LECTURE NO. 10.

Course: Advanced Materials Technology

Course Code: MAT511
Instructor: Prof. Alberto Velazquez Del Rosario (PhD)

CHAPTER # 3. MODERN MATERIALS AND ALLOYS

Topic: Structure, properties and applications of composite materials

Objective: To acquire knowledge on structure, properties and applications of composite materials.

Syllabus
14. Composite materials
15. Classification of composite materials

14. Composite materials

Material property combinations and ranges have been, and are yet being, extended by the development of
composite materials. Generally speaking, a composite is considered to be any multiphase material that
exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of constituent phases such that a better combination of
properties is realized. According to this principle of combined action, better property combinations are
fashioned by the judicious combination of two or more distinct materials. Property trade-offs are also made
for many composites.
A composite material (shortened to composite, which is the common name) is a natural or artificially
made material by combining two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics
and properties different from the individual components.
The two combined materials work together to form an overall structure and provide the composite with
unique properties. Within the composite you can easily differentiate the dissimilar materials or constituent
phases apart as they do not dissolve or blend into each other.
In designing composite materials, scientists and engineers have ingeniously combined various metals,
ceramics, and polymers to produce a new generation of extraordinary materials. Most composites have been
created to improve combinations of mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, toughness, and ambient and
high-temperature strength.
Natural composites exist in both animals and plants. Wood is a composite – it is made from long
cellulose fibers (a polymer) held together by a much weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose is
also found in cotton, but without the lignin to bind it together it is much weaker. The two weak substances –
lignin and cellulose – together form a much stronger one. The bone in your body is also a composite. It is
made from a hard but brittle material called hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium phosphate) and a soft
and flexible material called collagen (which is a protein). Collagen is also found in hair and finger nails. On
its own it would not be much use in the skeleton but it can combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone the
properties that are needed to support the body.
People have been making composites for many thousands of years. One early example is mud bricks. Mud
can be dried out into a brick shape to give a building material. It is strong if you try to squash it (it has good
compressive strength) but it breaks quite easily if you try to bend it (it has poor tensile strength). Straw seems
very strong if you try to stretch it, but you can crumple it up easily. By mixing mud and straw together it is
possible to make bricks that are resistant to both squeezing and tearing and make excellent building blocks.
Another ancient composite is concrete. Concrete is a mix of aggregate (small stones or gravel),cement and

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sand. It has good compressive strength (it resists squashing). In more recent times ithas been found that
adding metal rods or wires to the concrete can increase its tensile (bending) strength. Concrete containing
such rods or wires is called reinforced concrete.
14.1. Structure, properties and applications of composite materials
There are two main categories of constituent materials in the structure: matrix (binder) and dispersed phase
or reinforcement (see Figure 1). At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix material, which is
continuous, surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The
reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties.
Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of a composite material

A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the
wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an
optimum combination.
14.1.1. The matrix
By nature, common matrices of composites are of both inorganic (metals, ceramics, sometimes glasses) or
organic (polymers) materials. In general, metals and polymers are used as matrix materials because some
ductility is desirable; for ceramic-matrix composites, the reinforcing component is added to improve fracture
toughness.
The matrix phase serves several functions:
1. First, it binds the reinforcement together and acts as the medium by which an externally applied stress is
transmitted and distributed to the reinforcement; only a very small proportion of an applied load is
sustained by the matrix phase. Furthermore, the matrix material should be ductile. In addition, the elastic
modulus of the fiber should be much higher than that of the matrix.
2. The second function of the matrix is to protect the individual reinforcement from surface damage as a result
of mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with the environment. Such interactions may introduce
surface flaws capable of forming cracks, which may lead to failure at low tensile stress levels.
3. Finally, the matrix separates the reinforcement and, by virtue of its relative softness and plasticity, prevents
the propagation of brittle cracks from reinforcement to reinforcement, which could result in catastrophic
failure; in other words, the matrix phase serves as a barrier to crack propagation. Even though some of the
individual reinforcement (fibers) fail, total composite fracture will not occur until large numbers of
adjacent fibers fail and form a cluster of critical size.
It is essential that adhesive bonding forces between reinforcement and matrix be high to minimize
reinforcement pullout. Bonding strength is an important consideration in the choice of the matrix–
reinforcement combination. The ultimate strength of the composite depends to a large degree on the
magnitude of this bond; adequate bonding is essential to maximize the stress transmittance from the weak
matrix to the strong reinforcements. Considering the type and nature of matrix, composites are classified into:
Polymer–matrix composites (PMCs), Metal–matrix composites (MMCs), Ceramic–matrix composites
(CMCs), Carbon–carbon composites and Hybrid composites.

