Heating Ventilation Air

Conditioning
A brief introductory course for the new control technician
Understanding HVAC Fundamentals
1.1 HVAC System Functions 5
HVAC System Types and Applications 7
1.2 Designing the HVAC System 11
HVAC Design Factors 11
Cooling and Heating Loads 13
Installing the HVAC System 14
1.3 Comfort 17
Comfort 17
Heat 17
Humidity 18
Ventilation 19
1.4 HVAC System Components 21
Air Conditioning Theory 21
HVAC System Components 21

1.5 HVAC System Control Components 27

Automatic Control Systems 27
Automatic Control System Components 27
Automatic Control System Classification 29

Exploring the Physical Sciences

2.1 Units 35
English and SI Units 35
Unit Conversion 36
2.2 Temperature 39
Absolute Zero 39
°F to °C Conversion 39
2.3 Force 41
Force Characteristics 41
2.4 Pressure 45
Types of Pressure 45
Pressure Measuring Instruments 47
2.5 Energy 51
Forms of Energy 51
2.6 First Law of Thermodynamics 55
2.7 Solids, Liquids, and Vapors 57
Kinetic Molecular Theory 58
Boiling Point Conditions 59
Refrigeration 60

-2 Lesson 1-
Differentiating Heating and Cooling Loads
3.1 Heat Transfer Principles 67
Methods of Heat Transfer 67
Thermal Resistance 69
3.2 Heating Load 75
3.3 Cooling Load 79

Understanding Psychrometrics
4.1 What is Psychrometrics? 85
4.2 Physical Properties of Air 89
4.3 The Psychrometric Chart 93
4.4 Process Lines 101
Sensible Heat Ratio 104
Apparatus Dew Point 105
Coil Contact and Bypass Factors 106

Examining Fluid Flow

5.1 Fluid flow continuity equation 111
5.2 Flow energy equation 115
Energy balance principle 115
5.3 Pressure in fluid systems 119
Velocity pressure 120
Static Pressure 120
Total Pressure 120
5.4 Pressure loss in fluid systems 123
Pressure loss in piping systems 123
Pressure loss in duct systems 125

Analyzing Pumps and Piping Systems

6.1 Pump characteristics 131
Pump selection 137
6.2 Hydronic Piping systems 139
Piping system classification 140
Piping system arrangements 141
6.3 Expansion and compression tanks 151

Lesson - 1 -1
 Expansion tanks 151
Compression tanks 152
Piping system pressure 153
6.4 Air venting 157
Air venting devices 157
6.5 Valves 161
Valve Construction 161
Valve Flow Characteristics 162
Valve Flow Terms 164
Valve Ratings 165
Valve Types 166

Analyzing Heat Generating Systems

7.1 Boilers 175
Boiler Use Advantages 175
Boiler Components 176
Boiler Operation 178
Boiler Classification 179
Boiler Arrangements 179
Boiler Capacity Ratings 180
Boiler Controls 180
7.2 Warm Air Furnaces 183
Furnace Components 183
Furnace Operation 185
Furnace Classification 186
Furnace Construction 186
Furnace Capacity and Efficiency Ratings 188
Furnace Controls 189

Analyzing Cooling Systems

8.1 Cooling systems 193
Thermodynamics of Refrigeration 193
Refrigeration System Capacity 193
8.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration 195
Vapor Compression Equipment 197
8.3 Cooling System Components 199
Evaporators 200
Flow Control Devices 202
Compressors 203

0 Lesson 1-
8.4 Absorption Refrigeration 213
Absorption Refrigeration Components 215
Absorption Refrigeration Operation 216
8.5 Cooling Towers 221
Cooling Tower Equipment 221
Cooling Tower Operation 223
Types of Cooling Towers 225
8.6 Refrigerants 229
Refrigerant Types 231
Compression Type Refrigerants 232
Absorption Type Refrigerants 232

Recognizing Air Distribution Systems

9.1 Fan systems 237
Fan types 237
Fan selection and installation 242
9.2 Fan laws 245
9.3 Air delivery systems 249
9.4 Air delivery system equipment 253
Air handling units 253
Humidifiers 258
Dehumidifiers 261
Filters 262
Air distribution requirements 264

Identifying Terminal Units

10.1 Hydronic terminal units 271
Heating hydronic units 271
Cooling hydronic units 275
10.2 Air delivery terminal units 279
Constant Air Volume 279
Variable Air Volume 279
VAV types 280
VAV disadvantages 283
10.3 Heat pump terminal units 287
Heat pump operation 289

Lesson - 1 1
2 Lesson 1-
 1
Understanding HVAC Fundamentals

Explore the purpose and components of HVAC

systems.

• HVAC System Functions

• Designing The HVAC System

• Comfort

• HVAC System Components

• HVAC System Control

Components
4 Lesson 1-
1.1 HVAC System Functions
The need to control indoor environmental conditions has given rise to many inno-
vations and technologies. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
technology has advanced rapidly in the last 100 years. HVAC systems do more
than simply cooling air; they maintain comfort by controlling temperature, humid-
ity, air cleanliness, air distribution and pressure. The amount of CO2 in a con-
trolled space is now often monitored as an indication of occupancy and the need
for more ventilation air.

HVAC systems maintain indoor environmental conditions or sometimes the

required conditions for process control. People are most comfortable and produc-
tive if their environment can be maintained within narrow temperature, humidity
and air quality ranges. For example, one of the first applications of modern air
conditioning was in early movie theatres. During the summer attendance was very
limited because a room filled with hundreds of people would quickly become very
hot and humid. When the theatre marque proudly advertised that it was cooled
inside people would pay just to be cool for awhile. This was also a boon to the
movie industry.

Photo courtesy of Gordon McAlpin

Lesson - 1 5
New Terms

Air Conditioning The process of maintaining an

indoor environment by controlling temperature,
humidity, air quality, distribution, cleanliness, and
air pressure.

CO2 The trace gas used to monitor occupancy in

a zone.

HVAC system The equipment, ducting and piping

used to control the environment in a zone is called a
heating, ventilation, air conditioning system. .

Humidity The amount of moisture present in air.

Air quality The degree of air purity.

To meet the varied needs for maintaining these indoor environmental conditions,
HVAC systems may need to cool or heat, humidify or dehumidify, ventilate, filter,
distribute, or pressurize air.

Cool/heat- HVAC systems control the temperature in an indoor environment as the

system transfers heat to or from a particular zone, that is, the room or space being
maintained by the HVAC system. If a building is cold, a heating device (heat gen-
eration system) is required to transfer heat into that space and replace the heat lost
to the outside. When a building is hot, a cooling device is required to remove the
excess heat to the outside.

Humidify/dehumidify- HVAC systems control the degree of moisture present in

the air. Humidifying (adding moisture to) the air may be necessary in winter
months or in a dry climate. Dehumidifying (removing moisture from) the air is
more often required in summer months and humid climates.

Ventilate- HVAC systems control the air quality of the buildings zone by ventilat-
ing the space with fresh air from outside the building. Air is polluted by occupants
and by the off-gassing of interior carpet, paint, and other furnishings. Outside air is
added into the buildings zone to dilute the interior air, and some of the polluted air
is exhausted to the outside of the building.

Filter- HVAC systems pass outside air through a filter to remove unwanted partic-

6 Lesson 1-
 ulates. We can typically allow some amount of recycled air to re-circulate back
into the building, this recycled air is also filtered for particulates before re-entering
the building zone.

Distribute- HVAC systems distribute conditioned air or heating/cooling water

throughout the building. Air is distributed through ducts and water is distributed
through a piping system.

Pressurize- HVAC systems control the infiltration of unfiltered, unconditioned air

by bringing more outside air in than is exhausted. This situation provides a slightly
higher pressure inside the building than outside, limiting the movement of outside
air through doors, walls, cracks, and windows. Pressurization is also needed to
move conditioned air through a building.

Depending on the situation, an HVAC system may need to perform cooling and
dehumidifying at certain times of the year and then perform heating and humidify-
ing at other times and ventilation, distribution, filtering and pressurization all of
the year. These HVAC system functions enable the system to control variables in
an indoor environment that determine if a building zone is comfortable or not.
Occupants feel comfortable if the air and surface temperatures are not too warm or
too cold, if the percentage of moisture present in the air does not feel clammy or
dry, and if the distribution of particle-free air is not drafty.

HVAC System Types and Applications

To meet occupant needs, HVAC systems are varied. There is great flexibility
in the types of HVAC systems that are used as well as the design of
components that constitute these systems. One way to categorize HVAC
systems is by the method used to move heat. The two choices are wet systems
or dry systems. They are shown in Table 1.0:

Table 1.1 HVAC System Types

HVAC system types Application System components

Apartment buildings Boiler, chiller

Schools, Piping
wet systems Commercial buildings Coil or Radiation
Industrial buildings device
Residences Pump

Schools, Furnace and A/C

Commercial buildings Ducts
dry systems
Industrial buildings Air outlet registers
Residences Humidifier

Lesson - 1 7
 Wet systems consist of a boiler and/or chiller, piping, coils or radiation
devices, and pump(s). Heat can be economically moved into or out of a
building by circulating water through the appropriate devices. Wet systems
usually mean there is a central plant in the building with chillers and/or
boilers and supporting equipment.

Dry systems can consist of a furnace or air handler, A/C coil and condensing
unit, ductwork, air outlet registers or diffusers, and sometimes a humidifier.
This type of HVAC system is common in residences and many commercial
buildings. Heat is added to or removed from the air supplied to the buildings
zones. Dehumidification and humidification can be provided for occupant
comfort.

New Term

wet systems HVAC systems that use circulating water or

steam to add or remove heat from a building.

dry systems HVAC systems that use air flow to add or

remove heat from a building.

Review
HVAC systems are technologically advanced air conditioning systems
designed to maintain comfort levels in indoor environments. Environmental
conditions vary, so a typical HVAC system will serve differing conditions
throughout a typical day or season.

Space temperature, humidity, air distribution, and air cleanliness are all
variables that the HVAC system regulates. Wet systems and Dry systems are
the two main types of HVAC systems.

Wet systems pipe water through a building to move heat into or out of the
interior spaces. Dry systems direct air through a building to move heat into or
out of the interior spaces.

8 Lesson 1-
Exercises: 1.1
1.What is air conditioning?

2. What are the two main types of HVAC systems?

3. List six HVAC system functions.

Lesson - 1 9
10 Lesson 1-
1.2 Designing the HVAC System
Factors that influence comfort must be considered in HVAC system design.
These factors can be divided into two categories: internal and external.

HVAC Design Factors

Internal factors are possible sources of heat from inside a building. Possible
internal factors typically include people, lights, computers, copy machines,
coffee makers, production equipment, and any other machinery that puts off
heat. Each watt of electricity used in a space gives off 3.14 BTUs/HR of heat.
We’ll learn what a BTU is later.

External factors are possible sources of heat from outside a building. Possible
external factors include wind, solar radiation, transmission of heat through
the structure of the facility, and the leakage of heat out of or into the building
through walls due to temperature differences, windows, cracks, and doors due
to infiltration.

Lesson - 1 11
New Terms

internal factors Sources of heat generation from within a

building, including people, lights, and machinery.

external factors Sources of heat generation from outside a

facility, including wind, solar radiation, transmission, and
leakage.

Solar radiation is the heat generated and released by the sun as

electromagnetic waves. This heat is greater in the east in the morning and
west in the afternoon. The sun’s radiation can penetrate glass, and can be used
as a heat source to warm interior space.

Transmission is the heat transfer process of moving heat through walls and
windows into or out of a facility. Different materials transfer heat at different
rates. When the outside temperature is above the inside temperature, heat
transfers into the facility through the outside structure. When the outside
temperature is lower than the inside temperature, heat will be transferred out
of the building. This is why offices and rooms in a house can become so warm
in the summer and so cold in the winter.

Leakage occurs when pressure differences in a building cause air to infiltrate

or exfiltrate through cracks in walls, doors, windows, and roof equipment
penetrations.

New Terms

solar radiation The heat generated by the sun. Energy

emitted from a source in the form of rays.

transmission The heat transfer process of moving heat

through walls and windows into or out of a facility.

leakage The escaping of heat through cracks in walls,

windows, doors, or any other opening in the structure of a
facility.

12 Lesson 1-
Cooling and Heating Loads
Cooling load is the total heat gained from the sum of internal and external
factors. This heat must be removed by cooling the zone or building. A
building may have different cooling load ratings for different zones within it
because of different internal and external factors in any area at any given
time.

Heating load is the total heat lost from the sum of internal and external
factors. This heat must be replaced by adding heat back to the various areas in
the facility that are cooler than the desired setpoint.

Lesson - 1 13
New Terms

cooling load The total heat gained from internal and

external factors.

heating load The total heat lost from internal and external
factors.

setpoint The desired temperature that is monitored by a

thermostat or other type of sensor.

Installing the HVAC System

The general contractor is responsible for the completed construction of a
building. For large-scale building projects, the general contractor hires
subcontractors to help complete the project. The general contractor hires a
mechanical or HVAC contractor to professionally install the HVAC system.

The HVAC contractor works with a consulting mechanical engineer to

design the HVAC system. The mechanical engineer creates the contract or
engineering drawings of the HVAC system for a building depending on the
needs of the owner, the facility’s function, the comfort factors, and the
internal and external design factors. The HVAC contractor takes the
engineering drawings and creates shop drawings to be used as guidelines for
the workers installing the HVAC system. The HVAC contractor hires workers
to install the HVAC system and procures equipment.

After the HVAC system is installed, the Balancing contractor is responsible

for testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) the HVAC system to verify that
the system operates correctly.

14 Lesson 1-
New Terms

HVAC contractor Also known as the mechanical

contractor, responsible for the installation of the HVAC
system.

consulting mechanical engineer Engineer responsible for

designing the plans and specifications for installation of a
new HVAC system.

engineering drawings The plans and specifications for the

installation of a new HVAC system.

shop drawings The HVAC contractor’s larger-scaled, and

more detailed, plans and specifications that are given to the
workers to use as instructions for the installation of an HVAC
system.

Review
Design is important to the successful operation of an HVAC system. The
occupants’ needs will be met if the designer considers both internal and
external factors.

People, lights, and equipment are internal factors that affect the temperature,
humidity, and air quality in a facility.

Wind, solar radiation, transmission, and leakage are all external factors that
affect the temperature, humidity, and air quality in a facility.

Internal and external factors cause a facility to lose or gain heat. The total
heat gained is the cooling load, and the total heat lost is the heating load.

The HVAC contractor is responsible for the installation of the HVAC system.
A consulting mechanical engineer designs the HVAC specifications and the
HVAC contractor creates shop drawings from the specifications that the
workers use as installation instructions.

Lesson - 1 15
Exercises: 1.2
1. Identify the following HVAC design factors as Internal or External by
circling the correct factor type.

Factor Type

Transmission Internal External

Light Internal External

Solar Radiation Internal External

Leakage Internal External

People Internal External

Wind Internal External

Equipment Internal External

2.Fill in the blanks below with the correct word(s) to make the following
statements true.

The ______________________________ is the total heat lost

from internal and external factors.

The ______________________________ is the total heat

gained from internal and external factors.

The ______________________________ is responsible for

creating the engineering drawings.

The ______________________________ is responsible for

creating the shop drawings.

3. Describe a setpoint.

16 Lesson 1-
1.3 Comfort
Comfort
Comfort is a subjective feeling. Because individuals perceive comfort
differently, comfort cannot be measured directly. Variables that affect a
person’s comfort are indoor air quality and body heat loss. While an
individual person’s comfort level encompasses many complex factors, HVAC
systems function primarily to maintain thermal comfort.

Thermal comfort will exist when someone is surrounded by an environment of

proper temperature, relative humidity, air quality and distribution that allows
them to give up their body heat at the same rate it is produced. A person’s
body generates heat as it performs routine bodily functions such as the
oxidation of food substances or body fat. As the body is producing heat, it
will also be losing it through the process’ of radiation, conduction or
convection. The average temperature of the human body depends upon a
balance between the sum of the heat generated by the body and the sum of the
heat loss to the surrounding air.

New Terms

radiation The process of heat being given off from the body
in electromagnetic ray form as it produces heat from internal
chemical reactions or body processes.

conduction The process of heat being transferred by

molecule to molecule through direct contact.

convection The process of heat being transferred by a fluid.

Heat
Heat is a form of energy that can exist on its own and can be moved from one
location to another. Heat is not matter; it does not exist as a solid, a liquid, or
gas, and so it cannot be measured by weight or volume. When we think of
heat, we tend to think of temperature, but temperature does not really measure
heat content. Instead, temperature indicates the average velocity of the

Lesson - 1 17
 molecules of a substance, or the intensity of heat in a substance. As the
temperature of heat in a substance increases, the molecules move more
rapidly. As the temperature drops, the molecules slow down. If all heat is
removed from a substance all molecular motion stops. This is called absolute
zero.

Temperature is generally measured in degree Fahrenheit (°F) or degree

Celsius (°C) units. For example, water at sea level has a freezing point of
32°F or 0°C, and a boiling point of 212°F or 100°C. Fahrenheit is the most
commonly used temperature scale in the United States. It is used in the
remainder of this training workbook.

Heat content is most frequently measured in British Thermal Units or BTUs.

A BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water by one degree Fahrenheit. For comparison purposes, the complete
burning of a common wooden match produces approximately one BTU.

The rate of heating is generally described in terms of BTUs per hour, BTU/h.
This expression describes not only how much heat is present but also how fast
the heat energy is transferring.

New Terms

temperature The average molecular velocity of a

substance.

British Thermal Units (BTU) The amount of heat required

to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree
Fahrenheit. BTU/h is the rate of heat transfer.

Humidity
HVAC systems monitor and control the variables in an indoor environment
that affect the occupants’ perceptions of thermal comfort. Temperature and
humidity impact the skins evaporation rate. If the evaporation rate to the
surrounding air is too high or too low, the body will feel uncomfortable. If the
air is dry, the evaporation rate increases, so heat transfers from the body at a
higher rate. This may cause the person to feel chilly even when air
temperature is in the mid 70s.

Space temperature is the temperature of the air in a building zone

18 Lesson 1-
 Humidity slows down the evaporation process. High temperature and
humidity cause the body mechanism to work harder to disperse heat, and the
body feels uncomfortable.

Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor actually present
in the air to the greatest amount possible at the same temperature.

New Terms

space temperature The actual measured temperature of the

air in a space or zone under control.

relative humidity The percentage of the amount of water

vapor present in the air compared to the maximum the air
could possibly hold.

Ventilation

Cleanliness/ventilation relates directly to comfort. Ventilating fresh outdoor

air into a facility replaces polluted air from occupants and interior
furnishings. In most cases, outdoor air is fresher than indoor air.
Contaminants such as dust and smoke can be physically removed through the
HVAC system. Proper HVAC filtering and ventilation can reduce particles
present in indoor air that irritate the eyes, nose, and lungs.

Review
Comfort is not only affected by combinations of temperature, humidity, and
air distribution, but also by physical activity. Comfort levels vary in as many
ways as people do.

Lower relative humidity levels require a higher temperature to maintain

comfort. Conversely, higher relative humidity levels require a lower
temperature to maintain comfort.

Lesson - 1 19
Exercises: 1.3
1.Identify three conditions that affect the rate of body heat loss.

2.Which of these conditions can be controlled by an HVAC system?

3.How are these conditions adjusted to improve human comfort?

20 Lesson 1-
1.4 HVAC System Components
Air Conditioning Theory

HVAC system components transfer heat from one place to another to move
and condition indoor air. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat
transfers in one direction from a higher temperature source to a lower
temperature source. HVAC systems function on this principle to either add
heat to or remove heat from a facility to control and maintain comfort.

HVAC System Components

A facility’s HVAC system can consist of different parts depending on what the
purpose of the facility dictates. For example, if a facility requires the indoor
space in the basement to be cooled, the HVAC system needs to include heat-
rejecting equipment. Simultaneously, if the facility requires the remaining
floors to be heated and cooled, the HVAC system must not only include a
cooling source but a heating source as well. The mechanical components
together perform all functions required in a facility’s HVAC system beyond
just temperature control. HVAC system design requirements may include
heating, cooling, ventilating, humidifying, dehumidifying, pressurizing, and
the distributing of air or water.

New Term

heat-rejecting Equipment that removes heat from a

specified area in order to cool the temperature of that space.

Lesson - 1 21
 Table 1.2 HVAC System Components

Typical HVAC system components Example

Boiler
Heat generation system Furnace
Electric heating coil

Chiller
Heat rejection system Window air unit
Evaporative spray coil

Fan
Air delivery system
Sheet metal duct

Fan
Filter
Terminal unit
Dampers
Mixing box

Piping system Coil

Heat generation systems are major HVAC system components involved in

maintaining human comfort. The heat generation system is the primary source
of heat energy for a facility. Its purpose is to transfer heat to the areas in a
facility that are cooler than desired. Examples of heat generating components
are boilers, electric heating coils, and gas-fired furnaces.

