Some Problems in Jazz Research

Lewis Porter

Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2. (Autumn, 1988), pp. 195-206.

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 SOMEPROBLEMS IN JAZZ RESEARCH

LEWIS PORTER

Jazz research seems to be coming of age in the academic world. While

many non-academics have been researching this music since the 1920s,
we are now beginning to find a larger percentage of music professors
engaged in these activities. During the past twenty years or more, many
colleges and universities have had a jazz history or jazz ensemble
course, but the impetus for such courses often came from a faculty
member who had some interest in jazz as a sideline. More often than
not, there was no institutional support for jazz, only the luck of having a
faculty member who wanted to teach it. Recently, however, colleges
have been actively seeking jazz scholars. There is a growing commit-
ment to jazz as an academic subject, and colleges are actively seeking
qualified teachers. The positions always require teaching other subjects
in addition to jazz, but progress is clearly being made.
To date, most jazz research has been done by individuals who are nei-
ther musicians nor academics. These efforts have been very much ap-
preciated by all concerned with the field. All the while, we recognize the
fact that non-musician non-academics usually have several handicaps as
jazz researchers. First, they are not performers of the music. Second,
they vary greatly in their understanding of research methods. The dis-
cographers as a rule are the most successful researchers, having over the
years established their own methods and standards. Many discogra-
phies contain remarkable and indispensable findings. But jazz biog-
raphies, on the other hand, range from documents that are thoroughly
researched to those based merely on hearsay. Finally, non-musicians are
severely limited by their inability to analyze the music, which is after all
the subject and inspiration of our study.
Obviously, there are many types of research-discographical, biblio-

An earlier version of this paper was written for and presented at the conference "Jazz:
An American Metaphor," held at the University of Minnesota, February 13-141987.

L m s PORTERteaches jazz and music theory at Rutgers University at Newark, New Jersey.
His publications include Lester Young (G. K. Hall 1985) and artides that have appeared in
The Black Perspectiue in Music, Journal of the American Musiwlogical Society, and other jour-
nals.

195
196 BMI-?Journal

graphical, analytical, historical, interpretiveall of which overlap in

ways that many researchers fail to grasp, and that failure weakens the
accuracy of their work. The following are a few of the many demonstra-
tions of this problem that I have encountered during my own varied re-
search projects.
Lay researchers have been especially active in the area of oral history,
which produces fascinating and essential tapes and documents. But
some of these researchers sometimes confuse oral history with biogra-
phy. The interview is a necessary but noi sufficient part of biographical
research, not complete in itself.
Similarly, oral history provides us with a sense of the personalities
and with a rich legacy of storytelling. But as a source of names, dates,
and other items of identification, it must always be checked against
other sources. For example, Art Blakey has said that he joined the
Fletcher Henderson band in 1939, and this year has been cited by Nat
Hentoff (19581, Herb Nolan (1979, 20), and others. Many accepted this
date as given in Leonard Feather's Encyclopedia of Jazz (1960,137). How-
ever, the year 1939 seems unlikely because the Henderson orchestra dis-
banded in June 1939, which is one reason Henderson was playing piano
and writing for Benny Goodman that year. While researching his book
on Fletcher Henderson, Walter C. Allen checked Blakey's statement
against statements in magazines, newspapers, and the oral histories of
other people who played with Henderson. He determined that 1943 is
the correct year (Allen 1973,420440). Henderson had reformed his own
band by then.
Another example follows: Roland Kirk played two strange instru-
ments, one that looked like a straight soprano saxophone with a large
bell and one that looked like a straightened alto. He called them manzel-
lo and stritch. There has been much confusion about the nature of these
instruments. Many writers have assumed that they were factory rejects
or otherwise one-of-a-kind items. In The New Grove Dictionary of Ameri-
can Music they are described as "of unknown origin" (Kernfeld 1986). In
fact these straight saxophones were regularly manufactured and avail-
able in the 1920s and were obsolete by the time Kirk found them in a
shop (Cohen 1985). A little historical research on the saxophone would
have uncovered this information.
Then there are Lester Young's various accounts of his stay with the
legendary trumpeter King Oliver. He first said he worked with him for
several months (Feather 1950), later said one to two years (Hentoff
1956), and still later told Chris Albertson that it was about a year (Dance
1980). Despite the uncertainty, most writers continue to quote one of the
Some Problems in Jazz Research 197