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A. Polymer–matrix composites (PMCs)
PMCs consist of a polymer resin (high-molecular-weight reinforcing plastic) as the matrix and fibers as the
reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest diversity of composite applications, as well as
in the largest quantities, in light of their room-temperature properties, ease of fabrication, and cost.
The most common fiber reinforcements incorporated into polymer matrices are glass (Glass Fiber–Reinforced
Polymer, GFRP), carbon (Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymer, CFRP), and the aramids (Aramid Fiber–
Reinforced Polymer, i.e. (Kevlar 29, 49, and 149 and Nomex). Other fiber materials that are used to much
lesser degrees are boron, silicon carbide, and aluminum oxide. Boron fiber–reinforced polymer composites
have been used in military aircraft components, helicopter rotor blades, and sporting goods. Silicon carbide
and aluminum oxide fibers are used in tennis rackets, circuit boards, military armor, and rocket nose cones.
B. Metal–matrix composites (MMCs)
As the name implies, for MMCs the matrix is a ductile metal. These materials may be used at higher service
temperatures than their base-metal counterparts; furthermore, the reinforcement may improve specific
stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity, and dimensional
stability. Some of the advantages of these materials over the polymer-matrix composites include higher
operating temperatures, non flammability, and greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids. Metal-
matrix composites are much more expensive than PMCs, and, therefore, MMC use is somewhat restricted.
The superalloys, as well as alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and copper, are used as matrix
materials. The reinforcement may be in the form of particulates, both continuous and discontinuous fibers,
and whiskers; concentrations normally range between 10 and 60 vol %. Continuous-fiber materials include
carbon, silicon carbide, boron, aluminum oxide, and the refractory metals. However, discontinuous
reinforcements consist primarily of silicon carbide whiskers, chopped fibers of aluminum oxide and carbon,
or particulates of silicon carbide and aluminum oxide. In a sense, the cermets fall within this MMC scheme.
Automobile manufacturers have recently begun to use MMCs in their products. For example, some engine
components have been introduced consisting of an aluminum alloy matrix that is reinforced with aluminum
oxide and carbon fibers; this MMC is light in weight and resists wear and thermal distortion. Metal-matrix
composites are also employed in drive shafts (that have higher rotational speeds and reduced vibrational noise
levels), extruded stabilizer bars, and forged suspension and transmission components. The aerospace industry
also employs MMCs in the form of advanced aluminum alloy metal-matrix composites. These materials have
low densities, and it is possible to control their properties (i.e., mechanical and thermal properties).
Continuous graphite fibers are used as the reinforcement for an antenna boom on the Hubble Space
Telescope; this boom stabilizes the antenna position during space maneuvers. In addition, Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellites use silicon carbide–aluminum and graphite–aluminum MMCs for electronic
packaging and thermal management systems.
These MMCs have high thermal conductivities, and it is possible to match their coefficients of expansion with
those of other electronic materials in the GPS components.The high-temperature creep and rupture properties
of some superalloys (Ni- and Co-based alloys) may be enhanced by fiber reinforcement using refractory
metals such as tungsten. Excellent high-temperature oxidation resistance and impact strength are also
maintained. Designs incorporating these composites permit higher operating temperatures and better
efficiencies for turbine engines.
C. Ceramic–matrix composites (CMCs)
Ceramic materials are inherently resilient to oxidation and deterioration at elevated temperatures; were it not
for their disposition to brittle fracture, some of these materials would be ideal candidates for use in high
temperature and severe-stress applications, specifically for components in automobile and aircraft gas turbine
engines. Fracture toughness values for ceramic materials are low, but the fracture toughnesses of ceramics