Drawing courtesy of Cleaver Brooks

22 Lesson 1-
 Heat rejection systems, or the cooling system, is another major HVAC system
component involved in maintaining comfort. It transfers heat from where it is
too warm to an area where it is needed or not objectionable. Examples of heat
rejection components are a chiller, a window A/C unit, and an evaporative
spray coil.

Drawing courtesy of The Internet Encyclopedia of Science

Air delivery systems provide the means for transferring heated and chilled air
throughout a facility. Air delivery systems typically combine outside and
recycled building air, filter it, add or remove heat from it, and often times
humidify or dehumidify it before transferring the air throughout the facility.
This system usually consists of a fan that blows air through sheet metal ducts.
The ductwork is like an artery that supplies air to all the rooms in a facility.

Lesson - 1 23
 Terminal units are the last piece of equipment involved in the delivery of
fresh air to a facility. After the heated or cooled air passes through the air
delivery system, it disperses through the terminal units. Terminal units are
usually located in the spaces they condition. Examples of terminal units are
unit ventilators, fan coils, VAV boxes.

Pumping systems force a fluid, usually water, through a piping system. The
fluid is the control agent that transfers energy from primary energy sources,
such as heat generating systems or cooling systems, to air delivery systems
and/or terminal units. The heat energy transfers from the control agent to the
air through a coil. A coil is an arrangement of tubes with heat transfer fins
located in the air stream. Hot water coils release heat into the air in a heating
system. Chilled water coils absorb heat in a cooling system. A car radiator is a
common example of a heat transfer coil.

24 Lesson 1-
New Term

fluid A substance such as a liquid, gas, or steam that can

take on the shape of its container.

Review
Heat always travels from a warmer object to a cooler object. HVAC systems
provide the means to transfer heat.

An HVAC system consists of different system components that give it the

ability to function as it is designed to maintain comfort.

A typical HVAC system consists of a heat generating device, a cooling system

device, ducts to transfer the conditioned air, pipes to transfer heat through a
fluid, and terminal units that disperse conditioned air into the spaces where it
is needed.

Lesson - 1 25
Exercises: 1.4
1. What is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

2.What are the basic system components of a typical HVAC system?

3. Match the letter of the correct HVAC system component to its

corresponding function description.

Function Description Answer HVAC System Component

Primary source for heat energy. A. Air delivery system

Enables the transfer of heated and cooled air. B. Heat rejection system

Small version of an air delivery system. C. Pumping system

Primary source for cooling energy. D. Heat generation system

Enables the transfer of heat through a fluid. E. Terminal unit

26 Lesson 1-
1.5 HVAC System Control
Components
An HVAC system’s automatic controls are vital to the overall functionality of
the system. The control components regulate a facility’s HVAC system so that
it maintains desired comfort levels, conserves energy, reduces labor costs, and
maintains safe equipment operating conditions.

Automatic Control Systems

Automatic controls regulate environmental conditions of the control zone to

ensure that the HVAC system maintains comfort. When the system detects the
temperature is too hot or too cold, meaning the load in the space has changed,
the controls activate the HVAC system to add or remove heat from the
building to maintain comfortable conditions.

New Terms

load Heat that is lost or gained.

Energy is conserved when the controls maintain interior conditions within

predetermined limits. The HVAC system can reset setpoints based on outside
temperatures in anticipation of load changes, allow the use of outside air to
cool inside the building to conserve energy and employ other energy
conservation strategies.
The automatic controls also keep HVAC system equipment operating safely.
If the equipment is allowed to operate unsupervised, serious damage can
occur. For example, boilers and chillers must have the proper support
equipment operating before they are enabled.

Automatic Control System Components

Control system components work together to gather data about facility
conditions, measure it, and transfer energy from one location to another
through the HVAC system. The three main elements of a control system are a

Lesson - 1 27
 sensor, a controller and controlled device. Two additional elements that are
always assumed present in the control system are the controlled medium and
control agent.

Table 1.3 Control System Elements

Control system elements Description

Measures a controlled variable (temp,

Sensor
press, etc.)

Compares the setpoint to control point and

Controller
adjusts the controlled device

Regulates the flow of the control agent

Controlled device
(valve, damper, etc.)

Fluid that transfers the energy to or from

Controlled medium
the process or zone (air in the air handler)

Transfers the required energy to or from

Control agent the controlled medium (steam in the
heating coil)

All three basic components of an HVAC control system are necessary to make
automatic control of the system possible. The sensor measures a controlled
variable such as temperature or pressure or level. The sensor then transmits
that information to the controller. The controller compares the measured
control point against the desired setpoint and generates an output to bring the
two closer together. The controlled device regulates the amount of control
agent to the desired amount.

28 Lesson 1-
Automatic Control System Classification
Automatic control systems can be classified by types. The four types that are
used are electromechanical, pneumatic, analog electronic and digital
electronic.

Electromechanical controllers are activated by the medium they control. For

example, fluid enclosed in a tube changes pressure when heat is applied to the
tube, and this pressure activates the control device.

Pneumatic controllers are activated by compressed air; pneumatic controllers

are generally less reliable and accurate than electronic controls and are
commonly updated to electronic controls.

Analog electronic controls convert measured variables (temperature,

pressure) into variable electronic signals (0 to 15 VDC) and then process
those signals electronically to effect control of a process.

Digital electronic control devices are activated by low voltage electric

current. Electronic signals are converted into digital signals which a
microprocessor uses to effect control of a process. They are state-of-the-art
and provide the highest level of accuracy available.

New Terms

electromechanical controllers Are binary controllers that

are activated by electricity or directly by the controlled
medium (relays, thermostats).

pneumatic controllers Are analog or binary controllers that

are activated by compressed air.

analog electronic controllers Are analog controllers that

generate continuous voltages from 0 to 15 VDC.

digital electronic controllers Are analog controllers that use

a microprocessor to digitally process information and
generate control voltages.

Lesson - 1 29
Review
Automatic control systems regulate an HVAC system to maintain desired
comfort levels, conserve energy and ensure safe operation.

The three main components of a control system are the sensor, the controller
and the controlled device.

There are four types of control systems. They are electromechanical,

pneumatic, analog electronic and digital electronic.

30 Lesson 1-
Exercises: 1.5
1.What do automatic control components do?

2.What four functions do controls serve?

3. Fill in the main control components of an HVAC system and describe the
purpose of each.

Component Purpose

4. Identify the classifications for automatic control systems next to the correct
description below.

Classification Description

Activated by compressed air

Activated by controlled medium

Activated by electricity

Lesson - 1 31
32 Lesson 1-
 2
Exploring the Physical Sciences

Recognize the importance of the physical

sciences to HVAC applications.

• Units

• Temperature

• Force

• Pressure

• Energy

• First Law of Thermodynamics

• Solids, Liquids, and Vapors

 Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning is all about the movement of
thermal energy into or out of a building. But how do we make heat
move? How specifically do we do that in a building? To understand
what and how an HVAC system does what it does, an understanding of
the physical sciences that are related is essential. Much of this material
may be familiar to you. If so, please skim through just to be sure. If
this is new to you, spend some time here learning the fundamental
principles that describe how heat is moved, measured and controlled.
These first few chapters are the foundation upon which all HVAC
systems are build. These are the basics that are always in play, always
at work, always the same obeying their rules every time. If you know
the rules, you can understand the system.

34 Lesson 2-
2.1 Units
A unit of measurement is the magnitude of a physical quantity. Matter can be
measured in terms of height, weight, and density for example. Energy can be
measured in terms of frequency, velocity, or pressure. Units describe physical
characteristics specifically.

New Terms

units Standard quantities that measure physical

characteristics.

Everything that can be measured has some system to quantify it. In the US
currency is measured in dollars and cents. In the United Kingdom the
currency is pounds sterling and pence. When traveling between the two
countries you must convert your cash from one to the other. The same thing
applies with temperature scales, weights, pressures, etc.

English and SI Units

Attributes of the physical world are measured in two different unit systems for
HVAC applications. Matter and energy are measured either according to the
English System of units or according to the International System (SI). The SI
System is also known as the Metric System, and it is becoming globally
accepted as the standard for measurement; however, the United States still
uses English units. Table 2.1 lists examples of English and SI units for various
physical characteristics.

Lesson - 2 35
 Table 2.1 Examples of physical characteristics

Physical characteristic English units SI (Metric) units

1 Inch (in) 25.4 Millimeter (MM.)

Length 1 Foot (ft.) 30.2 Centimeter (cm)
1 Yard (yd.) .9144 Meter (m)

1 Ounce (oz.) 28 Grams (g)

Mass
1 Pounds (lps) .453 Kilogram (kg)

Volume 1 Gallon (ga) .0044 Meter3 (m3)

Force 1 Pound (lb.) 4.448 Newton (N)

Degrees
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C)
Fahrenheit (°F)

Electric current Ampere (A) Ampere (A)

Luminous energy Candle power (CP) Candela (cd)

Unit Conversion
It is important to understand the conversion of SI units to English units. Changing
units is a simple process of performing a few calculations. The English unit
measurement of feet, converts to the SI unit measurement of meters; velocity in
feet per second to meters per second; perhaps most importantly to HVAC,
temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) converts to Degrees Celsius (°C). The key
rule to remember when converting from one unit system to the other: always
carry the units along as you perform a calculation and make sure that the units
cancel each other out properly.

36 Lesson 2-
 Example 2.1: Converting Velocity Units

Convert the flow of water from 1 meter per second to feet per minute.

There are 0.3 meters per foot, and 60 seconds per minute,.
1foot = 0.3meters

1minute = 60 sec onds

1meter
------------------ × 60 sec onds- ------------------------
1foot - 200feet
-------------------------- × = -------------------
sec ond minute 0.3meters minute
Looking at only the units, we have meters cancel meters, seconds cancel
seconds, and we are left with feet per minute.
meter- --------------------
sec onds- ----------------
foot - -----------------
feet -
----------------- × × =
sec ond minute meters minute
Looking at the number values, we multiply 1 x 60 x 1 = 60. Then we divide 60
by 0.3.
1--- 60 1 60
× ------ × ------- = -------
1 1 0.3 0.3
Finding the answer, 60 feet divided by 0.3 minutes equals 200 feet per minute.
60feet - --------------------
200feet-
--------------------------- =
0.3minutes 1minute
Solving the conversion, 1 meter per second equals 200 feet per minute.

Review
The qualities of matter and energy are described in the United States by the
English System of units, even though the SI, or Metric System of units, is the
global standard for measurement.

Units are easily converted between the English and SI systems as long as you
remember to always carry the units as you multiply and divide. In addition,
make sure that the units cancel each other out correctly.

Lesson - 2 37
Exercises: 2.1
1.Describe the term “physical characteristics” and list at least six examples.

2. Explain the difference between English and SI units.

3. Length conversion problem. Convert 36 inches of copper piping to meters.

12in = 1ft
·
1ft = 0.3 m

4.Mass conversion problem. Convert 20 kg of coal to pounds.

2.2lb = 1kg

38 Lesson 2-
2.2 Temperature
Temperature indicates the average velocity of the molecules of a substance.
When the temperature of something rises, the molecules that make it up will
vibrate faster. This vibration is an indication of the heat energy contained
within the substance. The first temperature measurement system ever was
devised by Gabriel Fahrenheit. The Fahrenheit system of measurement sets its
zero point as the freezing point of a solution of water and ammonium chloride
and another point at the body temperature of a normal health person.
Divisions in-between are the result of the marks he made on a glass pipette.
The boiling point of water at 212 was added later as a benchmark causing an
adjustment in the reading used for body temperature. Later another system
was developed using the freezing point of pure water at 0 and the boiling
point of pure water at 100 as benchmarks. This was the Celsius measurement
system.

Absolute Zero
Each of these systems used an arbitrary starting point that still contained
much heat. For the more detailed scientific work that came later a system that
started at the point where the heat content was actually zero was needed.
Using the same size of a degree developed in each of these systems two more
scales were developed using the point of no molecular motion as their zero
point. The Rankine scale uses the point of no molecular motion (absolute
zero) as its starting point and uses the same size degree as the Fahrenheit
system. Zero degrees Rankine is the equivalent of -460 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Kelvin scale uses a degree the size of a Celsius degree but also starts at
the point of no molecular motion. 0 degrees Kelvin is the equivalent of -273
degrees Celsius.

°F to °C Conversion
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are commonly used in the HVAC field.
Conversion between them is easier if you remember a few key points. The
freezing point of water in each scale (32°F - 0°C); the boiling point of water
in each scale (212°F - 100°C). There are180 degrees difference from 32 to
212. There are 100 degrees difference from 0 to 100. Therefore, each degree
on the Celsius scale is equal to 1.8 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. Now just
remember to add 32 degrees when going to °F or subtract 32 degrees going to
°C and you’re done. See the exercises below.

Lesson - 2 39
 Example 2.2: Converting Fahrenheit Units

Convert an office temperature of 26°C to °F. Should the HVAC system add or
remove heat to maintain the workers’ comfort?

1.8 × Celsius + 32 = °F

Looking at the number values, we multiply the1.8 conversion constant by the

Deg Celsius value.

1.8 × 26 °C = 46.8

Then we add that value to the degree offset of 32.

46.8 + 32 = °F

78.8 = °F

Solving the conversion, 26°C equals 78.8°F, so the HVAC system should
remove heat to maintain the workers’ comfort.

Example 2.3: Converting Celsius Units

A hot water heating systems supply temperature is190°F. The reset table is in
°C. The setpoint at the current outside air temperature should be 65°C. Do we
have a problem?
°F -32
--------------- = °C
1.8
Looking at the number values, we subtract the 32 degree offset from the

190 – 32-
190°F value. -------------------- = °C
1.8

Then we divide that value by the 1.8 conversion constant.

158
--------- = °C
1.8

87.78 = °C
Solving the conversion, 190°F equals 87.78°C. We had better take a look at
our system and determine why the water is too hot.

40 Lesson 2-
2.3 Force
Force is an important physical principle to understand as it applies to HVAC
systems. HVAC systems require force to move a controlled medium from one
location to another or to open and close controlled devices. If mechanical
equipment and controlled devices are not sized properly to handle the forces
contained, the devices cannot function properly or may be damaged. For
example, if the actuator on a valve doesn’t generate enough force, the valve
may not be able to stop the flow of hot water to a zone already too warm.

Force Characteristics
Force is a push or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its
velocity. This contributes to the operation of HVAC devices and equipment
because we use force to make water, air, refrigerants, etc, flow from one place
to another.

Mass (m) is not a force but a measurement of how much matter an object
contains. The amount of matter in an object affects the amount of force it
exerts. Mass is measured with units of pounds (mass), but recognize that it is
not the same as pounds (force). Units are lbsm.

Weight (w) is the force of gravitational pull on an object. Weight is a force

that is measured in pounds (force) and because gravity always exists on earth,
every body or object has a measurable weight force. Units are lbs.

Volume is the amount of area a body, object, or space occupies. For example,
the volume of a room is equal to the product of the height, width, and length
measurements of that room. Units are cubic whatever, (ft.3 for instance).

Specific Volume (v) is the volume occupied by one pound of a substance,

usually used for substances while in the gaseous state. Units are ft3/lbm.

Density (d) is the weight of one cubic foot of a material, usually used while
the material is in the solid or liquid phase. Units are lb m/ft3
The units of density and specific volume are the inverse of each other, lbm/ft3
and ft3/lbm. This means we can convert between them by dividing one by
either density or specific volume.
specific volume = 1 / density or density = 1 / specific volume

Lesson - 2 41
 So if I want to know the density of air at standard temperature and pressure I
just divide 1 by the specific volume 13.33 ft3/lbm which equals.075 lbm/ft3.
Notice I specified the temperature and pressure, as temperatures and pressures
change so will the volume occupied by one pound of air. These relationships
will be very important when an engineer is trying to determine how much
power a fan will need to move a specified amount of air or how large a pipe
will be needed to carry refrigerant.

All of these properties will be useful to us in learning how an HVAC system

functions as we proceed through the rest of this course.

New Terms

force Can cause an object to change velocity or direction.

mass (m) The amount of matter that makes up an object.

weight (w) The force of gravity acting on the mass of an

object.

volume (v) The amount of cubic space that a body, object,

or substance occupies.

specific volume The volume that one pound of a substance

will occupy.

density (d) The mass of an object compared to its volume.

Review
Mass is related to weight by the gravitational attraction of the planet. In outer
space a body still has mass but no weight.

The density of a fluid is the inverse of its specific volume.

42 Lesson 2-
Exercises: 2.3
1. What is the density of a liquid with a mass of 35.0lbs and a volume of 20.0
in 3?

2. What is the specific volume of 1.8ft 3 of an unknown liquid that weighs

90.0lbs?

Lesson - 2 43
44 Lesson 2-
2.4 Pressure
Pressure is a powerful force that an HVAC system generates and uses in
many ways. Pressure in a liquid or gas is force over a unit of area. HVAC
pressures are typically measured relative to atmospheric pressure, the
pressure upon the earth due to the weight of the atmosphere. Under normal
atmospheric conditions, pressure decreases at higher elevations. This is why
different geographical regions register different atmospheric pressures. These
pressure differences affect tasks as simple as baking a cake or as complex as
designing well-built HVAC equipment. Pressure is the driving force that
allows an HVAC system to transfer conditioned air to a building’s different
zones.

New Term

pressure A force over a unit area.

atmospheric pressure Pressure due to the weight of

the air above you.force over a unit area.

Types of Pressure
Pressure is measured in different ways because we need to know what
pressure exists in different places. Pressure types are distinguished by the
method of reading pressure and the weight of the atmosphere where the
pressure measurement is taken. Table 2.2 lists different pressure types.

Lesson - 2 45
 Table 2.2 Types of Pressure

Pressure type Example

Pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere above

Atmospheric pressure
you.

Pressure reading relative to outside of the atmosphere.

Absolute pressure
Abbreviated ABS. as in PSIA or “HG ABS

Vacuum pressure Pressure of air or gas below atmospheric pressure.

Pressure reading that uses atmospheric pressure as

Gauge pressure
the reference pressure. Abbreviated G. as in PSIG.

Pressure of air or gas that displaces a column of liquid.

Liquid column pressure Usually measured in inches of water “WC or ‘WG or
inches of mercury “HG.

Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted down upon the earth by the weight
of all atmospheric gases. Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude, moisture
content and temperature. At sea level, standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7
lb./in2 ABS (PSIA) or 29.92 in Hg ABS.

Absolute pressure is the total pressure force exerted on an object. Absolute

pressure is the sum of atmospheric pressure on the object plus any other
pressures exerted onto the object. An example is the pressure exerted in a
vertical pipe filled with water. The pressure available at the bottom of the pipe
can be measured relative to the atmospheric pressure locally or relative to the
pressure outside the earth’s atmosphere. This is usually done by adding the
known weight of the atmosphere to the pressure measured. Units of
measurements that use a reference of outside the atmosphere add an A to the
end such as PSIA.

P absolute = Pa t m o s p h e ri c + P g a u g e

Gauge pressure is the pressure measured in excess of atmospheric pressure.

Gauge pressure compares a pressure with atmospheric pressure as a reference.
Considering that geographical location and elevation above sea level affects
atmospheric pressure, gauge readings may need to be compensated. Units
using atmospheric pressure as a reference have a G added at the end such as
PSIG.

46 Lesson 2-
 Vacuum pressure is the pressure measured below standard sea level
atmospheric pressure. Vacuum pressure is achieved whenever a space’s
pressure is less than atmospheric. This scale is commonly used in
refrigeration work. Units typically used are “in Hg Vac” which is a scale that
is just the inverse of the absolute scale used to measure atmospheric pressure
discussed above.

Liquid column pressure is the pressure of air or gas as measured by a liquid

column manometer. Liquid column manometers measure the displacement of
mercury or, more commonly, water in a U-shaped tube displaying the
distance, in inches or millimeters, that the pressure can support the liquid
column.

Pressure Measuring Instruments

There are many situations requiring us to know a pressure in the HVAC
industry, and, accordingly, there are various methods for measuring these
pressures. These fall into three main categories: manometers, mechanical
gauges, and electromechanical transducers. Manometers are used to obtain
accurate measurement readings of lower pressures. Mechanical gages are the
most commonly used gages because they are accurate, inexpensive, and easy
to operate. Electromechanical transducers are used in automation systems to
convert a pressure to an electrical signal. Table 2.3 lists various pressure-
measuring instruments.

