International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 1

Satellite Link Design: A Tutorial

Aderemi A. Atayero, Matthew K. Luka and Adeyemi A. Alatishe

Abstract — The communication link between a satellite and the II. BASIC LINK ANALYSIS
Earth Station (ES) is exposed to a lot of impairments such as Link analysis basically relates the transmit power and the
noise, rain and atmospheric attenuations. It is also prone to loss receive power and shows in detail how the difference between
such as those resulting from antenna misalignment and these two is accounted for. To this end the fundamental
polarization. It is therefore crucial to design for all possible elements of the communications satellite Radio Frequency
attenuation scenarios before the satellite is deployed. This paper (RF) or free space link are employed. Basic transmission
presents the rudiments of a satellite link design in a tutorial form parameters, such as antenna gain, beam width, free-space path
with numerical examples.
loss, and the basic link power equation are exploited. The
concept of system noise and how it is quantified on the RF
Index Term— Satellite communications, Link analysis, Link link is then developed, and parameters such as noise power,
design, EIRP, SNR, CNR. noise temperature, noise figure, and figure of merit are
defined. The carrier-to-noise ratio and related parameters used
I. INTRODUCTION
to define communications link design and performance are
The satellite link is essentially a radio relay link, much like the
developed based on the basic link and system noise parameters
terrestrial microwave radio relay link with the singular
introduced earlier.
advantage of not requiring as many re-transmitters as are
The flux density and link equation can be used to calculate
required in the terrestrial link. Transmission of signals over a
the power received by an earth station from a satellite
satellite communication link requires Line-of-Sight (LoS)
transmitter with output power Pt watts and driving a lossless
communication, but since theoretically three equidistant
antenna with gain Gt, the flux density in the direction of the
satellites in the geosynchronous orbit can effectively cover
antenna bore sight at a distance R meters is given by:
over 90 percent of the earth surface, the need for multiple PG
retransmissions is removed. Satellite communication   t t [W / m 2 ] (1)
4 R 2
specialists, radio and broadcast engineers are in the business PtGt is called the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power or EIRP
of determining the factors required for optimal link because an isotropic radiator with an equivalent power equal
availability and quality of performance. These factors can be produce the same flux density in all directions.
to PtGt would
divided into two broad categories; the conduit factors and the 1
content factors. The conduit factors include such factors as:
earth-space and space-earth path (a.k.a. uplink and downlink) Example A:
effect on signal propagation, quality of earth station A satellite downlink at 12 GHz operates with a transmit power
equipments, and the impact of the propagation medium in the of 20 W and an antenna gain of 45 dB. Calculate the EIRP in
frequency band of interest, et cetera. The content factors deal dBW.
mainly with the type of message transmitted and the devices
Solution: EIRP = 10log20 +45 =58 dBW
involved in its transformation from one form to another for
2
suitability for transmission over a microwave medium. These
include, but are not limited to: satellite functionality, nature For an ideal receiving antenna with an aperture area of A m2
and peculiarities of the precise nature of information, data would collect a power of Pr watts given by
PtGtA (2)
protocol, timing, and the telecommunications interface Pr    A  [Watts]
4 R 2
standards that apply to the service. It is for these reasons that a
The product PtGt is called is called Effective Isotropic
proper engineering methodology is required to guarantee
Radiated Power (EIRP) since an isotropic radiator with an
timely deployment and effective and efficient exploitation of
power equal to PtGt would produce the same flux
equivalent
satellite communication applications and devices. These in
density in all directions. The received ideal antenna gain is
turn must guarantee delivery of objectives for quality,
given by:
reliability and availability. The remaining part of this tutorial
4 A G 2 (3)
paper presents the various component parts necessary for Gr  A r
2 4
designing a robust satellite link with appreciable availability
Thus
and required signal/noise ratios. Pt G t G r
Pr  (4)
4 R /  
2


Aderemi A. Atayero, Matthews K. Luka and Adeyemi A. Alatishe are with

the Department of Electrical & Information Engineering, Covenant
University, PMB1023 Ota, Nigeria. (phone: +234.807.886.6304; e-mail:
1
beginning of an example.
 – Denotes the
atayero@ieee.org). 2
 – Denotes the end of an example

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 International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 2

