow

(d) Sub – Critical Flow

The flow in open channel is said to sub critical flow if the Froude
number (Fe) is less than 1.0. sub critical flow is also called as
streaming flow or tranquil flow.

For sub critical flow, Fe < 1.0.

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(d) Critical Flow

The flow is called as critical flow if Fe = 1.0.

(d) Super Critical Flow

Froude number, Fe > 1.0.

The flow is called as super critical flow or torrential flow or

rapid flow or shooting flow.

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CHEZY’S FORMULA

The discharge through a channel, with uniform flow is given by

chery’s equation.

Q  A c m i V = C√mi
This relation can be expressed as,

Q  k i , w h e re k = A C m

The factor K is called the conveyance of the channel section. The

conveyance of the section is directly proportional to the discharge.

1.

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2.

3.

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4. A rectangular channel having hydraulic mean depth of 0.5

metres discharges water with a velocity of 1m/s. Find the value of
constant if the bed slope of the channel is l in 2000.
Solution
m = 0.5m v = 1 m / s i = 1 / 2000 = 0.0005
let C= value of checys constant
We know that the velocity of water v

V = C√mi
1 = C √ 0.5 x 0.0005

C = 1 / 0.0158

C = 63.291

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5. Find the discharge of water through the channel shown in figure.

Take the value of Chezy’s constant = 60 and slope of the bed as 1 in
2000.
Solution
C= 60 A D
Bed Slope i=1 / 2000 = 0.0005 1.2 m

we know that area of flow 2.7 m B C

1.5 m
Area = Area of ABCD + Area of BEC

= (3x1.2) +( π R² / 2) E

Radius = 1.5 m
= 3.6 + 3.534

= 7.138 m²

P = AB+BEC+CD
= 1.2+ π R+1.2
= 1.2+ π x 1.5+1.2
= 2.4+4.712
= 7.112 m
m = A / P = 7.134 / 7.112
= 1.003 m

V = C√mi
= 60 √ 1.003 x 0.0005
V = 1.344 m / s

Q =AxV
= 7.134 x 1.344
= 9.588 m³ / s

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6. A channel has 2 sides vertical semi circular bottom of 2 metres

diameter. Calculate the discharge of water through the channel
when the depth of flow is 2 metres. Take C = 70 and slope of bed
as 1 in 1000.
Solution A D

C= 70 1.0 m
Bed Slope i =1 / 1000 = 1 x 10 -3
2.0 m B C
we know that area of flow
1.0 m
Area = Area of ABCD + Area of BEC

= (2x1.0) +( π R² / 2) E

= 2.0 + 1.571

= 3.571 m²

P = AB+BEC+CD
= 1.0+ π R+1.0
= 1.0+ π x 1.0+1.0
= 2.0+3.142
= 5.142 m
m = A / P = 3.571 / 5.142
= 0.694 m

V = C√mi
= 70 √ 0.694 x 1 x 10 -3
V = 1.844 m / s

Q =AxV
= 3.571 x 1.844
= 6.585 m³ / s

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7.Find the discharge through a trapezoidal channel of width 8 m

and side slope of 1 horizontal to 3 vertical. The depth of flow of
water is 2.4 m and value of Chezy’s constant, C = 50. The slope
of the bed of the channel is given 1 in 4000 .
Solution
D C
C = 50

b=8m A B

side slope = 1 horizontal to 3 vertical

d = 2.4 m

Bed slope (i) = 1 / 4000 = 2.5 x 10 -4

BE = 1/3 x 2.4 = 0.8 m = HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL x depth

DC = 0.8 + 8 + 0.8 = 9.6 m

Area = (8 x 2.4) + (0.8 x 2.4) = 21.12 m²

C
BC = √0.8² + 2.4² = 2.529 m

P = DA + AB + BC
2.4m
= 2.529 + 8 + 2.529 = 13.059 m
B E
m = A / P = 21.12 m² / 13.059 m = 1.617 m 0.8 m

V = C√mi = 50 √ 1.617 x 2.5 x 10 -4 V = 1.005 m / s

Q=AxV
= 21.12 x 1.005
= 21.226 m³ / s

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8. Find the Bed Slope of Trapezoidal channel of bed width 6m and

side slope of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical. The depth of water flow is
3m and the rate of flow is 30 m³ / sec. Take C =70.
Given data
C = 70 C D
b=6m
side slope = 3 horizontal to 4 vertical
d = 3.0 m A B
Q = 30 m³ / sec
Find out Bed slope (i)
Solution
BE = 3/4 x 3.0 = 2.25 m = HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL x depth

