@IT 1 INDIAN SOCIETY: HISTORICAL

AND SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Cultural Evoh~tion: Historical Perspective
1.2.1 Arrival of the Aryans
1.2.2 Advent of the Vedas
' 1.2.3 Advent of Jainism and Buddhism
1.2.4 Extenial Invasions
1.3 Salient Features of the Indian Society
1.4 Caste System
1.4,1 Vamas
1.4.2 Jajmani System
1.4.3 Tribal Communities
1.4.4 Unity in Diversity
1.4.5 Little and Great Traditions
1.5 Status of Women in Indian Society
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Reading
1.8 Check Your Progress :Model Answers

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to:
describe the evolution and growth of Indian culture
explain the present structure of Indian society
describe the caste system of India; and
analyse the coinn~nnicationneeds of the Indian people.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we llave divided Indian history ino three periods : The Ancient, The
Medieval and The Modem. The ancient period begins with the Indus Valley
civilization and ends with the Turkish raids on Northern India in 1000 A.D. The
medieval period continues up to the coming of the British during the mid-18th
century. From the arrival of the British till'the present, this period is considered as the
Modern period. This division usually equates the ancient period with the Hindus and
the medieval period with the muslims. We shall discuss religion as one of the primary
factors ia moulding Lhe Indian culture. In the ancient period the Hindu religion
played a significant role in the development of Indian culture and tradition. In the
Medieval period Islanl had relatively strong influence in our culture and tradition.
Later on, during the Modem period the British culture 'and literature brought about a
reform in our religious traditions and beliefs. This reformation played a primary role
iri our tradition and
. culture in the Modem period.
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In this introductory unit, the focus is on the Modem historical events of the critical
periods of India, which largely shaped the evolution of Indian society and the distinct
Indian wqy of life.
We shall also discuss how different invasions shaped the Indian culture, tradition and
values. We will discuss the caste system and why it is still operating in various places
in our country, and the great role women have played in our society. You will hence
understand the ethos of our civilisation.
Relation between We shall try to understand the importance of women in our society and at the same
MMS M d l a and Society
time we shall focus on their plight.
The discussion will help you to understand the other elements of the modern Indian
society, so that yqu will be in position to grasp the essence of the subject matter of
this course and analyse it to make a meaninghl intervention in our day to day life.
Without this grasp on the evolution of our society, we may fail to develop a
perspective on the role of media in w society.

1.2 CULTURAL EVOLUTION: HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE

This unit is intended to acquaint you with a brief description of the Indian society
from the historical and sociological perspectives. This would assist you to understand
the values, traditions, and attitudes that shaped the distinct Indian way of life; and the
cultural legacy that is retained by all Indians within and outside the country even
today.
The understanding of the social structure, institutions, the beliefs, the vision and the
perceptions of the Indian mind is necessary to grasp the relationship between Indian
society and mass media. Mass niediit do not operate In isolation. They are shaped by
the people, and in truth influences the people. Hence, it is imperative to understand
the social context, the social milieu and the environment in which human beings
share communication.
The Indian civilisation can best be traced back to the Indus Valley civilization
(Harappan culture) in 2300 B.C. The antecedents of the Harappan culture were the
most extensive of ancient civilizatioiis were spread over in the Indus plain covering
Punjab and Sindh, and also Rajasthan and Kathiawar region of Gujarat. It is not
known who the builders of the Indus civilization were. In all probability they were a
Mediterranean race, allied to the Dravidians of India, the latter being the original
inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic plains. With the ingress of the Aryans, the Dravidians
crossed the Satpura range into pcnilisular India. Archeological excavations reveal that
Harappans were Phallus worshippers reflecting many elements of the religion of the
Dravidian inhabitants of India. The citadels of Harappa and Mohenjodaro stand even
today as symbols of a highly developed urban culture, revealing the deep knowledge
of the inhabitants in town planniilg and management of excellent drainage system.
The Indus people were also the earliest people to develop fanning. They cultivated
wheat and barley and produced cottoil and wore cloth. The alloy of bronze mixing
copper with tin was introduced by the Harappans. The people of Harappa and
Mohenjodaro invented the potter's wheel. The Harappan used an atypical script which
had no resemblance to the early Egyptian or Mesopotanuan scripts of the
contemporary period. Evidences of trade links both within the northern and westein
areas of the subcontinent, as well as between people of Indus valley and those of
Sumeria (Persian Gulf) and Mesopotalliia exist.
In the following paragraphs we shall discuss how the Aryans came to India and settled
down. The Aryans brought a disti~lctculture with them. This culture enriched the
local culture. And slowly the unique culture, customs and traditions of India evdved.
We will try to outline this evolutioli in the following pages.

