English Grammar (BOOK Edited by Gabriela Leighton)

Paper I Adjectives-Adverbs-Articles
I 1 ADJECTIVES
I.1.1 Order of adjectives
Several adjectives can be used before a noun in English. In general we

put the most precise adjective nearest the noun but it is not always easy
to decide which is the most precise; a possible order would be:
1 determiner
2 your own opinions
3 dimensions (size, weight)
4 age
5 shape
6 colour
7 place of origin
8 material
9 purpose.
Examples
- a Chinese silk wedding dress.
- some short blue denim jeans.
- an awful old stair carpet.
I.1.2 Other points to notice about the order and use of adjectives
1 He is 1 metre 30 tall. 1 Adjectives describing

measurement come after the
measurement.
2 I don’t like living alone. 2 Some adjectives (e.g. alone,

afraid, alive, awake) come after
the verb, never before a noun.
3 It’s difficult to read. 3 Adjectives are often followed by

The instructions are easy to an infinitive with to.
follow.
4a She was worried about him. 4a Adjectives ending in –ing come

He’s a worried man. after a verb like be, seem or
before a noun and describe a
person’s feelings.
b It’s all very worrying. b Adjectives ending in –ing come

It’s a worrying time for us all after a verb or before a noun
and describe the person or thing
that produces those feelings.
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I.1.3 Comparative and superlative of adjectives

I.1.3.1 Form
we form the comparative by

1a London is bigger than 1a adding –er to one-syllable
Edinburgh. adjectives and to two-syllable
adjectives ending in -y.
b This armchair is more b using more + two-syllable and

comfortable than that wooden more than two-syllable
seat. adjectives + than.
we form the superlative by

2a This is the biggest factory in 2a adding –est to one syllable
the area. adjectives and to two-syllable
adjectives ending in –y.
b I have many old books but this b using most + two- and more than
is the most interesting. two- syllable adjectives.
3 He is as strong as a horse. 3 We use as + adjective + as for

He isn’t as/so clever as his positive comparisons or not
sister. as/so + adjective + as for
negative comparisons.
I.1.3.2 Adjectives of one syllable.
1 If the adjectives ends in two Exceptions

consonants (e.g. –ng , -rd, -rm) good better best
just add –er, -est to the adjective:
bad worse worst
long longer longest much/many more most
hard harder hardest far farther farthest
warm warmer warmest (used to describe distance but can
also mean ‘additional, extra’ e.g.
2 If the adjective ends in one vowel further details, further information)
and one consonant (e.g. –in,-at, -
ot) double the consonant and add old older oldest
–er, -est to the adjective: (used to describe objects and
thin thinner thinnest people)
fat fatter fattest old elder eldest
hot hotter hottest Notice: elder, eldest are used
before a noun to talk about family
3 If the adjective ends in –e add –r, relationships but after a verb only
-st to the adjective: older, oldest are possible (e.g. My
wide wider widest older/elder brother. My brother is
rude ruder rudest older than I am.)

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I.1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable
1 I’ve never been happier than I 1 If the adjective ends in –y, change
am now. the y to i and add –er, -est, to the
th
Friday 13 is the unluckiest day adjective.
of the year in Britain. Exception friendly, more friendly,
most friendly.
2 Sally is cleverer/more clever 2 Some adjectives with two syllables
than her brother. can form their comparative and
The commonest/most superlative in two ways: either by
common cause of road deaths is adding –(e)r , -(e)st or by using
careless driving. more, most.
3 I find science more interesting 3 If the adjective has three (or

than the arts. more) syllables use more, most +
He told me the most adjective.
extraordinary story.
I 2 ADVERBS
I.2.1 Form
1 quick quickly 1 Adverbs can be formed from

slow slowly adjectives by adding -ly.
2 careful carefully 2 The same rule applies to

beautiful beautifully adjectives which end in l.
3 lucky luckily 3 To form adverbs from adjectives

funny funnily ending in y, change the y to i and
add -ly.
4 He greeted me in a friendly 4 To form adverbs from adjectives

way. ending in -/y we use a phrase in
She looked at me with a silly a … way etc.
expression on her face.
5 We arrived late. 5 Some adjectives do not change
Stand up straight. when they become adverbs.
He works very hard. Notice lately and hardly have a
Don’t walk so fast. different meaning from late and
hard: lately = recently, hardly =
scarcely.

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I.2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs
1 She drives more carefully than 1 We usually from the comparative

her husband. and superlative by using more,
This is the most efficiently run most + adverb.
office in the area.
2 We arrived later than you. 2 Adverbs with the same form as

He walked the fastest. adjectives form their comparative
and superlative with –er, -est.
Notice some exceptions to

these two rules.
well better best
badly worse worst
little less least
much more most
I.2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases in sentences
1 He plays the piano well. 1 Adverbs which tell us ‘how’ usually

She sings beautifully. come in the end position.
2a She’s very clever. 2a Adverbs which tell us ‘to what

I can hardly read it. extent or to what degree’ usually
I don’t quite understand. come in the middle position.
b I have enough to join the b Notice enough comes before a

police force. noun and after an adjective or
They don’t work hard enough. adverb.
3a He’s coming tomorrow. 3a Adverbs which tell us ‘when’

usually come in the end position.
b Yesterday he was in Paris. b Adverbs which tell us “when” can

Today he’s in Rome. come at the beginning for special
emphasis.
4a The magazine comes out 4a Adverbs which tell us ‘how often’

weekly. usually come in the end position.
We are paid monthly.
b Every Saturday we go out. b Phrases like every week, every

Saturday can also come at the
beginning of a sentence.

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5a He never buys cigarettes. 5a Adverbs which ‘do not tell us

He always makes his own ones. exactly when’ usually come
before a one-word verb.
b She is always late. b If the verb is be they always
follow the verb.
c They have never offered to c If it is a two- (or more) word verb
help. they come after the first part of
We are often being asked for the verb.
Information of this kind.
6 Sit down there. 6 Adverbs and adverb phrases

He went to the cinema in the which tell us ‘where’ usually come
High Street in town. in the end position with the
Put the book on the table in direction (to the cinema)
the dining room. mentioned first and the places
second (smaller places come
before large ones).
7 He reads his newspaper quickly 7 Adverbs and adverb phrases

at the breakfast table every which tell us ‘how, where and
morning. when’ usually come in that order
in the sentence (e.g. how =
quickly, where = at the breakfast
table, when = every morning).
I.2.4 Adverb or adjective?
That smells good, but it tastes Notice if the verb is seem, appear,
Awful. look, sound, feel, smell or taste we
use an adjective not an adverb.
I 3 ARTICLES
I.3.1 Indefinite article (a/an)
Use with singular countable nouns.

1 You will need a pen and an 1 for more general meaning (it
exercise book. doesn’t matter which pen).
Notice an is used before a word
that begins with a vowel sound
(e.g. an hour, an heir, an MP but

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“a” is used before nouns

beginning with “u”, e.g.
university).
2 There was a terrible storm last 2 for a noun mentioned for the first
night. The storm swept across time. Notice we use the for the
the whole country. second mention.
3 A million people received our 3 with numbers (e.g. a hundred, a

help last year. A few, however, thousand, a million) and fractions
were not so lucky. (e.g. a half, a quarter, etc).
Notice
a few (people) = some
a little (help) = some
but
(-) few (people) = not many
(-) little (help) = not much
4 We come to classes twice a week 4 to mean ‘every’ with expressions

of time (e.g. once a year)
5 She’s a lorry-driver. 5 to describe a person’s job or

He’s an old-age pensioner. situation.
I.3.2 Definite article (the)
Use with singular most nouns for

more specific meaning.
1 Jane: A man phoned last night. 1 to refer back to something

Peter: Well, what did the man already mentioned.
want?
2 Last night I read the book you 2 when we know which one we are
recommended. talking about.
3 The sun rises in the east and 3 when we refer to only one of its
sets in the west. kind.
4 The computer has revolutionized 4 with singular countable nouns

office systems. when they stand for an invention
or species.
5 You can buy the best pizzas in 5 with a superlative (the first, the
town at Paulo’s. most enjoyable)

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6 The British and the French 6 with adjectives as plural nouns.

agreed to build a channel tunnel.
The strong should help the
weak.
7 I live in the United States/the 7 with the names of countries or

Netherlands/the Falklands/the groups of islands which are
West Indies/the Philippines/the plural. Notice these
USSR. exceptions The United
Kingdom, The Yemen.
8 Paris lies on the Seine. 8 with names of rivers, oceans

The Atlantic separates Britain and seas.
from America.
It’s very hot in the
Mediterranean at the moment.
I.3.3 No article (-)
We don’t use an article

1a (-) Museums are interesting (-) 1a with plural countable nouns
places.
b (-) Sound travels very fast in (-) b with uncountable nouns when
water. speaking about the noun in
general (e.g. food, music, love,
etc.). Compare I hate the
sound of a drill (a particular
sound). Notice a few
uncountable nouns (e.g. advice,
news, luggage, information,
research) require a phrase like
at/the bit of or a/the piece of to
refer to a particular example of
that noun: a bit of advice, the
piece of news.
2a I live in (-) Rome/(-) Percy 2 with the names of most
Road/ (-) China /(-) Jersey/near a towns/cities, streets, countries,
(-) Lake Windermere. single/individual islands, lakes
b I shop at (-) Harrods. b shops
c I read (-) Punch. c magazines. Notice these
exceptions The Economist,
The Listener and most
newspapers (The Times, The
Daily Mail)

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d The Queen lives in (-) d named buildings

Buckingham Palace.
e He went to (-) Sheffield e named instructions (e.g.
University. universities, schools, churches,
etc.)
3a (-) Man found dead on (-) tube. 3a for newspaper headlines

b Send (-) representative b for telexes (where the message
immediately. should be as short as possible)
c (-) Dinner in (-) oven. c for personal, informal messages
4 You will need a knife and (-) 4 before a second noun in a

fork . linked pair of nouns.
Take a bucket and (-) spade to
the beach.
I.3.4 Changes of meaning
Sometimes the use [or omission (-)] of the article changes the meaning
of what we say.
I.3.4.1 Meals
1 A dinner was held last night at the 1 a/an or the for particular meals.
Savoy.
The dinner we had last night was
marvellous.
2 Come to (-) dinner next Saturday. 2 no article (-) for mealtimes in

What time do you have (-) general.
breakfast?
I.3.4.2 Transport
1 I hailed a taxi but I don’t stop. 1 a/an or the for particular forms of
The six o’clock train was ten minutes transport.
early.
2 I always travel by (-) bus. 2 no article (-) for the form of
I came here on (-) foot. transport in general.