Lesson - 2 47
New Terms

manometer Pressure measuring device for low pressures.

mechanical gages Pressure measuring instruments that are

common, accurate, affordable, and easy to use.

electromechanical transducers Convert pressures into

electrical signals.

Table 2.3 Pressure Measuring Instruments

Pressure measuring instrument Example Common application

Water filled U tube

Manometer Air pressure in a ducts
manometer

Mechanical gauge Bourdon tube sensor Steam or water pipe

Electromechanical transducer Electronic sensors Steam or water pipe

The Liquid column manometer is a commonly used device because it

produces very accurate readings of pressures that can be only very little above
or below atmospheric pressure. The liquid column manometer is a U shaped
plastic or glass tube that, when pressure is applied to one side of the tube,
displaces vertically the liquid in both tubes, one down the other up. The
measurement is the difference between the levels of liquid. Usually expressed as
inches water column (WC) or water gauge (WG).

48 Lesson 2-
 Mechanical pressure gauges are inexpensive pressure-measuring instruments
common in the HVAC industry. The Bourdon tube sensor is the most commonly
used. It is a C shaped metal tube sensor attached to a pointer or dial type
mechanical readout. When pressure is applied to the metal tube, the tube uncoils
and the pointer registers the change. Mechanical pressure gages measure gauge
pressure PSIG or can be calibrated to read absolute pressure PSIA.

Electromechanical transducers are pressure-measuring instruments that use

electronic circuits to convert the pressure into an electrical signal. The
measurement is then used according to the systems needs. This type of
pressure measuring is usually in gauge pressure.

Review
Pressure is measured in several ways, including atmospheric, absolute,
vacuum and gauge. Pressure measuring instruments include manometers,
mechanical gages, and electromechanical transducers.

Lesson - 2 49
Exercises: 2.4
1.Explain the difference between absolute, gauge, and WC pressure.

2.Fill in the blanks below with the correct pressure type to make the following
statements true.

You measure _______________ pressure with a liquid column

manometer if you apply the pressure you want to measure to
one side of the column and attach another liquid column
manometer to the reference side of the tube. You measure
_______________ pressure if you empty out the reference side
of the tube. You measure _______________ pressure if you do
not seal the reference side of the tube.

3. Explain how an electromechanical transducer determines a pressure

reading.

50 Lesson 2-
2.5 Energy
The First Law of Thermodynamics tells us that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. Energy can only be transformed, which enables us to use it for
many different purposes. Examples of different energy forms are thermal
energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, electrical energy, and chemical
energy.

New Term

thermodynamics The branch of physics that studies

the energy conversion between heat and mechanical
work.

energy The strength or power to perform work

Forms of Energy
Heat is a form of energy (thermal energy) that always transfers from a source
of higher energy to a source of lower energy. In fact, all energy does this. For
example, HVAC systems use hot water to transfer heat to cool areas and cool
water to remove heat from warm areas.

Kinetic energy is energy stored in a body due to its motion or velocity. For
example, kinetic energy is stored in the mass of a fan wheel as it spins forcing
air into a duct. When the motor is turned off the fan will continue to rotate for
some time as its kinetic energy is given up.

Potential energy is energy stored in a body due to its position or elevation. For
example, a heat pump suspended from the ceiling has potential energy stored.
To release it, just cut the hangers and stand back. Pressurized gases also are
sources of potential energy.

Electricity is energy that consists of an accumulated surplus and deficit of

electrons. Electrons are negatively charged, a surplus creates a large negative
charge. A deficit of electrons is positive relative to the negative charge. The
interaction of these opposite charges causes an electrical charge, or current,
that can power HVAC equipment.

Lesson - 2 51
 Chemical energy is stored energy that releases when chemical reactions take
place during combustion. For example, when natural gas burns, it releases
heat, CO2, water vapor, perhaps CO and other trace gases. The energy
generated from the burning gas serves as a heat source to an HVAC rooftop
unit.

Review
We rely on many different forms of energy to power the processes that make
our daily lives comfortable.

Energy cannot be destroyed, only transformed.

We can isolate various forms of energy and apply them to activate control
devices and other equipment in facility HVAC systems.

Some forms of energy release only after combustion. Other forms are present
in a body because of motion or position.

Heat energy always moves from a higher energy source to a lower energy
source.

52 Lesson 2-
Exercises: 2.5
1.Can energy be destroyed? If not, how can energy be used for different
applications?

2.List at least five forms of energy.

3.Match the description to the energy type below.

Energy type Answer Description

Kinetic energy A. Energy released after combustion.

Electric energy B. Energy that always moves to a lower energy source.

Potential energy C. Energy stored in a body due to velocity and motion.

Chemical energy D. Energy made up of protons and electrons.

Heat energy E. Energy stored in a body due to position or elevation.

Lesson - 2 53
54 Lesson 2-
2.6 First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed into another form. This principle
can be stated in different ways, and it is very important to the HVAC industry,
especially when expressed as an energy balance.

This statement applies to the energy removed from any size system, whether a
piece of HVAC equipment, a single room, a zone consisting of multiple
rooms, a floor of a building, or the entire facility. For example, if energy is
removed from a laboratory in the form of heat, that heat is not destroyed, it
simply relocates to another area or it is given up outside. The energy balance
can be expressed as the following energy equation:

E ch = E in – E out
Ech represents the change in stored energy within the system. Ein represents
the energy added to the system, and Eout represents the energy removed from
the system.

An HVAC system transfers heat by one of three methods;

convection, the transferring of heat energy through a fluid,

conduction, moving heat by direct molecule to molecule contact, or

radiation, the movement of heat as an electromagnetic wave.

Review
Thermodynamics is the study of the conversion of energy.

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or

destroyed, only transformed.

HVAC systems utilize this law to maintain environmental conditions within a

space.

Lesson - 2 55
Exercises: 2.6
1.What is thermodynamics?

2. Explain the Energy Equation and how it relates to HVAC applications.

56 Lesson 2-
2.7 Solids, Liquids, and Vapors
Substances can and do transform between these three phases of existence. A
substance can exist in a solid phase, a liquid phase, or in a gas (vapor) phase.
The current values of pressure and temperature can be used to determine in
which phase a substance exists.

Matter has different properties depending on whether it is in a solid, liquid, or

gas phase. A solid substance has a definite volume, and its shape cannot
easily be altered. A piece of coal, a pound of cheese and a hammer are all
examples of matter in the solid phase

Matter in the liquid phase also has a definite volume, but its shape can easily
change. Liquid flows to adapt to the shape of it’s container. For example,
water flowing through a pipe takes the shape of the pipe until it enters a
cooling tower, where it then conforms to the shape of the cooling tower basin.
Water, gasoline, and oil are all examples of substances in the liquid phase.

A substance in the gas phase has neither a constant volume nor a specific
shape. Gas contracts and expands as the container confining it contracts and
expands. For example, a helium balloon holds helium gas in a small space
when the balloon is tied off. When pressure is applied to the sides of the
balloon, its overall shape becomes thinner and longer. In addition, when the
end of the balloon is cut off, the helium gas disperses out into the atmosphere
resulting in a volume change. Helium, propane, and carbon dioxide are all
examples of substances that can exist in the gas phase.

A substance changes phase when it has either gained or lost sufficient energy.
The lost energy is not destroyed; it just transfers from a higher energy source
to a lower one.

Lesson - 2 57
New Terms

phase Any of the three states of matter: solid, liquid, vapor.

solid Any object that has a definite volume and shape that
cannot easily change.

liquid Any substance that has a definite volume but can

change shape easily.

gas Any substance that has no constant volume or

specific shape.

Kinetic Molecular Theory

The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains how and why molecules behave as
they do while they exist in each of the three phases.

New Terms

Kinetic Molecular Theory Scientific theory that explains

the behavior of molecules when they exist in the three phases
of matter; solid, liquid, gas.

molecules A group of atoms joined through chemical

bonding.

Every substance or body is composed of tiny particles of energy called

molecules that attract each other. These molecules behave differently while
they are in the three different phases. Molecules in a solid substance appear to
be static. In actuality, they move, but the charge of the molecules has such a
high level of attraction that the molecules continue to stay in close proximity.
Molecules in a liquid phase have a weaker attractive force, so the molecules
move and glide around each other and tend to stay at the bottom of a
container. A gas contains molecules that have a stronger kinetic energy than
the attraction among them; consequently, they are much farther apart and
move freely. When molecules collide with each other or the sides of the
container, they do not lose any energy. A good way to understand the kinetic
molecular theory is to visualize the three phases of water molecules. Ice cubes

58 Lesson 2-
 are water molecules with a high power of attraction. We can see and feel the
solidness of ice cubes. When we turn on the faucet in the kitchen sink, liquid
water pours into our glass and swirls around at the bottom. The liquid water
molecules have more kinetic energy than power of attraction, so the water is
easily poured out. In addition, when we boil the water from the glass, the heat
adds more kinetic energy to the water molecules. The bonds between the
molecules break, transforming them into gas. The vapor escapes through
evaporation once the water temperature reaches the boiling point. The more
fluid a substance is, the more kinetic energy the substance contains.

Boiling Point Conditions

Temperature and pressure not only determine the phase that a substance is in
but also mark the boiling point. The boiling point is also known as the
saturated condition. The saturated condition is a result of the saturation
temperature and the saturation pressure. If the substance is a liquid at
boiling point, it is known as a saturated liquid. If the substance is a vapor at
boiling point, it is known as a saturated vapor. When a substance is above
the boiling point it has to be a vapor. It is known as superheated vapor.
Similarly, when a substance is liquid below the boiling point it is known as a
subcooled liquid. It is important to know that a substance can exist as a
liquid, a vapor, or a combination of both at the time it reaches the saturation
condition.

New Terms
saturated condition (boiling point) Point when liquid boils
due to temperature and pressure.

saturation temperature Temperature condition at boiling

point.

saturation pressure Pressure condition at boiling point.

saturated liquid Liquid that is at boiling point, add any

heat and evaporation will begin.

saturated vapor Vapor that is at boiling point, remove any

heat and condensation will begin.

superheated vapor Vapor that has surpassed boiling point.

subcooled liquid Liquid that is below boiling point.

Lesson - 2 59
 All of these conditions depend on both temperature and pressure. The boiling
point can be reached at only one temperature for a specified pressure, but a
substance can exist at superheated or subcooled conditions at many
temperatures for a given pressure.

Temperature sometimes causes a substance to change phases. When a

substance transforms from one phase into another after it gains or loses heat,
the enthalpy change in the substance is known as the latent heat change.
When a substance does not change phases after it gains or loses heat, it is
know as a sensible heat change. Table 2.4 provides summary of the
difference between latent and sensible heat.

Table 2. 4 Latent and Sensible Heat

Heat type Description

Latent heat (+, -) Heat = Phase change

Sensible heat (+,-) heat = No phase change

New Terms

enthalpy The measure of the heat energy in a substance

(BTU/LBm). Usually measured from an arbitrary starting
point

latent heat When a substance gains or loses heat, the

temperature change causes a phase change.

sensible heat When a substance gains or loses heat, the

temperature change does not cause a phase change

Refrigeration
Temperature and pressure control the conditions that enable refrigeration. It
is possible to move heat into a liquid and make that liquid boil at temperatures

60 Lesson 2-
 low enough to cool a space if the pressure over that liquid is low enough. The
liquid will be absorbing its latent heat from the space. The vapor created can
then be compressed to raise its pressure and boiling point so the boiling point
is now greater than the outside air temperature. That means the outside air can
condense the vapor back into a liquid and that liquid can be sent back to be
boiled all over again.

New Term

refrigeration The process of moving heat from somewhere

it’s not wanted to somewhere that makes little difference.

The Ideal Gas Law

The Ideal Gas Law mathematically describes the relationship between

pressure, temperature and volume of a gas. This is useful in the HVAC
industry for the design and sizing of refrigeration equipment and to help in
understanding some changes you’ll see in ducted air systems.

Ideal Gas Law

P1 V1 P2 V2
------------ = ------------
T1 T2
P1 = initial pressure of sample gas expressed in an absolute scale
V1 = initial volume occupied by gas sample
T1 = initial temperature of gas sample expressed in an absolute
scale
P2 = final pressure of sample gas expressed in an absolute scale
V2 = final volume occupied by gas sample
T2 = final temperature of gas sample expressed in an absolute
scale
When heat is applied to a closed container of a gas the volume can’t change so
the pressure must. If you inflate a balloon by blowing into it, tie it off and set
it in the sun, the pressure will increase slightly but the volume will increase
significantly. These are everyday examples of the Ideal gas law. When air is
compressed above the piston in a diesel engine its temperature is raised so
much that when fuel is injected the fuel will ignite, explode and expand
pushing the piston back down, IGL at work.

Lesson - 2 61
 Let me walk you through an example. Suppose an engineer is trying to
determine what size pipe is needed to connect to the discharge of a
refrigeration compressor. The pressure and temperature at the discharge can
be closely predicted with a pressure temperature chart for the refrigerant in
question. But the volume will have to be calculated. The ideal gas law will
give him a solution. Here’s what is known: at the inlet to the compressor the
gas pressure is 3” HG Vac, the temperature is 48°F and the volume is 58 ft3 in
one minute. The predicted conditions at the discharge will be 125 psig and
105 °F.

P1 = 3” HG Vac T1 = 48 °F V1 = 58 ft 3
P2 = 125 psig T2 = 105 °F V2 = ?

Solving the Ideal Gas Law for V2 looks like this,

P1 × V 1 × T2
V 2 = ------------------------------
T1 × P2
Before we can make our substitutions we must first convert the pressures and
temperatures to absolute scales.

Lets start with P1. It’s complicated by the fact that this pressure is less than
atmospheric. The compressor inlet is in a vacuum. To convert “HG Vac to
“HG Abs we just subtract from 29.92 as the scales are inverse of each other.
29.92 - 3 = 27.92 “HG Abs. We now convert this to the PSIA scale by
dividing by 2.036, the ratio of the difference between the PSIA and “HG Abs
scales (1 PSIA equals 2.036 “HG Abs). 27.92 / 2.036 = 13.7 PSIA.

P 2 can be converted by simply adding 14.7 as our 125 psig is well above
atmospheric pressure. 125 + 14.7 = 139.7 PSIA.

To convert the temperatures to the Rankine scale we add 460 to each. 48 +

460 = 508 °R and 105 + 460 = 565 °R.

Now we can insert some values into our equation and proceed.

3
13.7PSIA × 58ft × 565R
V2 = --------------------------------------------------------------
508R × 139.7PSIA
3
= 6.3ft
Now our engineer knows what volume she has at the compressor discharge
and can move on to determine the pipe size needed.

62 Lesson 2-
Review

Matter can exist in three different phases, solid, liquid, and gas. The Kinetic
Molecular Theory explains the behaviors of a substance’s molecules when
they are in these three phases. Solids contain molecules that have a high
power of attraction, so they stay in close proximity. Liquid molecules also
have power of attraction but contain enough kinetic energy to allow the
molecules more freedom of movement. Gas molecules have more kinetic
energy than power of attraction. Gas molecules spread out to fit the shape of
their container, whether a canister, a refrigeration unit, or the earth’s
atmosphere.

Temperature and pressure determine a substance’s phase. By boiling liquids

we can utilize them to meet refrigeration needs if the temperature and
pressure conditions are adjusted to the type of liquid being used. For example,
in a refrigeration system the evaporator is at a low pressure so the refrigerant
can boil and absorb lots of heat, then in the condenser the pressure is raised
and the heat is passed out of the system as the refrigerant condenses.

The ideal gas law is used to determine the changes in a gas when any one of
three variables is altered.

Lesson - 2 63
Exercises: 2.7
1.What are the different phases in which substances can exist?

2.Explain the distinctions between the different phases.

3.Answer True or False below. If false, correct the statement to make it true.

Statement Answer

Molecules in a liquid have more power of attraction than molecules in a

solid.

Molecules in a liquid have more kinetic energy than molecules in a gas.

Temperature and pressure are the conditions that determine a substance’s

boiling point.

A substance cannot be both a liquid and/or a vapor at the boiling point.

A subcooled liquid is a liquid at the saturation condition.

Boiling water cannot be used for refrigeration purposes.

When a substance does not change phases after heat is applied, it is called
sensible heat.

Boiling liquids absorb heat from the surrounding space.

4. According to the Ideal Gas Law, what happens to gas pressure when the
temperature increases?

64 Lesson 2-
 3
Differentiating Heating and Cooling
Loads

Explore heat transfer principles and how they

apply to calculating heating and cooling loads.

• Heat Transfer Principles

• Heating Loads

• Cooling Loads
66 Lesson 3-
3.1 Heat Transfer Principles
Heat is energy being transferred from one location to another as energy levels
change. We have already learned from the Second Law of Thermodynamics
that heat always travels from a warmer space to a cooler space.

Methods of Heat Transfer

The movement of thermal energy between bodies affects a body’s enthalpy
measurement. Enthalpy is the quantity of thermal energy, not the temperature,
that a body contains. It is the temperature difference that determines in which
direction heat will transfer. There are three methods of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation.

New Terms

enthalpy The amount of heat energy contained in a material. It is

the total heat, latent and sensible, in one pound of a substance
calculated from a reference temperature of usually 32°F for air and
water, units are BTU/per pound mass.

Conduction is the transmission of heat through a material. Heat will transfer

from a higher energy source to a lower one. Thermal conduction occurs when
different temperatures exist in different sections of the same or adjacent
materials. This is described as molecule to molecule heat transfer.

Lesson - 3 67
 Convection is the transmission of heat through a fluid, such as water or air. A
hydronic piping system is a good example of how heat transfers through
convection. Heat is added to the water at the boiler and then the thermal
energy is released throughout the building when the hot water flows through
the coils and radiators in the floors and walls. As the hot water passes through
radiators warmer air rises up from the pipes to warm the room. This dispersal
of heat through rising warm air is known as natural convection. The pumping
of the hot water through the building is forced convection.

Radiation is the transmission of heat in the form of electromagnetic rays. A

familiar example of radiation is heat from the sun. On hot, sunny days, the sun
emits solar radiation upon our cars and the cement parking lot outside our
office buildings. The heat radiates through the clear glass windows of our car
and the temperature of our vehicles significantly increases. However, when
we go into the office building, the indoor temperature is usually much cooler
because the radiating heat from the sun was blocked or slowed down due to
the R-value of the building materials. Radiating heat passes easily through
clear surfaces, such as car and office windows while opaque, solid structures
and the gases that surround them block or slow down transmission of heat.
An understanding of radiation is important to HVAC applications because
construction materials need to be selected carefully in order to aid, not hinder,
indoor environmental control. The sun’s radiation can be used to warm a
building with clear glass outer walls, or it can be blocked to keep a building
cool with tinted windows or opaque exterior walls.

68 Lesson 3-
 As heat transfers throughout a facility, it is not only added to the indoor
environment, it is also lost. Heat is lost through the building envelope. Certain
areas of a building have a higher rate of heat loss simply because of how they
are constructed or where they are. For example, crawl spaces, basements, and
attics are notorious for heat loss because they are usually poorly insulated.
Areas with lots of glass give up large amounts of heat. Drafts often originate
as cooler outside air infiltrates through cracks in a building’s structure and as
the wind blows. Proper R-value insulation helps to prevent heat loss and cold
drafts that consume indoor heat energy.

Thermal Resistance
A building’s walls and roof are often made up of multiple layers of different
materials, and these structures can be designed to reduce heat transfer. Some
building materials have better resistance against heat loss than others due to
the thermal properties of these materials. The architect needs to take thermal
resistance into account when choosing building materials to create a more
energy- and cost-efficient facility.

A building is constructed so that the walls and roof resist heat transfer. This
resistance to heat transfer is known as thermal resistance, or the R-value.
The units of R are hr * ft2 * °F / BTU. The R-value of different materials used
in a building can be found in tables.

Lesson - 3 69
New Terms

thermal resistance A material’s property of resistance to

transferring heat, resulting in heat loss.

R-value The amount of resistance to heat flow in BTU/h

through a one square foot area of a given building material
for each 1°F temperature differential on each side of the
material. The units of R are hr- ft 2-°F / BTU

Conductance (C) is a material’s ability to allow heat to pass. It is the

reciprocal of the R value; C = 1/R. The units are BTU / hr-ft2-°F.
Conductivity (k) is the conductance per unit of thickness and relates to C
thus; C = k/L where L is thickness. The units are BTU / hr-ft 2-°F per in. To
determine how much heat will pass through a wall, start with the k and divide
by the thickness for each component of the wall; sheathing, insulation,
wallboard and even air film inside and out. Convert the k to C with the
equation above then convert the C to R with R =1/C (or get the R from the
table). Now you can add all the R’s for each component of the wall to get the
overall thermal resistance (Ro). This value, Ro, is then used to arrive at a
value for U, the overall heat transfer coefficient. U = 1/Ro.