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have been improved significantly by the development of a new generation of ceramic-matrix composites,
fibers, or whiskers of one ceramic material that have been embedded into a matrix of another ceramic.
Ceramic-matrix composite materials have extended fracture toughnesses.
In essence, this improvement in the fracture properties results from interactions between advancing cracks and
dispersed phase particles. Crack initiation normally occurs with the matrix phase, whereas crack propagation
is impeded or hindered by the particles, fibers, or whiskers. Several techniques are used to retard crack
propagation: one particularly interesting toughening technique uses a phase transformation to arrest the
propagation of cracks and is aptly termed transformation toughening. Small particles of partially stabilized
zirconia are dispersed within the matrix material, often Al2O3 or ZrO2 itself. Typically, CaO, MgO, Y2O3, and
CeO are used as stabilizers. Partial stabilization allows retention of the metastable tetragonal phase at ambient
conditions rather than the stable monoclinic phase.
Other recently developed toughening techniques involve the use of ceramic whiskers, often SiC or Si3N4.
These whiskers may inhibit crack propagation by (1) deflecting crack tips, (2) forming bridges across crack
faces, (3) absorbing energy during pullout as the whiskers debond from the matrix, and/or (4) causing a
redistribution of stresses in regions adjacent to the crack tips.
D. Carbon–carbon composites
One of the most advanced and promising of engineering materials is the carbon fiber–reinforced carbon-
matrix composite, often termed a carbon–carbon composite; as the name implies, both reinforcement and
matrix are carbon. These materials are relatively new and expensive and, therefore, are not currently being
used extensively. Their desirable properties include high-tensile moduli and tensile strengths that are retained
to temperatures in excess of 2000 oC, resistance to creep, and relatively large fracture toughness values.
Furthermore, carbon–carbon composites have low coefficients of thermal expansion and relatively high
thermal conductivities; these characteristics, coupled with high strengths, give rise to a relatively low
susceptibility to thermal shock. Their major drawback is a propensity to high-temperature oxidation. The
carbon–carbon composites are employed in rocket motors, as friction materials in aircraft and high-
performance automobiles, for hot-pressing molds, in components for advanced turbine engines, and as
ablative shields for re-entry vehicles.
E. Hybrid composites
A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the hybrid, which is obtained by using two or more different
kinds of fibers in a single matrix; hybrids have a better all-around combination of properties than composites
containing only a single fiber type. A variety of fiber combinations and matrix materials are used, but in the
most common system, both carbon and glass fibers are incorporated into a polymeric resin. The carbon fibers
are strong and relatively stiff and provide a low-density reinforcement; however, they are expensive. Glass
fibers are inexpensive and lack the stiffness of carbon. The glass–carbon hybrid is stronger and tougher, has a
higher impact resistance, and may be produced at a lower cost than either of the comparable all-carbon or all-
glass reinforced plastics. The two different fibers may be combined in a number of ways, which will
ultimately affect the overall properties. For example, the fibers may all be aligned and intimately mixed with
one another, or laminations may be constructed consisting of layers, each of which consists of a single fiber
type, alternating with one another. In virtually all hybrids, the properties are anisotropic.
When hybrid composites are stressed in tension, failure is usually non catastrophic (i.e., does not occur
suddenly). The carbon fibers are the first to fail, at which time the load is transferred to the glass fibers. Upon
failure of the glass fibers, the matrix phase must sustain the applied load. Eventual composite failure concurs
with that of the matrix phase. Principal applications for hybrid composites are lightweight land, water, and air
transport structural components, sporting goods, and lightweight orthopedic components.

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14.1.2. The reinforcement
Reinforcement materials consists of four main divisions: particle, fiber, structural, and nanocomposites, as
seen in classification scheme for the various types of composite materials in Figure No. 2.