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I.3.4.3 Places
1 The meeting was held in a school. 1 a/an or the to refer to a particular or

The workmen are busy in the church known place or building.
repairing the roof.
2 2 He’s at (-) university (studying). 2 no article (-) to refer to the normal

She’s in (-) hospital (receiving activity which goes on at a place or
treatment). building.
He’s in (-) prison (serving a
sentence).

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Paper II Conditional Sentences
II CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Both if and unless (= if … not) can be used to introduce conditional sentences.

The if-clause can come before or after the main (or ‘result’) clause. Notice we
often use a comma when the if-clause comes first.
II.1 “Zero” Conditional
a If you take drugs regularly, you a for general facts that do not
become addicted to them. change.
b If you mix the colours blue and b for scientist facts.
red, you get purple. Notice the verbs in both parts
of the sentences are in the
present.
II.2 First Type Conditional
If you work hard, you’ll get a mainly for future possibilities.

good job. Notice the verbs after if and
Unless you study, you won’t unless are in the present but
pass your exams. the verbs in the ‘result’ part of
I’ll explain it again if you don’t the sentence are in the future.
understand.
II.3 Second Type Conditional
1a If I had a million pounds, I 1a for ‘unreal’ or impossible

would buy a yacht. conditions in the present or
If he knew the answer, he future.
wouldn’t tell me.
If Mary were here now, she
would drive me home.
b If I were you, I wouldn’t b for giving advice and suggestions.

marry him. Notice the verbs after if are in
the past but the verbs in the
‘result’ part of the sentence are
in the simple conditional.

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Paper II Conditional Sentences
II.3 Third Type Conditional
1a We would have gone abroad 1a for ‘unreal’ or impossible

for our holidays if we hadn’t conditions in the past.
bought a new car.
b If we hadn’t set out late, we b to imply regret.
wouldn’t have been caught
in that traffic jam.
c If you had listened to your c to imply criticism.
father, you wouldn’t have Notice the verbs after if are in
made so many mistakes. the past perfect but the verbs in
the ‘result’ part of the sentence
are in the perfect conditional.

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Paper III Gerunds and infinites
III GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
III.1 Verbs followed by the gerund (or –ing form)
I can’t stand waiting in queues. Some verbs are followed by the –

We considered buying a house ing form. Here are some of the most
in the countryside, but we enjoy common:
being in the town too much.
I miss living abroad. appreciate keep (on)
avoid look forward to
can’t help mention
can’t stand mind
consider miss
deny object to
dislike practise
enjoy put off
feel like risk
finish suggest
give up be/get used to
imagine be worth
III.2 Verbs followed by the infinitive
III.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to
We can’t afford to have a holiday Some verbs are followed by the

this year. infinitive form. Here are some of
We decided to get married. the most common:
I managed to find another glass
to replace the one I broke. afford manage
appear mean
arrange offer
decide plan
fail prepare
forget promise
happen refuse
hope seem
intend threaten
learn

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III.2.2 Verb + direct object + infinitive with to
He advised me to take the exam. Some verbs have a direct object

They persuaded me to stay for a before the infinitive with to. Here
few days. are some of the most common:
advise persuade
allow remind
encourage teach
force tell
invite warn
order
III.2.3 Verb + direct object + infinitive without to
I heard him sing Figaro. Some verbs have a direct object

He let me borrow his car. before the infinitive without to.
He made her tell him the truth. Here are some of the most
common:
feel let
hear make
see
Notice hear and see can be

followed by the –ing form to
express hearing or seeing only part
of an action (e.g. compare / heard
him singing in the bath.)
III.3 Verbs followed by either the -ing form or the infinitive
Some verbs take either the –ing

form or the infinitive.
1 He continued working/to 1 Sometimes there is very little
work after everybody else had difference in meaning.
left the office.
2a I like going to the cinema. 2a When verbs like can’t bear, like,
She loves dancing. love, hate, prefer are followed
by the –ing form, they tend to
refer to a general acticity
b I like to go to the cinema once a b but when these verbs are
week. followed by the infinitive, they
tend to refer to particular
She would love to dance the occasions.
samba with you.

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3a I began studying/to study 3a begin and start take either the

1984. –ing form or infinitive
I started writing/to write
when I was very young.
b I began to see that something b but before a verb expressing

was wrong. understanding (see, realize)
I started to realize what he these verbs are followed by the
had done for me. infinitive.
4a He stopped smoking last week 4 With verbs like stop, remember,

He remembers going to the not forget, regret
seaside when he was a child. a the –ing form refers to what
He’ll never forget eating raw happens/happened before the
fish for the first time. main verb e.g. first he smoked,
then he stopped; first he went
to the seaside, now he
remembers the event; first he
ate the raw fish, now he
remembers the event (never
forget = always remember)
b He stopped the car to pick up a b the infinitive refers to what

hitch-hiker. happens/happened after the
He remembered to post the main verb e.g. first he stopped
letters. the car, then he picked up a
hitch-hiker; first he remembered
about the letters, then he
posted them
5a I tried to phone you several 5 try can take either the –ing form
times but I couldn’t get trough. or the infinitive but
a it is followed by an infinitive
when we mean ‘to attempt to
do something’
b I tried working in a shop, but it b it is followed by the –ing form
didn’t interest me. when we mean ‘to experiment’
6 Your hair needs cutting. 6 need and want can be followed

The garden wants weeding. by either the –ing form or the
infinitive but when they are
followed by the –ing form the
meaning is always passive.

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III.4 Other uses of the –ing form
The –ing form is also used

1 Walking is good for you. 1 as the subject of a clause or
sentence
2 After walking to work, I’m ready 2 following time words like after,
to sit at my desk all day. before, when, since, while
3 I’m afraid of missing the train. 3 after certain adjectives +

He’s good at telling others what prepositions. Here are some of
to do. the most common:
afraid of good at
bad at keen on
bored with interested in
clever at tired of
fond of worried about
III.5 Other uses of infinitive
The infinitive is also used

1 I came here to study English. 1 to express purpose
2 She doesn’t know what to do 2 after who, what, where, how,

next. whether and verbs like know,
Can you explain how to do it? explain, wonder. Notice the
infinitive is not used in this way
after why.

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Paper IV Link words
IV LINK WORDS
IV.1 Words expressing result
1a He was so tired that he went to 1a so + adjectiIVes/adIVerb + that +

bed early. clause.
He spoke Russian so well that
eIVeryone thought he was
Russian.
b It was such a difficult exam b such + noun + that + clause.

(that) he knew he wouldn’t pass Notice that can be left out in
it. informal speech.
2 It was late, so he decided to 2 so + clause

take a taxi home.
3a We haIVe inIVested too much 3a as a result, consequently, can

money in this project. begin a new sentence.
Consequently, we are in
financial difficulties.
b His wife left him and, as a b and, as a result, is used in the

result, he became IVery middle of a sentence.
depressed.
4 We feel, therefore, that a 4 therefore often comes in the

decision must be made. middle of a sentence (it can also
come at the beginning or the
end).
IV.2 Words expressing reason
1 Seeing that/Since/As we 1 since, as, seeing that + clause

arriIVed late, all the best seats often come before the main
had been taken. clause.
2 We couldn’t find a good seat 2 because + clause usually

because all the best ones had comes after the main clause.
been taken.
3 We are unable to go by train 3 because of, as a result of, owing

because of the rail strike. to and due to are followed by a
Many of the deaths of older noun or noun phrase.
people are due to heart attacks. Notice due to means ‘caused
by’ or ‘resulting from’.

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Paper IV Link words
IV.3 Words expressing purpose
1 We came to the countryside to 1 We can use the infinitiIVes to (do).

find some peace an quiet. in order (not) to (do), so as (not)
Handle the flowers carefully in to (do) to express purpose.
order not to damage them. Notice in order to, so as to are
more formal.
2 He chose this uniIVersity so 2 so that, in order that + clause

that/in order that he could (often with the IVerbs can, could,
study Physics. might, would in the clause)
IV.4 Words expressing contrast
1 Although/EIVen if/EIVen 1 although, eIVen if, eIVen though

though + clause can come before or
the car is old, it is still reliable. after the main clause.
Notice eIVen though is more
informal.
2a despite, in spite of + a noun or

2a Despite/In spite of the rain, I noun phrase or –ing form.
went for a walk.
b despite the fact that, in spite of
b We enjoyed our walking holiday the fact that + clause
despite/in spite of the fact
that it was tiring.
3a howeIVer can come at the
3a Buying a house is expensiIVe. It beginning, in the middle or at the
is, howeIVer, a good end of a sentence.
inIVestment.
b though is more informal and
comes at the end of a sentence.
b It’s a big decision to make,
though. 4 but, while, whereas and usually
placed in the middle of two main
4 John is IVery rich but/while/ clauses expressing contrasting
whereas his friends are ideas.
exactly what we want.
5 on the one hand on and the
other hand can be used at the
5 On the one hand these beginning, in the middle or at the
computers are expensiIVe. end of two sentences expressing
On the other hand they are contrasting ideas.
exactly what we want. Notice on the other hand is
often used at the beginning of
the second sentence.