1
U = ---------------------------------
R1 + R2 + R3

The values of U for many types of construction is readily available so just get
the U from the table if possible.

70 Lesson 3-
New Terms

U value The heat transfer coefficient. The amount of heat in

BTU/h that will pass through one square foot of a material
for a 1°F temperature differential on each side of the
material. U value usually represents a combination of
materials used in construction, found by dividing 1 by the
sum of the R values.

The rate that heat transfers is directly related to the U value that is used in the
construction design of a building. The U value, the area, and the temperature
difference across the wall determine how much heat enters or leaves a
structure. This relationship can be expressed as an equation:

Q = U × A × ΔT

Where:
Q = the rate of heat transfer in BTU/hr.
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient in BTU/hr-ft2-°F.
A = the area of the surface that heat is transferring through.
T = the difference between the temperatures on either side of the surface.
This equation defines all heat transfers you will see in HVAC. You will see
this equation in several other forms. Remember it.

Example 3.1: Heat Transfer Rate

The temperature inside a shoe store is maintained at 70°F, and the temperature
outside in winter is 40°F. What is the rate of heat transfer through one of the
80 ft. long and 15 ft. high, 8 in. concrete block walls? The R value for
masonry block is 1.04.
This is a simplified solution just to demonstrate the use of the terms.
Solution 3.1:
2 o
hr – ft – F
R = 1.04 ------------------------------
BTU

2
Wall Area (A) = 80ft × 15ft = 1200ft

Lesson - 3 71
 T = T in – T out = ( 70°F – 40°F ) = 30°F

1
Q = --- × A × T
R

1 2
Q = ---------------------------------------- 1200ft × 30°F
2
hr-ft – °F
1.04 -----------------------------
BTU

Q = 34, 615 BTU/hr

A small layer of air is present on both sides of a surface, such as a roof or an

exterior wall, and this layer of air creates resistance to heat transfer. We have
already learned that energy transmits through material, and the layer of air
only slows the transmission down: it does not prevent it. In fact, this is true of
any gas in a space. This air layer will be included in an engineering heat loss
calculation.

Other important factors affect the rate of heat loss or gain in buildings. Cracks
in walls, windows, doors, and rooftop units allow both heat to escape and cold
air to enter a building. When air leaks into a building through unintended
openings, the air is known as infiltration. When air leaks out, it is known as
exfiltration.

An HVAC system is not designed to handle the worst-case cooling load

conditions for a building but only 95% of the worst case. Even so it is usually

72 Lesson 3-
 oversized for day-to-day conditions, and must be cycled or controlled to meet
the varying needs of the zones.

New Terms

infiltration The passing of air into a facility through

unintended openings.

exfiltration The passing of air out of a facility through

unintended openings.

thermal conductance (C) A material’s ability to disperse

heat.

thermal conductivity (k) A material’s ability to disperse

heat according to its thickness.

Review
Enthalpy is the measurement of heat contained in an object or fluid. This heat
is transferred throughout a building in three ways, conduction, convection,
and radiation.

Conduction occurs when heat transfers through a material. Convection occurs

when heat is transferred by a fluid, and radiation occurs when heat is emitted
in electromagnetic waves.

This transferred heat can be kept contained in or restrained out of a space that
has been constructed of material with high thermal resistance. A material’s
ability to transfer heat is known as conductance, and conductance of materials
is used to determine the heat transfer coefficient for a building.

Building design, including the types of construction materials used, can

contribute to the reduction of heat loss due to R-value factors and infiltration.

R-values represent the heat flow resistance through a material and the U-value
represents the total heat flow resistance of the finished structure.

Lesson - 3 73
Exercises: 3.1
1. How is enthalpy different from energy?

2. What are three methods that heat can be transferred?

3. Describe how heat is transferred in each of the three methods in question 2.

4. What is thermal resistance?

5. Name three ways of heat is lost from a building.

6. What are the three factors that govern the rate of heat transfer through a
wall?

74 Lesson 3-
3.2 Heating Load
Often we need to add heat to indoor environments to maintain comfort. The
amount of heat we must add to that environment to regain the desired
temperature is known as the heating load. The value of the heating load
depends on heat transfer and the infiltration of cold outside air.

New Terms

heating load The total heat lost from internal and external
factors.

setpoint The desired condition that is monitored by a

thermostat or other type of sensor.

Multiple factors affect the numerical value of the heating load. As we have
seen, the construction materials of the buildings shell is one factor. The
desired indoor temperature (setpoint) and the actual outside temperature are
others. Of course, the buildings size counts for something as well and the
ventilation air required for the occupants. The use of the building and what
the occupants are doing inside will also effect the heating load. A lot of
computers running or other electrical devices in operation will be giving off
heat. That heat doesn’t have to be supplied by the heating plant. The heating
load is the amount of heat needed to equal the amount of heat lost. The
heating plant has been sized to meet a set of design conditions that predict all
these factors based on typical conditions.

or, to summarize

Q in = Q out

Factors in a building that contribute to the heating load can be numerous, all
of which are part of the HVAC system design.

Review
Heat may be transferred to and from a space to maintain the desired
temperature setpoint.

The amount of heat required to be added is the heating load.

Lesson - 3 75
 The value of the heating load depends on the amount of heat gained in relation
to the amount of heat lost. When the amount of heat gained is equal to the
amount of heat lost, enthalpy will be constant and the setpoint temperature
will be maintained.

76 Lesson 3-
Exercises: 3.2
1. Explain heating load.

2. Name at least three ways to reduce the heating load in a building.

Lesson - 3 77
78 Lesson 3-
3.3 Cooling Load
When the temperature in a facility exceeds the desired setpoint, the air in the
space needs to be cooled. The quantity of heat that must be removed from an
indoor space is known as the cooling load.

New Term

cooling load The amount of heat that must be removed from

a space when the total heat gain is greater than the total heat
lost.

The cooling load is more complex to determine than the heating load for
several reasons. The same thermal properties of the buildings construction
that we saw in the heating load discussion now work in reverse to slow down
the movement of heat from the outside into a building. The required
ventilation air can now be a source of added heat when its hot outside. The
building occupants activities generating heat now contribute to making the
building too warm. One more difference when looking at cooling loads is that
the moisture in the air can be a major factor. Moisture can enter the building
with the ventilation air, people respire and perspire giving off moisture, there
may also be cooking or showering or laundry facilities available. This
moisture must be reduced as the building is cooled or the occupants will feel
clammy, a particular mixture of cool and humid that people find distasteful. A
common way of removing this moisture is to condense it on the cooling coils
of the A/C system. Unfortunately, it takes as much energy to condense water
vapor as it does to boil it off. The latent heat of water is 970 BTU/LB. So its
not uncommon to have latent A/C loads that are larger than the sensible load.
This means that two identical buildings, one located in Montana and the other
in Louisiana will need different size A/C systems to cause the same
temperature change inside the building.

Determining the heating and cooling loads for a facility and then applying an
adequate HVAC system is both energy efficient and cost efficient. And the
occupants inside will appreciate the comfortable environment.

Calculations for determining heating and cooling loads play a large role in
energy conservation. The system designer uses these calculations to specify
correctly sized equipment. Equipment that is too large requires extra energy
to operate, and equipment that is too small will not adequately handle heating
and cooling loads.

Lesson - 3 79
Review
Buildings require the removal of heat when the space temperature rises above
the setpoint.

The amount of heat that needs to be removed is the cooling load.

Factors such as building materials, occupants, and equipment all generate and
release heat into the interior of a building, and the cooling equipment must
remove extra heat to maintain comfort.

When the cooling load is accounted for prior to a building’s construction, the
appropriate HVAC system can be installed and both energy and operation
costs can be conserved.

80 Lesson 3-
Exercises: 3.3
1. Explain cooling load.

2. List at least five sources for heat that contribute to the cooling load of a
room.

3. List three sources of cooling loads that are not also heating loads.

Lesson - 3 81
82 Lesson 3-
 4
Understanding Psychrometrics

Explore psychrometrics for HVAC applications

and use the psychrometric chart.

• What is Psychrometrics?

• Physical Properties of Air

• Psychrometric Chart

• Process Lines
84 Lesson 4-
4.1 What is Psychrometrics?
Psychrometrics is the study of the thermodynamic properties of moist air. A
clear understanding of the science of psychrometrics, and the relationship
between temperature and humidity is important to successful HVAC
operations. The percentage of moisture present in air, or humidity, affects
comfort. Control technicians who realize the direct impact psychrometrics has
on HVAC systems are better able to troubleshoot correctly equipped systems.
Psychrometrics is used in the design of HVAC systems to determine the size
and capacity that equipment will have to be to achieve desired conditions. The
changes that occur in humid air as it is subjected to various A/C processes can
be traced on the chart.

Many different types of gas are present in air, and we breathe them on a daily
basis. These gases constitute the invisible, odorless, and tasteless mixture of
gases surrounding the earth that we refer to as the atmosphere, or air.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of oxygen (21% by weight), nitrogen (78% by
weight), and trace amounts of other gases (1% by weight).

New Terms

psychrometrics The branch of science that studies the

thermodynamic qualities of moist air. Psychrometric
information makes it possible to design, install, and
troubleshoot HVAC equipment that successfully maintains
comfort levels.

air The common reference to the earth’s atmosphere.

Air also includes water vapor, which is measured with a psychrometer in

percent relative humidity (%RH). A psychrometer is made up of two
thermometers. One measures dry air temperature, the other has a wetted sock
around the bulb and measures the temperature that water evaporates at. The
difference between the two temperatures is used on a psychrometric chart to
reveal %RH.

Lesson - 4 85
New Terms

psychrometer An instrument with wet and dry thermometers

for measuring air moisture.

percent relative humidity Is the percentage of moisture

content in the air.

HVAC systems control air moisture to maintain building comfort. For

example, if the air in an office is too warm or too humid, the HVAC system
removes surplus heat and water vapor from the air. Air always contains some
amount of moisture. As the moisture content increases, more energy is
required to heat or cool the air.

Review
Temperature and humidity affect air quality and comfort perceptions.

The science of psychrometrics examines the thermodynamic properties of air.

A good understanding of these properties is key to successful HVAC

operation.

86 Lesson 4-
Exercises: 4.1
1. What are psychrometrics?

2. Why is an understanding of psychrometrics necessary for HVAC?

Lesson - 4 87
88 Lesson 4-
4.2 Physical Properties of Air
Air properties can be derived from a measurement of air temperature and
humidity. Because the different properties can be derived from each other, it
is common to speak of the seven properties as interrelated.

Table 4.1 Psychrometric Measurements of the Physical Properties of Air

Psychrometrics measures
Description
seven air properties

Dry bulb temperature (DB) Temperature reading of air determined by a common thermometer.

Temperature of air determined by the evaporation of water from a

wet sock that has been placed over a thermometer bulb. The
Wet bulb temperature (WB)
difference between the wet bulb and the dry bulb temperatures
determines how much water vapor is present in air.

Dew point temperature (DP) Temperature at which moisture in air begins to condense.

Amount of water vapor present in a pound of air and measured in

Humidity ratio (W)
grains / lb. dry air.

Percentage of moisture present in air compared to that same dry

Relative humidity (RH)
bulb temperature if the air were saturated.

Specific enthalpy (h) The amount of heat present in air per unit weight in BTU/lb dry air.

Specific volume (v) Volume of air per unit weight of dry air, in ft3/lb dry air.

Air pressure at the surface of the earth is due to the weight of the air above the
earth. It decreases as altitude increases. At sea level, the air presses against
the earth with a pressure of 14.7 psi. At this pressure, one pound of air has a
volume of about 14 cubic feet and a density of 0.0725 lb/cubic feet.

If humidity levels rise high enough, the air cannot hold another water
molecule without starting to condense; this condition is known as saturated
air. Saturation is temperature-dependent.

Mixtures of air and moisture, and refrigerant vapors that we’ll see later, act as
ideal gases. The individual molecules act independently. The
interrelationship of the gases pressure, temperature and volume can be
described mathematically as:
P1 × V1 P2 × V2
------------------ = ------------------
T1 T2

Lesson - 4 89
New Terms

saturated air The condition when air contains the

maximum amount of water vapor possible before
condensation begins.

ideal gases Gases composed of randomly moving non-

interacting point particles. As molecules approach a phase
change to solid or liquid they are no longer considered ideal
gases.

This is known as the Ideal Gas Law. The pressures and temperatures must be
expressed in absolute terms. This equation comes from research in the 1700s
that showed the relationship between pressure and volume. With an enclosed
sample of a gas, as the volume decreases the pressure will increase in direct
proportion if the temperature is held constant. Think of a piston being pushed
into a cylinder. This is Boyle’s Law of gases. Later work showed that as the
temperature of a gas sample was increased the volume would increase if the
pressure was held constant. Think of a hot air balloon being inflated. This is
Charles’ Law of gases. The two laws combined form the Ideal Gas Law.

Mixtures of ideal gases act independently of each other. Dalton’s Law defines
how the pressure of the mixture is determined. Dalton’s Law states that the
total pressure equals the sum of the partial pressures. Dalton’s Law applies to
dry and wet air because both instances of atmospheric air exist as ideal gases.
When ideal gases are mixed together, the different gas molecules do not
change behavior. Thus, multiple ideal gases placed within the same container
continue to behave in an ideal state and coexist as an ideal gas mixture. The
total pressure of the mixture (PT) is equal to the sum of the individual gas
pressures (P1, P2, P3) added together, as measured if they were present in
individual containers. Dalton’s Law expresses this relationship as the
following equation:
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
For atmospheric air Dalton’s Law might look like:
pt = p + p wet
air
Where:
pt = total atmospheric pressure
pair = partial dry air pressure
pwet = partial water vapor pressure

90 Lesson 4-
Review
Air is made up of various gases and the physical properties of air can be
measured and quantified.

Knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of air enable HVAC control

technicians to control temperature and humidity levels within a facility.

HVAC systems add or remove water vapor and heat energy from a building
when the current levels are not within the prescribed temperature or humidity
ranges.

When the maximum amount of water is present in air, before condensation

sets in, air has reached the saturation point.

Dalton’s Law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum
of each of the individual gas pressures, as if they were measured in individual
containers. No one gas pressure will affect any other gas pressure.

Lesson - 4 91
Exercises: 4.2
1. What are the seven properties of atmospheric air?

2. What is saturated air?

3. Describe the following air properties.

Air properties Description

Dry bulb temperature

Specific Enthalpy

Specific volume

Relative humidity

Wet bulb temperature

4. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statement true.

Dalton’s Law states that the ____________________ pressure

equals the sum of the ____________________ pressures.

5. What is the partial wet pressure reading for 14.7 psi of atmospheric air and
14.5 psi partial dry air pressure?

92 Lesson 4-
4.3 The Psychrometric Chart
The physical properties of air are measured and examined through
psychrometric analysis. The resulting values of these properties can be plotted
onto a special graph known as a psychrometric chart. This chart, of the
thermodynamic characteristics of air, is a reference tool for examining
temperature and humidity trends.

The physical properties of air are plotted on the psychrometric chart. The
intersection of two property values are known as state points. For instance,
the dry bulb temperature line for 70 °F and the 50 % RH lines cross at only
one point (see charts on following pages). If I wanted my AHU to deliver air
with these values I could follow these lines on a psychrometric chart and
locate that one point that describes the air. I could then follow other lines that
intersect that point to find other values like wet bulb temp etc. If I then plotted
another point representing the outside air at say 90 °F and 75% RH, a line
connecting the two points would be a process line. A process line traces the
changes being made to air as it goes through the air conditioning equipment. I
can now tell exactly how much heat and moisture must be removed from each
pound of air I bring into my building.

New Terms

psychrometric chart The graphical representation of the

psychrometric analysis of thermodynamic air properties.

state points The locations on a psychrometric chart that

represent a condition that can be controlled by HVAC
systems. Each point is defined by the values of any two
properties of air.

process lines The lines on a psychrometric chart that

connect state points together.

Psychrometric analysis deals with the moisture mixed with dry air. The effects
of air temperature and humidity have certain predictable relationships, which
can be plotted on a graph or chart. These relationships can be used to
determine the properties of air-vapor mixtures and to solve air-conditioning
problems such as equipment sizing and selection. These charts are based on
one pound of dry air, plus the water vapor, to produce the air conditions being

Lesson - 4 93
 studied. The water vapor present in the air sample is so small that it is usually
expressed in grains: 7000 grains equal one pound.

Moist air sample conversions

1 pound = 7000 grains

0.036 pound = 250 grains
0.029 pound = 200 grains
0.021 pound = 150 grains
0.014 pound = 100 grains
The water vapor content of air, as used in air-conditioning processes, seldom
exceeds 150 grains/lb. The presence of water vapor in air has a large effect on
air in that water vapor weighs less than the dry air it displaces. That’s why the
weather man tells you the barometric pressure. The lower it goes the more
moisture is in the air the more likely it will rain. Moisture also has a
significant bearing on, the heat content (enthalpy) of air and the air-
conditioning processes performed on air.

The function of the psychrometric chart is to show the interrelationship of the

seven properties of air. If any two of the seven properties are known, the
remaining five can be determined from the chart. The seven properties of air
can be determined and plotted on the psychrometric chart to visualize how
well the HVAC system controls indoor air temperature and humidity levels.
The psychrometric chart can be used to plot and track the seven values of
atmospheric air, including dew point temperature, dry bulb temperature, wet
bulb temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity, specific enthalpy, and
specific volume.

The complete chart looks like this.

Lets break it down and look at the each individual parameter as it’s plotted.

94 Lesson 4-
 Dew point temperature is dependent upon the amount of water vapor present
in the air sample and it is plotted horizontally along the humidity ratio lines,
ending at the saturation curve. The value is read on the saturation curve at the
point of intersection with a state point.

Dry bulb temperature is represented by the horizontal baseline of the

psychrometric chart that is located at the very bottom of the chart.

Lesson - 4 95
 Wet bulb temperature scale is represented by the diagonally plotted lines that
extends upwards to the left, and end at the saturation curve.

Humidity ratio scale is represented by the vertical lines on the right side of the
psychrometric chart, which represents the air moisture content of the air
sample, typically expressed in grains/lb dry air. The humidity ratio scale is
also known as specific humidity.

96 Lesson 4-
 Relative humidity is represented by the curved lines that extend from the
lower-left to the upper-right corners of the chart. The lines appear in 10%
increments, with 100% being on the saturation curve.

Specific enthalpy (h) is represented by the enthalpy values to the left of the
saturation curve, which are often shown in a series of step scales. Some charts
also follow the enthalpy values along the right and bottom. To determine
enthalpy, follow the wet bulb line direction out past the saturation curve to the
enthalpy scale and read the appropriate value. Enthalpy is also known as total
heat and represents the heat energy in air above an arbitrary reference
temperature of 32°F. In air conditioning, it represents the heat energy, in
BTU’s, in one pound of dry air plus its associated water-vapor content.

Lesson - 4 97
 Specific volume (v) is represented by the nearly vertical lines that slope
slightly to the top left corner of the chart and indicate the volume of air at a
specified temperature and moisture content. Specific volume ranges from
approximately 12.5 to 15 cu. ft./lb. Specific volume is used primarily to check
fan performance or to determine fan motor sizes for low- and high-
temperature applications.

Review
The psychrometric chart is the graphical display of the temperature and
humidity information gathered from psychrometric analysis.

The chart serves as a visual reference to use in order to determine the

thermodynamic values of atmospheric air. The plotted values illustrate the
interrelationships between air properties and if at least two of the values are
known, all five of the other property values can be derived.

The property values, or state points, are connected together by process lines
that show the changes that occur to the air as it moves through or is added to
air conditioning equipment.

Water vapor affects both temperature and humidity, and the amount of water
present in air is measured in grains/pound.

98 Lesson 4-
Exercises 4.3
1. What is the dry bulb temperature when the wet bulb temperature is 58°F
and relative humidity is 20%.

2. What is the dry bulb temperature when enthalpy is 38.6 BTU lb./dry air and
the wet bulb temperature is 75° F?

Lesson - 4 99
100 Lesson One - Understanding HVAC Fundamentals
4.4 Process Lines
Air conditioning is controlled and maintained through a series of processes
that transfer energy throughout an HVAC system. These processes are tracked
on a psychrometric chart in an interconnected system of state points and
process lines that represent the relationships between the seven air properties.
These lines illustrate the values of the different properties of air and
graphically show condition trends of air within a sample zone.