1.2.1 Arrival of the Aryans

Originally, the Aryans lived in the areas east of the Alps, in the region known as
Eurasia. They spoke Indo-Eutopi~nlanguages, which are still used with some
variations throughout Europe, Iran, and a major part of the Indian sub-continent
including Pakistan, and the Northern and Western regions of India. The people of
northern India speak Indo-Aryan languages (Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu and Bengali) and are
of predominantly Mediterranean (Europoid) racial stock.
Very little research lms been done regarding the ethnic origins d the Indian
population. The fact is that the Indian population is polygenetic and is a confusing
mixture of racial strains. Very few can claim to belong to any particular racial stock.
The ~ravidians,who comprised the pre-Hellenic racial types, originated the city' Indlan Soclety; Hlstorlcal and
Sociological Permpectives
civilization of the Indus valley. They were spread over the whole of India prior to the
advent of the Aryans. The latter encountered the highly civilized Indus valley with its
big towns. The Indus valley people were essentially city people, the Aryans were a
pastoral race.
Though it is not known what happened to the Indus people, it may be assumed that
they moved away into interior India beyond the Vindhya and the Satpura ranges. It is
possible that some iiitermingled with the incoming Aryans, who adopted the Indus
culture as their own.
The earliest Aryans settled in the area covered by Easteni Punjab, Afghanistan and
Western Uttar Pradesh. As migrants, Aryans caqe in several waves and clashed with
the local inhabitants, to establish their supremacy. Tlie success of Aryan invasion in
India is attributed to their possession of trained horses. horse-drawn chariots, and
better weaponry. Tlie Aryans were also very knowledgeable about cliniate and
agricultural operatioils like ploughing, sowing, harvesting and threshing.

Check Your Progress 1

Note : i) Use the space given below for your &iswer.
ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of tlie h i t .
1). The Indian population is a mixture of Dravidians and Aryans-Briefly explain this.
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1.2.2 Advent of the Vedas

The Rig Veda which is considered to be the oldest of tlie four vcdas (Sama Veda,
Yajur Veda, Atharvr Veda are the three later additions) is a collection of prayers in
Sanskrit language offered by the Aryans to Gods of fire and rain. Rig Veda is believed
to have been conlposed around 1500 B.C. The four Vedas together constitute a rich
repository of the Aryan culture. They were preserved nlostly in oral tradition
throughout India with reverence. ?pe Rig Veda also nlentions arlisan communities
like those of the carpenter, the weaver, the potter and the leather-worker.
Social Distinctions
Varna in the Rig Vcda essentially denotes skin colour and Aryans were described as
fair complexioned, while the native inhabitants were stated to be dark. This colour
distinction seems have contributed to the creation of social divisions. The Dasas and
Dasis conquered by tlie Aryans were .treated as slaves and sudras. The society was
divided into four priricipal groups-priests, warriors, traders and the common people.
In ancient India, the people used to communicate through oral tradition. The
dominant form of worshipping gods was through the recitation of prayers and offer of
ritual sacrifices. Both individual and collective prayers were recited loudly. The
prayers were offered to gods in chorus by all the members belo~igingto individual
tribes. The students of communication should take note of this aspect. It is vital to
know that this oral pattern of communication is respoiisible for forming a distinct
method of conimunication in India.
Later Vedic Period
For purposes of singing, the prayers of Rig Veda were set to music aiid this modified
collection was know11 as Sama Veda. The Yajur Veda contains not only hymns but
also rituals which ltlve to accompany their recitation. These reflect vividly the
sociopolitical iiiilieu in which the post-Rig Vedic Aryans lived. The Atharva Veda
elaborates on the weapons and also deals with charnls and spells to ward off evils and
diseases. An elaborate description of non-Aryan modes of worshill is given in the
Atharva Veda.
kelation between Atharva Veda
Mass Medla and Soclety
The later vedic texts have been conipiled during 1000-600 B.C. The two epics,
Ramayana and Mahnbharatti are concerned with the events which took place in
India between 1000 and 700 B.C. The Mahabharata as it survives today is the
longest single poem in the world. The epic revolves round the war fought by the
descendants of tho Kurn clan over land rights at Kwukshetra in the Indus basin
(presently in Hayam). The epic is held in high esteem by all Hindus for its message
of Dharma
i