CD = 2.25 + 6 + 2.25 = 10.50 m

Area = (6 x 3.0) + (2.25 x 3.0) = 24.75 m²

D
BD = √2.25² + 3.0² = 3.750 m
3.0m
P = CA+ AB + BD
= 3.750 + 6 + 3.750 = 13.50 m B E
2.25 m

m = A / P = 24.75 m² / 13.50 m = 1.833 m

Q=AxV
30 = 24.75 x V
V = 1.212 m / s

V = C√mi

1.212 = 70 √ 1.833 x i

1.212 = 94.772 x √ i

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√ i = 1.212 / 94.772 = 0.0128

√ i = 0.0128
both side square i = (0.0128) ²
i = 1.638 x 10 -4
i = 6103.516

Bed slope i = 1 in 6103.516

EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR THE VALUE OF CHEZY’S CONSTANT :
(i) Bazin’s formula
1 5 7 .6
C 
k
1 .8 1 
Where, m
K = bazin’s constant and depends upon the roughness of the
surface of channel ,whose values are given in below Table.
m = Hydraulic mean depth (or) hydraulic radius.

S.No Nature of Channel inside surface Value of K

1. Smooth cemented or planned wood 0.11

2. Brick or concrete or unplanned wood 0.21

3. Rubble masonary or Ashlar or poor 0.83

brick work
4. Earthen channel of very good surface 1.54

5. Earthen channel of ordinary surface 2.36

6. Earthen channel of rougth surface 3.17

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(ii) Kutter’s formula:

0 .0 0 1 5 5 1
23  
C  i N
 0 .0 0 1 5 5  N
1   23  
 i  m
Where,
N = Roughness coefficient which is known as Kutter’s constant ,
whose value for different surfaces are given in below Table.

i = Slope of the bed.

m = Hydraulic mean depth (or) hydraulic radius.

S.No Nature of Channel inside surface Value of N

1. Very smooth surface of glass, plastic or brass 0.010

2. Smooth surface of concrete 0.012

3. Rubble masonary or poor brick work 0.017

4. Earthen channels neatly excavated 0.018

5. Earthen channels of ordinary surface 0.027

6. Earthen channels of rough surface 0.030

7. Natural streams, clean and straight 0.030

8. Natural streams with weeds, duppools etc. 0.075 to 0.15

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(iii) Manning’s formula

1 1
6
C  m
N

where,
N = Manning’s constant which is having same value as
Kutter’s constant for the normal range of slope and hydraulic
mean depth. The values of N are given in above Table.

m = Hydraulic mean depth (or) hydraulic radius.

9.Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 4 m,depth of

water 3 m and side slope of 2 horizontal to 3 vertical, when the
discharge through the channel is 20 m³ / sec. Take Manning’s N =
0.03 .
Given data
N = 0.03

Bed Width (b) = 4m

side slope = 2 horizontal to 3 vertical C D
Depth of Flow (d) = 3m
Discharge (Q) = 20 m³ / sec A B
Find out Bed slope (i)
Solution
BE = HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL x DEPTH OF FLOW
BE = 2/3 x 3 = 2.0 m
CD = 2.0 + 4 + 2.0 = 8.0 m
Area = ((AB + CD) / 2) x d
Area = ((4 + 8 ) / 2) x 3 = 18 m²
CA = √2² + 3² = 3.606 m
Wetted Perimeter (P) = CA + AB + BD
= 3.606 + 4 + 3.606 = 11.212 m

Hydraulic mean depth (m) = A / P = 18 / 11.212 = 1.605 m

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1 1
6
C  m
N
C = ( 1 / 0.03 ) ( 1.605 ) 0.167
C = ( 33.333) ( 1.082 ) = 36.066
Q=AxV
20 = 18 x V
V = 1.111 m / s
V = C√mi
1.111 = 36.066 √ 1.605 x i
1.111 = 45.692 x √ i
√ i = 1.111 / 45.692 = 0.0243
√ i = 0.0243
both side square i = (0.0243) ²
i = 5.9049 x 10 -4
i = 1693.509
Bed slope i = 1 in 1693.509

10. Find the diameter of a circular sewer pipe which is laid at a slope
of 1 in 8000 and carries a discharge of 800 litre / sec when flowing
half full. Take the value of Manning’s N = 0.020.
Given data
N = 0.020
Bed slope (i) = 1/8000 = 1.250 x 10 -4
Discharge (Q) = 800 Litre / sec
D
= 800/1000 m³ / sec
= 0.8 m³ / sec d
Find out Diameter (D) = ?
Solution
Area = (π D² / 4) (1 / 2) = π D² / 8 = 0.393 D²
Wetted Perimeter (P) = (π D) (1 / 2) = 1.571 D
Hydraulic mean depth (m) = A / P
= 0.393 D² / 1.571 D
= 0.250 D