Process lines enable technicians to see how an HVAC system is operating

because they show temperature and humidity levels for a specified volume of
atmospheric air. These process lines enable HVAC technicians to determine if
the conditions are within the comfort zone within a facility. For example, the
human body normally feels comfortable under a variety of temperature and
humidity conditions. Most people are comfortable in an atmosphere with
relative humidity between 30% and 70% and the temperature between 70 and
80 degrees Fahrenheit. When the comfort zone is determined, and the HVAC
system operates outside of it, the technician knows to alter system operations.

New Terms

comfort zone The region on the psychrometric chart that

represents the temperature and humidity levels at which a
person will feel comfortable.

Process lines represent the addition or removal of sensible and/or latent heat
from a specified zone. Process lines illustrate the dynamics needed to move
from one condition to another to achieve the control objective. The HVAC
cycle typically incorporates a combination of latent heat, sensible heat, and
total heat gain or removal processes.

Lesson - 4 101
 Sensible heat (SH) is characterized by a change in dry bulb temperature only.
When sensible heat is added or removed from air, only the dry bulb
temperature changes and moisture content remains unaffected. This type of
heat change appears as a horizontal line on the psychrometric chart. An
example of the sensible heat process is air that is heated as it passes through a
heating coil. Notice that although the dew point temperature of the air does
not change and no moisture is added or removed, the relative humidity of the
air and wet bulb temperatures are affected.

Latent heat (LH) is characterized by a change in moisture content of an air

sample without a change in dry bulb temperature. This type of heat appears as
a vertical line on the psychrometric chart. An example of the latent heat
process would be the humidification of air with dry steam at low pressure.
Sensible heat from the steam is insignificant in this case.

102 Lesson 4-
 Enthalpy change can be used to determine the total heat (sensible + latent)
removed from or added to a quantity of air in the conditioning process. To do
this, follow the wet bulb temperature line for the sensible heat and latent heat
state points through the saturation curve to the enthalpy scale, and then
subtract the lower value from the higher value.

Total heat gain (GTH) is the sum of heat that is gained or lost from a sample
of air. If we know the change in enthalpy as a volume of air passes through a
coil or space, we can use the following formula to determine the total heat
gain (or loss) in BTUs.

GTH = 4.5 × CFM × h

Where:
GTH = represents the total heat gain or loss
4.5 = is a constant
CFM = represents a volume in cubic feet per minute
h = is the enthalpy difference in the air entering the space and
in the air leaving the space

It should be understood that a heating coil often produces only a sensible heat
change, while a cooling coil often produces both a sensible and a latent heat
change.

Lesson - 4 103
 Evaporative cooling can be determined by following the wet bulb process line
up to the left from state point to state point, approaching the saturation curve.
The sensible heat given up is exactly equal to the latent heat required to
saturate the air with moisture. If the evaporative cooling were 100 percent
efficient, the final state point would be located on the saturation curve. In
practice, typical efficiencies range from 60% to 90%.

Evaporative cooling is used effectively in cooling tower applications. The

cooling tower employs evaporation to cool warm condenser water. As the
condenser water is sprayed over the tower fill, some of it evaporates,
absorbing heat from the warm water as it changes state. The heated, moist air
is then exhausted to the atmosphere leaving the rest of the water cooler and
ready to return to the condenser.

Sensible Heat Ratio

Latent heat processes involve some changes in sensible heat, such as cooling
and dehumidification with a cooling coil. This can be shown on the chart as a
sloped line falling to the left from point to point. The slope of this line
represents the ratio of the sensible heat to the total heat of a thermodynamic
process, and is usually expressed as a decimal or percent. This relationship is
expressed as the SHR.

104 Lesson 4-
New Term

sensible heat ratio (SHR) The ratio of the relationship

between state points due to the amount of latent heat change.

SH
SHR = -----------------------
LH + SH

Where:
SHR = Sensible Heat Ratio
LH = Latent Heat
SH = Sensible Heat

SHR is a characteristic of the change between two points on the chart. If the
process is one of sensible heat change only, and no latent heat change occurs,
the SHR is 1.0 and the process line is horizontal. If the SHR is less than 1.0,
the line will have a slope. For example, a SHR of 0.8 means that 80% of the
total heat change is sensible, and 20% is latent heat. As the latent component
increases, the line slopes more steeply. The typical building or room heat gain
process is shown by a straight line rising to the right from point to point.

Some psychrometric charts incorporate a sensible heat ratio scale on the far
right of the chart. To use this scale, draw a straight line between the two state
points on the chart. Now find the guide point (dot or small circle), located on
the 50% relative humidity curve corresponding to 80°F dry bulb temperature.
Draw a line through the guide point parallel to the straight line between your
two points and extending to intersect the SHR scale. Read SHR directly from
the scale where the line intersects.

Apparatus Dew Point

Apparatus dew point describes the final average surface temperature of
cooling coils. If air temperature reaches the apparatus dew point, the moisture
in it will condense. The apparatus dew point is also known as the effective
surface temperature and may be derived using one of two methods.

Lesson - 4 105
New Terms

apparatus dew point The point that water vapor in air

begins to transform into the liquid phase.

effective surface temperature Another name for apparatus

dew point.

The first method: draw a line connecting the two state points for air entering
and leaving the coil and extend that line to the left until it crosses the
saturation curve.

The second method uses the sensible heat factor. The dry bulb temperature,
moisture content, and sensible heat factor must be known. Draw a line
through the key point, extending to the far right of the chart so it intersects the
SHR scale at the desired SHR number. Then draw a second line parallel to
that first line, running through the state point representing your air sample,
extending it to the saturation curve. The apparatus dew point temperature may
be read from the saturation curve value where the line crosses.

Coil Contact and Bypass Factors

A typical cooling coil does not have the capability to cool all the air passing
through it down to its saturation point. Some percentage of the air stream will
pass through the coil without any contact with fins or tubes. This is known as
the bypass factor, and it typically ranges from 5% to 30%, with smaller
factors resulting from an increased number of coil rows or closer fin spacing
or lower velocity air passing through the coil. The result is actually an air
mixture, with some air cooled to the apparatus dew point and some air left
unchanged.

The temperature of the air that passes through the cooling coil decreases as it
comes in contact with the surface of the cooling coil. This is known as the
contact factor. The relationship between the bypass and contact portions of
air can be expressed as a percentage. For example, if 30% of the air entering
the cooling coil does not touch the coil, it is the bypass factor. The remaining
70% of the air that did touch the coil is the contact factor.

Just remember, the lower the bypass factor, or, the higher the contact factor,
the colder and dryer the air will be leaving the coil.

106 Lesson 4-
New Terms

bypass factor Air that passes through a cooling coil without

actually coming in contact with any surface of the coil, thus
exiting the coil in the same condition in which it first entered.

contact factor Air that passes through the cooling coil and
decreases in temperature and humidity as it touches the
surface of the coil.

Review
Process lines connect state points. Process lines are so named because they
describe the temperature and humidity processes that HVAC systems undergo
to achieve good air quality.

Process lines can describe the changes in air properties from the time air
enters a facility until it is exhausted.

The SHR is the relationship between two state points. The angle of this
process line is affected by the amount of latent heat present in the air.

The apparatus dew point and the effective surface temperature are synonyms
that describe the point at which condensable moisture in air begins to change
into a liquid state. Coil contact and bypass factors describe the effect cooling
coils have on air temperature.

Lesson - 4 107
Exercises: 4.4
1.What is a process line?

2. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statement true.

A ____________________ coil will produce only a sensible

heat change, while a ____________________ coil will often
produce both a sensible and a latent heat change.

3. Describe evaporative cooling.

4. Describe effective surface temperature.

5. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statements true.

The ________________ factor describes the air that is cooled

as it passes over the surface of a cooling coil. The
_______________ factor describes the air that is not cooled as
it passes through a cooling coil because it does not touch the
coil surface.

108 Lesson 4-
 5
Examining fluid flow

Measure fluid characteristics.

• Fluid flow continuity equation

• Flow energy equation

• Pressure in fluid systems

• Pressure loss in fluid systems

110 Lesson 5-
5.1 Fluid flow continuity
equation
The fluid flow continuity equation describes the characteristics of flowing
fluids, whether they are a liquid or a gas. Fluid flow calculations are required
for designing the piping and duct systems of an HVAC system. An
understanding of these principles is necessary for effective implementation of
HVAC controls. The relationship between fluids and velocity can be
explained by the fluid flow continuity equation.

New Terms

fluid flow continuity equation Explains the relationship

between fluids and motion mathematically.

Steady flow is the condition of air flowing through ducts, or water flowing
through piping systems, that can be measured at any given point at any given
time and still register the same results. For example, if water flowing through
a pipe is 15 gallons per minute (GPM) at point A, then the flow
measurements at points B, C, and D in the same pipe will all also be 15 GPM.
Steady flow also pertains to air flowing through ductwork in terms of cubic
feet per minute (CFM). Closed system flow readings remain constant
regardless of system design because fluid can not be lost from a closed system
unless piping or ductwork is damaged and a leak has developed. The density
of a fluid flowing through piping or a duct system does not change enough to
affect the overall characteristics of system operation therefore this fluid flow
is assumed to be incompressible and the fluid flow continuity equation will
apply as stated. Compressible fluid flow is beyond the scope of this course.

Lesson -5 111
New Terms

steady flow Condition when continuous and equal pressure

is maintained at every point in the piping or duct system at all
times.

GPM Gallons per minute measurement for fluids flowing

through pipes.

CFM Cubic feet per minute measurement for air flowing

though ducts.

incompressible Condition when the density of the liquid or

gas flowing through piping or ductwork remains constant.

Differences in piping or duct diameter will affect the speed of the fluid flow
but it will not change the flow rate. Changes in velocity, or speed, of the
flowing fluid will not change the flow rate of the fluid as it moves through the
system because the same amount of fluid is still present in the system as a
whole. However, the velocity of the fluid will increase if the piping or duct
size is reduced because the same amount of mass has to move through a
smaller opening. Conversely, the velocity of flowing fluid will decrease as the
diameter of the piping or ductwork is enlarged.

VFR = A1 × V 1 = A 2 × V 2

VFR = Volume flow rate of the fluid

A1, A2 = Cross section of pipe at point 1 and 2.
V1, V2 = Velocity of fluid at any point 1 and 2.

If you have a piping system with one inlet and one outlet and you admit ten
gallons of water into the inlet. How many gallons will come out the outlet?
Ten, of course. What will be the velocity of the water through the pipe? Not
quite as straightforward huh? It depends on a couple of things, the pressure
difference between inlet and outlet is a big factor. But also the size of the pipe
is important. In fact, if the pipe size changes through the system the velocity
will be different at different places. The equation above tells us that the
product of the area and velocity at one place will equal the product of the area

112 Lesson 5-
 and velocity at any other place in a closed system. If you have a duct that’s 12
in by 12 in and an airstream moving at 100 feet per minute, in 1 minute 100
cubic feet will pass by a point. If that duct is connected to a 6 in by 6 in duct
what will the velocity have to be if the flow rate remains the same?

VFR = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2
100 ft 3/min. = 144 in2 x 100 ft/min. = 36 in2 x X ft/min.
144 in2 x 100 ft/min. / 36 in2 = X ft/min.
The answer is 400 feet per minute.

Review
Fluids are described as being either liquid, vapor or gas.

Using the correct sized pipes and ducts for transferring fluids is an important
issue to understand when designing an HVAC system.

The relationship between a fluid and velocity is explained through the fluid
flow continuity equation.

Lesson -5 113
Exercises: 5.1
1. Describe the continuity equation.

2. Explain steady flow conditions.

3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statements true.

Chilled water flowing through pipes is measured in

_______________ or _______________ per minute.

Air flowing through ductwork is measured in

_______________ or _______________ per minute.

4. What does it mean when a fluid system is called incompressible?

114 Lesson 5-
5.2 Flow energy equation
The First law of Thermodynamics tells us that energy is neither created nor
destroyed, that it can be followed and quantified as it moves through a
system. This is applied to moving fluids through an HVAC system to
determine the pressure requirements of a pump or fan. HVAC system design
must take into account the energy of a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct
system. The energy needed to move a fluid has to overcome the forces it
encounters within pipes and ducts. Only when the HVAC system adds more
energy than the fluid will lose will the system be able to push the fluid
through the system.

The HVAC system employs a pump or fan to generate a pressure force for
moving the fluid within the system. The flow energy equation is used to
calculate the energy that must be supplied by a pump or a fan to overcome
energy losses due to friction within the pipes or ducts.

Energy balance principle

The energy contained in fluid at any point in a system consists of pressure,
velocity (kinetic energy) and elevation (potential energy). If the system
utilizes the force of a fan or a pump then the energy generated by that device
is also added to the energy of the fluid. This relationship can be illustrated by
the energy balance equation.

Just as energy can be added to a piping or duct system, energy can also be lost
due to friction in the system. Friction is created as air or water in the system
comes in contact with the walls of the pipes or ductwork.

The flow energy equation states that fluid energy at any point in a piping or
duct system is equal to the sum of all the energy losses and gains since the
previous point.

Energy 1 + Energy Added – Energy Lost = Energy 2

Where:
Energy1 = Fluid energy measured at point 1 of the system
Energy2 = Fluid energy measured at point 2 of the system

Lesson -5 115
 Energy Added = Energy added to the fluid system between
point 1 and point 2
Energy Lost = Energy lost from the fluid system between point
1 and point 2

Review
The design of an HVAC system must take into account that all fluids have
energy. Friction causes the loss of energy as the fluid comes into contact with
the surface of piping or ducts.

Lost energy can be regenerated by a pump or fan. The amount of energy that
needs to be regenerated can be calculated with the flow energy equation.

The fluid flow rate is the amount of fluid that flows and fluid velocity is the
speed at which that fluid flows.

The flow energy equation states that the energy of a fluid at point B is equal to
the energy at point A plus the total energy that was gained or lost in between
points A and B.

116 Lesson 5-
Exercises: 5.2
1. Describe the flow energy equation.

2. Answer True or False in the table below. If false, correct the statement to
make it true.

Statement True or False

The sensible heat ratio states that energy between two points in a fluid system are
equal once all the energy losses and gains between those two points are
accounted for.

Pumps and fans provide the pressure necessary for replacing lost pressure from
friction in pipes and ducts.

The fluid flow rate is the speed at which a fluid flows.

Fluid velocity is the measurement of the amount of fluid that is flowing.

3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the statements true.

____ ___________ accounts for most of the energy lost in a duct

or piping system.

The fluid contained in a fluid system contains ______________

at any given time and this _______________ is made up of
_______________ energy, for speed, and _______________
energy, for position.

Lesson -5 117
118 Lesson 5-
5.3 Pressure in fluid systems
Pressure is the driving force behind fluid systems and it is the force that
overcomes friction inside pipes and ducts. Fluid systems are classified as
either open or closed. An open fluid system is one where the fluid is exposed
to atmospheric air. Pumps create small pressure changes that result in fluid
flow rather than system pressurization. Open piping systems are common in
HVAC systems for cooling tower applications and most air duct systems.

A closed fluid system keeps recirculating fluid entirely protected from

exposure to atmospheric air. Fluids used for heating or cooling purposes are
always transferred through a closed fluid system. Flowing fluid pressure can
be increased to any reasonable value with pumps and compression tanks.

Flowing fluid contains pressure and this pressure must be accounted for when
designing a facility’s HVAC system. The total pressure of a flowing fluid is
equal to velocity pressure and static pressure added together.

New Terms

open fluid system Piping or duct system that has one or

more sections where flowing fluid is exposed to atmospheric
air.

closed fluid system Piping or duct system that completely

isolates fluid from coming in contact with atmospheric air.
Hydronic fluid systems are always closed systems so that
fluid pressure and temperature can be controlled.

total pressure The sum of a fluid’s static and velocity

pressures.

velocity pressure The sum of the force exerted by flowing

fluid and the pressurization of that flowing fluid.

static pressure The force exerted by non-flowing fluid due

to the pressurization of the fluid by a pump or by gravity.

Lesson -5 119
Velocity pressure
Velocity pressure is the force exerted by flowing fluid. A flowing fluid exerts
force on any stationary surface as it moves through the piping or ducts. The
kinetic energy of the flowing fluid, expressed as its velocity, allows us to
calculate the rate of movement of a fluid through a duct or pipe. Remember
when you were a child sailing your hand out the car window on a trip. The
pressure of the wind from the movement of the car forced your hand back and
as you rotated your hand like an airfoil in the airstream you could feel the
pressure trying raise or lower your hand. This velocity is expressed in feet per
minute (ft/min.).

Static Pressure
Static pressure is the non-flowing force exerted by fluid. Static pressure is
generated by the weight due to gravity of a standing fluid in a vertical pipe or
the outward pressure of air on a ducts walls or helium in a balloon.

Total Pressure
Total pressure is the force generated as fluid flows through an open or closed
system. This pressure must be accounted for when designing a facility’s fluid
system. The total pressure contained in a fluid system is equal to the sum of
the velocity pressure and the static pressure.

Pt = Pv + Ps

Where:
Pt = Total pressure
Pv = Velocity pressure
Ps = Static pressure

120 Lesson 5-
Review
Fluid systems are classified as open or closed and they are designed to
transfer fluids and the pressures associated with those fluids.

Open systems are most commonly used for air duct systems and some cooling
tower applications.

Closed systems do not allow fluids to come in contact with atmospheric air.
Closed systems are most commonly used for HVAC systems because they
enable fluid pressure to be more accurately controlled.

Fluid systems have to accommodate for both velocity pressure, as well as for
static pressure.

The sum of velocity and static pressure is the total pressure of a fluid.

Lesson -5 121
Exercises: 5.3
1. Describe the differences between an open and a closed fluid system.

2. What is static pressure?

3. Fill in the blanks with, or circle, the correct word(s) below to make the
statements true.

Fluid flowing through pipes or ducts encounter _____________

everywhere it meets stationary surfaces. This ______________
(raises or reduces) the velocity pressure of the fluid.

4. Explain total pressure in a fluid system.

122 Lesson 5-
5.4 Pressure loss in fluid systems
Fluid systems have to accommodate for fluid pressure and this includes
maintaining and regaining pressure when it is lost. Pressure is mainly lost as a
result of friction in piping or ductwork.

Pressure loss in piping systems

Friction in fluid systems is due either to the physical contact between the fluid
in the system and the surface of the piping or because of the viscosity of the
fluid. Irregular angles and rough piping surfaces are all factors that contribute
to friction. Smooth angles and smooth surface materials do not impede flow
and reduce friction. Reducing friction reduces the amount of energy that a
system uses.

New Terms

friction Resistance generated when fluid comes in contact

with the surface of pipes or ductwork. Friction impedes flow
and causes pressure loss.

viscosity Fluid stickiness that causes pressure and kinetic

energy loss.

Viscous fluid has a tendency to adhere to surface walls of pipes, slowing the
rate of flow. When a fluid slows down, the pressure of the fluid also
decreases. In order to regain this pressure loss, a pump can be used to
regenerate pressure to get the sticky fluid flowing again. Smooth surface
angles and smooth surface construction materials reduce occurrences of flow
obstruction.

Piping system components such as pipe fittings and valves, in addition to

friction, viscosity, and flow directional changes, all contribute to pressure
losses in piping systems. As fluids pass through valves and pipe fittings, the
direction of the fluid flow changes dynamically. These types of changes are
referred to as dynamic losses of pressure.

Temperature and viscosity have a large impact on pressure loss in a piping

system. The more viscous a fluid is, the more force it requires to push the

Lesson -5 123
 fluid through the piping system. For example, consider honey flowing through
a piping system. Honey is very viscous and it would take a long time for it to
flow through a 20 foot section of pipe. However, as we apply heat to the
honey it flows much faster as it’s viscous properties begin to breakdown. Less
pressure is required for moving the heated honey through the piping system so
less energy is used. Although honey is an extreme example, the same behavior
holds true for hot and chilled water. Less pressure is needed to push hot water
through a piping system than is required to push the same volume of chilled
water through the same piping system.

When a fluid system loses pressure, the amount of loss can be determined so
that the correct amount of replacement pressure is known. The Darcy-
Weisbach equation illustrates the relationship between fluid flow pressure
loss and friction, pipe length, internal pipe diameter, fluid density,
temperature, and velocity.

2
L V
Pf = f × ---- × -------
D 2g

Where:
Pf = Pressure loss due to friction in straight pipe or duct
f = Friction
L = Length of pipe or duct
D = Diameter of pipe or duct
V = Velocity of fluid

g = Gravitational constant, ft/sec.2

New Terms

dynamic losses Fluid pressure losses due to turbulence and

change in the direction of flow through pipe fittings and
valves.