larger estimates (e.g., Balliett 1983, 121). However, it has been my ex-
perience that interviewers often produce incorrect data by asking lead-
ing questions, questions that begin with such phrases as "Isn't it true
that . . ." or 'Wouldn't you agree that . . ?" In such circumstances, I
have often known a musician to agree with an inaccuracy, perhaps from
wanting to accommodate the interviewer and not being certain of the
correct answer anyway, or perhaps just not caring about the correctness
of the answer. An examination of the original interview tape, conducted
by Chris Albertson in August 1958, and the published transcription
(Dance 1980,24)reveals that the actual dialogue was as follows:

Albertson: You played with King Oliver for a year, didn't you?
Young: Yeah, about a year.

Young's response is not very convincing. Albertson was pushing, and

Young may have been tempted to exaggerate the length of his stay with
the legendary Oliver. Morroe Berger once wrote some insightful com-
ments on the dangers of using leading questions (Berger [I9471 1962,
103).
While researching my book on Young, I checked all of Young's
known movements in newspapers and in the oral histories of other mu-
sicians of his circle. This search revealed that there is not a complete
year of his life during which he could have played with Oliver. We can
only say that he was certainly with Oliver from the end of June until the
middle of August 1933 and possibly at other times (Porter 1985a, 108,
note 10). The information about June through August was discovered
after the book's publication when I interviewed the Oliver band's bass-
ist, Adolphus Alsbrook.
Here is an example of a different way in which an oral history can be
a source of biographical errors. James Lincoln Collier, in his Armstrong
biography, depicts the trumpeter as a petty and insecure man who
never formed deep friendships. His main witness is the drummer Zutty
Singleton, who was not retained when Armstrong formed his first big
band (Collier 1983, 223 and 257). But Collier clearly indicates that
Singleton's New Orleans style was probably not appropriate for a swing
band (Collier 1983,216).Furthermore, these two musicians are known to
have had a stormy relationship. It would have been more accurate--as
much as one can be accurate when discussing personality-to try to es-
tablish some kind of survey of what many musicians thought of Arm-
strong. Dozens of musicians who worked with Armstrong for years
longer than Singleton loved him dearly. None paints him as a saint, and
198 BMR Journal

certainly he was angry at times, but it is clear that Collier's portrait does
not represent any kind of consensus.
Collier seems to be interested in the kind of sensationalism one finds
in the tabloids, and this attitude affects his presentation of the facts. He
disputes Armstrong's birthdate of July 4,1900, simply because it sounds
suspicious, too neat and perfect. He concludes that Armstrong must
have been born earlier than 1900, ca. 1898. Many of the reviews of the
book have mentioned this so-called discovery, but Collier did not actu-
ally discover anything. His argument rests on two points. One is that
Armstrong's draft registration file shows that the person recording his
birthdate began writing "July 4, I&-" and changed it to 1900, around
which fact Collier paints a fanciful scenario of Armstrong lying and
having to explain himself (Collier 1983,20-21). The other point is that a
few of Armstrong's friends at various times made casual references to
his being a couple of years older or younger than they were, and of
these a few are in the direction of Armstrong having been born before
1900 (Collier 1983,72-73). It is possible that Armstrong was not born on
July 4, 1900, but the date should not be changed (as has already been
done in Collier 1986,67) until a new one can be definitively established.
In fact, Professor Lawrence Gushee of the University of Illinois, one of
the most brilliant and accurate researchers ever to deal with jazz and the
leading authority on New Orleans birthdates, points out that the New
Orleans census records clearly indicate 1900 as Armstrong's birth date
(Gushee 1987).
Another problem is that jazz criticism is often confused with jazz re-
search. It is clear that record reviews are not necessarily products of re-
search. Yet when reviewers put together books of their short pieces,
these suddenly become reference works on jazz history. It is necessary
to know many sound recordings in order to conduct jazz research, but
not sufficient. A reviewer is exposed to a fairly haphazard selection of
records, mostly the new releases and reissues. Besides, he or she is pri-
marily concerned with judging the quality of a record and not necessar-
ily with placing it in historical perspective.
To make an analogy with classical music research, before writing a
major work about Beethoven, one would certainly need to be familiar
with every piece he wrote and with all 'he most important documents
pertaining to him. Scholars would find it laughable if a researcher wrote
a comprehensive piece about Beethoven and did not mention his Fifth
Symphony only because the author did not happen to have a record of
it at home. Yet critics often select the definitive Young, Parker, or Haw-
kins record based only on familiarity with a sample of each one's work.
Some Problems in Jazz Research 199