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1 1
6
C  m
N
C = ( 1 / 0.020 ) (0.250 D ) 0.167
C = ( 50) ( 0.793)D 0.167
C = 39.65D 0.167
Q=AxV
0.8 = 0.393 D² x C√mi
0.8 = 0.393 D² x 39.65D 0.167 √ 0.250 D x 1.250 x 10 -4
0.8 = 0.393 D² x 39.65D 0.167 x 5.590 x 10 -3 D 0.5
0.8 = 0.393 D² x 39.65D 0.167 x 5.590 x 10 -3 D 0.5
0.8 = 0.0871D 2.667
D 2.667 = 0.8 / 0.0871

D=

D = (9.185) 0.375 = 2.297 m

Most economical section is called the best hydraulic section or most

efficient section as the discharge, passing through a given cross-
sectional area A, slope of the bed (i) and a resistance coefficient, is
maximum.
Hence the discharge Q will be maximum when the wetted perimeter P
is minimum.
The conditions to be most economical for the following shapes of the
channels will be considered :
1) Rectangular Channel
2) Trapezoidal Channel
3) Circular Channel.

Axi 1
Q AV  AC mi  AC  K*
where, P P
m =A/ P K = AC Ai  cons tan t

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Most Economical Section of Channels

A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the
cost of construction of the channel is minimum. But the cost of
construction of the channel depends upon the excavation and the
lining. To keep the cost the down or minimum, the wetted
perimeter , for a given discharge, should be minimum.

Most Economical Rectangular Channel

A  B  D, P  2D  B
A A
B  P  2D 
D D
So, the rectangular channel will be most
economical when either:
B D
the depth of the flow is half the width, or D m
2 2
the hydraulic radius is half the depth of flow.

11. A Rectangular Channel of width, 4 m is having a bed slope of 1 in

5000. Find the maximum discharge through the channel. Take value
of C = 50.
Given data
Bed Width (b) = 4m
Bed slope (i) = 1/5000 = 2 x 10 -4
C = 50
Find out Maximum Discharge (Q) = ?
Solution
b = 2d
d =b / 2 = 4 / 2 = 2 m
m = d / 2 = 2 / 2 = 1 m (or) m = A / P = 8 / 8 = 1 m
Q = A x V = (bxd) x C√mi
= (4x2) x 50 √1 x 2 x 10 -4
= 8 x 0.707
Q = 5.656 m³ / sec .

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12. A Rectangular Channel of width, 4 m is having a bed slope of 1 in

1500. Find the maximum discharge through the channel. Take value
of C = 50.
Given data
Bed Width (b) = 4m
Bed slope (i) = 1/1500 = 6.667 x 10 -4
C = 50
Find out Maximum Discharge (Q) = ?
Solution
b = 2d
d =b / 2 = 4 / 2 = 2 m
m = d / 2 = 2 / 2 = 1 m (or) m = A / P = 8 / 8 = 1 m
Q = A x V = (bxd) x C√mi
= (4x2) x 50 √1 x 6.667 x 10 -4
= 8 x 1.291
Q = 10.328 m³ / sec .

13. A Rectangular Channel 4 m wide has depth of water 1.5 m. The

slope of the bed of the channel is 1 in 1000 and value of Chezy’s
constant C = 55. It is desired to increase the discharge to a maximum
by changing the dimensions of the section for constant area of cross
section, slope of the bed and roughness of the channel. Find the new
dimensions of the channel and increase in discharge.
Given data
Width of channel (b) = 4 m
Depth of Flow (d) = 1.5 m
C = 55
Bed slope (i) = 1/1000 = 1 x 10 -3
Solution
Area = b x d = 4 x 1.5 = 6.0 m²
Wetted Perimeter (P) = b + 2d = 4 + (2 x1.5) = 7.0 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m) = A / P
= 6.0 m² / 7.0 m = 0.857 m
The Discharge, (Q) is Given by Q = A x V = A x C√mi
= 6.0 x 55√0.857 x 1 x 10 -3
Q = 9.660 m³ / sec

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b' = 2d’
Area = b’ x d’ = 2d' x d’
Where Area = Constant = 6.0 m²
6.0 = 2 x d’²
d’² = 6.0 / 2
d’² = 3
both side square root d’ = √ 3 = 1.732 m
b' = 2d’ = 2 x 1.732 = 3.464 m
Wetted Perimeter (P’) = b’ + 2d’ = 3.464 + (2 x1.732) = 6.928 m
Hydraulic mean depth (m’) = A / P’
= 6.0 m² / 6.928 m = 0.866 m
Maximum Discharge, (Q’) is Given by Q’ = A x V = A x C√m’i
= 6.0 x 55√0.866 x 1 x 10 -3
Q’ = 9.711 m³ / sec
Increase in discharge = Q’ - Q
= 9.711 – 9.660 = 0.051 m³ / sec
Answer
* Width (b) = 3.464 m
* Depth (d) = 1.732m
* Increase in discharge = 0.051 m³ / sec

Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel

Area = ( (2B + 2nD) / 2 ) x D
A(B  n D )D
P  B 2 D 1n 2
B2n D
D 1n 2 
2
D
m
2
n = HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL

14. A Trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical

and the slope of the bed is 1 in 1500. The area of the section is 40 m².
Find the dimensions of the section if it is most economical. Determine
the discharge of the most economical section if C = 50.

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Given data
Side slope = 1 horizontal to 2 vertical
Area (A) = 40 m²
C = 50
Bed slope (i) = 1/1500 = 6.667 x 10 -4
Solution

n = HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL = 1/2 = 0.5

B2nD
D 1n 2 
2
B 2(0.5)D
D 1(0.5)2 
2
1.118 D = ((B + D) / 2)

1.118 D – 0.5 D = (B / 2)

0.618 D = (B / 2)

B = 1.236 D

Area = ( B + nD) D
40 = (1.236 D + 0.5 D) D
40 = 1.736 D²
D² = (40 / 1.736 )
D² = (23.041)

both side square root D = √23.041 = 4.800 m

B = 1.236 D
B = 1.236 x 4.800 = 5.933 m

Discharge for most economical section.

m = D / 2 = 4.800 / 2 = 2.400 m
Discharge Q = A x V = A x C√mi
= 40 x 50√2.400 x 6.667 x 10 -4
Q = 80 m³ / sec

Answer
* Width (B) = 5.933 m
* Depth (D) = 4.800 m
* Q = 80 m³ / sec

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15.An open channel of most economical section, having the form of a

half hexagon with horizontal bottom is required to give a maximum
discharge of 20.2 m³ / sec of water. The slope of the channel bottom is
1 in 2500. Taking Chezy’s constant, C = 60 in Chezy’s equation,
determine the dimensions of the cross section.

Given data
Discharge Q = 20.2 m³ / sec
Bed slope (i) = 1/2500 = 4 x 10 -4
C = 60
Find out Dimensions (B) and (D) = ?
Solution
tanθ = tan600 = 1 / n
n = 1 / tan600 n = 0.577

2 B  2n D
D 1 n 
2
B 2(0.577 )D
D 1(0.577) 2 
2

1.155 D = ((B + 1.154 D) / 2)

1.155 D – 0.577 D = (B / 2)
0.578 D = (B / 2)
B = 1.156 D
Area = ( (2B + 2nD) / 2 ) x D
Area = ( B + nD) D
= (1.156 D + 0.577D) D
A = (1.733 D ) D A = 1.733 D²
m = D / 2 = 0.5 D
Q=AxV
Q = A x C√mi
20.2 = 1.733 D² x 60 √ 0.5 D x 4 x 10 -4
20.2 = 1.470 D² x √D
20.2 = 1.470 D² x D 0.5
20.2 = 1.470 D 2.5
D 2.5 = (20.2 / 1.470 )
D = (13.741 ) 0.4
D = 2.852 m

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B = 1.156 D
B = 1.156 x 2.852
B = 3.297 m
Answer
* Width (B) = 3.297 m
* Depth (D) = 2.852 m

16. A Trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 3 horizontal to 2 vertical has to be

designed to convey 10 m³ / sec at a velocity of 1.5 m / sec, so that the amount of
concrete lining for the bed and sides is minimum. Find
(i) The wetted perimeter , and
(ii) Slopeof the bed if Manning’s N = 0.014.
Given data
Side slope = 3 horizontal to 2 vertical
N = 0.014 A D
Q = 10 m³ / sec
V = 1.5 m / sec .
Bed slope (i) = ?
Wetted perimeter P = ? C
B

Solution
Q=AxV
A = Q / V = 10 / 1.5 = 6.667 m²
n = HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL = 3/2 = 1.5
2 B  2n D
D 1 n 
2

2B  2 (1 . 5 ) D
D 1 (1.5) 
2
1.803D = ((B + 3D) / 2)
1.803 D – 1.5 D = (B / 2)
0.303 D = (B / 2)
B = 0.606 D
Area = ( B + nD) D
= (0.606 D + 1.5D) D
= (2.106 D ) D
6.667 = 2.106 D²
D 2 = (6.667 / 2.106 )
D = (3.166)0.5
D = 1.779 m