Darcy-Weisbach Equation used to explain the relationship

between pressure loss in fluid systems due to friction, pipe or
duct length, pipe diameter, density, temperature, and velocity.

124 Lesson 5-
Pressure loss in duct systems
Duct systems encounter fluid flow pressure losses as well as piping systems
and duct system design must accommodate for loss conditions. There are
many designs for ductwork construction: round, rectangular, flexible, etc.

New Term

duct Typically built up using galvanized sheet metal

through which fluids are transferred.

Charts and tables have been published that illustrate pressure loss for different
types of duct designs. When the amount of pressure loss is known, HVAC
operations, such as equipment performance, fan capacity, and air quality, can
be monitored and managed.

Several factors affect fluid flow pressure loss in duct systems: friction, aspect
ratio, fittings, and fan inlets and outlets.

Lesson -5 125
New Term

aspect ratio Ratio of the dimensions of the two adjacent

sides of a rectangular duct.

Friction causes pressure loss in duct systems. For example, as air blows
through a duct, pressure is lost as it comes in contact with the sides of the
ductwork. Additionally, any residue on, openings, or directional changes in
duct material will cause pressure to be lost.

Aspect ratio causes pressure loss in duct systems when the ducts are of
rectangular shape. As air blows through the ducts, it comes violently in
contact with the two adjacent walls of the duct and some of the kinetic energy
of the flowing fluid is transferred to the surface of the duct wall as potential
energy. Transferring from kinetic energy to potential energy results in loss of
pressure.

Duct fittings are the joints that connect the separate sections of sheet metal
ducts together and they cause pressure loss in duct systems because of the
rough spots they induce onto the inside surface of ductwork. As air blows
through the system, flow is disrupted as portions of the air get backed up
behind the rough spots. The backed up air transfers some of it’s kinetic energy
into potential energy, resulting in loss of flow.

Fan inlets/fan outlets also cause pressure loss in duct systems because they
are openings in the system. Openings in any system cause pressure loss when
pressure escapes through these points.

Total duct system pressure loss is equal to the section with the greatest
pressure loss.

Review
Pressure losses in a fluid systems are mainly due to friction. Other factors that
affect pressure loss in both piping and duct systems include equipment,
system design, viscosity, and flow directional changes.

Pressure losses in piping systems can be determined by the Darcy-Weisbach

equation and once the pressure loss for a system has been determined, that
value can be used to monitor equipment performance, fan capacity, and
overall air quality.

126 Lesson 5-
Exercises: 5.4
1. What factors does the Darcy-Weisbach equation use to determine pressure
loss in a piping system?

2. Does hot or cold water have higher pressure loss in a piping system?

3. What is a duct?

4. Explain the aspect ratio of a duct system.

5. List six reasons for pressure loss in a duct system.

6. Which type of duct, round or rectangular, has less pressure loss due to
friction for an identical cross-section area?

Lesson -5 127
128 Lesson 5-
 6
Analyzing pumps and piping systems

Identify hydronic piping system components.

• Pump characteristics

• Hydronic piping systems

• Expansion and compression tanks

• Air venting

• Valves
130 Lesson 6-
6.1 Pump characteristics
A pump is a key component for any HVAC system because it is the device
responsible for pushing heated and chilled fluids through the air conditioning
system. An understanding of pump characteristics is necessary for
understanding the operation of a hydronic distribution system.

Pumps used in HVAC systems are devices responsible for producing enough
pressure to overcome system pressure losses and for maintaining the required
flow rate. HVAC systems typically involve several applications for using a
pump: chilled water, hot water, condensate, condenser, and/or a cooling
tower.

There are many different types of pumps and they are commonly divided up
into two main classification: positive displacement pumps and centrifugal
pumps.

New Terms

pumps Devices used in HVAC systems to force fluid

circulation throughout a facility via a piping system.

hydronic distribution systems Piping systems that transfer

heated and chilled water throughout a building to enable
heating and cooling HVAC functions.

positive displacement pumps Devices used in HVAC

applications. As fluid volume is reduced, pressure is
generated and the fluid is forced through the piping system.

centrifugal pumps Devices that force fluid circulation

through a piping system by applying rotating energy. As the
fluid-filled pump rotates, kinetic energy is generated,
throwing the fluid outwards in radial direction from the eye
of the pump.

Lesson - 6 131
 Positive displacement pumps operate on the basis that pressure is generated
by compressing fluids into a reduced space. Examples of positive
displacement pumps are: gear, reciprocating, rotary, screw, and vane pumps.
Positive displacement pumps are commonly used in HVAC applications.

Centrifugal pumps operate on the basis that a fluid is drawn upwards due to
the lower pressure that is created at the eye of the impeller due to its rotating
motion. First the centrifugal pump increases the velocity of the fluid in order
to increase the pressure at the discharge. This moves the fluid out of the
impeller thereby drawing the fluid up the suction line and into the eye of the
impeller. The impeller is the rotating portion of the pump that forces the fluid
radially outward from the impeller vanes and increases its velocity. Fluid
dispersal from the eye is managed by the physical design of the impeller
vanes. After the fluid leaves the eye of the impeller, it is guided out through
the volute. The diameter of the volute increases as it reaches the diffuser end
of the pump, thus decreasing the velocity and converting the velocity energy
into pressure energy.

132 Lesson 6-
New Terms

suction line The tubing that serves as an access connection

from the fluid to be pumped and the pump device.

eye The center of the centrifugal pump where the fluid is

rotated and pressurized for discharge.

impeller The portion of the pump device that actually does

the rotating. The impeller holds the fluid, rotates it, and
throws it out of the pump device in a radial direction.

vanes The blades constructed inside the impeller that

dictate the direction of fluid discharge.

volute The section of the pump that is shaped like the

whorl of a snail shell. The physical construction of the volute
decreases fluid velocity and converts the energy into pressure
energy to be used in the piping system.

diffuser The end portion of the pump device where the

fluid is released.

Lesson - 6 133
 There are several different pump varieties that fall under the classification of
centrifugal pumps. Some of the most common types used for HVAC
applications include, close-coupled and in-line pumps.

Close-coupled pumps are so called because the motor and the pump are built
together as a unit. The motor shaft serves as the support for the impeller.
Close-coupled pumps are relatively inexpensive and they are used for small to
medium sized HVAC applications.

In-line pumps are so called because the discharge portion of the pump and the
suction portion of the pump are aligned in a straight line. These types of
pumps are inexpensive and easy to install because no other parts are needed
for supporting the light weight pump body. In-line pumps are commonly used
for small HVAC applications.

134 Lesson 6-
 Centrifugal pumps are also available with different construction options. For
example, some HVAC applications require high volumes of fluid to be
pumped so most large-sized pumps are designed to intake fluids into both
sides of the pumping unit. This type of pump design is referred to as a
double-suction pump. Conversely, a single-suction pump only draws fluid
into one side of the pumping unit.

There is always the risk of a pump leaking the fluid it is pumping or of its
drive shaft not operating smoothly. To ensure performance, pump seals and
bearings are used. Seals are either a flexible and greased rubber component or
a tight packing of woven fibers that are saturated with oil. Seals prevent fluid
from leaking out due to the pressure generated when the pump is running.

Bearings are also available in different varieties, including sleeve and ball
bearings. Ball bearings are uniform metal balls that may or may not be
enclosed with the impeller of a pump. Ball bearings are lubricated so that they
rotate smoothly.

Lesson - 6 135
 Sleeve bearings are lubricated with oil so that smooth motion is achieved. For
example, cotton is packed around the shaft and saturated with oil. The oil
ensures unrestricted movement along the shaft.

New Term

double-suction Refers to pumps that draw fluid into both

sides of the pumping unit. Most large capacity pumps are
double-suction varieties.

single-suction Refers to pumps that only draw fluid into

one side of the pumping unit. Most small and medium
capacity pumps are single-suction.

seals Prevent the leakage of the fluid that is being pushed

through the pump.

bearings Are the part of a pump unit that enable the shaft
to rotate smoothly. Ball bearing and sleeve bearing are two
types of bearings used in HVAC pumps.

coupling Connecting device that allows for minor angular

displacements of pump and motor shafts.

The coupling allows for minor angular displacements between motor shaft
and the pump shaft. Also reduces vibration during pump operation. Pump
casings are available as removable vertical or horizontal split casings. For
instance, vertical split casings can be unscrewed and removed for
maintenance or repair service. Horizontal split casings can also be unscrewed
and the top half of the casing can be removed for servicing. Horizontal split
casings are very common with large industrial pumps and some of these
covers can only be removed by a mechanical hoist because of the size and
weight of the casing.

Impellers are available as open, closed, or semi-open. Open impellers do not

have shrouds, or walls, where as closed impellers do have walls. Semi-open
impellers are so called because they have walls on one side.

Centrifugal pumps are very efficient and they are the type of pump most
commonly used for hydronic water systems and cooling tower applications.

136 Lesson 6-
Pump selection
Despite the type of pump chosen for a job, all pumps are chosen according to
how well they meet certain criteria: horsepower, flow rate, head, and
efficiency.

There are two main system characteristics necessary for proper pump
selection and these include a capacity equal to the system flow rate and a head
pressure equal to the system pressure loss.

Pump selection is also dependent on the net positive suction head, or NPSH.
The NPSH is the minimal amount of fluid pressure that must be maintained at
the pump suction to prevent possible damage to the pump or operation
problems. When fluid pressure drops below the net positive suction head
level, cavitation occurs.

New Term

cavitation Condition when too little pressure is available at

the pump suction. Noise is generated and pump damage and/
or operation problems may result.

Review
Pumps are important components involved with a piping system because they
supply the necessary amounts of fluid and pressure to compensate for lost
pressure and maintain the desired fluid flow rate. Pumps are classified as
either positive displacement or centrifugal types. Centrifugal pumps generate
pressure throw the pumped fluid out in radial direction. Pumps can be further
classified according to construction features: double or single-suction inlets,
motor and suction component alignment, and vertical- or horizontal-split
pump casing, for removal and service access.

There are two main requirements that must be addressed when selecting a
pump for any HVAC application. First, the pump capacity must equal the fluid
flow rate of the system. And secondly, the pump head must equal the pressure
loss of the system in order to maintain operation of the pump without causing
damage to HVAC processes or pump equipment.

Lesson - 6 137
Exercises: 6.1
1. How are pumps classified and what are the two main classification types of
pumps available?

2. Explain how a typical pump functions.

3. What does NPSH stand for and explain what it represents?

4. Explain the difference between an in-line and a close-coupled pump.

5. What are two primary piping system characteristics to be considered when

selecting a pump?

138 Lesson 6-
 6.2 Hydronic Piping systems
A typical hydronic piping system consists of a heating or cooling source, at
least one pump, valves, and heating or cooling coils. The pump provides the
force to push the water through the system while the valves control the flow
as required by each part of the system. The pump, valves, compression or
expansion tanks, and pipes through which the fluid flows make up the piping
system.

Piping systems are responsible for supplying a facility with the proper amount
of fluids used for heating or cooling purposes as needed to keep the facility
comfortable. In order to control comfort for a building, a piping system has to
be able to perform five main tasks that deal with delivering fluids through a
building. Piping systems must maintain the required amount of flow through
the system heating or cooling source. The desired water temperature to air
handler and terminal unit coils and a minimal flow of fluid through running
pumps must also be maintained. Piping systems must also be able to perform
staging of pumps in a multi-pump system to satisfy all of the previous needs
and the systems must be able to maintain controllable pressure drops across
the control valves.

Table 6.1 Criteria for applying piping system

Criteria for a properly applied piping system

Maintain required flow through the system heating and cooling source

Maintain desired water supply temperature to air handler and terminal unit

Maintain minimum fluid flow through any pumps that are operating

Perform staging of pumps in a multi-pump system to enable system-wide delivery

Maintain controllable pressure drop across the control valves

Lesson - 6 139
Piping system classification
Water distribution systems are typically divided up into five main
classifications used in building HVAC systems: chilled water, low
temperature water, medium temperature water, high temperature water, and
dual temperature water. Table 6.2 lists the different piping system
classifications and the temperature range for each.

Table 6.2 Piping system classifications and their temperature ranges

Piping system classifications Temperature

Chilled water (CHW) 40- 55°F

Low temperature water (LTW) 250°F max.

Medium temperature water (MTW) 250- 325°F

350- and
High temperature water (HTW)
up°F

Dual temperature water (DTW) All Season

Chilled water (CHW) distribution systems supply water for cooling purposes
at temperatures from 40 to 55°F, at pressures up to 125 psi.

Low temperature water (LTW) distribution systems supply water for heating
purposes at temperatures up to 250°F at pressures up to 160 psi. Most LTW
boilers have a maximum working pressure of 30 psig.

Medium temperature water (MTW) distribution systems supply water for

heating purposes at temperatures from 250 to 325°F with pressures up to 160
psi. Maximum boiler temperature is limited to 350°F.

High temperature water (HTW) distribution systems supply water for heating
purposes at temperatures above 350°F, usually in the 400 to 450°F range, with
pressures up to 300 psi.

Dual temperature water (DTW) distribution systems supply LTW during the
heating season and CHW during the cooling season. Two-pipe fan coil
terminal units typically use dual temperature water systems.

140 Lesson 6-
Piping system arrangements
Hydronic piping systems distribute both hot and chilled water to air handler
heating/cooling coils and terminal units located throughout a facility and they
are available in multiple arrangements. These arrangements are a result of the
varying ways hot or chilled water sources and heating or cooling coils can be
connected. There are four basic configurations for connecting piping
arrangements to terminal units and two main combinations that these
connections can be used. Therefore there are six common piping
arrangements: series loop, one-pipe main, two-pipe direct return, two-pipe
reverse return, three-pipe, and four pipe. Table 6.3 lists the common piping
systems involved in HVAC applications and provides a description for each.

Table 6.3 Common piping system arrangement descriptions

Common piping arrangements Description

All water in the system flows through every terminal unit and all
Series loop
terminal units are connected to the main pipeline.

One-pipe main One pipe for both supply and return water.

Two-pipe direct return One pipe for supply water; one pipe for return water.

Two-pipe reverse return One pipe for supply water; one pipe for reverse-flow return water.

One pipe for hot supply water; one pipe for chilled supply water;
Three-pipe
one pipe for all return water.

Two individual two-pipe systems combined. One supply and one

Four-pipe return pipe for hot water; one supply and one return pipe for
chilled water.

Lesson - 6 141
 Series Loop

Series loop piping system arrangements are designed with all the terminal
units connected in a series, forming a loop. Terminal units on this type of
system are directly connected to the main pipe where they receive the whole
water supply for the system through each terminal unit. There are no branches
or diverting tees to disrupt water flow.

142 Lesson 6-
 One pipe main

One-pipe main piping arrangements are so called because there is only one
main pipe through which the water flows through this type of system.
Terminal units are connected to this main pipe with a supply and a return flow
pipe. Flow diverting fittings are used to scoop water out of the main flow.
Later terminal units in the system may not receive enough heat.

Lesson - 6 143
 Two pipe direct return

Two-pipe direct return piping system arrangements have two pipes, one for
supply water and one for return water, that are connected to the source. Direct
returns means that the fluid exiting a terminal unit goes straight back towards
the heating/cooling source. The further away from the source the further the
fluid will have to travel.

There are considerations associated with direct return piping arrangements

due to the fact that terminal units are not all equally distanced from the
source. For example, fluid reaching terminal units in the latter part of the
system can be of different temperature, pressure, and volume than the water
reaching terminal units closer to the source. This can mean uneven heating/
cooling throughout a building. The illustration shows the order of flow
through a four-terminal two-pipe direct return piping arrangement and how it
can be abbreviated or short circuited from the source to the first terminal unit
and then directly back to the source.

Order of flow through a four-terminal two-pipe direct return piping arrangement

Supply (S) water enters ----> Terminal 1 ----> Return (R) water to plant

Supply (S) water continues ----> Terminal 2 ----> Return (R) water to Terminal 1

Supply (S) water continues ----> Terminal 3 ----> Return (R) water to Terminal 2

Supply (S) water continues ----> Terminal 4 ----> Return (R) water to Terminal 3

144 Lesson 6-
 Two pipe reverse return

Two-pipe reverse return piping system arrangements have two pipes, one for
supply and one for return water, with return flow moving in the reverse
direction than the direct return arrangement. The reverse flow design of this
type of piping system compensates for temperature, pressure, and volume
variances that normally occur within the two-pipe direct return piping
arrangement. All the fluid in the system has to travel the same distance.

This summarizes the order of flow through a four-terminal two-pipe reverse

return piping arrangement. The supply water enters terminal 1 first. Its return
water completes the loop from terminal 1 to 2, terminal 2 to 3, and so on until
it returns back to the plant.

Order of flow through a four-terminal two-pipe direct return piping arrangement

Supply water first ----> Terminal 1 ----> Return water to Terminal 2

Supply water continues ----> Terminal 2 ----> Return water to Terminal 3

Supply water continues ----> Terminal 3 ----> Return water to Terminal 4

Supply water continues ----> Terminal 4 ----> Return water to plant

Lesson - 6 145
 Three pipe system

Three-pipe systems are arranged as a combination system where there are two
main supply lines and one return route. One main pipeline is for hot water
delivery and the other is for chilled water delivery. The remaining line is for
all return water enroute back to the plant and the pump, either in direct or
reverse return. Simultaneous heating and cooling loads can be satisfied with a
three-pipe arrangement but a lot of energy is wasted as return warm and cool
water mix together.

146 Lesson 6-
 Four pipe system

Four-pipe systems are also arranged as a combination system where there are
two main supply lines and a separate return route for each. In other words, a
four-pipe system is made up of two individual two-pipe systems consisting of
a hot water supply line and its return line, and a chilled water supply line and
its return line. This type of arrangement is cost effective because return hot
water will remain warmer than the chilled water system. Any remaining
thermal energy in the warm water return line will be used during its
transformation into hot supply water. If the return chilled water return was to
be used for hot supply water, more energy will have to be added to it in order
to reach the desired temperature. Four-pipe systems are more energy efficient
than other types of piping arrangements.

Lesson - 6 147
New Terms

series loop Piping system arrangements are designed with

all the terminal units connected in a series. The terminal units
are directly connected to the main pipe so there are no
branches or diverting tees.

one-pipe main Piping system arrangements have only one

main pipe through which fluid flows through the system.
Terminal units are connected to this pipe by both supply and
return fluid pipes.

two-pipe direct return Piping system arrangements have

two pipes, one for supply fluid and one for return fluid, that
are directly connected to the source to maintain supply fluid
temperature at each terminal unit.

two-pipe reverse return Piping system arrangements have

two pipes, one for supply and one for return water, with
return flow moving in the reverse direction from the direct
return arrangement.

Review
A typical hydronic piping system includes a heating or cooling source, a
pump, valves, and heating or cooling coils. These components work together
to supply water throughout a building in order to meet heating and cooling
needs. A piping system has been properly applied when the proper flow rate is
continually available through heating and cooling sources, when water
temperatures and volumes are controlled for all system components, and when
the pressure drop across the control valves is adequate. Hydronic piping
systems have similar components but they can be classified into five main
categories according to the temperature of the water flowing through the
pipes.

There are different arrangement designs commonly applied with hydronic

piping systems, depending on the needs of a facility. Either one, two, three, or
four pipes are needed for supply and return water and either direct or reverse
return design is implemented, depending upon the system’s need to protect
against backflow, varying supply water temperature, pressure, and volume at
terminal units at the end of the system.

148 Lesson 6-
Exercises: 6.2
1. List the common types of hydronic piping system arrangements.

2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of direct return and reverse

return piping arrangements.

3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a four-pipe system.

Lesson - 6 149
150 Lesson 6-
6.3 Expansion and compression
tanks
Hydronic piping systems allow for the transfer of both hot and chilled water.
The HVAC piping used must accommodate for temperature changes within
the system. As piping system temperatures rise, water volume increases.
Hydronic piping systems accommodate for this increase in water volume with
the use of an expansion tank.

New Term

expansion tanks Containers located in a hydronic piping

system. These tanks hold increasing water volumes due to
system temperature rises. Pressure is released or controlled
from the tank so pipes do not burst.

Expansion tanks
Expansion tanks provide the extra space needed in hydronic piping systems to
hold increasing water volume resulting from temperature increases.
Expansion tanks are available as either open or closed containers. Open
expansion tanks are exposed to the atmosphere so that the water inside is not
pressurized.

Lesson - 6 151
 As water temperature and volume in the piping system increases, the water
level in the expansion tank increases. Pressure will build up if there isn’t
adequate room for expansion.

Open expansion tanks are located at the highest point in a hydronic piping
system so that the increased water level will rise up inside the expansion tank
and not increase the pressure in the piping. The expansion tank is there to
hold and store increased water volume that would otherwise build up pressure
and might rupture pipes or other system equipment.

