Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this chapter is to address the three basic questions
of the composite materials and structure (1) what is a composite material?
(2) why are composite materials used instead of metals? (3) how are
composite materials used in structure?
1. WHAT IS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL?
The composite material is a type of material in which two or more
materials are combined on a macroscopic scale to form a useful their
material. The components can be identified by the naked eye. Alloys are in
similar combination of metals but its components cannot distinguished by
the naked eye.
If the composite materials are well designed, they exhibit the best
qualities of their components and some qualities that neither constituents
possesses.
Some properties can be improved by forming a composite materials
are: strength, stiffness, corrosive resistance, wear resistance,
attractiveness, weight, fatigue life, temperature dependent behavior,
thermal insulation, thermal conductivity, acoustical insulation. However, a
composite material has only characteristics needed to perform the design
task.
1.1. Classification of composite materials
Fibrous composite materials that consists of fiber in a matrix.
Laminated composite materials that consist of layers of various
materials.
Particulate composite materials that are composed of particles in a
matrix.
Combinations of some or all of the first three types.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 1
 Figure 1.1. Classification of composite material system.

1.1.1. Fibrous composite materials

Long fibers in various form are inherently much stiffer and stronger
than the same material in bulk form. It is due to the geometry and
physical aspect. Moreover, the fiber has more perfect structure than the
bulk due to fewer internal defects and fewer dislocations.
Properties of fibers

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 2
 A fiber is characterized geometrically not only by its very high
length-to-diameter ratio but its near-crystal-sized diameter. The
strength to density (S/) and stiffness to density (S/) ratios are used as
indicators of the effectiveness of a fiber, especially in weight-sensitive
applications.
Graphite or carbon fiber are of high interest today’s composite
structure. Both are made from rayon, pitch or PAN (Polyacrylonitrile)
precursor fibers that are heated in an inert atmosphere to about 3100F
(1700C) to carbonize the fibers.

Properties of whiskers
A whisker has essentially the same near crystal sized diameter as a
fiber, but generally short and stubby, even the length to diameter ratio
can be the hundreds. A whisker exhibits more crystal-bulk-material-
difference paradox. A whisker is more perfect than a fiber and therefore

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 3
exhibits even higher properties.

Properties of matrix materials

Fibers and whiskers are only useful when they are bonded together.
The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix
is: support the fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers,
stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers. Typically, the matrix is of
lower density, stiffness and strength than fibers or whiskers. The
combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high
strength and stiffness but still have low density. Matrix materials can be
polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 4
1.1.2. Laminated composite materials
Laminated composite materials consist of layers of at least two
different materials that are bonded together. The combination of the
constituent layers and bonding material is to achieve a more useful
material.
Bimetals
Bimetals are laminated of two different metals that usually have
significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion. They are well
suited for use of temperature-measuring devices.
Clad metals
The cladding or sheathing of one metal with another is done to
obtain the best properties of both. High-strength aluminum alloy is covered
with a corrosion-resistant aluminum alloy is a composite material with both
high strength and corrosion resistance. Aluminum wire clad with about 10%
copper was introduced as a replacement for copper wire.
Laminated glass
Glass is transparency but quite brittle. Safety glass is a layer of
polyvinyl butryal a very tough material (deforms to high strains without
fracture), sandwiches between the two layers of glass.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 5
Plastic-based laminates
Many materials can be saturated with various plastics for a variety
of purposes.
Formica is merely layers of heavy Kraft paper impregnated with a
phenolic resin overlaid by a plastic saturated decorative sheet that is
overlaid with a plastic saturated cellulose mat. Layers of glass or asbestos
fabrics can be impregnated (to cause something, usually a solid substance,
to absorb something, usually aliquid) with silicones to yield a composite material
with significant high-temperature properties.
1.1.3. Particulate composite materials
Particulate composite materials consists of particles of one or more
materials suspended in a matrix of another material. The particles can be
either metallic or nonmetallic and the same for the matrix.
Nonmetallic particles in nonmetallic matrix composite materials
Concrete is particles of sand and gravel that are bonded together
with a mixture of cement and water that has chemically reacted and
hardened. The cement matrix is stronger than gravel. Flakes of
nonmetallic materials such as mica or glass can form an effective
composite material when suspended in a glass or plastic, respectively.
Metallic particles in nonmetallic matrix composite materials
Solid–rocket propellants consist of inorganic particles such as
aluminum powder and perchlorate oxidizers in a flexible organic binder
such as polyurethane or polysulfide rubber. The particles comprise as
much as 75% of the propellant leaving only 25% for the binder. The
objective is a steadily burning reaction to provide controlled thrust. The
composite material must be uniform in character and must not crack.
Cold solder is metal powder suspended in a thermosetting resin.
The composite material is strong and hart and conducts heat and
electricity.
Metallic particles in metallic matrix composite materials
Unlike an alloys, a metallic particle in a metallic matrix does not
dissolve. Lead particles used in copper alloys and steels to improve the
machinability. It also is a natural lubricant in bearings made from copper