In the case of Duke Ellington, there are so many books that define the
years 1939 through 1942 as his greatest period that I need not single out
any particular author. But Ellington wrote most of his long suites after
this period and said in his autobiography that the sacred concert suites
were his most important works. (Some of the most original and
astounding composing of the twentieth century is contained in the Sec-
ond Sacred Concert (1968) and in such secular works as Suite Thursday
(1960), The Queen's Suite (1959), and Such Sweet Thunder (1956-19571, to
name a few.) In any case it is ridiculous to end one's study of Ellington
in 1942, his eighteenth year of recording, when he had forty years of ac-
tivity remaining! Collier is guilty of this in his book The Making of Jazz,
where he describes all of Ellington's work after the early 1940s as a "de-
terioration" (Collier 1978, 247). He flatly claims that none of Ellington's
longer pieces succeed as jazz and implies that they do not even succeed
as music. (He maintains the same position throughout his new book on
Ellington [Collier 19871.) To lend authority to his claim, he reports that
"the critics" (he does not specify which ones) disliked the suites, as if
they are the holders of truth about all music (Collier 1978,257).
We have to be careful about becoming critics ourselves when we
mean to write history. For example, too many purportedly historical ar-
ticles assert that Ornette Coleman and John Coltrane are overrated. His-
tory is not a collection of opinions. There are some objective measures
that must be consulted, and they come mostly from musicians. When
thousands of musicians say that Coleman's or Coltrane's music changed
their lives, we have a measure of historical importance. History is more
about importance than about goodness or badnessthe latter are sub-
jects of style criticism.
Nevertheless, it seems that jazz writers rarely hesitate to condemn
what they do not understand. They often take a posture of superiority
to the musicians. The racism in our society makes it all too easy for
white authors to take a condescending attitude to the jazz they write
about. I am certain that this racism is unintentional and unconscious,
but it nevertheless seems to be a fact, especially when one compares the
respectful tone of most classical critics with that of many jazz writers.
In order to counteract the racism that surrounds jazz, it is crucial to
view things from the black perspective as much as possible. This obvi-
ously will prove most difficult for those who have not had much social
contact with blacks. But I maintain that it is crucial to make the attempt,
not for some vague reason of fairness but for the very specific reason
that one simply cannot understand many important historical and musi-
200 BMR Journal

cal facts if one looks at them entirely from a non-black cultural view-
point.
Figure 1 illustrates some observations about jazz from two sides-a
non-black perspective, expressed by some white critics at various times,
and a black perspective expressed by some musicians i n interviews. As
these examples attempt to illustrate, there are numerous misconceptions
and criticisms of jazz that begin with ethnocentrism.
Jazz publications are full of "aracial" writing-by which I mean a n
Figure 1 . Some Common Statements About Jazz Seen from Two Viezupoints

A non-black viewpoint commonly found A black viewpoint often expressed in oral

in critical publications histories of musicians

(1) Early jazz musicians never stud- (1)All studied through an apprentice
ied music. system, but most did not earn music
degrees.

(2) Jazz players prefer raw and vul- (2) Wonderfully expressive and origi-
gar timbres. nal sound concepts open up new areas
for all musicians.

(3) The black players excel in (3) You can't separate one aspect of
rhythm. music. All the great players-Arm-
strong, Young, Parker, and others-
were great melodically and harmoni-
cally, as well as rhythmically. Black
musicians have also been the most in-
novative harmonic and melodic play-
ers in jazz.