h e events d e ~ c j i hin the Ramuyrna are believed to have occurred at a much later
date in Eastern t&ar Praderh and Bihar. The Ramayana also reflects the Aryan
pcnetratlon boyond the Vindhya Mouqtains into peninsular Irrdia and the conflict with
the local Dravidian communities to establish Aryan supremacy. The organisation of
Hinduism is the main nclrievemerlt of the later vedic period. The literature of the
pcriod reveals the dcvelopinent of higher philosophical and religious texts. The later
vedas, the Brahman~s,tlie Aranyakia and the Upanishads are i~l~portant
contributions to Sanskrii litcmiure. In the Upanishads we have the Hindu
philosophical thought ia its developed form. The doctrines of Karma, Maya,
Punnarjanma, Mukti and other special features of Hindu thought are fully elaborated
in the Upanishads. These teachings have taken deep root in the minds of Indians.
The later vedic pcriod was remarkable for great intellectual activity. Literary
knowledge was systematised and documented in the form of six Vcdangas. Among
the Vedangas, the Kalpa is a sigi~ificinntcontribution. It contains the Sutras; Grihya
and Dharmasutraa While the grihyi~sutras deal with domestic rituals, the
Dharmasutrrre explain. the social customs and usage.
The most important social doctrine propounded during this period was Varnashrama
Dharma. The concept of varna stands for the division' of society into occupational
groups. The doctrine of the four castes : the Brahmins (the learned and the guides),
the Kshatriya (warrior), the Vaishyn (the trader) and the Sudras (the common man,
the tiller, the worker) came into being. The fifth category-the panchamas-was added
at a much later stage.

Check Your Progress 2

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer..
ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
. I

1) You are now acquainted with various Vedas, the varnas and literature of ancient
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India. Please comment on the co~nmunicationpattern of that time.'

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Sangam Age :Literary Contributions

The Sangam age is considered to be a landmark in the history of South India. An
academy of Tamil poets and bards flourished at Madurai w e e n 500 B.C. and 300
A.D. This academy produced classical literary works in Tamil language under the
patronage of Chola, Chera and Pandyan kings.

1.2.3 Advent of Jainism and Buddhism

The Varna system generated many teilsions specifically in the areas of Hindu religion.
The ruling and trading communities reacted to the domination of the priestly class of
Brahmins. The upper castes which stressed the accumulation of wealth and luxurious
living during the later period, received stiff resistance' from those belonging to the
lower castes suffering social inequalities. It is in this context we observe the Indlnn Soclcty: Hlstorlcal u d
Soclologlcnl Pcrspectlvcs
introduction of Jainism as a distinct religion by Mahaveera during the 5th century
B.C. He preached liberation from worldly-bonds and adoption of the path of non-
violence (Ahimsa) for acquiring such liberation. Gautama Buddha, who was a
contemporary of Mahaveera, also preached and propagated the simple, puritan, ascetic
life. Buddhism appealed to the masses who sacred due to the social inequalities and
the supremacy of higher castes. Buddhism particularly attracted people where the hold
of the upper caste Aryans was marginal. Thus, .the monarchies in eastern U.P.,Bihar
and foothills of Himalayas (Magadh, Kosala and Kausambi) adopted Buddhism and
made sincere efforts to spread the religion of equality and a classless society based on
love and respect for all creatures. The Pali (a variant of Sanskrit language) which was
the spoken language of the common people contributed a lot to the spread of

Buddh~sm But, Buddbsm could not surviv iar long in India because the Buddhist
monks at a later stage became corrupt and accumulated wealth wllicll Gautama
Buddha tad corrdeiri~led.However, Buddhism had spread into Sri Lanka, China, Japan,
the fareast. Laos, an& Cambodia.

Check Your Progress 3

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
~ i ) Compare your answers with the ones given at the end of the unit.
1) Please indicate whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The Sa~igamage is considered a landmark in the histor! of Telugu literature.
I ! True [ ] False
b) Maha\jeera and Gautama Buddha are contemporaries.
1 1 True [ ] False
C) The caste system created a lot of bitterness anlong the lowly and weak
population during Mahaveera's time.
True [ ] False
I\ 1

d) Pali language was used by the Brahnuns.

I 1 True [ ] False
e) Buddhism did not flourish in India because it was suppressed by the kings.
1 1 True [ ] False
1