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 6
alloys. Many metals are brittle at room temperature so must be machined
when hot such as tungsten, chromium, molybdenum etc. However, if they
can be suspended in a ductile matrix resulting in a composite material that
is ductile. This process is called liquid sintering and involves infiltration
(the process of secretly becoming part of a group in order to get information or
toinfluence the way that a group thinks or behaves).
Nonmetallic particles in metallic matrix composite materials
Particles of ceramics can be suspended in a metal matrix resulting
in cermet. Two common classes of cermets are oxide-based and carbide-
based composite materials.
Oxide-based cermets can be either oxide particles in a metal matrix
or metal particles in an oxide matrix used for tooling making or high-
temperature applications where erosion resistance is needed. Carbide-
based cermets have particles of carbides of tungsten, chromium and
titanium. Tungsten carbide in a cobalt matrix is used in machine parts of
very hardness. Chromium carbide in a cobalt matrix has high corrosion
and abrasion resistance. Titanium carbide in either a nickel or a cobalt
matrix is often used in high temperature applications.
1.1.4. Combinations of composite materials
Reinforced concrete is both particulate and fibrous.
Laminated fiber-reinforced composite materials are a hybrid class
of composite material involving both fibrous composite materials and
lamination techniques.
1.2. Mechanical behavior of composite materials
Some basic definitions:
A homogeneous body has uniform properties throughout, i.e., the
properties are independent of position in the body.
An isotropic body has material properties that are the same in every
direction at a point in a body, i.e., the properties are independent of
orientation at a point in the body.
Composite materials are often both inhomogeneous
(nonhomogeneous or heterogeneous) and nonisotropic or anisotropic.
An inhomogeneous body has nonuniform properties over the body

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 7
or properties depends on position in the body.
An orthotropic body has material properties that are different in
three mutually perpendicular directions at a point in the body, and further
has three perpendicular planes of material property symmetry. The
properties depend on orientation at a point in the body.
An anisotropic body has material properties that are different in all
directions at a point in the body.
Micromechanics is the study of composite material behavior wherein
the interaction of the constituent materials is examined on a microscopic
scale to determine their effects on the properties of the composite material.
Macromechanics is the study of composite materials behavior
wherein the material is presumed homogeneous and the effects of the
constituent materials are detected only as averaged apparent
macroscopic properties of the composite material. Macromechanics is
important in structural analysis and micromechanics is for how the
constituents of composite materials can be proportioned and arranged to
achieve certain specified strength and stiffness.
The two concepts allow the tailoring of a composite material to meet
a particular structural requirement with little waste of material capacity.
Perfect tailoring of a composite material yields only the stiffness and
strength required in each direction, no more.
The inherent anisotropic (most often only orthotropy) of composite
materials leads to mechanical behavior characteristics that are quite
different from those of conventional isotropic materials.
For isotropic materials, application of normal stress causes
extension in the direction of the stress and contraction in the perpendicular
direction, but no more shearing deformation. Moreover, application of shear

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 8
stress causes only shearing deformation, but no extension or contraction in
any directions as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2. Respond of various types of materials under uniaxial