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B = 0.606 D D
B = 0.606 x 1.779 2
D 1 n
B = 1.078 m D

CD = D √ 1+ n 2
CD = 1.779 √ 1+ 1.5 2 C nD E
CD =3.207 m

P = AB+ BC + CD
= 3.207 + 1.078 + 3.207
P = 7.492 m

m = D / 2 = 1.779 / 2 = 0.890 m

Manning’s formula C
1 1
6
 m
N

C = ( 1 / 0.014 ) ( 0.890) 0.167

C = 70.052

Q =Ax V

Q = A x C√mi
10 = 6.667 x 70.052 √ 0.890 x i
10 = 440.602√ i
√ i = (10 / 440.602)
√ i = 0.0227

Squaring both sides i = (0.0227) ²

i = 5.1529 x 10 -4
i = 1940.655
Bed slope (i) = 1 in 1940.655

Answer
* Wetted Perimeter (P) = 7.492 m
* Bed slope (i) = 1 in 1940.655

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Best Side Slope for Most Economical Trapezoidal Section

1 D
n    60 m
2
3

2D (or) B = (2D / √3)

B
3
P=3xB
2 B  2n D
D 1 n 
2
17. A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated through hard clay at
the least cost. Determine the dimensions of the channel given, discharge equal to 14
m³ / sec, bed slope 1 : 2500 and Manning’s N = 0.020.
Given data
Discharge Q = 14 m³ / sec
Bed slope (i) = 1 / 2500 = 4 x 10 -4
N = 0.020
Find out Dimensions (B) and (D) = ?

Solution

1
n  0.577
3
2 B  2n D
D 1 n 
2
B 2(0.577 )D
D 1(0.577) 2 
2
1.155 D = ((B + 1.154 D) / 2)
1.155 D – 0.577 D = (B / 2)
0.578 D = (B / 2)
B = 1.156 D

Area = ( B + nD) D

= (1.156 D + 0.577D) D
A = (1.733 D ) D
A = 1.733 D²

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m = D / 2 = 0.5 D
Manning’s formula

C = ( 1 / 0.020 ) ( 0.5D) 0.167

C = 44.535 D 0.167
Q=AxV
Q = A x C√mi
14 = 1.733 D² x 44.535 D 0.167 √ 0.5 D x 4 x 10 -4
14 = 1.091 D 2.167 √ D
14 = 1.091 D 2.167 x D 0.5

14 = 1.091 D 2.667
D 2.667 = (14 / 1.091 )
D = (12.832 ) 0.375
D = 2.604 m
B = (2D / √3)
B = (2 x 2.604 / √3) = 3.007 m
Answer
* Width (B) = 3.007 m
* Depth (D) = 2.604 m

Flow Through Circular Channel

Wetted perimeter (P) = 2Rθ
Area (A) = R²(θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))
m=A/ P
m = (R / 2θ) (θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))
Discharge (Q) = A x C√mi
Let 2θ = angle subtended by water surface
MP at the centre in radians

18. (i) Find the discharge through a circular pipe of diameter 3.0 m, if the depth of
water in the pipe is 1.0 m and the pipe is laid at a slope of 1 in 1000. Take the value
of Chezy’s constant as 70.(ii) If the depth of water is 2.5 m Then the Find the rate of
flow.
(i) Given data
Diameter of Pipe (D) = 3.0 m
Radius (R) = D / 2 = 3.0 /2 = 1.5 m
Depth of water in pipe (d) = 1.0 m
Bed slope (i) = 1 /1000 = 1 x 10 -3
C = 70

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Solution
OC = OD – CD = R – 1.0
= 1.5 – 1.0 = 0.5 m
OA = R = 1.5 m
Cos θ = ( OC / AO ) = (0.5 / 1.5 )
= 0.333
θ = Cos -1 (0.333) = 70.549
= 70.549 x (π / 1800 ) θ =1.231 Radians

P = 2Rθ
= 2 x 1.5 x 1.231 = 3.693 m
Area (A) = R²(θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))
= 1.5²(1.231 – (Sin 2 x 70.528 / 2))
= 1.5²(0.917)
A = 2.063 m²
m = A / P = 2.063 / 3.693 = 0.559 m
Discharge (Q) = A x C√mi
= 2.063 x 70 √0.559 x 1 x 10 -3
Q = 3.414 m³ / sec