Figure No. 2. A classification scheme for the various composite types

The dispersed phase may have several geometries. Geometry, in this context, means the shape, size,
distribution, and orientation of the reinforcement; these characteristics are represented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Schematic representations of the various geometrical and spatial characteristics of particles of
the dispersed phase that may influence the properties of composites: (a) concentration, (b) size, (c)
shape, (d) distribution, and (e) orientation.
15. Classification of composite materials
15.1. Particle-reinforced composites
For particle-reinforced composites, the dispersed phase is equiaxed (i.e., particle dimensions are
approximately the same in all directions). Particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they should be
of approximately the same dimension in all directions (equiaxed). For effective reinforcement, the particles
should be small and evenly distributed throughout the matrix. Furthermore, the volume fraction of the two
phases influences the behavior; mechanical properties are enhanced with increasing particulate content.
As noted in Figure 2, large-particle and dispersion-strengthened composites are the two sub classifications
of particle-reinforced composites. The distinction between these is based on the reinforcement or
strengthening mechanism.
A. Large-particle-reinforced composites
The term large is used to indicate that particle–matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or
molecular level; rather, continuum mechanics is used. For most of these composites, the particulate phase is
harder and stiffer than the matrix. These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in

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the vicinity of each particle. In essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which
bear a fraction of the load. The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on
strong bonding at the matrix–particle interface.
Large-particle composites are used with all three material types, polymers, metals, and ceramics. Several
examples are:
1. Both elastomers and plastics are frequently reinforced with various particulate materials in modern rubbers.
Use of many modern rubbers would be severely restricted without reinforcing particulate materials such as
carbon black. Carbon black consists of very small and essentially spherical particles of carbon, produced by
the combustion of natural gas or oil in an atmosphere that has only a limited air supply. When added to
vulcanized rubber, this extremely inexpensive material enhances tensile strength, toughness, and tear and
abrasion resistance. Automobile tires contain on the order of 15 to 30 vol % carbon black. For the carbon
black to provide significant reinforcement, the particle size must be extremely small, with diameters
between 20 and 50 nm; also, the particles must be evenly distributed throughout the rubber and must form
a strong adhesive bond with the rubber matrix. Particle reinforcement using other materials (e.g., silica) is
much less effective because this special interaction between the rubber molecules and particle surfaces
does not exist.
2. Some polymeric materials to which fillers have been added are really large-particle composites. The fillers
modify or improve the properties of the material and/or replace some of the polymer volume with a less
expensive material.
3. Concrete is another familiar large-particle composite is, which is composed of cement (the matrix) and
sand and gravel (the particulates).
4. The Cermets, one example of ceramic–metal composites.
The most common cermet is cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles of a
refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded in a matrix
of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. These composites are used extensively as cutting tools for hardened
steels. The hard carbide particles provide the cutting surface but, being extremely brittle, are not capable of
withstanding the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile metal matrix,
which isolates the carbide particles from one another and prevents particle-to-particle crack propagation.
Both matrix and particulate phases are quite refractory to the high temperature.
B. Dispersion-strengthened composites
Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by the uniform dispersion of several volume
percent of fine particles of a very hard and inert material. The dispersed phase may be metallic or nonmetallic;
oxide materials are often used. Again, the strengthening mechanism involves interactions between the
particles and dislocations within the matrix, as with precipitation hardening. The dispersion strengthening
effect is not as pronounced as with precipitation hardening; however, the strengthening is retained at elevated
temperatures and for extended time periods because the dispersed particles are chosen to be unreactive with
the matrix phase. For precipitation-hardened alloys, the increase in strength may disappear upon heat
treatment as a consequence of precipitate growth or dissolution of the precipitate phase.
The high-temperature strength of nickel alloys may be enhanced significantly by the addition of about 3 vol %
thoria (ThO2) as finely dispersed particles; this material is known as thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel. The
same effect is produced in the aluminum–aluminum oxide system. A very thin and adherent alumina coating
is caused to form on the surface of extremely small (0.1 to 0.2 m thick) flakes of aluminum, which are
dispersed within an aluminum metal matrix; this material is termed sintered aluminum powder (SAP).
For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters between 0.01
and 0.1 m (10 and 100 nm). Particle–matrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or

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molecular level. Whereas the matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, the small dispersed particles
hinder or impede the motion of dislocations. Thus, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and tensile
strengths, as well as hardness, improve.
15.2. Fiber-reinforced composites
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a
fiber. For fiber-reinforced composites, the dispersed phase has the geometry of a fiber (i.e., a large length-to-
diameter ratio). As noted in Figure 4, fiber-reinforced composites are subclassified by fiber length. For short-
fiber composites, the fibers are too short to produce a significant improvement in strength.