normal and pure shear loadings.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 9
Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 10
 Only Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio are needed to quantify
the deformations. The shear modulus (ratio of shear stress to shear strain
at a point) could be used as an alternative of either Young’s modulus or
Poisson’s ratio.
For orthotropic materials, like isotropic materials, application of
normal stress in a principle material direction (the intersections of three
orthogonal planes of material symmetry) result in extension in the
direction of the stress and contraction in perpendicular directions to the
stress. The magnitude of the extension is different in different principle
directions under the same normal stress. Thus, different Young’s
modulus exist in the various principle material directions. Thus, different
Poisson’s ratios are associated with different pairs of principle material
directions. Application of shear stress causes shearing deformation, but
the magnitude of the shearing deformation is totally independent of the
various Young’s moduli and Poisson’s ratios. That is, the shear modulus
of an orthotropic material is, unlike isotropic materials, not dependent on
other materials properties. Thus, at least five material properties are
necessary to describe the mechanical behavior of orthotropic materials.
For anisotropic materials, application of a normal stress leads not
to only extension in the direction of the stress and contraction in
perpendicular directions to it, but causes shearing deformation.
Conversely, application of shearing stress cause extension and
contraction in addition to the distortion of shearing deformation. The
coupling between both loading modes and both deformation modes, i.e.,
shear – extension coupling, is also characteristic of orthotropic materials
subjected to normal stress in a non-principle materials direction. For
example, cloth is an orthotropic material composed of two sets of
interwoven fibers at right angles to each other. If it is subjected to a normal
stress at 45 to the fiber’s direction, both stretching and distortion occur.
Coupling between deformation modes and types of loading
creates problems that are not easily to overcome and at least causing a
reorientation of thinking. The conventional American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) dog-bone tensile specimen shown in Figure 1.3.
cannot be used to determine the tensile moduli of orthotropic

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 11
materials loaded in non-principle material directions (nor of anisotropic
materials). The lack of symmetry of the materials about the loading axis
and the clamped ends of the specimen results in shearing or a tendency to
bend.

Figure 1.3. ASTM dog-bone tensile specimen.

1.2. Basic terminology of laminated fiber-reinforced composite
materials

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 12
1.3.1. Laminae
The basis building block of a laminate is a lamina which is a flat or
sometimes curved arrangement of unidirectional fibers or woven fibers in a
matrix. Typical flat laminae with their principle material axes parallel and
perpendicular to the fiber’s direction as shown in Figure 1.4. The fibers are
the principle reinforcing or load-carrying agent are typically strong and
stiff. The matrix can be organic, metallic, ceramic, or carbon.

Figure 1.4. Two principle types of laminae.

The function of the matrix is to support and protect the fibers and
provide a means of distributing load among, and transmitting load
between the fibers. The latter is very important in case if a fiber breaks as
shown in Figure 1.5.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 13
 Figure 1.5. Effect of broken fiber on matrix and fiber stresses.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 14
 Load from one portion of a broken fiber is transferred to the matrix
and then to the other portion of the broken fiber as well as to adjacent fiber.
The mechanism for load transfer is the shearing stress developed in the
matrix. It resists the pulling out of the broken fiber.
Fibers generally exhibit linear elastic behavior but reinforcing steel
bars in concrete are more nearly elastic-perfectly plastic. Aluminum as
well as many polymers, and some composite materials exhibit elastic-
plastic behavior that is really nonlinear elastic behavior if there is no
unloading. Resinous matrix materials are viscoelastic if not viscoplastic,
i.e., have strain rate dependence and linear or nonlinear stress-strain
behavior. The various stress-strain relations are sometimes referred to as
constitutive relations because they describe the mechanical constitution
of the material.
1.3.2. Laminates
A laminate is a bonded stack of laminae with various orientations
of principle material directions in the laminae as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6. Unbonded view of laminate construction.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 15
 The layers of a laminate are usually bonded together by the same
matrix material that is used in the individual laminae. Laminates can be
composed of plates of different materials or layers of fiber reinforced
laminae.
A major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional
dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match
the loading environment of the structural element. Laminates are uniquely
suited to this objective because the principle material directions of each
layer can be oriented according to the need.
1.4. Manufacture of laminated fiber reinforced composite materials
There is a very close relation between the manufacture of a
composite material and its end use. It is often actually part of the
fabrication process for the structural element or even the complete
structure. A complete description of the manufacturing process is not
possible. How the fibers and matrix materials are assembled to make a
lamina and how laminae are assembled and cured to make a laminate will
be discussed.
1.4.1. Initial form of constituent materials
The fibers and matrix material can be obtained commercially in a
variety forms, both individually and as laminae. The fibers can be
unidirectional or interwoven. Fibers are often saturated or coated with
resinous material such as epoxy which is subsequently used as a matrix
material. The process is referred to as preimpregnation, and such forms
of preimpregnated fibers are called “prepregs”.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 16
1.4.2. Layup
Three principle layup processes for laminated fiber-reinforced
composite materials are winding, laying and molding. The choice of a
layup process depends on many factors: part size, shape, schedule,
familiarity with particular techniques etc.
Winding and laying operations include filament winding, tape laying
or wrapping and cloth winding or wrapping. Filament winding (A
winding path, road, river, etc. repeatedly turns in different directions) consists of
passing a fiber through a liquid resin and then winding it on a mandrel. The
fibers are wrapped at different orientations on the mandrel to yield strength
and stiffness in many directions. After curing, the mandrel is removed.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 17
 Figure 1.7. Compression molding.