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Paper IV Link words
IV.5 Words expressing time
1 When/While/As was driIVing 1 when, while, as and after +

along the road. I saw a terrible clause can come before of after
accident. the main clause.
He went out after he’d finished
work.
2 WheneIVer/EIVery time I see 2 wheneIVer, eIVery time + clause

him, he’s driIVing a different car. often come before the main
clause for added emphasis.
3 First he closed all the windows. 3 first, then, later, etc. can be used
then he locked the doors. Later to introduce a chain of eIVents.
he came back to check that
eIVerything was al right.
4 During/All trough the summer 4 during, all trough and throughout

we get a lot of IVisitors. are followed by a noun or a noun
It rained heaIVily throughout the phrase.
night.
IV.6 Words expressing condition
1 EIVen if you are born rich, life is 1 eIVen if, as long as and unless +
still difficult. clause can be used before or
you can borrow the car as long after the main clause.
as you’re careful whit it! Notice unless means if … not
you can’t come with me unless
you promise to keep quiet.
2 I don’t know whether you haIVe 2 whether + clause usually comes

met him or not. after the main clause and is often
used in indirect questions with …
or not.
a They discussed whether they a Certain IVerbs (e.g. discuss) can

should attend the Games. be followed by whether but not
if.
b It depends on whether the b After prepositions and before to

goIVernment takes any action. infinitiIVes use whether but not if.
The organizes will decide
whether to impose fines.

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Paper IV Link words
3 Take this umbrella in case it 3 in case + clause usually comes

rains. after the main clause.
In case of emergency, break the Notice in case of + noun (often
glass. used in formal written notices)
IV.7 Words expressing additional information or reinforcing a point
1a I don’t really want to go out 1a besides, in addition (to that) and

tonight. Besides, there’s a good furthermore can be used at the
film on TIV. beginning of the sentence
We are still waiting for the goods following the first statement
we ordered three months ago. made. Notice besides is less
Furthermore, we haIVe been formal, furthermore is more
oIVercharged for our last order. formal.
b This theory about the origins of b moreoIVer can be used at the

the uniIVerse is new. It is, beginning or in the middle of the
moreoIVer, extremely. sentence which giIVes additional
interesting. information.
2a The painting is not only 2a not only… but also/as well can
IValuable but also a work of art. link two sentences, phrases or
She not only writes noIVels but words to giIVe additional
(she) writes lectures as well. information. Notice but also are
The house was not only large used together when there is no
but (was/it was) also modern. subject pronoun and IVerb in the
second part of the sentence. but
… also are separated when there
is a IVerb in the second part of
the sentence.
b Not only is the restaurant superb b Not only can come at the
but it is also expensiIVe. beginning of the first part of the
sentence to emphasize what the
speaker is saying. In this case it
is necessary to change the order
of the subject and IVerb. In
sentences like these the subject
pronoun and IVerb in the second
part of the sentence are usually
mentioned and but… also are
separated.

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Paper IV Link words
3 They robbed a bank as well as a 3 as well as can be followed by a

a post office. single word, a phrase or … -ing.
As well as being sent to prison,
they were fined £2.000.
4 They like Indian food. I like Indian 4 too, as well and not either are
food too/as well. informal and usually come at the
They aren’t IVery generous people. end of the sentence which giIVes
They haIVen’t got any friends additional information.
either.

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Paper V Modals
V MODALS
will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must,

have (got) to, ought to, need
V.1 Will
will is used to express:

1 It’ll be raining tomorrow. 1 a prediction about the future
2 Nothing on TV. I’ll go to the 2 a decision made while you are
cinema instead. speaking
3 Will you sit down, please? 3 a request or a refusal
I won’t go with you.
4 I’ll take you to the cinema. 4 a promise
5 Could you lend me $1? 5 willingness
Of course I will.
6 You will start work at 8 on 6 an order
Monday.
7 I will not be treated in this way. 7 determination
V.2 Shall
shall is used to express:

1 We shall send you the 1 the future (in the same way as
information as soon as possible. will but only with I and we)
2 Shall we go out for a meal 2 a suggestion
tonight?
3 Shall I carry that case for you? 3 an offer
4 No pupil shall enter the library 4 Notice: shall is occasionally
without the permission of a used in very formal (written)
teacher. orders.
V.3 Would
would is used to express:

1 I’d like to go now. 1 a wish (sometimes suggesting
I wish you wouldn’t smoke so annoyance or disapproval)
much.
2 I would move house if I had the 2 the ‘result’ part of a conditional
money. sentence

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Paper V Modals
3 Would you type this for me, 3 a polite request

please?
4 I’d rather have a tea than 4 a preference with rather
coffee.
5 Will you ring me? 5 the reporting of will
He asked if I would ring him.
6 He would sing at the top of his 6 a habit in the past
voice in the shower.
V.4 Should
should is used to express:

1 I should really help my mother 1 an obligation (which you may not
with the dishes (but I won’t). carry out)
2 You should study harder. 2 adVce
3 We should be taking off in a 3 something that will almost
few minutes. certainly happen as long as
nothing unexpected prevents it
4 I/We should be most grateful if 4 conditional sentences in more
you could send us a copy of the formal/written style with I and
agreement. we
5 I should have told you but I 5 (with the perfect infinitive) an
forgot. obligation which was not carried
out
V.5 May and Might
may and might is used to express.

1 He may/might be the new 1 a possibility now
teacher. 2 a possibility in the future.
2 He may/might be late this Notice: might is rather less
evening . certain than may in meaning.
3 May/Might I ask a question? 3 asking for permission.
Notice: may is more common
than might here and can is
often used instead of may.
4 They may/might have been 4 (with the perfect infinitive) a
held up in the traffic. possible explanation for
something in the past.

22
Paper V Modals
V.6 Can
can is used to express:

1 I can ski/drive a car. 1 knowing how to do something
2 I’m free tomorrow. I can drive 2 being able to do something
you to the airport.
3 Can I go now? 3 asking for permission (used
informally instead of may)
4 Can you come to the party? 4 a possibility
5 You can’t be tired! You’ve been 5 an unlikely explanation for
asleep all morning. something now: it’s impossible
for you to be tired.
6 You can’t have been pleased 6 (with the perfect infinitive) an
when you realized what he had unlikely explanation for
done! something in the past: It wasn’t
possible for you to be pleased.
V.7 Could
could is used to express:

1 When I was six I could play the 1 knowing how to do something in
piano. the past
2 When I was younger I could 2 being able to do something in
drive for hours without a break. the past
3 Could I use your phone? 3 asking for permission (used
informally instead of may but
rather more polite than can)
4 Could he be right? 4 a possibility (rather less strong
than can)
5 They couldn’t have phoned her. 5 (with the perfect infinitive) an
She hasn’t got a phone! unlikely explanation for
something in the past: It wasn’t
possible for them to phone her.
VI.8 Must
must is used to express:

1 I must wash my hair tonight. 1 a personal obligation
2 The work must be done before 2 what you consider to be
tomorrow. someone else’s obligation
3 You must not smoke in here. 3 (with not) what is not allowed
4 You must be exhausted after all 4 a reasonable conclusion made
that work. about something now
5 You must have been surprised 5 (with the perfect infinitive) a
when she said she was getting reasonable conclusion about
married. something in the past.

23
Paper V Modals
V.9 Have (got) to
have (got) to is used to express:

I’ve got to/have to be on time what is or isn’t necessary.
tomorrow.
We haven’t got/don’t have to
do it if we don’t want to.
V 10 Ought to
ought to is used to express:

1 I really ought to go and see her. 1 an obligation (which you may or
may not carry out)
2 I ought to have gone to see her 2 (with the perfect infinitive) an
but I was busy. obligation which you did not
carry out.
Notice ought to is rather
stronger than should.
V 11 Need
1 You needn’t shout. I can hear 1 needn’t is used here as a modal

you. verb.
You needn’t bring anything to
the party.
2 Need I take anything to the 2 There is also a question form
party?. constructed in the same way as
Need you ask that question? questions with can, must and
other modals.
3 You needn’t have phoned. I 3 needn’t with the perfect infinitive

already knew you were coming. expresses the idea that
something in the past was not
necessary but it was done.
Compare the ordinary verb need:
You don’t need to shout. I can
hear you.
Do I need to take anything to
the party?
You didn’t need to phone. I
already knew you were coming.

24
Paper VI The passive
VI THE PASSIVE
VI.1 Most common forms
Is
It has been done
will be Seen
was reported
This toy is made in Japan. The passive is formed by using a form

A strange object has been seen of be (is, has been, will be, was, etc.) +
in the night sky. the past participle of the verb (made,
Further information will be given in seen, given, prepared).
our next news bulletin.
This report was prepared by a team Notice when the person ot thing
of experts. responsible for the action (the agent) is
mentioned, use the preposition by.
VI.2 Use
The passive is used
1 Five policemen have been killed 1 when the agent is unknow (we May
in Northern Ireland. not know who killed the policemen)
The water was heated and a or not important.
solution of chemicals was prepared Notice the passive is often used in
newspaper reports and in scientific
2 A description of the gunman was experiments or processes.
issued by the police.
3 A charity record has been made

by many famous names in the word
of pop music.
VI.3 Points to remember
1 The painting should be finished 1 Use be + past participle after should

by next week. and other modals.
2 The decorating would have been 2 Use been + past participle after
finished but I ran out of paint. would have, should have, etc.