Equation (4) is known as the link equation and it is essential in c. If the satellite operates at a frequency of 11 GHz and
the calculation of power received in any radio link. The term the Earth Station (ES) antenna has a gain of 52.3 dB.
(4R/)2 is known as the Path Loss (Lp). It accounts for the Determine the received power.
dispersion of energy as an electromagnetic wave travels from
a transmitting source in three-dimensional space. A measure Solution
of the attenuation suffered by a signal on the Earth-Space Data and conversion:
path. For a real antenna, however, the physical aperture area Satellite antenna gain = 22 dB = 1022/10 = 158.5 W;
Ar, the effective aperture area Ae, and the aperture efficiency Satellite signal wavelength
A are related by the equation (5).
Ae  A Ar (5) c 3108
   0.0273 m
For a real antenna equations (2) and (4) become (6) and (7): f 11109
PG  A PG A where c – speed of light;
Pr  t t A r  t t e [Watts] (6)
 4 R 2
4 R 2 Earth station to satellite distance, R=39,000 km = 3.9x10 7 m
4 A Ar 4 Ae   D 2 a) Substituting
 the given values into (1), we have:
Gr    A    (7) 20 158.5
2 2      1.66 1013W / m 2
 Q A    D2 4    3.9 10 7 2

The link equation expressed in equation (4) may be read as Using the decibel notation:
presented in equation (8).   10 log( Pt G t )  (20 log R 10 log( 4  ))
 EIRP  Receive antenna gain (8)
Power received  [Watts]  10 log( 20  158.5)  (20 log 3.9  10 7  10 log 12.57)
Path loss 
Using decibel notations, equation (8) can be simplified to:  35.01 151.82  10.99
Pr  EIRP  Gr  L p [dBW ] (9)  127.8 dBW / m 2

where Note that
EIRP  10 log Pt G t  [ dBW ]  10 log(1.66  10 13 )  127.8 dBW / m 2
Gr 
 10 log 4 Ae /  2
 [ dB] b) The power received with an effective collecting antenna of
10 m2 aperture is:
L p  20 log 4 R /   [ dB]
 Pr    Ae  1.66 10 13 10  1.66 10 12W
III. SIGNAL ATTENUATION In decibels:
Pr     A  127.8 10  117.8 dBW
 The path loss component of equation (9) is the algebraic sum
of various loss components such as: losses in the atmosphere Note that

due to attenuation by air, water vapor and rain, losses at the 117.8 dBW  1011.78W  1.66 1012W
antenna at each side of the link and possible reduction in c) Working in decibels using equation (9) we have:
antenna gain due to antenna misalignment (due to poor LP  20 log( 4 R /  )
operation of the AOC3 satellite subsystem). This needs to be  20 log( 4    3.9  10 7 / 0.0273)
incorporated into the link equation to ensure that the system  205.08 dB
margin allowed is adequate. Thus, equation (9) can be

rewritten as (10):
Pr  EIRP  G r  L p
Pr  EIRP  Gr  l ta  l ra  l atm  l rain  l pol  l pt  ...(10)
 35.01 52.3  205.08
where  117.77 dBW .
lta–Attenuation due to transmit antenna, lra–Attenuation due to 
receive antenna, latm–Atmospheric attenuation, lrain–
Attenuation due to precipitation, lpol–Attanuation due to IV. SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE
polarization, lpt–Antenna pointing misalignment related With many telecommunication services using radio
attenuation transmission, interference between services is inevitable and
 can arise in a number of ways. The Satellite Users Interference
Reduction Group (SUIRG) categorizes satellite
Example B:
communication interference into five main groups, these are:
A satellite at a distance of 39,000 km from the EIE 1. User error (Human error and equipment failure)
departmental building radiates a power of 20 W from an 2. Crossbow Leakage
antenna with a gain of 22 dB in the direction of a VSAT at the
3. Adjacent satellites
EIE building with an effective aperture area of 10 m 2.
Find: 4. Terrestrial services
a. The flux density at the departmental building 5. Deliberate interference
b. The power received by the VSAT antenna
However, for the purpose of satellite link design, interference
may be considered as a form of noise and hence, system
3
AOC – Attitude and Orbit Control subsystem