Figure No. 4. Schematic representations of (a) continuous and aligned, (b) discontinuous and aligned, and (c)
discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber–reinforced composites.
The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber concentration, and the
distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of fiber-reinforced composites.
With respect to orientation, two extremes are possible: (1) a parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the
fibers in a single direction, and (2) a totally random alignment. Continuous fibers are normally aligned
(Figure 4a). In this case, mechanical properties are highly anisotropic. In the alignment direction,
reinforcement and strength are a maximum; perpendicular to the alignment, they are a minimum, whereas
discontinuous fibers may be aligned (Figure 4b), where significant strengths and stiffnesses are possible in the
longitudinal direction randomly oriented (Figure 4c), or partially oriented, where despite some limitations on
reinforcement efficiency, properties are isotropic. Better overall composite properties are realized when the
fiber distribution is uniform. On the basis of diameter and character, fibers are grouped into three different
classifications: fibers, whiskers, and wires.
Materials that are classified as fibers are either polycrystalline or amorphous and have small diameters;
fibrous materials are generally either polymers or ceramics (e.g., the polymer aramids, glass, carbon, boron,
aluminum oxide, and silicon carbide).
Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large length-to-diameter ratios. As a consequence
of their small size, they have a high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually flaw-free, which
accounts for their exceptionally high strengths; they are among the strongest known materials. In spite of
these high strengths, whiskers are not used extensively as a reinforcement medium because they are extremely
expensive. Moreover, it is difficult and often impractical to incorporate whiskers into a matrix. Whisker
materials include graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and aluminum oxide.
Wires have relatively larger in length than in diameters. Typical materials include fine steel, molybdenum,
and tungsten wires. Wires are used as a radial steel reinforcement in automobile tires, in filament-wound
rocket casings, and in wire-wound high-pressure hoses.

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15.2.1. Structural composites
Structural composites are multilayered and low densities used in applications requiring structural integrity,
ordinarily high tensile, compressive, torsional strengths and stiffnesses. For nanocomposites dimensions of the
dispersed phase particles are on the order of nanometers.
The properties of these composites depend not only on the properties of the constituent materials, but also on
the geometrical design of the structural elements. Laminar composites and sandwich panels are two of the
most common structural composites.
15.3. Laminar composites
A laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels (plies or laminae) bonded to one
another. Each ply has a preferred high-strength direction, such as is found in continuous and aligned fiber–
reinforced polymers. A multi-layered structure such as this is termed a laminate. Laminate properties depend
on several factors to include how the high-strength direction varies from layer to layer. In this regard, there
are four classes of laminar composites: unidirectional, cross-ply, angle-ply and multidirectional.
For unidirectional, the orientation of the high-strength direction for all laminae is the same (Figure 5a); cross-
ply laminates have alternating high-strength layer orientations of 0 and 90 (Figure 5b); and for angle-ply,
successive layers alternate between +ɵ and -ɵ high-strength orientations (e.g., ± 45) (Figure 5c). The
multidirectional laminates have several high-strength orientations (Figure 5d). For virtually all laminates,
layers are typically stacked such that fiber orientations are symmetric relative to the laminate midplane; this
arrangement prevents any out-of-plane twisting or bending.

Figure 5. Lay-ups (schematics) for laminar composites. (a) Undirectional;(b) cross-ply; (c) angle-ply;and (d)
multidirectional.
Laminations may also be constructed using fabric material such as cotton, paper, or woven-glass fibers
embedded in a plastic matrix. In-plane degree of isotropy is relatively high in this group of materials.
Applications that use laminate composites are primarily in aircraft, automotive, marine, and building/civil-
infrastructure sectors. Specific applications include the following: aircraft—fuselage, vertical and horizontal
stabilizers, landing-gear hatch, floors, fairings, and rotor blades for helicopters; automotive—automobile
panels, sports car bodies, and drive shafts; marine—ship hulls, hatch covers, deckhouses, bulkheads, and
propellers; building/civil-infrastructure—bridge components, long-span roof structures, beams, structural

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panels, roof panels, and tanks. Laminates are also used extensively in sports and recreation equipment. For
example, the modern ski is a relatively complex laminated structure.
15.4. Sandwich panels
Sandwich panels, a class of structural composites, are designed to be lightweight beams or panels having
relatively high stiffnesses and strengths. A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, faces, or skins that are
separated by and adhesively bonded to a thicker core (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Schematic diagram showing the cross section of a sandwich panel.