25
Paper VI The passive
3 Mother Teresa was awarded the 3 Verbs with two objects which can
Nobel Peace Prize. form two types of active sentence
The Nobel Peace Prize was can also form two types of passive
awarded to Mother Teresa. sentence.
4 I got stuck in a traffic jam. 4 get + past participle is sometimes

She is getting married next month. used instead of be with passive
meaning.
Expressions with get are often used
in informal English.
5a It is thought that he sarted the fire 5 The passive is used in constructions

deliberately. with verbs like think, believe, say,
consider, feel, find, know,
understand.
a after the introductory it.
b He is thought to have started b before an infinitive.

the fire deliberately.
6 have/get something done expresses

the idea of.
6a He had/got his hair cut yesterday. a arranging for o paying for somebody
to do something for you. Notice
get is more informal.
b He had his car stolen. b experiencing something.
7 This job needs/wants doing. 7 After need, want the –ing form can
be used with passive meaning.

26
Paper VII Phrasal verbs
VII PHRASAL VERBS
VII.1 what is a phrasal verb?
1 A phrasal verb consists of a verb plus one or two words like on, up, into,
etc.
2 The words which come after the verb are usually adverbs, although
sometimes a pharasal verb can consist of verb + adverb + preposition.
3 When an ordinary verb is followed by a preposition, the meaning of the

verb will usually be clear from the meanings of the individual parts of
the verb. In the case of a phrasal verb, however, the parts of the
phrasal verb together have one basic meaning which may be
completely different from their individual meanings.
Ordinary verbs + prepositions Phrasal verbs
I looked into the mirror. The police are looking into the
murder.
She ran out of the room crying We ran out of money on holiday.
Notice these verbs change their
meaning when adverbs and
prepositions are added e.g. look into
(a murder) = investigate; run out of
(money) = have none left.
VII.2 Phrasal verbs which can be separated
VII.2.1 Verb + adverb + object
The passive is used
1 He looked a word up in the 1 If the object is a noun it can come

dictionary. before or after the adverb.
He looked up a word in the
dictionary.

27
2 He looked it up. 2 If the object is a pronoun (e.g. it) it

must come before the adverb.
VII.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot be separated
VII.3.1 Verb + adverb (not object)
They called in to see us. You cannot separate the two parts of
The plans fell through. the verb. You cannot say ‘They
They turned up unexpectedly. called to see us in’.
VII.3.2 Verb + adverb + preposition + object
We dropped in on The Smiths. Even when the object is a pronoun it

We dropped in on them. must come after the adverb +
preposition.
VII.4 Ordinary verbs + prepositions
The boy ran over the bridge. The object must come after the
He stepped over the puddle. verb + preposition, even when it is a
He stepped over it. pronoun.
VII.5 Verb check-list
VII.5.1 Verb which can be separated
Back Bring
back… up - support bring… about - cause
bring… back - return
Break bring… off - succeed in doing
break… off - bring to an end bring… out - make clear
(talks, engagement) bring… round - help to regain
break… up - smash to pieces consciousness
bring… up - raise (a family, a
point)

28
Call Get
call… off - cancel get… across - explain what you
call… up - take people mean
into the army get… back - regain possession
of
Carry get… down - write down
carry… out - finish, - depress, make
perform a duty unhappy
Check Give
check… in - present give… away - betray, reveal
your - not take money for
ticket/luggage at give… back - return
an airport give… out - distribute
check… out/over - make sure give… up - stop doing
everything
is as it Hand
should be hand… in - present
something official
Clear hand… out - distribute
clear… up - make tidy hand… over - give up
Count Have
count… in - include have… in/round - receive as guest
count… out - not include
count… up - add up Hold
hold… back - restrain
Cross hold… up - delay
cross… out - put a line - rob (a bank)
through
Keep
Cut keep… back - not tell
cut… off - disconnect (from) something, keep
(on the phone) secret
- make keep… down - retain in the
unavailable stomach
cut… out - remove with - control
scissors keep… in - not allow out
cut… up - divide into
parts Knock
knock… over/down - make fall
Do knock… out - make lose
do… out of - cheat, stop consciousness
from having
Leave
Draw leave… out - omit
draw… out - take money Ring

29
(out of the bank) ring… back - phone again

ring… up - phone
Rub
Let rub… out - make disappear
let… down - not keep a
promise Run
let… in - allow to run… over -hit and knock down
come in
let… off/out - allow to go See
free see… off - say goodbye to
Look Send
look… over - examine send… in - present something
closely /someone official
look… up - search for send… off - post
and find in a send… on - forward by post
book or list
Set
Make set… back - halt progress
make… out - see clearly set… up - organize, establish
- write in
certain Show
details show… in - bring in
make… up - invent in show… off - display
order to - boast about
deceive
- forget your Stick
stick… out - put up with
differences/anger
Take
Pass take… away - remove
pass… off (as) - pretend to - subtract
be take… back - withdraw what
you said
Pay - return an object
pay… back - return take… in - deceive
something - absorb,
borrowed understand
take… on - accept
Pick responsibility for
pick… up - go and take… over - gain control of
collect - take hold of take… up - start a hobby
and lift
Think
Pull think… over - consider carefully
pull… down - demolish
pull… off - succeed in War

30
doing wear… out - make exhausted

/ useless
Put
put… off - not do Work
something at the work…out - solve a problem
proper time, - draw up a plan
delay
put… on - switch on
- dress in
put… out - switch off
put… through - connect
people on
the telephone
put… up - raise of the
price
Throw
throw… out - get rid of
Try
try… on - check
clothes for size
try… out - see if it
works
Turn
turn… back - refuse
someone entry
turn… down - reject an
offer
- lower sound
(of TV, radio,
etc)
turn… into - change into
something
different
turn… off - switch off
turn… on - switch on
turn… up - make louder
VII.5.2 Verb which cannot be separated

31
Ask Burst
ask after - inquire how burst in (to) - enter suddenly
someone is
getting on Call
ask for - request call for - require, demand
- pick someone up
Back (at their home)
back out of - withdraw from an call (in) on - visit
agreement
Care
Break care about - take an interest
break down - stop working in, love
(e.g. a car) care for - like, look after
- collapse
emotionally or Carry
physically carry on -continue
break into - enter by force
break out - escape (e.g. from Catch
prison) catch on - become
break up - separate (e.g. fashionable
husband and wife) catch up with - reach the same
level as
Check Drop
check in - register at a hotel drop (in) - visit without an
check out - leave a hotel arrangement
check up (on) - make sure
everything is drop out - not take part in
correct at the last minute
Clear Face
clear off - disappear quickly face up to - confront
clear up - stop raining problems
Come Fall
come across - find by accident fall for - be very strongly
come by - pass attracted to
come down - be reduced in - be deceived by
price fall in with - agree to
come forward - appear fall out - have an
- present oneself argument
come off - succeed
come out - appear (sun, fall through - not succeed (e.g.
flowers) plans)
come round - visit
- regain Feel
consciousness feel like - want to do

32
come up against - face or meet a feel up to - be capable of

problem
come up with - produce, find Get
get along (with) - have a good
Count relationship with
count on - rely or depend on get away - escape
get away with - not be punished
Cut for
cut down (on) - reduce expenses get by - survive, manage
get in (to)/out - enter/leave a car
Do get off/on - board/leave a
do away with - get rid of, train/bus
abolish get on with - continue doing
do without - manage if you - have a good
haven’t got relationship with
something get out of - escape or avoid
(work, a meeting,
Draw etc.)
draw up - stop (cars, etc) get over - recover from (an
illness, surprise,
etc)
get round to - find the time to
do something
get through - succeed in doing Join

- spend, reach the join in - take part in
end of join up - enter armed
- manage to live forces
through
get together - meet Keep
get up - get out to bed keep back - stay away from
(danger)
Give keep off - stay away from
give in - surrender keep on - do something
more than once
Go keep up - maintain, not
go after - pursue, follow allow to end or fall
go down - fall (prices) keep up (with) - go at the same
go down with - become ill with speed or pace
go in for - take up an
interest Live
- enter live on - support oneself
competitions by means of
go off - become bad (e.g. live through - survive a difficult
food) period
go on - continue live up to - do what is
go out - stop burning, expected to you
shining (of light)

33
go out with - go to a theatre/ Look

cinema/restaurant, look after - take care of
with a boy friend / look around - inspect, survey
girl friend, etc. look for - search for
go over/through - examine look in on - visit unexpectedly
go through - suffer, endure look into - investigate
go up - rise, increase look out (for) - take care
go with - match (e.g. look through - examine, inspect
colours) look up to - respect
Hang Make
hang about/around - stand about make for - go towards
doing nothing make up for - compensate for
hand back - hesitate
hang on - wait Miss
hang onto - keep a grip on miss out (on) - not take the
something opportunity to do
hang up - put the telephone
receiver down (in Pass
anger) pass away - die
pass out - lose
Hold consciousness
hold on - wait
hold onto - not let go
Pull stand for - mean
pull in/up - stop (e.g. cars) - tolerate
pull out - move out (to stand in for - act as a
overtake cars, etc) substitute for
stand out - be noticeable
Put stand up for - act in support of
put in for - apply for stand up to - resist
put up with - stand for,
tolerate Stick
stick to - not change
Ring course
ring off - put the phone
down Stop
stop off (at) - break your
Run journey
run away/off with - elope stop over - spend the night
- take something
which does not Take
belong you take after - resemble
run into - encounter, meet take down - write down
- collide with take off - leave the ground
run out (of) - have no more take to - like straight away
run over/through - read or examine take up - occupy (time or
quickly space)

34
- begin (a hobby)
See
see about/to - arrange, attend Think
to think of - have a opinion
see through - not be deceived about
by - remember
Send Turn
send for - ask to come and turn back - go back where
see you started from
turn out - be the result in
Set the end
set off/out - depart/leave turn up - arrive
unexpectedly
Sit
sit for - take an exam Wear
wear off - disappear
Stand (effects of
stand back - not come too something)
near
stand by - stick to what you Write
say write away (for) - send away (for)
-give help, support by post
VII.6 Another phrasal verbs list
Add up: to come to the expected total.