1.2.4 External Invasions

Later on, around the 5th century B.C. several principalities fought alllong themselves
in North-Western region. Taking advantage of this disunity and political chaos, the
Relation between rulers of Persia expanded their empire penetrating into North-west India. In 360 B.C.
Maw Media and Soclety
Darius, annexed and ruled Punjab and Sindh as provinces of the Persian empire till
Alexander's invasion in 331 B.C. Alexander conquered Asia minor, Iraq, and Iran and
finally reached India through Kabul and Khyber pass into Punjab, defeating
Purushottam (Porus) in 326 B.C.
The Greek invasion provided the occasion for ancient Europe to come into closer
contact with ancient India. Alexander added to his empire a vast Indian territory much
larger than Persia. His invasion opened up land and sea routes to India and paved the
way for Greek merchants, craftsmen to extend their trade.
In 321 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya, under the guidance of his mentor Chanakya,
annexed Punjab driving away the Greeks. Subsequently, he extended his empire to
Magadha, Gujarat and South India. The accounts of Megasthenes, the Greek
Anibassador in Chandragupta's cow, are a valuable source of knowledge of the social
events of the time. Chanakya's treatise Arthasastra is considered to be a valuable
contribution on politics and m ~ i o m i cadministration. The most significant
contribution of the Mauryan period, was made by Ashoka, the grandson of
Chandngupk, who in 274 B.C. embraced Buddhism and propagated the doctrines of
social equality, justice and non-violence.
A series of invasions from various foreign power along Uy north-west frontier took
place from 200 B.C. onwards. The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo-Greeks.
They contributed to the growth of ans ski it and Rakrit languages. The Parthenians
who originally lived in Persia, then penetrated western ,_&a. The Parthenians were
followed by the Kuslms-from Central Asia. The Kushan king Kanishka built a large
empire extending from Central Asia to Uttar Pradesh.
The Indo-Greeks, the Parthenians and the Kushans became an integral part of Indian
society adopting the local and language script. They also contributed immensely to
the enrichment of Indlan culture. The Kushans, who controlled the silk route passing
through central Asia to the Mediterraneian from China, were enterprising traders in
addition to being great art lovers. The Buddhist sculptures found in Maharashtra and
Andha Pradesh are valuable art treasures of the Kushan period.
It was during the first century A.D. that Christianity came to India through trading
sailors from the West. St. Thomas is believed to have amved in Malabar in about 52
A.D. The Arabs and the traders from many middle east countries and Egypt
established trade links with western and southern period of India during this time. The
relationship was mainly confined to trade. However, some Indian embrased Islam
religion. This continued for a long time. Later, attracted by the wealth of India, Arabs
o r g a n i d a number of military expeditions from the north-westem frontier of Indian
kingdoms after the 7th Century A.D. Those expeditions were mainly to plunder the
country's rich stock of gold and other valuable assets. These expeditions were not
aimed at territorial expansion. The &ks were confined to Sindh and upper Indus
region. However, the Turkish invasions during 1000 A.D. were not only confined to
plundering of wealth but also to destroying the military power of the local kings.
Mahmud of Ghazni's occupation of Punjab served as a key to unlock the gates of the
rich hinterland of India. His frequent attacks disturbed the basic foundations of Indian
polity. During the 11th centwy A.D. Mohammed Ghori defeated a number of Hindu
Kings and laid the foundation for cotitinued Muslim rule in India.
The Delhi Sultanate under the rule of the Slave dynasty, Khiljis arid Tughlakhs
consolidated Muslims rule not only in north India but also in the south, extending
upto Kanara (present IGarnataka).

Activity 1
A map of India is given below. Indicate various invasions which t&k place in
ancient time.
 S O C I O I O ~ ~ C Prerrpecrkver
~
Use colour pen or pencil ,

Impact of Muslim Rule

The mingling of the Hindu and Muslim cultures led to the growth of new religious
movements, and new styles in arts, achitecture and music. (Urdu Ii~nguage,an
amalgam of Persian words and Indo-Aryan grammar, became the cottrt language of the
Moghuls. The Bbakti movement, propagated by the dxponents like Meerabai.
Chaitanya. Ramanuju, Vallabhacharya, Kabir and Gum Nanak, was greatly influenced
by Islam. It emphasised simple devotion and faith and protested against the
domination of priests and upper castes. While the compositions of Ktlbir are a @f
contribution to Hindi literature, G w Nanak preached in the Punjubi, language and
Meera Bai's Bbajans are in Brij bbasba of Mathuh. Bengali literature was enriched
by Chaitanya and his followers of the Vaishanava cult. Tlre Indo-lsla~lucarchitecture
got amply reflected in the monuments like &tub Minar and the exquisite forts of the
Mughal enlperors.

cbkek your ~ r o g r e a
4 +.