Tape laying starts with a tape consisting of fibers in a

preimpregnated form held together by a removable backing material. The

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 18
tape is unwound and laid down to form the desired shape in the desired
directions of tape layers.
Cloth winding or laying is more flexible and inefficient than filament
winding or tape laying in achieving the strength or stiffness because the
cloth always has two essentially equal strength and stiffness directions.
Moreover, wearing process caused some damage to some extent by the
bending. Cloth is therefore used as filter layer in laminates in which
strength and stiffness are not critical.
Molding operation is used with preimpregnated fibers in layers in
form of precut. The layers are compressed under elevated temperature
to form the final laminate in a press as shown in Figure 1.7. Molding is
used to fabricate randomness to close tolerances in thickness.
Sheet molding compound (SMC) consists of randomly oriented
chopped fibers in a matrix of resin and filler. SMC is produced in the
continuous manner.
The roll-forming process can be used to directly produce long
structural shapes in large quantities. The entering material form is rolls of
variously oriented fiber-reinforced tape. The layers are consolidated and
then formed into a hat-shaped stiffener.
1.4.3. Curing
Metal matrix materials are simply heated and cooled around
fibers to solidify. Ceramic matrix and carbon matrix materials are either
vapor deposited, mixed with fibers in a slurry and hardened. In the
case of carbon, subjected to repeated liquid infiltration followed by
carbonization.
Curing primarily refers to the process of solidification of polymer
matrix materials. For thermoset matrix, heat is used as a catalyst to speed
the natural chemical reaction of polymerization. Epoxies have two parts: a
tube of epoxy and a tube of chemical hardener to react when mixed. In
general, the higher the temperature during curing the shorter curing time.
Pressure is required to consolidate the fiber and matrix system and to
squeeze out excess resin.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 19
2. THE WHY – CURRENT AND POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF FIBER-
REINFORCES COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The advent of advanced fiber reinforced composite materials has
created the biggest technical revolution since the jet engine. It has the
tremendous impacts of the jet engine on military aircraft performance. The
impacts in commercial aviation is even more striking because the airlines
switched from propeller – driven planes to all-jet fleets because of superior
performance and lower maintenance costs.
Advanced fiber-reinforced composite materials is used to distinguish
composite materials with ultrahigh strength and stiffness fibers such as
boron and graphite from less capable fibers such as glass. Advanced finer-
reinforced composite materials have two major advantages:
- Improved strength and stiffness compared with other materials on a
unit basic weight of about 70% lighter.
- Composite materials can be tailored to efficiently meet design
requirements of strength and stiffness, and other parameters in all various
directions.
2.1. Strength and stiffness advantages
The effectiveness of strength and stiffness of a material is evaluated
as a ratio of either of quantities to the density, i.e., weight per unit volumes.
Such an index does not include the cost to achieve a certain strength or
stiffness. The strength-to-density and stiffness-to-density quotients are
simply manners of expressing what we call specific strength and specific
modulus or specific stiffness.
How do properties of the composite constituents contribute to the
lamina properties and how do lamina properties influence the laminate
properties? Figure 1.8. shows these effects.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 20
 Figure 1.8. Translation from constituent properties to lamina to
laminate properties.
Typically, the fibers used in in advanced composite materials are very
high strength and often very high modulus. They are put in a matrix
material that is typically low in both strength and modulus Such a lamina is
a layer that has substantially different strengths and stiffness in different
directions with maximum in the fiber’s direction. At 90, the lamina strength
and stiffness are much more like the matrix properties, whereas at 0, the
properties of fiber is dominated. A laminate is expected that the properties
is not as high as those of the 0 nor as low as those of 90. The value is
between. In Figure 1.8. we must include both the 0 and 90 cases. At
some place in the zone labelled laminate, what is called an isotropic point
or biaxially isotropic point exists as some measure of equal in-plane
properties in at least two directions in terms of stiffness and strength. The
type of properties plot in Figure 1.7. is the basic scheme that will use for
comparative purposes.
A representative of the strength and stiffness of many materials on
the basis of effectiveness per unit weight is shown in Figure 1.9.
- Structural metals with open squares.
- Fibers alone with open circles.
- Laminae with unidirectional fibers – circles with a vertical line.
- Laminae with equal numbers of fibers in two perpendicular
directions – circles with a cross.
Fibers alone are stiffer and stronger than when placed in a matrix.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 21
However, the fibers are not used without a matrix. Unidirectional
configurations are stiffer and stronger in the fiber direction than biaxially
isotropic configurations in either of the two directions. Practical laminates
lie somewhere between unidirectional and biaxially isotropic configurations.