Carry out: to bring to a successful issue/ to continue to an end or stopping
point/ to put into execution.
Crop up: to happen suddenly, often when it is not expected.
Cut down: reduce the quantity.
Enter into: to start to become involved in something, especially a discussion.
Find out: to discover, learn, or verify something.
Gear up: to get ready.
Get something down: depress
Get on with: concentrate as to advance at doing something // have a good
relationship with another person.
Get over: recover from
Give up: stop
Go ahead: indicating that one may proceed / being a score that gives a team
the lead in a game.
Hold out: to present as something realizable.
Jot down: to write something quickly on a piece of paper so that you
remember it.
Look through: to carefully examine the contents of something or a collection
of things in order to find something // to read something quickly
and not very carefully.

35
Make out: to complete (as a printed form) by supplying information.

Make out: to complete by supplying required information.
Pluck up: gather.
Put across: to convey effectively or forcefully.
Sift out: to separate something from a group of other things.
Sink in: start to believe a fact or idea, or realize what effect it will have on you.
Start off: to start a life, existence or profession in a particular way // to start a
journey.
Stick up for: to speak or act in defence of support.
Take out: of relating to selling or being food not to be consumed on the
premises.
Take to: to get into one’s hand into one’s possession, power or control.
Take up: the action of “taking up”.
Talk into: to persuade someone to do something.
Turn out: to happen in a particular way or to have a particular result.
Wear out: become too old to use.

36
Paper VIII Prepositions
VIII PREPOSITIONS
VIII.1 among
Used for a group of things to express

1 Divide these sweets among the 1 ‘with a share for each of’
children.
2 The workers talked among 2 ‘with one another’
themselves as they waited to see
the boss.
3 He was the only one among all my 3 ‘in the group/company of’
friends who supported me.
VIII.1 at
Used to express
1 The train left at midnight/ 8:30 pm. 1 an exact point of time
2a I’ll meet you at the corner of the 2a an exact position or place
street.
b The train stops at Birmingham. b with the name of a city, town or
I studied at London. village if we are interested in a
particular point ar activity in it rather
than the whole place
3 Look at this new car. 3 ‘in the direction of’
Aim at the centre.
Useful expressions
at all costs/events at hand at peace / war astonished at

at any rate at home/ the office at present bad at
at church/the at last at sea clever at
hairdresser’s/ at least at a time (when) good at
school at a loss / a profit at the same time shocked at
at Christmas/ at lunch (as) shoot at
Easter at night at times shout at
at ease at once at the weekend smile/laugh at
at first (sight) at work surprised at

37
VIII.3 between
Used to express
1 The bank is between the post office 1 a position in the middle (with things
and the banker’s. or people on two sides)
2 The ferry sails between Dover and 2 bringing two or more things or people
Ostend. together
An agreement was made between
the two super-powers.
3 Just between you and me, I think 3 sharing something together (a secret)
he’s awful.
4 I can’t choose between these two 4 either one thing or another
dresses.
VIII.4 beyond
Used to express
1 The farm lies beyond that field. 1 ‘further than’ (distance)
2 His story is beyond belief. 2 ‘outside the understanding or reach
She is beyond help. of’
3 The success of the plan was beyond 3 ‘more or better than’
anything we had hoped for.
VIII.5 by
Used to express
1 This book was written by Charles 1 who does/did/will do an action
Dickens.
2 This model was made by hand. 2 how something is/was/will be done
3 The bank is just by the Post Office. 3 closeness or nearness to
4 By next year I’ll have finished this 4 ‘not later than’
book.
Useful expressions
by accident by all means by post amazed by*

by air/bus/car/ by chance by sight astonished by*
plane/sea/ship/ by day/night by day/night impressed by*
train (and by (doing) by surprise surprised by*
others means by far by yourself (alone) upset by*
of transport) by mistake
*= or at

38
VIII.6 except
Used to express
1 All the boys had pens except one. 1 ‘excluding’
2 The holiday was excellent, except 2 ‘apart from’ + noun
for the rain. 3 ‘apart from the fact that’ + clause
3 He’s a good student, except that
he’s always late.
VIII.7 for
Used to express
1 This is for you. 1 ‘intended to belong to’
2 We’ve lived here for three years. 2 length of time
3 We walked for several miles. 3 distance
4 Are you for or against nuclear 4 ‘in favour of’
weapons?
5 What did you do that for? 5 reason
6 Let’s go out for a meal. 6 purpose (+ noun)
7 They left for America this morning. 7 movement towards
Useful expressions
for ever once and for all anxious for pay for
for goodness’ sake for a while/time as for reason for
for heaven’s sake ask for responsible for
care for search for
VIII.8 from
Used to express
1 We travelled from Vienna to Paris by 1 place of origin
train.
2 He works from 9 till 5. 2 a starting point in time
3 Prices start from $5. 3 a starting point in quantity
4 I can’t tell one from the other. 4 separation

39
Useful expressions
from A to Z from morning to away from prevent from

from beginning to night apart from (doing)
end from time to time hear from suffer from
from head to toe
VIII.9 in
Used to express
1 They’re in the kitchen. 1 place
2 We got married in March/ winter/ 2 a point during a longer period of time-
1985. week, months, seasons, years and
centuries
3 I’ll be back in an hour. 3 ‘within a certain time’
4 He’s in banking/ the local police 4 a job/ profession/ situation
force/ a mess.
Useful expressions
in all in general in particular in time

in any case in half in prison in turn
in bed in a hurry in private in a way
in common in ink / pencil in public in a sense
in danger in love in secret dressed in
in debt in a loud voice in sight get in
in difficulties in the morning in spite of interested in
in the end in my opinion in stock succeed in
in fact in other words in tears take part in
VIII.10 into
They came into the room. Used to express movement towards
Useful expressions
bump into get into (trouble) jump into throw into

crash into go into run into walk into

40
VIII.11 of
Used to express
1 The cover of this book is attractive. 1 ‘belonging to’
2 He’s one of my best friends. 2 ‘from among’
3 a ton / a pint / a pound of 3 measure
bricks / milk / butter.
4 He died of starvation. 4 cause
5 a man of 40/ the City of London/ 5 description
made of gold.
Useful expressions
ahead of enough of in front of proof of

because of everyone of instead of remind someone of
by means of example of lack of several of
cure someone of explanation of on account of think of
die of hundreds of on behalf of typical of
dozens of in case of out of
VIII.12 off
Used to express
1 A tile has come off the roof. 1 movement away from
2 Our house is off the High Street. 2 ‘at a distance from’
Useful expressions
off duty get off (the bus)

off limits take off (your coat)
off work
VIII.13 on
Used to express
1 The book is on the table. 1 contact (on the surface of)
2 I’ll see you on Saturday morning/ 2 time – a particular day
Christmas Day/ your birthday.
3 What’s on TV tonight? 3 what entertainment is being offered
There’s a good film on at the cinema.
4 He’s written a book on insects. 4 what something about

41
Useful expressions
on business on holiday agree on depend on

on duty on purpose congratulate have an effect on
on time on sale someone on
on foot on the whole
on the other hand
VIII.14 out of
Used to express
1 She ran out of the house. 1 movement away from
2 Two out of five children have 2 ‘from among’ (with ratios)
learning problems.
3 I copied the recipe out of the 3 place of origin
newspaper.
4 The dress was made out of a lace 4 the material something is made from
curtain.
Useful expressions
out of breath out of date out of the question out of reach

out of control out of order (impossible) out of stock
out of danger out of practice out of work
VIII.15 since
Used to express
1 I hadn’t seen him since 1978. 1 a starting point for actions and
situations which continue up to the
moment of speaking
2 Since he had flu, he decided not to 2 ‘because’
go to work.
VIII.16 to
Used to express
1 We’re going to Paris. 1 ‘in the direction of’
2 It’s a quarter to 12. 2 before (in time)
3 We’ll be in the office from 5 to 6. 3 ‘until’
4 He won by 2 games to 3. 4 comparison
I prefer sleeping to working.