Note : i) Use the space given below for your m r s .

ii) Compare your answers with the ones given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the reasons for various invasions of India? Give at least 4 reasons.
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 ' 2) How did the Islamic culture enrich the prevailing Indian culture?
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1.3. SALIENT FEATURES .OF THE INDIAN SOCIETY

Ethnic Plurality
Plurality is the hallnlark of Indian society. Ethnological studies reveal the existence of
six main racial stocks in India. The earliest was the Negrito, who are found even
today in Andaman and Nicobar islands and in some of the primitive tribal groups of
South India. They were followed by the Proto-Australoids, the Alpine, the Mongoloid
and the Mediterraneans whose skeletal remains were even found in the Harappan sites.
The last to come were the Aryans.
The Proto-Australo~dsconstitute the basic element of the Indian population and they
are found in many of the tribal communities in Central India, Eastern India, Bihar and
Orissa. The Mediterranean race is associated with the Dravidian culture. The
concentration of the Mcngoloid people is in the North-Eastern and Northern fringes of
India.
Lin yistic Plurality
Four major languages arc identified in the country : Dravidian, Austric, Sino-Tibetan
and Indo-Aryan. The Indo-Aryan lallgmge was originally the archaic Sanskrit
introduced by the early Aryans. This has great similarities with Latin and German
languages. Prukrit, which was allied to but different from Vedic Sanskrit, became
popular as the spoke11 laliguage of the Aryans. The alphabets of many' of the Indian
languages were actually derived fro~nBrahmi script, which came into being during
4th century B.C.
Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Malayalamn. which constitute the Dravidian grotlp of
'languages, are purely of Indian origin. Some of the allied Dravidian languages are
spoken by the tribal5 like Todas. Kolas and Kodugus of South India and Gondi, Kui,
Naiki of M.P. and Malto aad Kurukh (Oroan) of Bengal or Bihar. The Austric
languages are : Mundari, Kol. Stintal, Korku and Klmsi. These language are spoken by
the tribal in Central India, Ekster~~
India and parts of North-Eastern region. The Sino-
Tibetan languages are spoken by the lribals in Nagaland, Aiunachal-Bradesh, Mizoram
and the people in Himalayan ranges.
The Indian constitution now reoognises eighteen major languages but as many as
1650 mother tongues are spoken throughout the country. Despite this great linguistic
diversity, all Indians feel that they slure together'the rich literary and cultural heritage
of Sanskrit.
Religious Plurality
A religious orientation of outlook is one of the basic characteristics of Indian culture.
Religious tolerance Ius been the essence of all religions of Indian origin. Hence,
Hinduism, Buddlusn~,Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Judaism and Zorostrianism
cuuld flourish without ~nuchinterruption in the country. Conte~nporaryIndian thinkers
and saints have pointed out the contributions of each great religion to humanity and
emphasised their underlying unity of thought. Spirituality and Sadhaaa constitute two
distinct dimensions, of Indian culture, enabled the Indian culture to retain its
originality and uniqueness.

1.4 CASTE SYSTEM

1.4.1 Varnrs 1I

The cultural, religious and racial diversity of India is attributed to the caste system
 -

lndl Suqlety:. Hlstorlcal nnU

and its variations. These social stratification have divided the Indr;~nsociety into oclologlcal Perspectives
thousands of small societies. Although, ful~damentallyVarna and J i ~ t iare distinct
from each other, they are often confused as identical. The Bhagwi~dgitaalso gives a
classification of the society into four Varnas in terms of Gunas (Psychic traits).

The post-vedic period. reflects a very rigid stratificatio~~

of the varnils. Each varna
was regarded as a distinct unit, almost complete in itself for its social life. It may be
noted in this contest that while the varna system is unilorm througl~outthe country,
the caste (jati) system evolved gradually with many regional varii~lioils.
The development of caste system is generally attribuled to two doctrii~es: (i) doctrine
of the religious unity of the family; and (2) doctrine of Svakarma clnd Svadhanna,
enjoining a wvay of life to be pursued by the individual according to the community1
caste in which one is born.
Caste is defined by noted sociologist M.N. Srinivas as a I~ereditary.endogamous.
usually localised group, having a traditional association with an occupation, and a .
particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relalions betwen castes are
governed, anlong other things. by the concepts of pollution and purily and generally
maximum commo~lalityoccurs wi:hin the castes.

Activity 2 . .

Go around the localitylvillage/street yo11 live in and try to idenlify people as

per their caste lronl their names1 dress etc. (Do not ask allybody ally questions).
Write down your .findings.
On tlle basis of your findings, do you think that there is a. necd lo have caste
systeln in yoirr locality?
I I Yes 1 I No'
If yes, why? If no. why not? Mention five points to. support your argument.
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1.4.2 Jajmnni System