(ii) Given data

Diameter of Pipe (D) = 3.0 m
Radius (R) = D / 2 = 3.0 /2 = 1.5 m
Depth of water in pipe (d ) = 1.0 m
Bed slope (i) = 1 /1000 = 1 x 10 -3
C = 70
Solution
OC = CD – OD = 2.5 - R
= 2.5 – 1.5 = 1.0 m
OA = R = 1.5 m
Cos α = ( OC / OA ) = (1.0 / 1.5 )
= 0.667
α = Cos -1 (0.667) = 48.190
θ = 1800 - α
= 1800 - 48.190 = 131.81
= 131.81 x (π / 1800 )
θ = 2.301 Radians
P = 2Rθ = 2 x 1.5 x 2.301 = 6.903 m

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Area (A) = R²(θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))

= 1.5²(2.301 – (Sin 2 x 131.81 / 2))
= 1.5²(2.301 – (-0.497)
= 1.5²(2.798)
A = 6.296 m²
m = A / P = 6.296 / 6.903 = 0.912 m
Discharge (Q) = A x C√mi
= 6.296 x 70 √ 0.912 x 1 x 10 -3
Q =13.309 m³ / sec
Answer
* (i) Discharge (Q) = 3.414 m³ / sec
* (ii) Discharge (Q) = 13.309 m³ / sec

Most Economical Circular Section

In case of circular channels, the area of flow cannot be
maintained constant. With the change of depth of flow in a
circular channel of any radius, the wetted area and wetted
perimeter changes.

Thus in case of circular channels, for most economical section,

two separate conditions are obtained. They are
(1) Condition for maximum velocity, and
(2) Condition for maximum discharge .
Condition for Maximum Velocity for Circular Section
θ = 1280 45 ’ = 128.75

d = 0.81 D
m = (A / P) = 0.3 D (or) 0.3055 D
Condition for Maximum Discharge for Circular Section
Discharge (Q) = A x C√mi

θ = 1540

d = 0.95 D
m = (A / P)

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19. Determine the maximum discharge of water through a circular channel of diameter
1.5 m when the bed slope of the channel is 1 in 1000. Take C = 60.
Given data
Diameter (D) = 1.5 m
Radius (R) = D / 2 = 1.5 /2 = 0.75 m
Bed slope (i) = 1 /1000 = 1 x 10 -3
C = 60
Find out Discharge = ?
Solution
θ = 1540 = 154 x (π / 1800) = 2.688 Radians
d = 0.95 D = 0.95 x 1.5 = 1.425 m
P = 2Rθ = 2 x 0.75 x 2.688 = 4.032 m
Area (A) = R²(θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))
= 0.75²(2.688 – (Sin 2 x 154 / 2))
= 0.75²(2.688 – (-0.394)
= 0.75²(3.082)
A = 1.734 m²
m = A / P = 1.734 / 4.032 = 0.430 m
Discharge (Q) = A x C√mi
= 1.734 x 60 √ 0.430 x 1 x 10 -3
Q = 2.157 m³ / sec

20. A concrete lined circular channel of diameter 3 m has a bed slope of 1 in

500. Work out the velocity and flow rate for the conditions of (i) maximum
velocity and (ii) maximum discharge. Assume Chezy’s C = 50.
Given data
Diameter (D) = 3.0 m
Radius (R) = D / 2 = 3.0 /2 = 1.5 m
Bed slope (i) = 1 / 500 = 2 x 10 -3
C = 50
(i) Find out Maximum Velocity = ?
(ii) Find out Maximum Discharge = ?
Solution
(i) Maximum Velocity
θ = 1280 45 ’ = 128.75
= 128.75 x (π / 1800) = 2.247 Radians
d = 0.81 D = 0.81 x 3 = 2.430 m
P = 2Rθ = 2 x 1.5 x 2.247 = 6.741 m
Area (A) = R²(θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))
= 1.5²(2.247 – (Sin 2 x 128.75 / 2))
= 1.5²(2.247 – (-0.488)
= 1.5²(3.082)
A = 6.154 m²

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m = A / P = 6.154 / 6.741 = 0.913 m

Velocity (V) = C√mi
= 50 √ 0.913 x 2 x 10 -3
= 2.137 m / sec
Discharge (Q) = A x V
= 6.154 x 2.137
Q =13.151 m³ / sec

(ii) Maximum Discharge

θ = 1540 = 154 x (π / 1800) = 2.688 Radians
d = 0.95 D = 0.95 x 3 = 2.850 m
P = 2Rθ = 2 x 1.5 x 2.688 = 8.064 m
Area (A) = R²(θ – (Sin 2θ / 2))
= 1.5²(2.688 – (Sin 2 x 154 / 2))
= 1.5²(2.688 – (-0.394)
= 1.5²(3.082)
A = 6.935 m²
m = A / P = 6.935 / 8.064 = 0.860 m
Velocity (V) = C√mi
= 50 √ 0.860 x 2 x 10 -3
= 2.074 m / sec

Discharge (Q) = A x V
= 6.935 x 2.074
Q =14.383 m³ / sec

Answer
* (i) Discharge (Q) = Q =13.151 m³ / sec
* (ii) Discharge (Q) = 14.383 m³ / sec

Non - Uniform Flow Through Open Channel

A flow is said to be uniform if the velocity of flow, depth of

flow, slope of the bed of the channel and area of cross – section
remain constant for a given length of the channel.