Closed expansion tanks can be placed anywhere in the system. They operate
similar to open tanks in that they provide space for the expansion of the water
volume. Being closed, however, they can be pressurized with a charge of air
and maintain the pressure on a system without having to be elevated above the
system. The air charge is exposed to the hydronic water and can be absorbed
by the water over time. This means someone has to verify that there is still an
adequate air charge in the tank from time to time.

Compression tanks
Closed expansion tanks fitted with a bladder are known as compression
tanks because they contain either air or nitrogen gas that compresses as water
enters the tank. Compression tanks are expansion tanks that are used to
protect fluids from coming into contact with oxygen rich air, a source of
corrosion in these closed systems.

152 Lesson 6-
New Term

compression tanks Closed expansion tanks that contain

compressed air bladders and protect the water in the piping
system from exposure to atmospheric air.

Piping system pressure

As the temperature and the volume of the water in a piping system increases,
the water level in the system also increases. Pressure builds up as thermal
energy is generated and it is controlled as it compresses the gas at the top of
the compression tank.

Compression tanks are far more popular than expansion tanks because they
limit the fluid contact with air and they enable piping system pressure control.
Minimum system pressure must be maintained in order for a piping system to
avoid cavitation at the pump inlet. A maximum pressure must be limited or
the pipes making up the system may rupture. Pressure aids flow in a hydronic
piping system but it can also ruin operation if it is allowed to build up
unchecked.

Lesson - 6 153
 Compression tanks are safety control components because they control
system pressure. Open expansion tanks maintain system pressure by creating
a water column above the rest of the system. Compression tanks control
pressure as the entering water compresses the air or nitrogen gas at the top of
the tank. This pressure control is necessary for system operation and
equipment safety.

In order for a hydronic piping system to operate efficiently, a minimum

pressure level must be maintained and a maximum pressure level must not be
exceeded. Two conditions must be met in order to maintain minimum piping
system pressure. First, system pressure must be higher than the water’s
boiling point pressure for the temperatures being used. If the system pressure
is lower, the water may boil to steam. Steam will disrupt the operation of a
hydronic piping system. Second, atmospheric pressure must not be higher
than system pressure at any point in the system or air may enter the system.
The presence of air in a hydronic piping system will cause disruptions in flow
and corrosion.

Review
Hydronic piping systems are the highways for transferring hot and chilled
water throughout a building.

As water temperature rises, the volume increases and the piping system must
accommodate the extra space needed to contain the larger volume.

Expansion tanks, either open or closed models, are installed in the system to
act as a storage tank for the increased water volume. Open expansion tanks
are open to atmospheric air and the water can absorb O2 which will cause
corrosion. Closed expansion tanks are pressurized with air in contact with the
water.

Compression tanks are more commonly used over expansion tanks because
they minimize the water’s contact with oxygen in air.

System pressure must be maintained between the minimum and the maximum
ranges in order to keep the water flowing and the pipes from rupturing.

154 Lesson 6-
Exercises: 6.3
1. What two methods are used to compensate for water expansion?

2. What is the purpose of an expansion tank?

3. What is the purpose of a compression tank?

4. What is the main difference between an expansion tank and a compression

tank?

5. Why is pressure control important for a hydronic piping system? Discuss

minimum and maximum pressure control?

Lesson - 6 155
156 Lesson 6-
6.4 Air venting
Air venting is an important aspect of a hydronic piping system because the
presence of air in a system will cause operating disruptions. Some air will
always be present in a piping system because air invariably enters piping
whenever a system is filled with water. Water has a percentage of dissolved
air in it and expansion tanks have a percentage of compressed air in them. In
addition to the first-fill-water, further amounts of air will enter a piping
system when it is opened up for servicing or repair and whenever additional
water is added to the system.

Air venting devices

Any air present in a hydronic piping system must be vented out of the system
in order to prevent the blocking of water flow and the corrosive effects that air
and water combinations foster. There are several ways to eliminate air from a
piping system. As water is heated and flows through the piping system, air
vents and air separators allow air to escape from piping systems.

New Terms

air vents Devices that are used to expel air from fluid that
is flowing through a distribution system.

air separators Devices that are used to divert dissolved air

present in fluids flowing through a piping system into the
compression tank where it can be exhausted.

Air vents are valves that are used to remove air from hydronic piping systems.
Air vents are necessary because no matter how careful workers are at
installing and operating a distribution system, some air will always infiltrate
into the system. Air vents are installed at all high points in a distribution
system because air rises. Air trapped at these high points can disrupt water
flow. Vents should also be installed at terminal units in order to prevent air
pockets from blocking the flow of water through the units.

Air vents are available as either manually or automatically controlled. Manual

air vents are physically opened by a worker to release air bubbles from the
system. When air bubbles cease to exist, the worker physically closes the

Lesson - 6 157
 valves again. Automatic air valves are controlled by the system to open and
close. Automatic valves can be dangerous if they do not automatically close
when necessary, allowing the water to escape, spill into the building, and
cause water damage.

Air separators are devices that are installed at connections between system
piping and compression tanks and they are used to divert air from the piping
system into the tanks. Once the air reaches a tank, it rises to the top where it is
exhausted from the system.

Review
Hydronic piping systems always contain a percentage of air that must be
removed from the system.

Air pockets block water flow through terminal units and the combination of
water and air together promote corrosion to piping system components.

Manual or automatic air vents are used to release air from high points and
terminal units in a piping system and air separators are used to direct air from
the water flowing through pipes into a compression tank where it can be
removed from the system.

158 Lesson 6-
Exercises: 6.4
1. Explain the differences between automatic and manual vents and discuss
some of the advantages of using each.

2. How does air enter a piping system?

3. Where should air vents be installed?

4. Explain why air vents should be installed and how they function.

Lesson - 6 159
160 Lesson 6-
6.5 Valves
Valves have many uses in HVAC systems. They are used to isolate
components for maintenance or repair. They are used to direct flow through a
system. They are used to control the flow rate in a component. They are
selected for their ability to withstand a specific temperature and pressure
range, providing the proper flow control characteristic and the correct piping
connections. The size of the valve is critical for the intended application.
Each type of valve has an application that it is best suited for.

Valve Construction
Most valve types have several common components.

A body, which is the casting that the fluid flows through and allows a place to
mount the other parts. The body can be made of cast iron or steel, cast
bronze, stainless steel, plastic and many other materials for special uses.

The bonnet, attaches to the top of the body, by threads or bolted, provides a
guide for the stem and contains the packing around the stem to prevent
leaking.

The disc, the moveable part of the valve assembly that closes on the seat to
control the flow. Usually replaceable as its wears from the fluid passing by.

The plug, an extension beyond the disc that obstructs the passage through the
seat. As the disc is pulled away from the seat the plug will be withdrawn also
but the opening through the seat will change according to the shape of the
plug. The plug is used to alter the flow characteristic of the valve.

The port, the opening through the seat.

The seat, the stationary part of the valve body the meets the disc. Often
times replaceable with the disc.

The trim, all the parts of the valve except the body.

Lesson - 6 161
Valve Flow Characteristics
Control valves are grouped according to the way the flow is changed as the
valve is opened. Specific flow characteristics perform better in some
applications than others. There are three flow characteristics that we talk
about in HVAC, equal percentage, linear and quick opening.

But the first consideration for a flow characteristic is the direction of flow.
With a globe valve the fluid needs to enter the valve so that the flow will be
from under the disc. This will allow the best control as the forces acting on
the valve stem will be constant. If flow enters the valve at the top of the disc
the force of the moving fluid will add to the closing force on the valve. When
the valve closes the force from the fluid will be gone and the disc will pop
back open. Flow starts again and the valve closes rapidly cycling the valve.
If flow enters the valve beneath the disc the forces acting on the stem remain
constant, as the valve closes, the force of the fluid acting on the bottom of the
disc trying to open the valve doesn’t change.

An equal percentage flow characteristic changes the flow through the valve
by the same percentage the valve stem travels. If the valve stem opens ten
percent then the flow will increase ten percent. If the flow started at ten GPM
and the stem opened ten percent then the new flow will be 11 GPM. If the
valve opens another ten percent the flow now will be 12.1 GPM. As the valve

162 Lesson 6-
 opens further the amount of the change in flow for a percentage of stem
movement will increase.
The equal percentage flow characteristic is best suited to give proportional
control of hot water applications.

The linear flow characteristic give a directly proportional relationship

between flow and valve stem position. If the valve stem is at fifty percent
open, the flow will be fifty percent of the valve’s rating. If the stem is at
twenty percent the flow will be also.
This flow characteristic is best applied to proportional control of steam or
chilled water flows.

The quick opening flow characteristic provides full flow soon after the valve
starts to open. The majority of flow increase comes in the first twenty percent
or so of stem travel.
This characteristic is useful for two position (on-off) control of steam.

Lesson - 6 163
Valve Flow Terms
Several terms you will see related to valve flow are rangeability, tight shut
off and close off rating, turndown.
Rangeability is the ratio of the valves maximum controllable flow to its
minimum controllable flow. Emphasis on controllable. The minimum flow
occurs when the valve disc first lifts off its seat, its cracked flow condition,
and there’s not really any control below this flow rate. As the valve opens
flow will increase from here. This is a function of the size of the valve and
other conditions. If the maximum flow through a valve is 40GPM and it’s
minimum flow is 1.2 GPM the it’s rangeability is 33.3 to 1.

Tight shut off is the condition which allows no flow through the valve. This
is associated with the close off rating of the valve.The close off rating is a
function of the construction of the valve trim and the actuator. The actuator
must provide enough force to hold the disc firmly on the seat. If the pressure
upstream of the valve gets high enough it will lift the disc off its seat and leak
by. A valve with a 15 psig close off rating downstream of a pump with a 50
pisd discharge is likely going to be a problem.

The turndown ratio of a valve is the ratio of the maximum required flow rate
to its minimum controllable flow rate. The required flow rate and the
maximum flow rate are two separate things. If a valve is capable of 40 GPM

164 Lesson 6-
 but only 30GPM is needed to meet the design requirements of the installation,
the 30GPM number has far more significance. If we use the minimum
controllable flow rate in the above example of 3 GPM then our turndown ratio
is 30/3 = 10. The higher the turndown ratio the finer control we will have.

Valve Ratings
Valves are rated for flow capacity by their Cv rating. They are also rated for
the amount of pressure they can contain and the temperature they will be
exposed to (fluid temps, not ambient).

The flow coefficient, Cv, represents the amount of flow in gallons per minute
through a valve with a one psi pressure drop while the valve is fully opened.
This is commonly used to determine the correct valve size for a particular
application. I won’t go into valve sizing any more that to tell you that the
valve must have the highest pressure drop of any of the components in the
hydronic circuit. If some other piece has a higher pressure drop when the
valve is fully open that piece is controlling flow not the valve. Cv charts for
a valve will give you a choice of pressure drop and flow rates. The valve is
not selected based on the size of the pipe into and out of it when selecting
control valves.

The rating for temperature and pressure is based on two things. The rating for
the valve body alone, exclusive of the packing disc etc. This is a function of
the thickness and material used in the valve body. The thicker the body the
higher the pressure it will take. The stronger the material used the higher the
pressure. A cast iron valve can withstand higher pressures than a plastic
valve.

The maximum pressure and temperature ratings are a result of the

combination of the valve body and trim components. A valve body may be
rated for 125 PSI at 335F but the composition disc is only rated for 240F. The
240F then becomes the max temperature.

Lesson - 6 165
Valve Types
The most common types of valves used in HVAC systems are the gate, the
ball, the butterfly, the check, the globe and the three way.

The gate valve is most commonly used for the isolation of components in a
system. It is a very poor choice for throttling applications as its flow
characteristic is more like a quick opening valve than anything else and the
gate will rattle and wear while partially open.

In this drawing the wedge shaped gate will block the flow through the valve.
The wedge shape will allow a tight fit against the two seats. The gate is
withdrawn into the space above the flow path allowing straight through flow
when open. The valve stem can be either threaded at the hand wheel end and
rise out of the valve lifting the gate or the gate is threaded onto the stem and
rides up on the stem, these are called rising or non rising stems.

166 Lesson 6-
 The ball valve is another quick opening type valve. Primarily used for
isolation of components not throttling flow. A steel (usually) ball is held
between two teflon seats. When a hole in the ball is lined up with the pipe,
flow can proceed through the valve. The hole can be the same diameter as the
pipe, full port, or slightly less. When open the ball valve offers little
resistance to flow.

Lesson - 6 167
 The butterfly valve is also a quick opening valve used for component
isolation. It is simply a disc that can be rotated 90 degrees in the flow path.
Resilient seats can be specified that allow tight shut off. Some modified
valves have been manufactured that allow flow control but most are made as
two position valves. When open the valve offers little resistance to flow.

The check valve prevents reverse flow in a pipe. An example of it’s use is at
the discharge of boiler feed pumps to prevent boiler pressures backing water
up through the pump into the feedwater tank. Or two or more pumps in
parallel when only one typically runs. Water would be forced backward
through the off duty pump.

168 Lesson 6-
 The globe valve is the valve most commonly used for throttling or control
applications. With flow characteristics available of equal percentage or
linear, the heat transfer process can be made linear to match the operation of
the controllers PID control loop. For two position control the globe valve is
not the best choice as the flow path has to make two 90 degree turns to get
through the valve resulting in higher resistance to flow than other choices.

While this graphic of a globe valve shows a hand wheel, most HVAC
applications will have some kind of a powered actuator, usually supplied 24
volt AC.

Lesson - 6 169
 The three way valve is used either to combine two fluid streams into one
(mixing valve) or change the direction of fluid flow (diverting valve). It can
be a single valve with two discs and seats or sometimes two butterfly valves
joined on a tee fitting.

The mixing valve will have two inlets and one outlet. Two inlet streams will
be combined into one outlet. Think of the single handle mixing valve in a
shower. The hot and cold water lines are connected to the valve body. The
position of the handle determines the temperature of the water spraying on
you. In the same way the temperature of the water being supplied to a heating
water supply loop can be adjusted to match a building’s loads as the outside
air temperature changes.

170 Lesson 6-
 The diverting valve will have two outlets and one inlet. Flow can be sent to
one or the other of the outlets but no mixing is desired.

Review
Valves are constructed of a body and trim. The flow characteristics can be
either equal percentage, linear or quick acting. A valves close off pressure
rating, turndown ratio and Cv are important to know during valve selection.
The main valve types are gate, ball, butterfly, check, globe and the three way.
The globe valve is used for control applications more commonly than the
other types.

Lesson - 6 171
Exercise 6.5
1. What does a flow characteristic tell you?

2. Define a valve Cv.

3. Which valve type is most commonly used for throttling?

4. Which valve type is most commonly used for component isolation?

5. How many inlets and outlets does a mixing valve have?

6. How many inlets and outlets does a diverting valve have?

172 Lesson 6-
 7
Analyzing Heat Generating Systems

Examine heat generating equipment.

• Boilers

• Warm Air Furnaces

174 Lesson 7
7.1 Boilers
Boilers are an important component of a heat generating system. A boiler is a
vessel or closed fluid-filled tube designed to heat water or produce steam by
transferring the heat from the combustion of a fuel or by electric resistance
elements. Hot water boilers heat water but they do not actually boil it. Steam
boilers heat water to its boiling point to create steam. This hot water or steam
is then used to warm building spaces that are cooler than temperature
setpoints.

Boilers are probably the single most dangerous piece of HVAC equipment.
The immense forces that are generated by a boiler pose a hazard to both
property and personnel. A boiler can generate enough force to destroy an
office building. The pressure generated in a boiler is applied to the boilers
large surface area, that pressure exerts an outward force on the boiler, if the
boiler becomes overpressured to the point the metal fails, the escaping hot
water will instantly become steam under the lower atmospheric pressure and
over pressurize the building structure (explode). Special attention is necessary
when working with boilers to ensure safe operation.

New Term

boilers Device that generates heat as hot water or steam.

Boiler Use Advantages

There are several advantages for using a hot water boiler over a steam boiler
to distribute heat throughout a facility. Boilers can reset water temperature to
suit loads influenced by outdoor temperatures. Heat loss from piping is less
than with steam systems because the fluid’s temperature is usually lower, and
temperature control is easier and more stable because boiler water
temperature can be matched to the load. Also, fewer piping accessories are
required to operate a hot water system than are necessary to operate a steam
system.

There are also some advantages of using steam for distributing heat in a
building, or group of buildings, remote from a heating plant. Steam is light
weight (27 cubic feet per pound) and has a high heat content (1000 BTU’s per
pound). Pumps are not necessary to aid steam flow through pipes because the

Lesson - 7 175
 pressure difference from boiler to end use will force steam movement.
Vertical piping is not a problem for the transfer of steam heat because it does
not create excessive static pressure on piping systems in tall buildings. Steam
can be distributed through a large facility with little change in heating
capacity due to heat loss.

Boiler Components
Boilers are made up of five main components: fuel burner, combustion
chamber, heat exchanger (shell or pressure vessel), controls, and an enclosure,
listed in Table 7.1 below.

Table 7.1 Boiler Component Functions

Boiler components Function

Fuel burner Delivers air and fuel to the combustion chamber.

Combustion chamber Region in the boiler where the fuel is burned.

Heat exchanger (shell

Provides the means for transferring heat to the water.
or pressure vessel)

Devices that manage boiler operation to control setpoints and

Controls
water levels.

Framework encasing the boiler unit that protects equipment

Enclosure
and personnel from injury or damage and supports insulation.

Fuel burners are devices that enable the delivery of air and fuel to the
combustion chambers. They provide the proper mixing and metering for the
air and fuel and an ignition source to start combustion.

Combustion chambers are the areas in the boiler where fuel is burned. As the
fuel is burned, thermal energy is released to produce either hot water or
steam. This heat is then dispersed to warm the building.

Heat exchangers (shell or pressure vessel) are devices used to transfer heat. In
the case of boilers this is the pressure vessel made up of a cylindrical shell
and/or tubes. Some boilers have the water inside the tubes. These are called
water tube boilers. Others have the water outside the tubes and are called fire
tube boilers.

176 Lesson 7
 Controls are devices that manage the boilers operation. The water level and
pressure are monitored and regulated, the combustion process is monitored
and will shutdown the burner in an unsafe condition.

Enclosure is the steel sheet metal case surrounding the boiler holding
insulation up to the shell or refractory.

Accessories

Boilers also typically require accessories that ensure efficient and safe
operation. Some common boiler accessories include pressure gauges, water
level sight glass, thermometers, relief valves, low-water cutoff, water level
control, pressure controls, temperature control, and an expansion tank. There
are other accessories used depending on the BTU input and pressure that the
boiler operates at. All these accessories are usually mandated by law through
the Uniform Mechanical Code.

Pressure gauges measure the boiler pressure and allow the operator to verify
operations. Pressure readings indicate wether the burner is keeping up with
the steam demand.

Water level sight glass indicates the water level inside the boiler. It is critical
that the water level cover the boiler tubes. Without adequate water the tubes
will overheat and fail. The water level sight glass is the first thing an
experienced operator will look at when he enters the boiler room. Automatic
controls should shut down the burner if the water level goes too low. Never
add water to a boiler that has been firing with no water in it. Turn the burner
off and inform your supervisor. Adding water to a hot empty boiler usually
results in destroying the building.

Thermometers measure temperature to verify correct burner operation.

Safety relief valves are valves that will automatically open when excessive
pressures build in the boiler. As the relief valves open, pressure releases to the
atmosphere until pressure levels are once again safe.

Low-water cutoffs monitor water levels and turn off fuel burners when low
water levels pose a threat to safe boiler operation.

Water level control reacts to changes in the water level. As water level drops a
switch is closed that will start the boiler feed pump or open a valve to admit
feed water into the boiler.

Lesson - 7 177
 Pressure control cycles the burner on steam boilers.

High pressure cutout provides a backup control to shut down the burner if the
boiler pressure exceeds the pressure control burner off setting.

Temperature control cycles the burner on hot water boilers.

Expansion and compression tanks allow for the extra space water requires
after it is heated and its volume increases.

Boiler Operation
Hot water boilers and steam boilers operate similarly to furnaces. Once the
thermostat senses the temperature is below the desired setpoint, the pilot is
ignited and the main fuel valve opens. Combustion air enters the boiler and
circulates through or around the boiler tubes or shell. If the boiler is a
watertube type, water filled tubes are surrounded by hot combustion products.
Watertube boilers are usually higher pressure higher capacity boilers. If the
boiler is a firetube type, the hot combustion gas-filled tubes are surrounded by
water. Heat is generated in the combustion chamber and transferred to the
fluid. The fluid flows through the tubes in the heat exchanger, transferring the
newly generated heat to the boiler outlet. The hot water or steam is then
supplied to heating coils in air handlers or terminal units located throughout
the facility. The remaining cooled combustion gas’ are expelled out the flue.