(4) Jazz musicians cannot explain (4) Brilliance in writing is only one
their music in writing or speaking. kind of brilliance. Also, brilliant speak-
ing need not be in the King's English.
Lester Young often said profound
things about his music with a few
slang words.

(5)Jazz musicians use incorrect or in- (5) Technique is not the issue. The
adequate technique. point is to find a way to create the
music. Technique is only a means to
that end. Spirit and soul are more im-
portant.
Some Problems in Jazz Research 201

approach that simply ignores or underestimates racial issues. Leonard

Feather argued that jazz resulted from people being confined to ghettos
and implied that any group brought up in American ghettos, even the
Chinese people, would have created jazz (Feather 1960,23). This naively
assumes that black people did not come to America with any musical
ideas of their own. Chinese roots would have made for a quite different
music. Mark Gridley, in the second edition of his generally superior text,
Jazz Styles, noted that "jazz resulted from mixing black and white musi-
cal traditions" but avoided mentioning that it was the black people who
did the mixing (Gridley [I9781 1985,ll). The role of black Americans is
a bit more clearly indicated in the third edition (Gridley [I9781 1988,38).
Many white writers say that because whites play jazz, it cannot be
black music. They are confusing two separate issues. Everyone knows
that some of the great opera singers are black, but no one would say
that, therefore, opera is a black music. Many Asians are outstanding
classical instrumentalists, yet no one would claim that western classical
music is Asian music. Jazz and classical music both have an interna-
tional appeal. In addition, both require a great deal of technical skill,
which can be mastered by persons of any culture. On the other hand, it
is not valid to try to discredit the black American nature of jazz on the
basis of its cross-cultural appeal and influence. Of course, non-blacks
have contributed a great deal to jazz and have created their own styles,
but the basic language of the music still derives from black America.
Before researchers can do proper work in jazz, they must acknow-
ledge themselves to be scholars of black music. There is absolutely no
reason that non-blacks cannot be scholars and performers of black
music. After all, non-Frenchmen teach French and non-Russians are ex-
perts on Russia. It is only because of the racism in this country that
some whites are reluctant to say in the same vein as "I'm proud to be a
French scholar" that 'I'm proud to be a black-music scholar."
It is rare that writers on jazz make overtly racist statements, but some
come dangerously close. Returning to Collier's Armstrong biography,
we find the statement that as late as 1929, "many blacks, perhaps the
majority, however much they might deny it, truly felt they were infe-
rior" (Collier 1983, 67). He condemns Armstrong for performing when
he was ill, accusing him of compulsive and neurotic behavior (Collier
1983,235). In every other field this kind of behavior has been seen as ad-
mirable tenacity and dedication-"the show must go on!" Jazz historian
Dan Morgenstern (1985) brilliantly and effectively examined these and
other problems of Collier's work on Armstrong.
Collier calls Charlie Parker a sociopath in a book that purports to be a
202 BMR Journal

jazz history, The Making of Jazz (1978, 225). It would be unthinkable to

speak that way of Mozart or Beethoven in a comparable classical work.
James Baldwin was inspired to create a brilliant essay on the black expe-
rience in direct response to Collier's book. "Allow me," he wrote, "to
paraphrase, and parody, one of his statements, and I am not trying to be
unkind:
'There have been two authentic geniuses in jazz. One of them, of course,
was Louis Armstrong, the much loved entertainer, striving for acceptance.
The other was a sociopath named Charlie Parker who managed . . . to de-
stroy his career-and finally himself [Collier 1978,3621.
'Well. Then:
"There have been two authentic geniuses in art. One of them, of course was
Michelangelo, the much beloved court jester, striving to please the Pope.
The other was a misfit named Rembrandt who managed . .. to destroy his
career--and finally himself (Baldwin 1979,18).
Baldwin's point is that Collier's language destroys any respect for these
artists and leaves the reader doubting that they are geniuses at all. He
goes on to suggest that Collier's damaging attitudes stem from an in-
ability to get inside black culture.
Musical analysis must also take cultural factors into account. It is not
necessarily appropriate for jazz researchers to imitate classical models
and methods. Nor, at the other extreme, is it useful to disdain all meth-
ods used in other types of music or to discard analysis and research al-
together. What is objectionable is a certain type of analysis that takes the
music out of context and seems to diminish or ignore its emotional and
spiritual content. Collier is guilty of proposing this type of approach
when he maintains that we cannot evaluate Coltrane's music until we
can separate it from its religious and philosophical content (Collier 1978,
492493). Who would ever make such an assertion about Bach's canta-
tas? With Bach and with Coltrane, the religious significance is intrinsic
to the musical structure and to the whole reason and meaning of the
music. Coltrane's suite A Love Supreme cannot even be properly ana-
lyzed in harmonic and melodic terms unless one takes the religious text
into account (Porter 1985b).
Because jazz has a certain commercial viability, publishers have been
willing to rush things into publication that have very poor editorial
standards. The blame here falls both on the authors, for doing poor
work and perhaps only caring about improving their publishing reputa-
tions, and on the publishers and editors, for often doing the minimum
Some Problems in Jazz Research 203