42
Useful expressions
according to in order to
in addition to so as to
due to
owing to
VIII.17 under
Used to express
1 The box is under the stairs. 1 ‘beneath’
2 Please don’t sweep the dust under 2 ‘beneath’ (with movement)
the carpet.
3 The bridge is under repair. 3 ‘in the process of’
Useful expressions
under control under orders

underneath (preposition) = under under oath (in a court of law)
VIII.18 until / till
Used to express
1 I’ll keep the ring until we meet 1 up to a certain time
again.
2 Stir the mixture until it thickens. 2 ‘up to the point or degree when’
VIII.19 up
Don’t run up the stairs. Used to express movement to a higher

He went up to the next class. place
Useful expressions
up-to-date (modern) ups and downs (good times and bad

uphill ones)
fed up (bored or unhappy)

43
VIII.20 with / without
Used to express
1 Be patient with the children. 1 ‘as regards’
2 He hit the burglar with a hammer. 2 instrument
3 You’ll have to go with/without me. 3 accompanying / not accompanying
4 A room with/without a view. 4 having / not having
Useful expressions
with best wishes angry with disgusted with trembling with

with/without do without impressed with (fear)
difficulty filled with pleased with (what’s) wrong
without any fuss green with envy shivering with with(?)
with love have difficulty with (cold)
with pleasure
agree with

44
Paper IX Relative clauses
IX RELATIVES CLAUSES
IX.1 Defining relative clauses
Is that the man who wants to buy These clauses are necessary in order to
your car? complete the meaning of a sentence.
They identify somebody or something.
No commas are used.
IX.1.1 Relative pronouns in defining clauses
These relative pronouns are used

1a The person who deals with that 1 for people
isn’t here at the moment. a who/that – as the subject of the
The person that interviewed me verb in the clause
was a nice sort of fellow.
b The person who/whom/that you b who/whom/that – as the object of
want is out of the office. the verb in the clause (whom is
more formal)
c The man whose address you’ve c whose – meaning ‘belonging to’
asked for has left the firm.
2a The instructions which come with 2 for things

this machine are impossible to a which/that – as subject or object
follow. of the verb in the clause.
The book that you lent me was Notice: what can be used to
very difficult to read. express ‘the thing which/that’ (e.g.
It was difficult to believe what you
told me).
IX.I.2 Leaving out the relative pronouns in defining clauses
The man (who/whom/that) I was The relative pronoun cab be left out
meeting was an important client. when it refers to the object of the
verb in the clause.
Notice: the relative pronoun cannot
be left out when it refers to the
subject of the verb in the clause; e.g.
The man who came to meet me was
an important client.

45
IX.1.3 Prepositions used with relative pronouns in defining clauses
1 The man who/that I was taking to 1 The preposition comes at the end of
is my uncle. the clause in informal speech and
writing.
2a The person to whom I was 2a The preposition comes at the
addressing my comments does not beginning of the clause in formal
seem to be listening. speech and writing.
b The problem about which we had b Notice: the relative pronoun
so much discussion has been cannot be left out in sentences like
solved. these even though it is the object
of the verb in the clause.
IX.2 Non-defining relative clauses
I’ve just met Mr Watts, who wants to These clauses are to give further
buy your car. information, which could be left out,
about the sentence.
Commas are used.
IX.2.1 Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
These relative pronouns are used

1a The members of the explanation, 1 for people
who had been away from a who – as the subject of the verb
home for six months, said they in the clause
were proud of their achievements.
b The candidates, who/whom we b who/whom – as the object of the
met for the first time verb in the clause
yesterday, are all preparing their
speeches for the debate tomorrow.
c A car manufacturer, whose name c whose – meaning ‘belonging to’
I have forgotten, has invented
an electric car.
2a The report, which was drawn up 2 for things
by a special committee, states a which – as subject or object of
that more needs to be done in the the verb in the clause.
inner city areas.
b He had been in prison, which was b which – to give further information
a fact nobody had realized. about the whole main sentence
Notice: the relative pronoun cannot
be left out in non-defining clauses
and that cannot be used to replace
the relative pronoun.

46
IX.2.2 Prepositions used with relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
The organization, to which we owe so Prepositions usually come at the

much, has announced a further beginning of the clause as the use is
contribution to our appeal. rather formal.
IX.3 Participle phrases
In participle phrases the relative pronouns and the auxiliary verb(s) are
left out.
These phrases can be,

1 The boy (who is) sitting in that 1 defining or,
corner has been there all morning.
The bricks (which have been)
used to build this church were
specially made.
2 Simone de Beauvoir, (who was) 2 non-defining

well known for her fight for
women’s rights, died in 1986.

47
Paper X Reported speech
X REPORTED SPEECH
X.1 Tenses
X.1.1 Changes
Verbs used in direct speech often change their tense in reported speech,
especially when the ‘reporting’ verb is in the past.(i.e said)
Direct speech Change Reported Speech
1 ‘I’ll put the letters in will  would He said he would put

the post.’ the letters in the post.
She said she worked

2 ‘I work for an work  worked for an insurance
insurance company.’ company.
They said they

3 ‘We can’t borrow any can’t  couldn’t couldn’t borrow any
more from the bank.’ more money from the
bank.
4 ‘We’ve moved to a have moved  had They said they had

bigger house.’ moved moved to a bigger
house.
5 ‘I must play the gas must  had to Se said she had to pay
bill.’ the gas bill.

48
X.1.2 No Changes
Some verb tenses used in direct speech do not change in

reported speech. The ‘reporting’ verb is often in the present tense.
Direct speech Reported speech
The verbs do not normally change

when :
1 reporting a present state of 1 The reporter says/said that the cost

affairs e.g. ‘The cost of living of living here is high.
here is high.’
2 reporting things which are 2 Mary says it’s always cold at this
always true e.g. ‘It’s always cold time of year.
at this time of year.’
3 reporting something which we 3 The union representative said they

believe (or someone believes) are going to sack 300 workers
will happen e.g. ‘They’re going next week.
to sack 300 workers next week.’
4 they are the modal structures 4 She said (that) he might be

would, could, might, ought and mistaken.
should, e.g. ‘You might be
mistaken.’
X.2 Reporting statements
X.2.1 Verb (+that)
(e.g. say, claim, admit, explain, insist, agree, complain, deny, reply)
‘I ‘m an art student.’ She said (that) she was an art

student.
‘I don’t know you.’ He claims he doesn’t know her.
‘I was lying.’ She admitted she had been

lying.
‘I’m hot.’ He explained (that) he was hot.
Notice: admit and deny can also be followed by the –ing form.

49
X.2.2 Verb + pronoun /noun (+that)

(e.g. tell)
‘I’m an art student.’ She told him (that) she was an

art student.
X.2.3 Verb + infinitive

(e.g. offer, refuse, agree, promise)
‘I’ll take you to the dance.’ He offered to take her to the

dance.
X.2.4 Verb + for + -ing form

(e.g. apologize, thank)
‘I’m sorry I trod on your foot.’ She apologized for treading on

his foot.
‘Thank you for doing the He thanked her for doing the
shopping.’ shopping.
X.3 Reporting requests and orders
‘close the door, please.’ He asked me to close the door.
‘Please don’t shout.’ She asked them not to shout.
‘Sit, Rover.’ The boy told his dog to sit.
‘Don’t move.’ The policeman ordered the

burglar not to move.

50
X.4 Reporting questions
Remember to change the word order in reported questions to subject

followed by verb.
‘What time is it?’ He asked what time it was.
‘How much money do you need?’ She asked how much money I
needed.
Remember to use if or whether if there is no question word.
‘Are you tired?’ He asked if I was tired.
‘Do you want the car or not?’ She wondered whether I wanted
the car or not.
X.5 Reporting suggestions
Suggest can be followed by an –ing form or that + should + infinitive.
‘Let’s go home.’ He suggested going home.

He suggested that they should
go home.
X.6 Other points to notice about reported speech.
Direct speech Reported speech
1 The pronoun often changes e.g. 1 She said she had washed the
‘I’ve washed the dishes.’ dishes.
2 Words like tomorrow change to 2 He said he would do it the

words not directly related to following day/the next day.
present time e.g. ‘I’ll do it
tomorrow.’
a ‘today’ a the same day/that day.
b ‘yesterday’ b the day before/the previous

day.

51
c ‘next week/year’ etc. c the following week/year

etc.
d ‘last week/year’ etc. d the previous week/year day
e ‘now’ e then
f ‘here’ f there
g ‘this’ (in time expressions) g that (e.g. that week)

e.g. ‘this week.’
3 Other changes are
a ‘this, these, that, those’ (as a the

adjectives).
b ‘this, these, that, those’ (as b it, they /them

pronouns)
4 Some words like please and now 4 He asked her to come in.
disappear e.g. ‘Please come in.’ She asked him what he wanted
‘Now what do you want to talk to talk to her about.
to me about?’

52
Paper XI Tense forms
XI TENSE FORMS
XI.1 Present forms
XI.1.1 Present simple
Use
1 We go out every Saturday night. 1 for something which happens
He never gives me presents. regularly or which is a habit
(often with adverbs of time e.g.
always, usually, etc.)
2 He lives in Greece. 2 for something which remains
The earth travels round the sun. true for a long time or for a
scientific fact
3 Jane: I don’t like big cities. 3 with verbs not normally used in
They smell of cars. any of the progressive forms
Peter: I know what you mean. (believe, understand, imagine,
suppose, hear, see, taste, love,
hate, need, want, prefer, seem,
appear, belong, deserve).
Notice: feel can be used either
in the simple or progressive
forms e.g. I feel ill/ am feeling ill.
4 First you check the gears and 4 to give instructions (more
handbrake, then you switch on friendly and personal than the
the engine. imperative Check, switch on…)
5 A gorilla goes into a bar and 5 to describe events in jokes,
asks for a drink. stories or news items to make
The Pope visits Tokyo today. them seem more dramatic.
XI.1.2 Present continuous
Use
1 Look, they’re coming out of the 1 for an event in progress at the
cinema now. present time
The standard of living in this
country is slowly rising.
2 She’s always borrowing money 2 with always to snow surprise or
from me. disapproval when an action is
It’s always raining here. repeated
3 A man is standing on the 3 to set the scene in a joke or a
pavement when suddenly a story and describe events which
spaceship lands. have already begun but which
are not complete