The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong material, typically aluminum alloys, steel and
stainless steel, fiber-reinforced plastics, and plywood; they carry bending loads that are applied to the panel.
When a sandwich panel is bent, one face experiences compressive stresses, the other tensile stresses.
The core material is lightweight and normally has a low modulus of elasticity. Structurally, it serves several
functions. First, it provides continuous support for the faces and holds them together. In addition, it must have
sufficient shear strength to withstand transverse shear stresses and also be thick enough to provide high shear
stiffness (to resist buckling of the panel). Tensile and compressive stresses on the core are much lower than on
the faces. Panel stiffness depends primarily on the properties of the core material and core thickness; bending
stiffness increases significantly with increasing core thickness. Furthermore, it is essential that faces be
bonded strongly to the core.
Sandwich panel is a cost-effective composite because core materials are less expensive than materials used for
the faces. Core materials typically fall within three categories: rigid polymeric foams, wood, and honeycombs.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers are used as rigid foam materials; these include (and are
ranked from least to most expensive) polystyrene, phenolformaldehyde (phenolic), polyurethane, poly(vinyl
chloride), polypropylene, polyetherimide, and polymethacrylimide.

Figure 7. Schematic diagram showing the construction of a honeycomb core sandwich panel.
Balsa wood is also commonly used as a core material for several reasons: (1) Its density is extremely low
(0.10 to 0.25 g/cm3), which, however, is higher than some other core materials; (2) it is relatively inexpensive;
and (3) it has relatively high compression and shear strengths.

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Another popular core consists of a ―honeycomb‖ structure‒thin foils that have been formed into interlocking
cells (having hexagonal as well as other configurations), with axes oriented perpendicular to the face planes;
Figure 7 shows a cutaway view of a hexagonal honeycomb core sandwich panel.
Mechanical properties of honeycombs are anisotropic: tensile and compressive strengths are greatest in a
direction parallel to the cell axis; shear strength is highest in the plane of the panel. Strength and stiffness of
honeycomb structures depend on cell size, cell wall thickness, and the material from which the honeycomb is
made. Honeycomb structures also have excellent sound and vibration damping characteristics because of the
high volume fraction of void space within each cell. Honeycombs are fabricated from thin sheets.
Materials used for these core structures include metal alloys— aluminum, titanium, nickel-based, and
stainless steels; and polymers—polypropylene, polyurethane, kraft paper (a tough brown paper used for
heavy‒duty shopping bags and cardboard), and aramid fibers. Sandwich panels are used in a wide variety
aircraft, construction, automotive, and marine applications, including the following: aircraft‒leading and
trailing edges, fairings, nacelles (cowlings and fan-duct sections around turbine engines), flaps, rudders,
stabilizers, and rotor blades for helicopters; construction—architectural cladding for buildings, decorative
facades and interior surfaces, insulated roof and wall systems, clean-room panels, and built-in cabinetry;
automotive—headliners, luggage compartment floors, spare wheel covers, and cabin floors; marine‒
bulkheads, furniture, and wall, ceiling, and partition panels.
Significant quantities of energy are involved in transportation. Nowadays, the transportation industry is using
increasing amounts of composite materials because of:
1. They are light as well as strong, offering possibilities for making lighter cars and aircraft (which will
useless fuel than the heavier vehicles we have now)
2. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and reinforcement material, a new material can be made
that exactly meets the requirements
3. Composites provide design flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes.
4. The excellent combinations of low weight and high strength of several components reduce the weight of
transportation vehicles (automobiles, aircraft, trains, etc.),
5. With their use in engine components,the engine operating temperatures increases, what enhances fuel
efficiency.
6. The Airbus A380, the world’s largest passenger airliner, makes use of modern composites in
its design. More than 20 % of the A380 is made of composite materials, mainly plastic reinforced
with carbon fibers. The design is the first large-scale use of glass-fiber-reinforced aluminium, a
new composite that is 25 % stronger than conventional airframe aluminium but 20 % lighter.

Bibliography

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Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2008. ISBN: 9780495082545.
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3. William D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd edition; 2014

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