Tradition. customs and rules of behaviour differ from one caste group to the other:
but each caste tries to maintain its influence over its members and regulates inter-
caste and intracaste social interactions. Although different castes are arranged in
hierarchical order and social distances are maintained, there are lllally situations in .
which one caste secures services from the Inembers belonging to other castes. Such
dependence among the castes is traditionally known as Jajmani qlstem, referred to by
sociologists like M.N. Srinivas as vertical unity of the castes.
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Relation between Under the Jajmani system, each caste group within a village, provides certain social,
Mass Media and Society
religious and economic services to tlie other castes members. For illustration, the
brahmin performs various religious and ceremonial rituals like marriages, death
ceremonies, etc., for other castes. In return for his services,the brahmin is paid in cash
and kind. Sinlilarly, other service castes like carpenter, blacksmith, barber, washerman,
cobbler, etc., perform tlieir caste-based occupational services for the members of the
other communities.
One of the distinctive aspects of the Jajmani system is that service relations between
the Jajman (Producer) and the Prajim (Client) are regulated on a hereditary basis,
according to the law of inheritance. Thus, the relations between producer and the
client are permanently maintained to provide continuity of service. The payment for
the senice is based on the barter system (in terms of grain at the harvest time); and
cash is seldom paid. But the relation between the patronclient is not like the master-
servant relation. The Jajman is espected to meet the needs of his dependent and look
after his family. Thus, the system provides security of occupation for sustenance.
The system, however, suffers from the evils perpetuated by the caste system. It has led
to the exploitation of the lower castes by the elite land-owning higher castes. In spite
of this weakness, the Jajmani systeni continues to have a stronger hold in rural-India,
where the social interactions are lnostly governed by caste rules.
For understanding the caste disparities, one must live among the people and watch
the day-to-day activities and the inter-personal relations of the people from close
quarters, because caste has many inter-linkages with the communication behaviour of
the people.
Despite the high degree of interdependence at the village level, different caste groups
function as distinct sociocultural entities. The caste system, in the recent past, has
been exploited for (acquired) political patronage leading to caste rivalries and social
tensions. In view of this, the social diversity projects an image of a broken society.
However, at the conglomerate level, inany of these diversities become submerged to
reflect in united society, bound by common ethos, values and beliefs.

Check Your Progress 5

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) Please niention 3 advantages a11d 3 disadvantages of Jajmani system.
Advantages Disadvantages

1.4.3 Tribal Communities

In India, we have about 52 million people belonging to one tribe or the other. It is
estimated that there are more than 400 tribal groups scattered in different parts of the
country. Most of them live in remote areas, particularly in the forest and hill tracts. A
minority of them, however, are settled in industrial belts, tea-gardens, mines and
collieries as non-agricultural labourers. Among the states, a very high concentration of
the tribals is found in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and Maharashtra while the states
of Punjab, Haryana, Ja~ilmuand Kaslunir have a very low per cent of tribal
population. In the North-eastern region, in states like Nagaland and Meghalaya, we
find a high concentration of tribals accounting for more than three-fourths of their
total population. Similarly, Tripura, Manipur, and Sikkim also have a very high
concentration of tribal people.
 I Activity 3
I1
Indian Soclety: Hlrtorlyl nnd
Soclolo~lcal Perrprctlvcr

I am sure, you must be aware of the movement for Jharkhand. Read on this -
problem and movement and prepare an argument for or againsl it.
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..................................................................................................................................
_ Do yo11 considcr it as a communication problem?
I 1 Yes I I No
Give reilsons for your answers.

1.4.4 Unity in Diversity

India is a vast colultry with nearly 900 million people. It has a I:,~idfrontier of 15.200
km and a coastline of 6100 km. Despite its spread, the country reflccis unity in
diversity. The l~ldiailnessof the people gets exhibited clcarly irreslxcl~veof the region
lo which they belong-from Kashmir in the North to Kanyaku~~lari i ~ the
t South, from
Gujarat in the West to Manipur in the East. The Indian way of looki~~g at life-the
psyche of the people-is deep rooted in the Dharma and Karma doctrines propounded
by the ancient scriptures and sages. Another distinct quality of 111dioirculture is
manifested in the sacredness of the bonds of family life. People of all regions,
irrespective of caste and creed, respect age and wisdo~n.
Another in~portantcontributing factor for diversity of life pattern is Ille striking
difference between the prosperous elite and the deprived poor. In ccnns of material
living as well as sqcial development, the mass of the columon pcople living mostly
in villages. esliibit a different image from the elite. The rural-urban dichotoniy
conspicuously persisls despite the initiatives takeii bj the gover~~une~it for bridging the
gulf between the rich and the poor.
Variety, in fact, co~tlributesto the richness of Indian culture. The ethos tllougll rooted
in diverse ecologies, religious ideas and values, yet reflecls the undcrlying unity of
the Indian people.