53
XI.1.3 Present perfect
Use
1 I’ve seen that film. 1 for an event which happened at
I’ve just seen him. an indefinite time in the past.
I haven’t finished yet. Compare I saw that film last
I’ve never been there. week where the time reference is
definite.
2 She’s been a widow for about six 2 for an event which began in the
months/since last year. past and is still going on now.
It’s always raining here. Notice we use for to talk about
the length of time and we use
since to talk about when the
event started
3a I can’t write because I’ve 3 for an event which
broken my arm. a is finished but which still affects
the present (e.g. compare The
president died and The
president has died (so we must
make various arrangements)
b Look at the mess you’ve made. b has a result which can be seen
in the present (e.g. compare
What have I drawn? and What
did I draw?)
4 This is the third time he’s taken 4 after prepositions like
his driving test. first, second…
This is the worst film I’ve ever This best, worst… …
seen. That is the most interesting
It only
XI.1.4 Present Perfect continuous
Use
1a We’ve been living here for six 1a for an activity which began in
years/since 1981. the past and is still going on (to
emphasize the length of time
taken by the activity)
b We’ve been standing at this b (Notice it often shows anger,
bus stop for half an hour in the surprise, etc.)
pouring rain.
2 I’ve been staying with my 2 to describe a temporary
cousin for the last week. arrangement which may still be
going on or which may just have
finished

54
3 Look at the mess you’re in! What 3 for an activity which was going
on earth have you been on, which has now finished and
doing? the result of which is still
I can see that you’ve been evident. (This, too, often shows
decorating. The house look anger, surprise, etc.)
lovely!
XI.2 Past forms
XI.2.1 Past simple
Use
1 Last night I went to a concert. 1 when an definitive point in time
The last time I saw Maria was is mentioned when talking about
three years ago. the past
2 Jane: Did you have a nice time 2 when the even took place at a
in Paris? time the speaker is aware of but
Peter: Yes, we did. does not mention
3 The thief went into the bank, 3 for a number of events which
pulled out a gun and pointed it took place one after another in
at the cashier. the past
4 When I was at school, I got up 4 to describe a past habit
every day at seven o’clock.
XI.2.2 Used to and would
Used to only exists in the past

form. Use it to express
1a I used to smoke cigars but now 1a a habit or a state in the past.
I prefer cigarettes.
He used to be a very fat but
he’s lost a lot of weight.
b I didn’t use to go to the b something which did not
theatre but I try and go about happen in the past but which
once a month now. has now become a habit or
I never used to like him but I state. Notice the negative form
do now. (e.g. I used not to go to the
theatre) is becoming less
common in speech but is still
found in formal or written
English.

55
c Did you use to do sport school? c an inquiry about a habit or state

Didn’t you use to be much in the past
thinner? Compare the expressions
be/get used to:
I’m used to getting up early.
I was used to getting up early.
You’ll soon get used to drinking
tea!
I soon got used to working so
hard.
Notice: after be/get used to we
use the verb + -ing
Use would
2 He would keep telling me what 2 for a habit or repeated event in
to do! the past which is now finished
and which shows the speaker’s
attitude to the event.
XI.2.3 Past continuous
Use Past Continuous:

1a I was driving along the 1a for an event which was in
motorway when I had a progress when another event
puncture. happened
b It was six o’clock and darkness b to set the scene and provide
was falling. the background for a story
2 I was doing the garden while 2 for two (or more) events which
he was painting the kitchen. were in progress at the same
time in the past
3 They were coming to dinner 3 for an event which had been
but he had to go away on arranged but which did not
business. happenn
XI.2.4 Past perfect
Use Past Perfect

1 I went back home because I’d 1 for an event which happened
forgotten my keys. before another in the past (first I
I was sure I hadn’t seen him forgot my keys, later I went back
before. home)
56
By 1986 Bob Geldof had raised

millions of pounds for charity.
2 I had scarcely/hardly put the 2 with scarcely/hardly + when or
phone down when the bell rang. sooner + than. Notice these
No sooner had I left the house words (scarcely, hardly, no
than it started to rain. sooner) are often put at the
beginning of the sentence to
emphasize that one event
happened almost immediately
after the other (notice the word
order).
XI.2.5 Past perfect continuous
Use it:
They’d been studying for hours to emphasize the continuous
when they suddenly realized it was nature of an action or activity
midnight. which happened before another in
He knew they hadn’t been the past.
paying attention during the lesson.
XI.3 Talking about the future
I’m going to wash my hair. be going to

It’s going to snow.
I’ll see you tomorrow. future simple
Term starts on Monday. present simple
I’m meeting the boss at 10. present continuous
This time tomorrow I’ll be sitting future continuous
my exam.
I’ll have finished it by 4 o’clock. future perfect
We’ll have been living here for future perfect continuous
ten years next spring.
They’re about to announce the be about to or be on the point of
elections results.
He’s on the point of changing
his job.
1a I’m going to write some letters. 1 Use be going to for

b Look at those black clouds. I a an intention
think it’s going to rain. b an indication that something is

57
The work is not going to be probable

esay.
2 Tomorrow will be fine and 2 Use future simple (will/shall) to
sunny. make a prediction about the
We shall expect you next week. future. Notice: shall is only used
for I and we.
3 Easter is early this year. 3 Use present simple for future
The match begins at 3.30. events on a timetable or a fixed
When he comes. I’ll tell you. programme. Notice: when can
be used with the present simple
for an event in the future.
4 We’re flying to Spain next week. 4 Use present continuous for a
I’m taking my driving test definite arrangement, plan or
tomorrow. appointment.
5 This time next week I’ll be 5 Use future continuous for an
swimming in the Mediterranean. event which will be in progress at
a certain time in the future.
6 They’ll have done their 6 Use future perfect for an event
homework by tomorrow. which will be over not later than
a certain time in the future.
7 He’llhave been working for the 7 Use future perfect continuous for
bank for 30 years next summer. something still in progress but
which will be complete not later
than a certain time in the future
(often used to emphasize the
lenght of time involved).
8 The plane is on the point of 8 Use be about to or be on the
taking off. point of for an event which is or
Nick was just about to put the was just going to take place.
money in his pocket.

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Paper XII Wishes, regrets and preferences
XII 1 WISHES, REGRETS AND PREFERENCES
XII.1.1 Wishes and regrets
1 I wish I were rich! 1 These examples express wishes

If only we could see each other (often suggesting that the
more often! speaker is sorry about something
I wish we didn’t live in this -I’m sorry I’m not rich).
terrible place. Notice: the ‘past’ form of the
verbs (were, could, see, didn’t
live) after (I wish and if only as
with conditional 2.
2 I wish you wouldn’t make so 2 These examples express wishes

much noise! for a change in the future and
If only they would stop that often suggest that the speaker
terrible noise! is angry or dissatisfied about
I wish it would stop raining! (or tired of) the present situation
3 I wish I had never married 3 These examples express wishes

him. or regrets about the past (I wish
If only I had studied harder at I had studied harder but I
school. didn’t!).
I wish you hadn’t told me your Notice: the past perfect is used
secret. in the same way as conditional 3
sentences.
XII.1.2 Preferences
1a I like the summer better than 1a like … better than …

the winter. b prefer … to … are used to
b I prefer sort of drinks to express general preferences
alcohol.
2a ‘d rather + infinitive without to
2a I’d rather have a snack than a … than … express either a
take-away meal. general preference or a
preference for a particular
occasion (‘this is what I usually
prefer’ or ‘this is what I would
like now’).
Notice: ‘d prefer expresses a
preference for a particular
occasion (e.g. I’d prefer (to
have) a glass of wine now).
b ‘d rather not + infinitive without

59
b I’d rather not go to the football to expresses the fact that you
match, if you don’t mind. would prefer not to do
something which has been
suggested.
3 would rather + (you, etc.) +

3 I would rather you stayed at past tense suggest that you
home tonight. I think it’s going would be happier if someone did
to snow. or didn’t do something.
I’d rather you didn’t see him Notice: the ‘unreal’ present is
again. expressed by a ‘past’ form of
the verbs stayed, didn’t see.
XII 2 WORDS THAT CAUSE DIFFICULTIES

have, make and do
XII.2.1 Have
XII.2.1.1 Three basic uses of have
have can be used
1 She has bought a new car. 1 as an auxiliary verb.

He said he had seen the film.
2 I have (got) to be ready at 6:30. 2 to express what is or isn’t

You don’t have to (haven’t got necessary. Notice: have got to
to) do it if you don’t want to. can be used to express the same
Do I have to (Have I got to) go? idea as have to.
3 They’re having the house 3 to express the idea of arranging

decorated. for or paying somebody to do
Did he have his hair cut something for you. Notice: the
yesterday? object of the sentence comes
I didn’t have the curtains made. between have and the past
I made them myself. participle.
4 I’ve got a headache. 4 with go to express a condition or

Have you got a big family? state (less common in the past
I haven’t got any brothers or tense and often suggesting the
sisters. idea of ‘possession’).
Notice: have got is now more
common in statements than the
rather formal “I have four

60
brothers”, but question forms

and negatives with do and have
are commonly used (e.g. Do you
have a big family? I don’t have
any brothers or sisters).
XII.2.1.2 Other expressions using have
have in these examples means
1 I’ll have the chicken/some tea, 1 ‘eat’ or ‘drink’

please.
2 He’s having a shower/bath/rest. 2 ‘take’
3 She’s just had a little girl. 3 ‘give birth to’
4 She had an enormous hat on. 4 ‘wear’
5 We’ve had a marvellous holiday. 5 ‘experience’

We didn’t have any trouble with
the car.
6 Have a try! 6 In these examples and others

Did they have a quarrel? like them, have means the same
as the word it is used with (e.g.
‘try’, ‘quarrel’).
XII.2.1.3 had better
You had better decide quickly. had better is used to give strong
You’d better not have any more advice.
to drink!