checking of manuscripts. This hurts the credibility of the whole field.

Part of the problem here is that there are few editors qualified to work
on jazz manuscripts. But the use of expert readers and consultants can
help redress this shortage.
By way of summary, I suggest that jazz researchers consider the fol-
lowing points and consider the authors listed as role models.
(1) A respectful attitude should be adopted toward the subject of
one's research.
(2) One should view the field as much as possible from a black per-
spective. The words of black musicians must be taken seriously, and one
must spend the time needed to unravel the meanings of any terse or
slangy statements. Some writers who are very aware of the black per-
spective include LeRoi Jones (1963), Ben Sidran ([I9711 1981), and Bruce
Tucker (1984).
(3) A great variety of sources should be utilized. One should consult
newspapers, magazines, oral histories, booking agents, record company
files, itineraries, private journals, discographies, advertisements, concert
flyers, issued recordings, and private tapes. No single source should be
considered infallible. When an interview exists in both printed and
taped form, it is best to consult the original tape. One should always
look for independent confirmation of any date or place in more than
one source. Works of Lawrence Gushee (1985), Walter Allen (1973),
Franz Hoffman (1982), and Frank Biichmann-M~ller(In press) are mod-
els of the correct use of sources.
(4) One must take pains to know enough about the subject before one
begins writing. It is inappropriate to write any kind of summary evalua-
tion of a person's work or achievement unless one has heard it all, not
just a smattering. To discuss one particular record may be another mat-
ter, but it probably does not make sense even then, since one needs a
context in which to discuss the piece under scrutiny. A recording cannot
be fully discussed without reference to the influences behind it, espe-
cially since in jazz there are often direct borrowings from other pieces of
music. Gunther Schuller's magnificent book on Early Jazz (1968) is based
on a thorough knowledge of his subject.
Here are some illustrations of the need for a broad knowledge of re-
cordings.
Armstrong's 'West End Blues" of 1928 has long been cited as one of
the great recordings of all time and a masterpiece of spontaneous inven-
tion. Yet, his opening trumpet solo appeared in a different key on a 1924
recording with vocalist Margaret Johnson. Near the end of that record-
ing, entitled "Changeable Daddy of Mine," Armstrong fills a break with
204 BMR Journal