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 International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 3

performance is determined by the ratio of wanted to Assuming that the interference sources are statistically
interfering powers. In this case the wanted carrier to the independent, the interference powers may be added to give the
interfering carrier power or C/I ratio [2]. The single most total interference ratio of the satellite link.
important factor controlling interference is the radiation I /C UD  I /C U  I /C D (15)
pattern of the earth station antenna. 
A. Downlink and Uplink Interference Ratios Example D:
Consider two satellites, SC as the wanted satellite and SI as the Given that [C/I]U = 26 dB and [C/I]D = 24 dB, determine the
interfering satellite. The carrier power received at an earth overall Carrier-to-Interference ratio of the given link [C/I]UD.
station is given by equation (11):
Solution:
C   EIRPC   G R   FC   Lac  (11)
[*] – denotes values are in decibels. 1. Do unit conversion from dB
2. Determine inverse ratio [I/C] values
where EIRPC – Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power from 3. Use equation (15)
satellite SC; GR – Bore-sight (on-axis) receiving antenna gain; 4. Determine inverse ratio [C/I] value
FC – footprint contour of the satellite transmit antenna and Lac 5. Do unit conversion back to dB
– free space loss. An equation similar to equation (11) may be C / I U  26 dB  10 2.6  398.11
used for the interfering carrier power, albeit with the C / I D  24 dB  10 2.4  251.19
introduction of an additional term: [P D], which incorporates 
the polarization discrimination. Also the receiving antenna I /C U  1 / 398.11  0.00251
gain at the earth station is determined by the off-axis angle ,
giving: I /C D  1 / 251.19  0.00398
from (15)
I   EIRPI   G R   FI   Lac   [ PD ] (12)
Assuming that the free-space loss is the same for both the I /C UD  2.51 10 3  3.98  10 3  0.00649
carrier and interference signals, then from equations (11) and hence
 we have that:
(12) C / I UD  10 log 0.00649  21.88 dB
C   I   EIRPC   EIRPI   G R   G R   [ PD ] 
(13)

 EIRP  G R   G R   [ PD ]
B. Carrier To Noise Ratio (C/N)
C / I D 
The subscript D is used to denote Downlink. One of the objectives of any satellite communication system is
 to meet a minimum carrier to noise (C/N) ratio for a specified
 percentage of time. The C/N ratio is function of the system
Example C: noise temperature, which is very important in understanding
The desired carrier [EIRP] from a satellite is 36 dBW, and the topic of carrier to noise ratio.
the on-axis ground station receiving antenna gain is 43 dB,
while the off-axis gain is 25 dB towards an interfering V. SYSTEM NOISE
satellite. The interfering satellite radiates an [EIRP] of 31 A. Noise temperature
dBW. The polarization discrimination is assumed to be 4 dB.
Find the downlink Carrier to Interference ratio. Noise temperature provides a way of determining how much
thermal noise active and passive devices generate in the
Solution: receiving system. The most important source of noise in
For the Space-Earth path (Downlink), using equation (13) we receiver is thermal noise in the pre-amplification stage. The
have that the C/I ratio will be: noise power is given by the Nyquist equation as (16):
Pn  kTp Bn (16)
C / I D  36  31  43  25  4  27 dB Where Pn – delivered to load with matched impedance to
 source noise; k – Boltzman constant = 1.39 x 10-23 J/K = -
228.6 dBW/K/Hz;  Tp – Noise temperature of source in Kelvin;
 For the Earth-Space path (Uplink), the C/I ratio will be given Bn – Noise bandwidth in which the temperature is measured in
by equation (14): Hz.
C / I U  Power   G S   G S   [ PU ] (14) The term kTp is noise power spectral density and is constant
where
[Power] – Difference in dB between wanted and interference

transmit powers; [GS] – Satellite receive antenna gain for
wanted earth station; [GS()] – Satellite receive antenna gain
for interfering earth station; [PU] – Uplink polarization
discrimination.