If velocity of flow, depth of flow, area of cross – section and

slope of the bed of channel do not remain constant for a given
length of pipe, the flow is said to be non – uniform flow.

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Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve

The total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight is given by:

V2
Total Energy  Z  y 
2g

Specific Energy

Where
Z = Height of the Bottom of the channel above the datum line.
y = Depth of Liquid and
V = Mean velocity of flow.
If the channel bottom is taken as the datum line then the total
energy per unit weight of liquid will be,

V2
E y 
2g

The above Equation is known as Specific Energy.

The specific energy of a flowing liquid is defined as energy

per unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of the
channel.

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Specific Energy Curve

It is defined as the curve which shows the variation of specific energy with
depth of flow. It is obtained as

V2
E  y E pEk  1
2g
E = E p + Ek
Where
Ep = Potential Energy of flow = y

Ek = Kinetic Energy of flow =

Consider a rectangular channel in which a steady but non – uniform flow is

taking place.
Let Q = discharge through the channel,
b = width of the channel,
y = depth of flow, and
q = discharge per unit width.

Then

Velocity of flow

V 2
E  y E pEk
2g
Substituting the values of V in equation 1
We get q2
E  y E p Ek
2 gy 2

q 2
E  y  2
2 gy

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Specific Energy Curve

Critical Depth (yc)

Critical depth is defined as that depth of flow of water at which the
specific energy is minimum. This is denoted by yc . In figure curve ACB is a
specific energy curve and point C corresponds to the minimum specific energy.
The depth of flow of water at C is known as critical depth.

1
 q 2  3
y c   
 g 
Critical Velocity (Vc)
The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity.
It is denoted by Vc .

Vc  g  yc
Minimum Specific Energy in Terms of Critical Depth
2
q
E  y  2
2 gy

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When specific energy is minimum, depth of flow is critical and hence

above equation becomes as

q2
E min  yc 2
2 gy c
1
 q 2  3
y c   
 g 

3  q 2 
y c   
 g 
3
yc
E min  yc 2
2 yc
2 y c  y c
E min 
2
3 yc
E min 
2

21. Find the specific energy of flowing water through a rectangular channel of
width 5 m when the discharge is 10 m³ / sec and depth of water is 3 m.
Given data
Width of channel (b) = 5 m
Depth of Flow (d) = 3 m
Discharge (Q) = 10 m³ / sec
Find out specific energy (E) = ?
Solution
Area = 5 x 3 = 15 m²
Q=AxV
V = Q / A = 10 / 15 = 0.667 m / sec

V 2 0 . 667 2
E  y E  3 E  3 0 . 023 E  3. 023 m
2g 2  9 . 81

Answer
* Specific Energy E  3. 023 m

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22. Find the critical depth and critical velocity of the water flowing through a
rectangular channel of width 5 m, when discharge is 15 m³ / sec.
Given data
Width of channel (b) = 5 m
Discharge (Q) = 15 m³ / sec
Find out critical depth ( yc ) = ?
Find out critical velocity (Vc ) = ?
Solution
q = Q / b = 15 / 5 = 3 m² / sec
1
1

Critical Depth ( yc )  q 2  3  3 2  3
y c    y c   
 g   9 . 81 
yc = ( 0.917 ) 0.333
Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.972 m
Critical Velocity ( Vc )
Vc  g  yc Vc  9 . 81  0 . 972
Critical Velocity ( Vc ) = 3.088 m /sec
Answer
* Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.972 m
* Critical Velocity ( Vc ) = 3.088 m /sec

23. The discharge of water through a rectangular channel of width 8 m,

is 15 m³ / sec when depth of flow of water is 1.2 m. Calculate :
( i ) Specific Energy of the flowing water,
( ii ) Critical Depth and Critical Velocity,
( iii ) Value of minimum Specific Energy.