the second half of what was to be his "West End Blues" introduction
four years later (Porter 1981). It is clear that this information will drasti-
cally change one's perception of the 1928 solo.
In order to evaluate Glenn Miller's 1939 recording of "In the Mood,"
one should know that the Horace Henderson piece "Hot and Anxious,"
recorded by his brother Fletcher's band in 1931, is one of several earlier
pieces that utilize the same riff. Joe Garland, the composer of "In the
Mood," wrote a similar piece called "There's Rhythm in Harlem" that
was recorded by the Mills Blue Rhythm Band in 1935.
To give another example, Parker's Savoy recordings are certainly as
great as everyone says they are, but it is only by listening to the many
live recordings, legal and otherwise, that one gets a sense of how experi-
mental Parker could be. One also learns that his style was developing
during the decade from 1945 until his death in 1955, as opposed to the
common view that he stayed on a plateau. The period 1950 through
1953 represented a peak phase, technically and artistically. Through the
poor fidelity, the Rockland Palace date of 1952 reveals Parker playing
entire phrases that were later used by Eric Dolphy, especially on "The
Rocker," version two.
Another important phenomenon is the direct quotation of one per-
former by another. There are many solos that refer to the "High Society"
clarinet solo, originally adapted from a published piccolo part for that
march. That solo was first recorded by Johnny Dodds with King
Oliver's band in 1923. Armstrong was on that record, and he quoted the
opening of the clarinet solo in "Sweethearts on Parade" (1930), as did
Parker on "Koko," "Warming Up a Riff" (both in 1945 for Savoy), and a
number of other titles. For another example, Parker quoted Armstrong's
,West End Blues" introduction during a solo on "Cheryl" at the Carne-
gie Hall concert of December 24, 1949. And Gerry Mulligan's composi-
tion "Jeru" for the Miles Davis Nonet of 1949 was based on the end of
Lester Young's solo on "Sometimes I'm Happy" (1944). A listener who
has not heard the solos that are being referred to will miss a whole level
of musical meaning.
The recent appearance of the professional jazz scholar-the person
who is hired, at least partially, to engage in jazz teaching and research
and is not forced to pursue jazz only as a hobby or sideline-is a signifi-
cant development in the acceptance of jazz in American higher edu-
cation. But it brings with it certain responsibilities. Jazz scholars should
be versed in a variety of research methods, should know music, and,
ideally, should be performers. Jazz researchers should strive to produce
top quality work.
Some Problems in Jazz Research 205

DISCOGRAPHY

The following recordings are listed by leader. Some issues are out of
print. Many of the cited recordings have been available on numerous
other issues.

Annstrong, Louis. West end blues. Srnithsonian collection of classic jazz, revised edition.
Smithsonian Institution R033/CBS Special Products P4-19744,1928.

-. Sweethearts on parade. Smithsonian collection of classic jazz, revised edition. Smith-

sonian Institution RCB3/CBS Speaal Products P419744,1930.
Coltrane, John. A love supreme. MCA 5660,1964.
Davis, Miles. Jeru. Birth of the cool. Capitol N-16168, 1949.
Ellington, Duke. Suite Thursday. Columbia Special Products P-14359,1960.
-. The queen's suite. Pablo 2310762,1959.
. Such sweet thunder. Columbia Special Products JCL-1033, 1956-1957.
. Second sacred concert. Prestige 24045,1968.
Henderson, Fletcher. Hot and anxious. A study in frustration. Columbia C4L 19, 1931.
Johnson, Margaret. Changeable daddy of mine. Louis Annstrong: Adam and Eve had the
blues. CBS (France) 65379, 1924.
Miller, Glenn. In the mood. Big band jazz: From the beginnings to the fifties. Smithsonian In-
stitution RO3O/RCA Speaal Products DMM 6-0610,1939.
Mills Blue Rhythm Band. There's rhythm in Harlem. Keep the rhythm going. Jazz Archives
10.1935.
liver, King. High society [rag]. Smithsonian Institution R001,1923.
Parker, Charlie. The complete Sawy studio sessions. Savoy 5500. Includes Koko and Warming
up a riff, both 1945.
. Cheryl. Jazz Live BLJ 8004,1949.
. The rocker, version two. Live at Rockland Palace. Charlie Parker Records (2) 502,
1952.
Young. Lester. Sometimes I'm happy, take 2. The complete Keynote collection. Polygram
830121-1,1944.

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Some Problems in Jazz Research
Lewis Porter
Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2. (Autumn, 1988), pp. 195-206.
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References

A Preliminary Chronology of the Early Career of Ferd "Jelly Roll" Morton

Lawrence Gushee
American Music, Vol. 3, No. 4. (Winter, 1985), pp. 389-412.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0734-4392%28198524%293%3A4%3C389%3AAPCOTE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J

John Coltrane's "A Love Supreme": Jazz Improvisation as Composition

Lewis Porter
Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 38, No. 3. (Autumn, 1985), pp. 593-621.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0139%28198523%2938%3A3%3C593%3AJC%22LSJ%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F

Prejudice Lives: Toward a Philosophy of Black Music Biography

Bruce Tucker
Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 4. (1984), pp. 1-21.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0276-3605%281984%294%3C1%3APLTAPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7