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 International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 4

example. The noise is further reduced in IF low noise block

converter (LNB). The second IF amplifier has a bandwidth
matched to the spectrum of the transponder signal.
The noise temperature of a source located at the input of a
noiseless double conversion receiver shown in Fig. 2 is given
by equation (17):
T Tif
TS  Tin Trf  m  [K] (17)
G rf G m G rf
where Gm, Gif, Grf – Mixer, IF and RF amplifier gains
Fig. 1. Simplified earth station receiver [2]. respectively; Tm, Tif, Trf – their equivalent noise temperatures.


for all radio frequencies up to 300 GHz. A low noise amplifier Example E:
is usually desired. An ideal noiseless amplifier has a noise Suppose we have a 4 GHz receiver with the following gains
temperature of 0 K. Gallium Arsenide field effect transistors and noise temperatures: Grf = 23 dB, Tin = 25 K, Tm = 500 K,
(GaAsFET) are normally used as amplifiers in satellite Tif =1000 K and Trf = 50 K. a) Calculate the system noise
communication systems because they can be used to achieve temperature assuming that the mixer has a gain Gm = 0 dB. b)
noise temperatures of 30 K to 200 K without physical cooling. Determine the system noise temperature when the mixer has a
GaAsFET can be built to operate at room temperature with a 10 dB loss. c) How can the noise temperature of the receiver
noise temperature of 30 K at 4 GHz and 100 K at 11 GHz; be minimized when the mixer has a loss of 10 dB?
other conventional amplifiers give higher values.
Solution
A simplified ES receiver is presented in Fig. 1. Since the a) The system noise temperature is given by equation (17),
RF amplifier in a satellite communication receiver must after unit conversion from dB.
generate as little noise as possible, it is called a low noise 23 dB  10 2.3  199.53 0 dB  10 0  1
amplifier (LNA). The mixer and local oscillator form a 
frequency conversion stage that down-converts the radio 500 1000
frequency signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF), where T S  25 50    82.5 K
200 1 200
the signal can be amplified and filtered accurately. BPF is the b) If the mixer had a loss (as is usually the case), the effect of
band pass filter, used for selecting the operational frequency IF amplifier would be greater. Gm =–10 dB = 0.1, then TS
band of the ES. The receiver shown in Fig. 1 employs a single
 becomes:
500 1000
T S  25  50    127 .5 K
200 0.1  200
c) Lower system temperatures are obtained by using a higher
gain LNAs. Suppose we increase the LNA gain in this
 example to Grf = 50 dB (= 105), then Ts becomes:

500 1000
TS  75   75 0.005 0.1  75.105 K
105 0.1105


B. Noise Figure

Noise figure (NF) is frequently used to specify the noise
generated within a device. The operational noise figure of a
device can be gotten from equation (18).
SNRin
NF  (18)
SNRout
Fig. 2. Double conversion super-heterodyne ES receiver [2]. where SNRin , SNRout – is the Signal-to-Noise ratio at the input
and the output of the device respectively.
Since the noise temperature is more useful in satellite
stage down frequency conversion. 
Many earth station receivers use the double super- communications, it is best to convert noise figure to noise
heterodyne configuration shown in Fig. 2, which has two temperature Tn using the relationship in equation (19).
stages of frequency conversion. The front end of the receiver  SNR 
is usually mounted behind the antenna feed and converts the T n  T 0 NF 1  T 0  in
1 (19)
SNRout 
incoming RF signals to a first IF in the range 900 MHz to
Where T0 – reference noise temperature = 290 K
1400 MHz. This allows the receiver to accept all the signals
from a satellite in a 500 MHz bandwidth at C or Ku band for


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 International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 5

The value of NF is usually given in dB in the literature and Solution

must be converted before using it in equation (19). The
relationship between Tn and NF for some typical values is a) From equation(7) we have that
given in Table I. 4 A   D 2
Gr      
TABLE I
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TN AND NF.
2   

Tn , at 4.1510 6 Hz;   c f  0.0723 m 

100

150

200

290

400

600
20

40

60

80
0

K    30 2
NF G r  0.69     1,172,856.9
0.0723 
0.29

0.56

0.82

1.06

1.29

1.81

2.28

3.0

3.8

4.9
,
0

dB  60.69 dB
b)
For Ts  79 K 10log79   18.98 dBK
1.069

1.138

1.208

1.276

1.718

1.517

1.690

1.995

2.399

3.090
NF
1

 G T  60.69  18.98  41, 71 dB / K

 If T s increases to 88 K in heavy rain, then
Example F: Ts  88 K 10log88   19.44 dBK