Given data
Width of channel (b) = 8 m
Discharge (Q) = 15 m³ / sec
Depth of Flow (d) = 1.2 m
Find out specific energy (E) = ?
Find out critical depth ( yc ) = ?
Find out critical velocity (Vc ) = ?
Find out Value of Minimum Specific Energy ( Emin ) = ?
Solution
q = Q / b = 15 / 8 = 1.875 m² / sec
Area = 8 x 1.2 = 9.6 m²
Q=AxV
V = Q / A = 15 / 9.6 = 1.563 m / sec

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( i ) Specific Energy (E) V 2

E  y
2 g

1 . 563 2
E 1 . 2 
2  9 . 81

E  1 . 2  0 . 125 E  1 . 325 m
( ii ) Critical Depth ( yc ) 1 1
 q 2  3
 1.875 2
 3
y     
c
 g 
yc 
 9 . 81 

yc = ( 0.358 ) 0.333
Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.710 m
Critical Velocity ( Vc )
Vc  g  yc

Vc  9 . 81  0 . 710
Critical Velocity ( Vc ) = 2.639 m /sec

Minimum Specific Energy ( Emin ) 3 yc

E min 
2
3  0 . 710
E min 
2
E min  1 . 065 m

Answer
* Specific Energy (E) = 1.325 m
* Critical Depth ( yc ) = 0.710 m
* Critical Velocity ( Vc ) = 2.639 m /sec
•Minimum Specific Energy ( Emin ) = 1.065 m

Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or Tranquil Flow

When the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical depth ( yc ),
the flow is said to be sub – critical flow or streaming flow or tranquil flow. For
this type of flow the Froude number is Less than one.
Fe < 1.0.

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Super – critical Flow or Shooting Flow or Torrential Flow

When the depth of flow in a channel is less than the critical depth ( yc ),
the flow is said to be super – critical flow or shooting flow or torrential flow. For
this type of flow the Froude number is Greater than one.
Fe > 1.0.

Alternate Depths
y 1 y 2

Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specific

Energy

For maximum discharge for given value of specific energy is that the depth
of flow should be critical y = yc.

3 y
E 
2

24. The specific energy for a 3 m wide channel is to be 3 kg.m / kg. What would
be the maximum possible discharge ?
Given data
Width of channel (b) = 3 m
Specific Energy (E) = 3 kg.m / kg = 3 m
Find out Maximum Discharge ( Q ) = ?
Solution
y = yc
3 y 3 y 3 y
E 
2
E 
2
c
3
2
c
2m yc
Maximum Discharge ( Qmax ) = A x V
= b x depth of flow x velocity of flow
= b x y c x Vc

Vc  g  yc

Vc  9 . 81  2
Critical Velocity ( Vc ) = 4.429 m /sec

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Maximum Discharge ( Qmax ) = b x yc x Vc

= 3 x 2 x 4.429
=26.574 m³ / sec
Answer
•Maximum Discharge ( Qmax ) = 26.574 m³ / sec

25. The specific energy for a 5 m wide rectangular channel is to be 4 Nm / N. If

the rate of flow of water through the channel is 20 m³ / sec, determine the
alternate depths of flow.
Given data
Width of channel (b) = 5 m
Specific Energy (E) = 4 Nm / N = 4 m
Discharge ( Q ) = 20 m³ / sec
Solution
( Q ) =AxV
V = Q / A = 20 / b x h = 20 / 5 x h = 4 / h

V 2
E  y
2 g
4 2
E  y 2
2 gy

16
4  y 2
2  9 . 81 y

0 . 815
4  y
y 2
3
y  0 . 815
4 
y 2

4 y 2  y 3  0 . 815
y 3  4 y 2  0 . 815  0 y 3  4 y 2  0  0 . 815  0
Equation Degree 3

y  3 . 948 m
Answer
* Alternate Depth (y) = 3.948 m

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ASSIGNMENT – I PART – A 5 x 2 =10

1. What is the condition for maximum discharge ?
2. A rectangular channel of width 4 m is having a bed slope as 1 in 1500 . Find
the maximum discharge through the channel.Take C = 50 ?
3. Define:Gradually varied flow and Rapidly varied flow ?
4. Define:Uniform flow and Non Uniform flow ?
5. Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular
channel of 6 m wide and 3 m deep when it is running half.The channel is having
bed slope as 1 in 2000. Take C = 55 ?
PART – B 2 ½ X 16 =40
6) A trapezoidal channel with side slope of 3horizondal and 2 vertical has to be
designed to convey 18 m3/ sec at a velocity of 1.65 m/sec ,so that the amount of
concrete lining for the bed and sides is minimum. Find (i) the wetted perimeter and
(ii) slope of the bed if manning’s N = 0.021? (16)
7) A trapezoidal channel to carry 150 m3/minute of water designed to have a
minimum cross section. Find the bottom width and depth if the bed slope s 1 in
2500, the side slopes 45o .Take C = 65 ? (16)
8)Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 6m and side slope of
3H to 4V the depth of water flow is 3m and the rate of flow is 30 m3/sec . Take
C = 70? (8)

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