61
XII.2.2 Do and Make
XII.2.2.1 Meanings of do and make
1 What are you doing? 1 do can mean ‘perform an action

I’m doing a puzzle. in general’ and ‘solve or put
together’.
2 make can mean
2a I’m making a cake. a ‘create’ or ‘construct’

This firm makes TV sets.
b The car journey made him sick. b ‘cause to happen’
c They made him work very hard. c ‘force’
XII.2.2.2 Other expressions using do and make
DO MAKE
- a course - History , Maths, - arrangements - money

- a favour Science (as - an attempt - a noise
- homework subjects) - the beds - an offer
- military - work or jobs - a decision - a phone call
service in general - an effort - a profit
- something/ (the cleaning/ - an excuse - a speech
nothing/ gardening - love - a suggestion
anything etc.) - a mistake - trouble
Notice: there are many phrasal verbs with do and make.

62
Paper XIII Composition
XIII How to write a Composition
XIII 1 How to write an article
XIII.1.1st. Rethorical question + introduction
Are we ready to follow a healthy diet? It is well-known that healthy eating

habits are related to…
XIII.1.2nd. Personal experience
Personally speaking… (provide examples, give reasons why you follow/don’t

follow a diet, use linkers of addition and contrast)
XIII.1.3rd. Description of the topic
On the one hand, research has shown that vegetables, wholemeal, (etc.) help
our body and mind work far better moreover…
XIII.1.4th. Opinion of people
On the other hand, “common taste” shows…
XIII.1.5th. Conclusion + rethorical question
The truth is that we should start thinking of… Are we willing to change our
minds?

63
XIII 2 How to describe people
XIII.2.1st. Introduction
Brief introduction of the person I am going to describe. Personal information

(name, age, job, studies)
Among the many members of the family, Maria is the youngest…
XIII.2.2nd. Physical Appearance
- Height: particularly tall, rather short, etc.

- Nose: hooked, straight, flat
- Mouth: sensual lips, thick, thin
- Eyes: sparkling, cruel, protruding, etc.
- Built: well-built, plump. overweight, etc.
XIII.2.3rd. Personality
Include good adjectives to describe personality and give reasons to support

your selection.
XIII.2.4th. Interest. Likes and dislikes
XIII 3 How to write an argument (personal point

of view but not emotional)
XIII.3.1st. Introduction
Sharing a flat is a dream to most adolescents who… However, there are certain
disadvantages to consider.
XIII.3.2nd. Advantages
On the one hand, (provide examples) moreover, on top of that…
XIII.3.3rd. Disadvantages
On the other hand, (give examples) moreover, to make matters worse…

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XIII.3.4th. Conclusion
As conclusion, to sum up… Flat-sharing can be an advantage for those who…
However, those who prefer… should consider…
XIII 4 How to write a letter of application
Letter Plan
Here is an example of how to set out your covering letter.

If you are using e-mail, you can omit your and the employer’s address.
Start with Dear…………… in the usual way.
Your address
Date
Job title of the person you are contacting,

Organisation name,
Address
Dear Mr. ………/ Mrs. ………/ Ms. ………
 Section 1
Here you should give factual details: where you are i.e. College and what you
are doing. E.g. “currently completing MSc / Ph.D. in ……; working as research
assistant in X department / division / School
Indicate what kind of opportunities you are looking for. E.g. to develop my
career in ………/ to use my experience in ………
If you are applying for an advertised job, the say where you saw the job
(newspaper, journal, web site and give the date / issue number)
 Section 2
This can comprise two or three paragraphs. Include concisely expressed

information (i.e. edited highlights from your CV ) relevant to your application
from the following:
- your MSc and first degree that are directly applicable to your work
- an outline of your research and your achievements in your Ph.D.
- include option choices, field trips, site visits, case studies, special lectures
- refer to lab, analytical, modelling and other techniques and your level of
experience and achievements in using them
- mention IT skills, report writing, publications, presentations, including poster
presentations, group or team working
- what you have gained through travel, living abroad, social experiences, work
You could finish this section by summarising your strong points:
why you think you can be successful working in the organisation.

65
 Section 3
Try to say in your own words – rather than those used in the company’s
recruitment literature or web site – why this particular organisation is so
attractive to you. E.g. is it their research, European or global approach, the
quality of their products or services, how successful they are, you met someone
from the organisation at a special lecture / presentation.
About three to five lines would be sufficient for this presentation.
 Section 4
State that you have enclosed your CV. You may want to include an abstract or
summary of your research (Ph.D.) or your major dissertation (MSc) – on a
separate sheet of A4. You should mention that you are including information on
your research experience or interests.
You could also say that you look forward to meeting them at interview – or
some positive statement of this sort.
 Section 5
“Yours sincerely” follows with your word processed name a few lines down.
In the intervening space, place your signature.
This format is suitable when e-mailing an employer with your CV as an

attachment. Your letter should be written in the more formal style suggested
above.
Name & Title: Your address:

Position: Tel: e-mail:
Name and Address
of Company:
Date:
Dear (Mrs, Miss, Ms, Dr, Mr) (Name)
Position applied for and reference number may form a subject

heading
Paragraph One: Why you are writing?

Conventional opening stating the purpose of the letter, where and when
saw the vacancy advertised etc.
Paragraph Two: Useful to `set the scene` for the reader.

Who are you doing now or have done recently?

66
Paragraph Three: Why you can do the job!

- Key Skills
- Personal Qualities
- Relevant Experience, Achievements
Use the Job Description and Person Specification to ‘Fit
Yourself to the Job’ –give evidence!
Be positive & imaginative but not arrogant.
Paragraph Four: What attracts you to the job?

What attracts you to the Company?
Enthusiasm, Motivation, Confidence
Paragraph Five: Conventional close – Confirm what you want!

Circumstances / Availability – for the interview or meeting?
Yours sincerely, (signature)
XIII 5 How to write an essay
ESSAY
o The Writing Topic: Each writing topic shows you exactly what you should
discuss and how you should organize your response. You must decode the topic
carefully to determine the intended way of organizing your response.
o The Introductory paragraph: 1. Begin the introduction with background

information about how the topic relates to you in order to get the reader
interested in your essay. 2. End the introduction with a statement or statements
that show the reader how the rest of the essay will be organized.
o Supporting Ideas: Support your essay with reasons and examples, and
personalize your essay as much as possible. The more support you have, the
stronger your essay will be. (Order: reasons – examples – personal story)
o The Concluding Paragraph: 1. Summarize the key points in your discussion.

2. Be sure that your overall idea and the reasons for the idea are very clear.

67

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Paper I Adjectives-Adverbs-Articles

I.1.1 Order of adjectives

Several adjectives can be used before a noun in English. In general we

1 He is 1 metre 30 tall. 1 Adjectives describing

2 I don’t like living alone. 2 Some adjectives (e.g. alone,

3 It’s difficult to read. 3 Adjectives are often followed by

4a She was worried about him. 4a Adjectives ending in –ing come

b It’s all very worrying. b Adjectives ending in –ing come

Centro para el Estudio de Lenguas - UNSAM 2013

I.1.3 Comparative and superlative of adjectives

we form the comparative by

b This armchair is more b using more + two-syllable and

we form the superlative by

3 He is as strong as a horse. 3 We use as + adjective + as for

I.1.3.2 Adjectives of one syllable.

1 If the adjectives ends in two Exceptions

Centro para el Estudio de Lenguas - UNSAM 2013

I.1.3.3 Adjectives of more than one syllable

3 I find science more interesting 3 If the adjective has three (or

1 quick quickly 1 Adverbs can be formed from

2 careful carefully 2 The same rule applies to

3 lucky luckily 3 To form adverbs from adjectives

4 He greeted me in a friendly 4 To form adverbs from adjectives

Centro para el Estudio de Lenguas - UNSAM 2013

I.2.2 Comparative and superlative of adverbs

1 She drives more carefully than 1 We usually from the comparative

2 We arrived later than you. 2 Adverbs with the same form as

Notice some exceptions to

I.2.3 Position of adverbs and adverb phrases in sentences

1 He plays the piano well. 1 Adverbs which tell us ‘how’ usually

2a She’s very clever. 2a Adverbs which tell us ‘to what

b I have enough to join the b Notice enough comes before a

3a He’s coming tomorrow. 3a Adverbs which tell us ‘when’

b Yesterday he was in Paris. b Adverbs which tell us “when” can

4a The magazine comes out 4a Adverbs which tell us ‘how often’

b Every Saturday we go out. b Phrases like every week, every

Centro para el Estudio de Lenguas - UNSAM 2013

5a He never buys cigarettes. 5a Adverbs which ‘do not tell us

6 Sit down there. 6 Adverbs and adverb phrases

7 He reads his newspaper quickly 7 Adverbs and adverb phrases

I.2.4 Adverb or adjective?

I.3.1 Indefinite article (a/an)

Use with singular countable nouns.

Centro para el Estudio de Lenguas - UNSAM 2013

“a” is used before nouns

3 A million people received our 3 with numbers (e.g. a hundred, a

4 We come to classes twice a week 4 to mean ‘every’ with expressions

5 She’s a lorry-driver. 5 to describe a person’s job or

I.3.2 Definite article (the)

Use with singular most nouns for

1 Jane: A man phoned last night. 1 to refer back to something

4 The computer has revolutionized 4 with singular countable nouns

Centro para el Estudio de Lenguas - UNSAM 2013

6 The British and the French 6 with adjectives as plural nouns.

7 I live in the United States/the 7 with the names of countries or

8 Paris lies on the Seine. 8 with names of rivers, oceans

I.3.3 No article (-)

We don’t use an article