G T 
Given a noise figure of 0.82 dB find the corresponding noise /
 60.69  19.44  41,25 dB / K
temperature.
Change in G/T value
Solution
G /T   G T  G T   41.71 41.25
/
NF = 0.82 dB = 100.082 = 1.208
from equation (19) we have that  0.46 dB / K
T n  T 0 NF 1 

 2901.208 1  290  0.208 VI. SYSTEM AVAILABILITY

 60.32 K  The availability of a satellite communication system is the
 ratio of the actual period of correct operation of the system to
the required period of correct operation [3]. This availability
C. Figure of merit (G/T) depends not only on the reliability of the constituents of the
 From equation (4) we have the power of the carrier signal at system, but also on the probability of a successful launch, the
the receive antenna as Pr. And from equation (16) we have the replacement time and the number of operational and back-up
noise power given by the Nyquist equation. Since the C/N satellites (in orbit and on the ground). Availability of the earth
ratio is the ratio of signal power to noise power, we have that: stations depends not only on their reliability but also on their
P PG G maintainability. For the satellite, availability depends only on
C N  r  t t r 2 kTS Bn
Pn 4 R /   reliability since maintenance is not envisaged with current
techniques. Availability A is defined as given in equation (21).
2 2
Pt G t G r    G r Pt G t    G r ROT - DT
          C (20) A (21)
kTS Bn 4 R  T S kBn 4 R  T S ROT
 Where ROT and DT – Required Operational Time and Down
Time respectively.
C N  f G r T S  ROT is the period of time for which the system is required to

Where C is constant for a given operational mode of the be in active operational regime, while DT is the cumulative
satellite, thus C/N  G/T. The ratio Gr/Ts (or simply G/T) is amount of time the system is out of order within the required
known as the Figure of Merit. It indicates the quality of a operational time. To provide a given system availability A for
 receiving satellite earth system and has a unit [dB/K]. a given required time L, it is necessary to determine the
 number of satellites to be launched during the required time L.
Example G: This number will affect the cost of the service. The required
number of satellites N and the availability A of the system will
An earth station has a diameter of 30 m, and an overall be evaluated for two typical cases for which Tr is the time
efficiency of 69%. It is used to receive a signal of 4150 MHz. required to replace a satellite in orbit and P is the probability
At this frequency, the system noise temperature is 79 K when of a successful launch.
the antenna points at the satellite at an elevation angle of 28˚.
a) What is the earth station G/T under these conditions? A. No backup Satellite in Orbit
b) If heavy rain causes the sky temperature to increase so that For this case, the number of satellites to be launched is
the system noise temperature increases to 88 K what is the given by equation (22).
change in G/T value?
N L P T 1 e 
U T
(22)


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 International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 6

Where L – ROT [years]; P – Probability of success of each TABLE II

launch; T – mean time to failure (MTTF); U – Maximum C–BAND GEO SATELLITE LINK BUDGET IN CLEAR AIR
C – band satellite parameters
lifespan of satellite. Transponder saturated output power 20 W
If it is assumed that satellites close to their end of maximum Antenna gain on axis 20 dB
lifetime U are replaced soon enough so that, even in the case Transponder bandwidth 36 MHz
of a launch failure, another launch can be attempted in time, Downlink frequency band 3.7 – 4.2 GHz
the mean unavailability (breakdown) rate is: Signal FM – TV analogue signal
FM – TV signal bandwidth 30 MHz
tr
B (23)
Minimum permitted overall C/N in receiver
Receiving C – band earth station
9.5 dB
P T Downlink frequency 4 GHz
Where tr – time required for each replacement and the Antenna gain on axis at 4GHz 49.7 dB
availability A = 1- B of the system is thus: Receiver IF bandwidth 27 MHz
tr Receiving system noise temperature 75 K

 A 1 (24) Downlink power budget

P T Pt – satellite transponder output power, 20 W 13 dB
Bo – transponder output backoff -2dB
B. Back–up Satellite in Orbit Gt – satellite antenna gain, on axis 20 dB
By assuming, pessimistically but wisely, that a back-up Gr – earth station antenna gain 49.7 dB
LP – free space path loss at 4GHz -196.5 dB
satellite has a failure rate of l and a maximum lifetime U equal
to that of 
Lant = edge of beam loss for satellite antenna -3 dB
an active satellite, it becomes necessary to launch La = clear air atmospheric -0.2 dB
twice as many satellites during L years as in the previous case Lm = other losses -0.5dB
reflected in equation (22): Pr = received power at earth station -119.5 dBW