Figure 1.9. Strength and stiffness of composite materials and metals.

2.2. Cost advantages
The life-cycle cost is very much more favorable for composite
structure than it is for some metal structure as shown in Figure 1.10. Cost
of a material depends on manufacturing experience and developing new,
more effective manufacturing technologies. However, raw material cost is
only one small element in the whole process of determining the true cost of
an object over its life time of use. Different materials have different
associated cost to design a structure. The same to fabricate or
manufacturing the object. Different amount of money are required to
assemble parts that are made in various ways. Similar-appearing parts of
different materials might require very different fastening techniques.
Whenever, the object comes out of the factory, what we pay for it is the
initial cost. Then operating and maintenance cost are added. The
development of composite structures is getting to the point where some

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 22
applications of composite structures have both a lower initial cost and a
lower operating cost. There is no salvage value at all if the structure is
made entirely if some composite materials.

Figure 1.10. Lift-cycle cost elements.

2.3. Weight advantages
Weight saving is in relation with fuel savings so that more efficient
operating conditions result. We can carry a heavier load of fuel and
increase the range of an aircraft or truck. Further consequences of
decreased weight of an airplane are that engine thrust, wing area, and fuel
can be decreased. The potential weight savings in a variety of structures
are displayed in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11. Value of weight savings in structure.

The potential for weight savings is closely coupled to fuel savings for
most vehicles. The importance of improvements in both aerodynamics and
composite structures is proved to be about equal.
3. THE HOW – APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
3.1. Introduction

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 23
 Almost every aerospace company is developing products made with
fiber-reinforces composite materials. It has developed through several
stages since 1960s.
- In the first stage, the objective was to make a first step toward
leaning about composite structures.
- The second stage was replacement pieces where part of the
objective was to flight-test a part that was designed to replace a metal part
on an existing airplane.
- The third stage is actual production pieces where the plane
designed from the beginning to have various parts fabricated from fiber-
reinforced composite materials.
- The final stage is the all-composite airplane that many people
dreamed of building for many years.
The impact of composite materials use on jet-engine performance is
also very substantial. For example, Thrust - to – weight ratio is 5:1 for
various metal alloys; 16:1 for fiber – reinforced plastics and metals; 40:1 for
advanced graphite – fiber composite appear possible. An eightfold increase
in the performance index of thrust-to-weight ratio should lead to drastically
pyramided weight savings in an entire aircraft due to substantially lessened
structural support requirements.
In the near future, aircraft will be built with a very high percentage of
components made from composite materials. The effect of weight reduction
in one part of a plane pyramids over the entire plane.
3.2. Applications
- Military aircraft.
- Civil aircraft.
- Space applications.
- Automotive applications.
- Commercial applications.

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 24
 Figure 1.12. Diagram illustrating usage of composite materials in
various components of the Boeing 777 aircraft.
4. SUMMARY AND HOMEWORK
The basic questions of the what, the why and the how of composite
materials and structures have been addressed. Much more could be said
about, for example, polymers, metals, ceramics, and carbon used as matrix
materials. Many more composite manufacturing techniques are available.
Many more examples of effective use of composite materials in structure
do exist. However, the introduction od each topics may have suffice for the
purpose of giving back ground on composite materials prior to studying
their mechanics.
The students are required to summary what they understand in
chapter 1.
Due date: 01/2/2018

Prepared by Associate Professor. Dr. Quang The Phan and Ms. Ha Thi Thu Phan 25