1.4.5 Little and Great Traditions

The process of clva~~ge in traditional societies due to urbanisation imd industrialisation
has received the allelltion of many scholars who tried to analyse the dynamics of
change in social institutions, organisations, and hunlail relations. Robert RedF~eld,who
pioneered stadies in social change among traditiv~~al societies. postuli~tedthe theory
of Folk-Urban continuum. He associated the folk cullurc of the n ~ r i ~ and
l tribal
commu~iitieswill1 a relatively small, closeknit, well-integrated society, in which the
division of labour is simple, class differentiation is not m;rrked, kinship and family
relations are strong ii~ldthe moral order (even though it is not very rigidly observed)
is hlghly respected. The urban way of life, on the other hand, is associated with a
large society. in whch behaviour is more rational, more specidiscd a ~ l dless group-
oriented. The individual is more free, has more choice in day-to-day decision making
and is less tied to the oast.
Relatlon between
M ~ s sMedla and Society

According to Redfield. each society experiencing change reflects a set of traditions :

1) the Little Tradition of the illiterate and semi-literate folk community, mostly
shared in oral tradition; and 2) the Great Tradition of the urbanised community
which is formally articulated. Though the differences in Great and Little traditions are
apparent in terms of socral organisalion, ritual traditions, music and performing arts, a
continuity and high degree of sharing of the Great and Little traditions is observable.

Scholars like Milton Singer and Mackim Marriott, who studied the process of social
change in India, also observed such continuity and coexistence of the Little
Tradition of the run1 a t ~ dtribal co~lr~~runities
and the Great Tradition of the more
urbanised communities. Such cultural continuity is attributed to tlre basic similarities
in the Indian ethos and beliefs. However, Indian social scientists like S.C. Dube do
not agree with this tlrcory of diclrotomous division of Indian culture into Little and
Great traditions.

1.5 STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIAN SOCIETY

Society is a web of social relatioriships and the cordiality of rclatio~rshipbetween men

and women is fundamcnlal to thc sli~bilityof the society. The status of women in a
society is collsidered to be a critical indicator of the strength of ils social lndlsn Society: Hlrtorlcsl 'and
Soclologlcal Perrpectlver
organisation.
Literature and historical evidences establish beyond doubt that wornell enjoyed respect
and equality with men during the vedic period. Many women scholars (like Maitrayi,
Lopa Mudra, etc.) lmve contributed to the composition of Vedic literature. Both
husband and wife enjoyed equal rights as joint owners of property. They shared
equally in sacrifices and religious duties, and attended assemblies to participate in the
political affairs. Thus, we observe that the status of women in ancient India was based
on liberty, equality, ~iiutualrespect and cooperation.
Even in early Buddhist period we come across women who were highly respected for
their achievements in education and contributions to Buddhist literature. Sanghamitra,
the sister of Ashoka was sent to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism.
However, in the later period, women slowly lost their ground and were treated as
ineligible for Vedic studies and religious rituals. By about 200 AD, the domination of
men in political and religious affairs was firmly established, reducing significantly the
position and status of women.
During the medieval period, the position of women furlher deteriorated due to the
introduction of Purdlrh and greater prevalence of polyga~liyamong the kings and ,
chieftains. The revival of Sati, making it oblightory for the wolnelr to die on the
funeial pyre of the husband, worsened the position of women and reduced their status
to the level of helpless dependents. The complete neglect of education of girls and
the advocacy of child marriages contributed to further degradation of the status of
women. Social refor~uers,like Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Cliandra Vidyasagar and
Dayanand Saraswati, took great pains during 19th ce~ituryto create mass awareness
and bring about significant changes in the sphere of education as well as social
legislation for the improvement of the position of women in India. Inspired by these
reformist niovements, Mahatma Gandhi ad >is fbllowers of the Indim National
Movement started a crusade for emancipation of women during h e 20th century.
Their s o r t s were directed against eradication of disabilities liki purdah, prohibition
of remarriage of widows, child mirriages etc., Another sigliificant co~itributionof these
leaders was in respect of promotion of education among girls. Spiritual leaders like
Swami Vivekananda provided tremendous support to tlie social upliflment of women.
The call o i Mahatnia Gandhi facilitated many women to come out or seclusion and
participate in tlie political movement 'during tlie freed0111 struggle.
The Galidhian era and the post-Independence period have brougllt about significant
changes in tlie status and position of women in India. Tlie Constitution has laid down
as a Fundamental Right the equality of the sexes. Witli tlie spread or education and
the enact~nelitof laws against exploitation of women. tlie social scenario is fast
changing. There is greater commitment at politico-administrative levels to provide
more opportunities for women to assert their equality wit11 men so that they can
contqibute to the enrichment of the society.