 
U T   Downlink noise power budget in clear air
N  2 L P T 1  e  (25) k = Boltzmann’s constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
 TS = system noise temperature, 75 K 18.8 dBK
Taking account of the fact that tr/T is a small value, the Bn = noise bandwidth 27 MHz 74.3 dBHz
N = receiver noise power -135.5 dBW
availability of the system expressed in equation (22) becomes:
C/N ratio in receiver in clear air
C/N =Pr – N = -119.5 – (-135.5) 16.0 dB
VII. LINK BUDGET

The link budget determines the antenna size to deploy, power VIII. SATELLITE LINK DESIGN METHODOLOGY
requirements, link availability, bit error rate, as well as the The design methodology for a one-way satellite
overall customer satisfaction with the satellite service. A link communication link can be summarized into the following
budget is a tabular method for evaluating the power received steps. The return link follows the same procedure.
and the noise ratio in a radio link [2]. It simplifies C/N ratio
calculations Methodology
The link budget must be calculated for an individual Step 1. Frequency band determination.
transponder, and must be recalculated for each of the Step 2. Satellite communication parameters determination.
individual links. Table II below shows a typical link budget Make informed guesses for unknown values.
for a C band downlink connection using a global beam GEO
Step 3. Earth station parameter determination; both uplink and
satellite and a 9m earth station antenna. Link budgets are
usually calculated for a worst-case scenario, the one in which downlink.
the link will have the lowest C/N ratio or lowest tolerable Step 4. Establish uplink budget and a transponder noise power
availability. budget to find (C/N)up in the transponder
Step 5. Determine transponder output power from its gain or
output backoff.
Step 6. Establish a downlink power and noise budget for the
receiving earth station
Step 7. Calculate (C/N)down and (C/N)0 for a station at the
outermost contour of the satellite footprint.
Step 8. Calculate SNR/BER in the baseband channel.
Step 9. Determine the link margin.
Step 10. Do a comparative analysis of the result vis-à-vis the
specification requirements.
Step 11. Tweak system parameters to obtain acceptable
(C/N)0 /SNR/BER values.
Step 12. Propagation condition determination.
Step 13. Uplink and downlink unavailability estimation.

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 International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 11 No: 04 7

Step 14. Redesign system by changing some parameters if

the link margins are inadequate.
Step 15. Are gotten parameters reasonable? Is design
financially feasible?
Step 16. If YES on both counts in step 15, then satellite link
design is successful – Stop.
Step 17. If NO on either (or both) counts in step 15, then
satellite link design is unsuccessful – Go to step 1.

IX. CONCLUSION
A number of factors have to be taken into consideration in the
design of a robust satellite link. We have presented the most
salient of these factors and examined how they are interrelated
vis-à-vis satellite link design for the provision of optimal
service availability. The transmitted and received power of the
link between the satellite and earth stations must be accounted
for, losses due to the link and communication equipments
must be taken into consideration et cetera. The link ratios,
which include carrier–to–noise and Bit error rate are good
indicators of the feasibility of the system design. The system
availability is another factor of high interest, and must
therefore be taken into account. Frequency re – use enhances
the capacity of the satellite, which makes it a vital element for
optimizing the link. A sample link budget was outlined to
illustrate the process. We have summarized in the satellite link
design methodology the most salient points necessary for
achieving a robust satellite link design with desired
characteristics.

REFERENCES
[1] Dennis Roddy, “ Satellite Communications”, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill,
USA, 2001, ISBN: 0-07-120240-4
[2] Timothy Pratt et al., “Satellite Communications “Copyright©2003,
ISBN: 9814-12-684-5
[3] Gerard Maral and Michel Bousquet, “ Satellite Communication
Systems”, 5th edition, John Wiley, UK, 2002
[4] International Telecommunications Union, “Handbook on satellite
communications”, 3rd edition, April, 2002, ISBN: 978-0-471-22189-0.
[5] J. A. Pecar, “The New McGraw-Hill Telecom Factbbok”, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2000, ISBN: 0-07-135163-9.

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