Check Your Progress 6

Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Collipare your answers with the ones given at the end of tlie unit.
. 1) Give two exalnples of each of the following:
a) The Little Tradition :
i) ..................................................
..
11)...................................................
b) The Great Tradition :
i) ....................................................

ii) ..............;...................................
Relation between
Mass Mcdln nnd Society 2) Mention 3 reasons which were instrumental in bringing down the status of ~ n d i a d(
women.
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b

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1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have described briefly the socio cultural evolution in India in its
historical perspective. We have noted that the basic structure of the Indian society and
the distinct way of life of the !ndians has been influenced grealty by the Vedic Aryan
thought and literature. Sanskrit is a rich language and the literature generated by the
ancient scholars is held in high esteem by all Indians. Many of the Indian languages
have their roots in Sanskrit language. The literature in modem Indian languages is
greatly influenced by the ancient literature as well as the scholarly works of the
foreigners who visited India.
The plurality of the Indian society has contributed to richness of its culture. We have
observed how the assi~nilationof outsiders like Kushans, Indo-Greek?, Huns, Turks,
has enriched the Indian society in terlils of racial integration, ethnic, linguistic and
religious plurality. Indian society has passed through many turbulent periods, but the
ethos, values and tradilio~lshave bee11 preserved to a great extent. The oral tradition
of teaching, and the socialisation ,process of grooming the yourlgslcrs in the well-knit
joint families organised on com~dunil~/caste basis, have contributed immensely to the
preservation of the social and cultural traditions.
w e h a v e also covered in this unit, the distinct folk culture shared by the tribal
communities in different parts of the country and its influence on the cultural
practices of many non-tribal groups.
Lastly, we have discussed the status of women in the Indian society and observed that
women enjoyed better status in ancient Indian as compared to the modem period. The
low status accorded to women during the medieval period has greatly contributed to
the neglect of women's education and welfare. Realising the need to make women
equal partners in the nation building activities a number of corrective measures have
been taken up during the last two centuries.

1.7 FURTHER READING

Kuppuswamy, B. 1972, Social Chnnge in India, Vani Educational Books, New DeIhi.
Prabhu, H. Pandharinath 1940, 'Hindu Social Organisation ', Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
Srinivas, M.N. 1962, 'Cnste in hlodern Indian and Other Essays ', Media Promoters &
Publishers, Bombay.
Srinivas, M.N. 1972, Socinl Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, New Delhi.
Thapar, Romila. 1966, A History of India, Penguin Books. Harmondsworth, Middlesex
W).

1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: MODEL ANSWERS

+
Check Your Progress 1
1). Around 2500 B.C. a civilisatio~lflourished around river Indus. The people of 4
this civilisation used various sophisticated instruments and techniques to Y.,
>
 Indlan Society: Hlstorlcal and
nianage and sustain their lives. Historians say that these people were Soclologlcal Perspectives
Dravidians. The Aryans came from Central Asia and invaded India. Later the
Aryans settled down in the northern part of India. It is said that the
Dravidians were either pushed down to the southern part of India or were
accepted and assimilated by the Aryans. Thus, the Dravidians and Aryans
races mixed and gave a distinct identity to Indian populatioli.
Check Your Progress 2 I
1) Vedas are esselitially the records of the beliefs and custonis of the people of
ancient India. Generation after generation coni~nuliicatedtliroi~ghoral
traditions. The vedas were sung. Therefore. niusic was a very important
element in the pattern of communication. Poetry was the ~iiodeof expression
of the people at that time. Varna gave the stn~ctureof the society. The duties
and responsibilities were thus divided among various groups of people. This
division of labour, duties and responsibilities helped to create the pattern of
the society. Tliis pattern of the social structure was reflected in the way the
people belonging to different castes used to com~nunicate.
Check Your Progress 3
I
1) a) False
I
b)
C) True
True
I
I
d)
e)
False
False
II
Check Your Progress 4
1) a To expand empires
I
a In searcli of wealth
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8

a
In searcli of new business and trade routes
To preach religion
II
2) The finer elements of Islam were accepted by tlie broad-minded people in
India. This acceptance caused a fusion of finer elements froni both the Islam
and Hindu religion and gave rise to new ways of thinking. worshipping and
philosophies. These were reflected in art, literature etc.
Check Your Progress 5
I
Advin tages Disadvantages
I
1) Interdepe~ldelicemakes the

2)
community strong
The people call concentrate on the
Interdependenae is interpreted as per
the dignity of caste and not the work.
People have no freedom to
I
jobs they are assigned from the very choose their profession.
beginliilig of Lheir lives.
1
3) Fast improvement in each The society beco~lielifeless
profession is ensured.
Check Your Progress 6
over a period of time.
i
1) a) The little tradition:
i) Salitali Dance
ii) Ratha Yatra
b) The grk,;t tradition:
' i) The Hindustani Classical Music
ii) The Mughal art
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