Water tube boiler

178 Lesson 7
 Fire tube boiler

Boiler Classification
Boilers are classified according to many different criteria. Boiler
classification depends on whether boilers provide water or steam and whether
they are constructed on the job site (built-up) or at the factory (packaged).
Classification also depends on boiler water temperature and steam pressure
ratings. They are further classified by the type of metal used in construction (a
cast iron boiler denotes lower pressure and capacity), the type of fuel burned
(gaseous, liquid, solid), and whether combustible gas or boiler water is
contained on the inside of the tubes.

Steam and hot water boilers are available in standard sizes ranging from very
small boilers (rated by BTU input) for residential use to very large boilers for
commercial (rated by horsepower) and industrial use (rated by pounds of
steam generated per hour).

Boiler Arrangements
Boilers can be built with the combustion chamber in one of three locations.
Dry-base boilers have the combustion chamber installed under the fluid-
backed sections. Wet-base boiler combustion chambers are surrounded by the
fluid-backed sections. And the top and sides of wet-leg boiler combustion

Lesson - 7 179
 chambers are surrounded by the fluid-backed sections. Table 7.2 lives
different boiler types available and a description of each type.

New Term

fluid-backed sections The region that contains the water or

gas-filled tubes, the heat exchanger area

Table 7.2 Available Boiler Types

Types of boilers Description

Dry-back boiler Combustion chamber located under the fluid-backed section.

Wet-back Combustion chamber surrounded by the fluid-backed section.

Sides and top of combustion chamber are surrounded by the fluid-

Wet-leg
backed section.

Boiler Capacity Ratings

Boilers are rated according to their temperature, pressure and capacity.
Standards are established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME). Boilers are available as either low- or high-pressure units. ASME
limits the working pressure of low-pressure boilers not to exceed 15 psig for
steam vessels and 160 psig and a maximum of 250 °F for water boilers. High
pressure boilers are usually above 30 psig.

A boilers output capacity is expressed as either Boiler Horsepower, BTU/hr.

or Pounds of Steam delivered per hour. A Boiler Horsepower (BHP) is the
amount of energy required to boil 34.5 pounds of feedwater at 212 °F to
steam at 212 °F or 33,479 BTU/hr.

Boiler Controls
Boiler controls are either operating controls or safety controls. Among the
safety controls are limit controls, level controls and pressure controls.
Operating controls manage the fuel burner either in response to a pressure or

180 Lesson 7
 temperature controller reading or a level control. Safety controls provide
backup to the operating controls as well as monitoring the boiler for safe
operating conditions.

Safety controls ensure that a boiler is operating within safe limits. Factors
such as steam pressure, water temperature and levels, fuel pressure and levels,
oil pressure and levels, and flame activity are all features that safety controls
can monitor.

Hydronic systems utilize hot water flowing through a piping system to deliver
thermal energy throughout a building. Water is pumped through a boiler or
convertor and on through a system of pipes connected to terminal units. Due
to the nature of water and the looping characteristic of hydronic piping
systems, the entire hydronic piping system may have to be drained in order to
conduct maintenace on even a small portion of the system.

Review
Boilers produce hot water or steam for the purpose of heating a facility.

The main components of a boiler are constructed of cast-iron, steel, and

sometimes copper-clad steel.

Add-on accessories are also available for boilers that maintain safe boiler
operations and system efficiency. Some boiler accessories are optional and
others are required by law or code.

Boiler operating and safety controls act to ensure that boilers continue to
operate soundly.

Operating controls limit boiler activity during normal operation,

Safety controls provide backup to the operating controls and monitor the
boiler to maintain safe temperature and pressure limits.

Lesson - 7 181
Exercises: 7.1
1. Describe the difference between watertube and firetube boilers.

2. Describe the operation of a hot water boiler.

3. Name two types of boiler controls and describe their purpose.

4. Fill in the blank to make the following statement true.

A safety relief valve is used to relieve extra _______________.

182 Lesson 7
7.2 Warm Air Furnaces
When air within a facility registers below the desired setpoint, the HVAC
system activates the heat generating system to add heat to the building. Often
a warm air furnace generates the required heat. As the heat is produced, an
internal fan blows the warm air throughout the building’s duct system to
disperse it.

Furnaces are used most often in residential and small commercial

applications. They are one of the major components of these facilities’ heat
generating and HVAC systems.

There are several advantages for installing warm air furnaces into an HVAC
system instead of hydronic systems. Warm air furnaces are typically less
expensive than hydronic systems, and a cooling system can easily be added
later to existing ductwork for a minimal cost. Warm air furnaces are a good
choice for facilities that operate at cooler temperatures at night because full
heat can be quickly added back to the space in the morning when the furnace
restarts.

New Term

furnace Pieces of equipment that generate heat. Heat is

created as fuel, such as gas or oil, burns inside the furnace.
The heat is released and internal fans blow it throughout the
facility.

Furnace Components
There are five major components that constitute a warm air furnace, heat
exchanger, fuel burner, air blower, controls, and an insulated housing cabinet.
Furnace components are described in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Furnace Component Functions

Furnace components Function

Heat exchanger Heat generating source in the furnace.

Fuel burner Delivers combustion air and fuel to the heat exchanger.

Lesson - 7 183
 Furnace components Function

Fan that blows the air through the furnace unit for use
Air blower
throughout the facility.

Devices that manage furnace operation to control setpoints and

Controls
safety levels.

Insulated housing Framework that encases the furnace unit and protects
cabinet equipment and personnel from damage. Insulation saves energy.

Humidifier Adds moisture to air.

Air filter Removes particles from the air entering the furnace.

Heat exchangers are the heat generating sources of the furnace. Thermal
energy is released within the furnace as fuel is burned in the combustion
chamber. A heat exchanger transfers this heat energy from the combustion
chamber to the air that is dispersed throughout the building.

Fuel burners are the devices that enable the delivery of combustion air and
fuel to the heat exchanger. They provide the proper mixing and ignition
source to the fuel and gas for complete combustion. The heat from
combustion is then directed to the heat exchanger and transferred to the air
stream to be distributed throughout the building.

Air blowers are the fans located inside the furnace that move the air
throughout the building.The building air is drawn through the filter, forced
through the heat exchanger, and out of the furnace through the warm air
outlet.

Controls guarantee that a furnace continues to operate soundly and safely.

Insulated housing cabinet is the term for the case that protects the furnace
equipment from damage and for safety. The furnace cabinet has openings that
allow for equipment access during troubleshooting and maintenance.

Humidifiers are accessory furnace devices that add water vapor to air when
sensors detect that facility air is too dry.

Air filters are porous devices that separate dust and other pollutants from the
air as it enters the furnace.

184 Lesson 7
Furnace Operation
In a facility operating a typical gas furnace, when the thermostat detects a
temperature reading that is cooler than the desired setpoint, a pilot flame
safety control ignites and verifies that the pilot flame is present and opens the
main gas valve. The pilot light flame ignites the gas air mix and starts
warming the heat exchanger. When the heat exchanger is sufficiently warmed
a thermostat will close and the fan will start blowing building air through the
heat exchanger. Dust particles and other pollutants are removed from the air
as it passes through the filter.

Forced air furnaces are different than other types of HVAC heating
equipment. The main difference is that forced air furnaces use ductwork to
deliver heated air. Space heaters, unit heaters, and wall and floor furnaces
generate and release warm air directly into the conditioned space. Duct
heaters do utilize ductwork, but they operate differently than warm air
furnaces in that duct heaters are primarily electric heating elements used to
add heat to a particular area of a larger zone.

Lesson - 7 185
Furnace Classification
Furnaces are classified as either commercial or residential. The major
differences: commercial furnaces are made of stronger construction materials,
they have greater capacity, and they require a more complex control system.
Residential furnace classifications are determined by five factors: type of
fuel, construction materials, mounting arrangement, direction of air flow,
combustion system, and location.

Furnaces use five main types of fuel. Oil and gas are the most common fuel
types but coal, electricity, and wood can also be used.

Oil furnaces burn oil, but electricity is used to ignite the burners. They are
similar in design to gas furnaces.

Gas furnace manufacturers design their models to accommodate both natural

and liquefied petroleum gas. However, there are differences between the
designs for burning the two different gas types. The pressure at which the gas
is delivered to the manifold in a natural gas furnace is typically around three
times lower than in a liquefied petroleum furnace.

New Term

manifold The pipe that connects the gas line to the burners.

Electric furnaces are not very efficient and the cost associated with electric
power is high. When a heat pump is utilized instead of an electric furnace,
however, the cost of operation is reduced.

Coal furnaces are not very popular anymore.

Wood furnaces are used in more rural areas of the country.

Furnace Construction
Furnace arrangements are as varied as the locations that a furnace may be
located. Different types of furnaces have different shapes and these variations
in shapes, which are necessary because different installation specifications
have different height and width requirements. Table 7.4 lists common furnace
installation locations.

186 Lesson 7
 Table 7.4 Furnace arrangement installation locations

Furnace arrangements Installation location

High-boy (Upflow) Very common, air moves upward through the heat exchanger.

Low-boy Designed with low clearances in mind.

Downflow Where the supply air ductwork is under the floor or in the crawlspace.

Horizontal Attic space or rooftop.

High-boy furnaces, also known as upflow furnaces, are mainly installed in

full-height rooms and are connected to overhead ductwork. This is the most
common type of furnace.

Low-boy furnaces are mainly installed in spaces with low ceilings.

Downflow furnaces are mainly installed in areas where the ductwork is

located below the floor or in the crawlspace.

Horizontal furnaces are mainly installed in areas where the ductwork is

located in the attic or on the rooftop.

Lesson - 7 187
Furnace Capacity and Efficiency Ratings
Furnaces are rated for heating capacity in BTU/hr. at the outlet, or bonnet, of
the furnace. Ratings for commercial furnaces are indicated on a rating plate
attached to each furnace. Unit ratings for residential furnaces are located on
the product fact sheet. Table 7.5 lists a sample of the different heat capacity
ratings for different furnace types.

New Term

bonnet The air outlet on a furnace.

Table 7.5 Furnace Capacity Ratings

Furnace type Furnace capacity ratings

Gas furnaces 35,000 - 175,000 BTU/hr.

Oil furnaces 70,000 - 400,000 BTU/hr.

Electric furnaces Varied

188 Lesson 7
Furnace Controls
There are two types of furnace controls used for controlling warm air
furnaces. The first is the operating controls that regulates burner and fan
activity. The second furnace control are the safety controls. Safety controls
are also known as limit controls because this type of control system prevents
furnace equipment from operating outside pre-determined limits.

New Terms

operating controls Control devices that regulate furnace

burner and fan activity.

safety controls Control devices that prevents furnace

equipment from operating outside safety limits.

limit controls Control devices that prevents furnace

equipment from operating outside normal limits.

Review
Furnaces are a common heat generating source for HVAC systems.

They have five main components that filter, heat, and transfer warm air
throughout a facility.

Furnaces are classified as commercial or residential, by the fuel they burn,

how they are constructed, and where they are installed.

Furnace controls manage furnace operations to maintain temperature levels

and safety.

Lesson - 7 189
Exercises: 7.2
1. What are three advantages for using a warm air furnace system over
hydronic heating systems?

2. What are the five main components of a warm air furnace?

3. Describe in your own words how a warm air furnace heats a facility.

4. How are warm air furnaces different from space heaters, floor heaters, and
unit heaters?

190 Lesson 7
 8
Analyzing Cooling Systems

Examine cooling system equipment.

• Cooling Systems

• Vapor Compression Refrigeration

• Cooling System Components

• Absorption Refrigeration

• Cooling Towers

• Refrigerants
192 Lesson- 8
 8.1 Cooling systems
When temperatures creep above setpoint, the HVAC system activates cooling
to remove excess heat.

Refrigeration equipment manipulates the boiling point of fluids with the

pressure temperature relationship to transfer heat out of a space that is too
warm. A cooling fluid such as chilled water may act as a means for the
transfer of thermal energy. As cooling water flows through a heat exchange
coil, warmer air molecules transfers heat to the cool water. This heat is then
removed from the chilled water by the refrigeration equipment, called a
chiller. The heat is then discharged to the atmosphere or the waste water
system in smaller units.

Thermodynamics of Refrigeration
Basic thermodynamics plays an important role in refrigeration applications.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed, while the second law tells us that heat energy
always moves from a warmer body to a cooler one. With refrigeration
equipment we change the pressure of a fluid, hence its temperature and
boiling point. Heat is absorbed or rejected in quantity to force a fluid to
change state, liquid to vapor, vapor to liquid.

Refrigeration System Capacity

Refrigeration systems are rated for their capacity, their ability to move heat,
by the number of BTU’s they can absorb at their evaporators in one hour.

In smaller systems this number will be something like 900 BTU/hr.

Lesson - 8 193
 Photo courtesy Carrier Corp.
In larger systems a sort of shorthand called a Refrigeration Ton is used.

A Refrigeration Ton is the equivalent of the amount of latent heat required to

melt one ton (2000 lbs.) of ice in 24 hours. Since the latent heat of ice is 144
BTU/lb, a Refrigeration Ton is 288,000 BTU/day or 12,000 BTU/hr. So a
large centrifugal chiller that someone calls an 800 Ton machine will be
capable of removing from the chilled water supply 800 x 12,000BTU/hr.
which is 9,600,000BTU/hr. See why Tons are used?

194 Lesson- 8
8.2 Vapor Compression
Refrigeration
The refrigeration cycle depends on heat transferring to and from a refrigerant
as the refrigerant changes between the vapor and liquid phases. The heat
involved in this process is mostly latent heat and some sensible heat.

In the refrigeration cycle, liquid refrigerant is piped under pressure through

the metering valve into the evaporator. In the evaporator, the pressure is
greatly reduced. With lower pressure, the boiling point of the refrigerant is
lowered. The refrigerant is then able to boil, or vaporizes, absorbing heat
from the evaporator. This produces a low evaporator temperature, so heat is
able to move from the warm space air or water in a chiller to the colder
refrigerant. The compressor pumps the vaporized refrigerant out of the
evaporator and compresses it into the condenser. The pressure is raised and
the boiling point of the refrigerant is also raised, above the temperature of the
outside air or condenser water. Heat is able to flow from the hot refrigerant
vapor to the outside air or the condenser water through the tube walls. The
heat that was absorbed in the evaporator releases to the air or water
surrounding the condenser. Having now lost this heat of vaporization, the
refrigerant becomes a liquid again. The cycle then repeats.

In both the evaporator and condenser heat flows downhill, from a warmer to a
cooler material or fluid. By moving heat downhill in these two steps we end
up moving heat uphill from a 70 Deg F room to the 95 Deg F outdoors.

The refrigeration cycle consists of four primary steps: compression,

condensation, expansion, and evaporation.

Lesson - 8 195
 1. Compression is the first step in the refrigeration cycle. During
compression, a compressor or pump changes the refrigerant from low pressure
cool vapor to a high pressure hot vapor. The generated high pressure vapor is
pushed into the condenser.

2. Condensation is the second step in the refrigeration cycle. During

condensation, the condenser cools the pressurized vapor, removing latent
heat. The vapor condenses into a high pressure liquid. The high pressure
liquid refrigerant is subcooled leaving the condenser.

3. Expansion is the third step. The refrigerant enters the expansion device, a
tube or valve, and the pressure, therefore the boiling point of the refrigerant,
gets reduced as well as the flow being controlled.

4. Evaporation is the fourth step in the refrigeration cycle. During

evaporation, the lower pressure in the evaporator allows the liquid refrigerant
to evaporate or boil into a vapor. This change of phase to a vapor absorbs
latent heat from the evaporator. This low pressure vapor is then drawn into the
compressor where the cycle is repeated.

196 Lesson- 8
Vapor Compression Equipment
The vapor compression refrigeration system utilizes four main pieces of
equipment for operation. Evaporators are the heat exchangers that cool the air
or water and absorb heat into the refrigerant cycle, flow control devices limit
liquid refrigerant flow rate and act as a pressure barrier from the high side to
the low side, compressors increase refrigerant pressure, and condensers
transform high pressure hot vapors into warm liquids that can be routed back
to the expansion device. Heat removed during the condensation process is
expelled from the cooling system. Table 8.1 describes these components.

Table 8.1 Vapor compression refrigeration component functions

Vapor compression components Function

Evaporator Transform liquid refrigerant to vapor by absorbing heat.

Flow control device Regulate liquid refrigerant flow rate.

Positive displacement compressors increase gas pressure by

decreasing gas volume.
Compressor
Centrifugal compressors increase gas pressure by increasing
the kinetic energy of the gas.

Condenser Transform refrigerant vapor into liquid by giving up heat.

New Term

vapor compression refrigeration Uses a compressor to change the

pressure of a refrigerant and force it through the system.

Review
Vapor compression refrigeration reduces vapor volume to increase vapor
pressure. The vapor compression process comprises four stages. The
compression cycle transforms low-pressure refrigerant vapor into a high-
pressure refrigerant vapor. The condensation cycle removes heat from the
high-pressure vapor, which transforms the vapor into a liquid. The high-
pressure liquid is pushed through small metering valves and on further to the
evaporative coils where it boils. This new vapor is then recycled back into the
compressor.

Lesson - 8 197
Exercises: 8.2
1. Describe the vapor compression refrigeration cycle.

2. What are the four steps of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle?

3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the statement true.

High-pressure liquid is forced through small metering

valves to the low-pressure _______________ coil.

4. Fill in the blank below with the correct word(s) to make the statement true.

The compressor transforms the refrigerant into a high-

pressure vapor from a low-pressure vapor during the
_______________ cycle.

5. Fill in the blanks below with the correct word(s) to make the statement true.

Latent heat is removed and gas is condensed into a high

pressure liquid during the _______________ cycle.

198 Lesson- 8
8.3 Cooling System Components
Cooling systems remove excess heat and moisture from the air to cool the air
in an indoor environment. The four main cooling system components include
flow control devices, evaporators, compressors, condensers. Functions of
these components are listed in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2 Cooling system equipment function

Cooling system equipment Function

Increases or decreases refrigerant temperature and pressure

Flow control device
by limiting refrigerant flow through the evaporator.

Removes heat from air and converts moisture in air into

Evaporator liquid that is drained away. Coils are used when conditioning
air. Chillers are used when cooling liquids.

Positive displacement compressors increase pressure by

reducing the volume of gas vapor confined in a space.
Compressor
Centrifugal compressors utilize impellers to manipulate the
kinetic energy of gas, thus increasing gas pressure.

Converts vapor into a liquid by transferring heat into the

Condenser
atmosphere.

New Terms

flow control devices Limit refrigerant flow to mange

refrigerant temperature and pressure.

evaporators Heat exchange device that transfers heat into a

refrigerant.

compressors Reduce gas volume to increase gas

temperature and pressure.

condensers Convert vapor refrigerant into a liquid,

transfers heat out of the refrigerant.

Lesson - 8 199
Evaporators
Evaporators are heat exchangers that remove heat from indoor air by
absorbing it into the refrigeration cycle of the cooling system. Two types of
evaporators are available: flooded evaporators and dry expansion
evaporators. Flooded evaporators are typically used to cool liquids such as
chilled water but are found used to cool air in refrigeration applications. Dry
expansion (DX) evaporators are available as either DX cooling coils, for
cooling air, or DX chillers, for cooling liquids.

Flooded evaporators are designed to use liquid refrigerant to absorb heat. The
liquid refrigerant can be stationary in a large shell and tube type heat
exchanger as in a chiller or it can be pumped through delivery pipes to coils or
bare pipe evaporators to cool air. As the liquid gains heat and changes state,
bubbles of vapor will form and rise to the top of the chiller barrel or be carried
with the liquid back to a low pressure receiver where the vapor bubbles will
be separated and trapped at the top of the receiver and the liquid will be
pumped back through the evaporators. This trapped vapor is then admitted to
the compressor inlet.

DX evaporators are designed to absorb heat into a mixture of liquid and vapor
refrigerant. At the entrance to the evaporator the refrigerant is usually near
75% liquid and 25% vapor. At the outlet of the evaporator the refrigerant will
be all vapor with some amount of superheat, that is, heated above its boiling
point to remove all liquid moisture (dry), to ensure that liquid doesn’t enter
the compressor. DX evaporators are usually used in A/C units like splits
(separate indoor evaporator unit and outdoor condenser unit) and rooftops.
They are common in smaller chillers as well.

200 Lesson- 8
 Cooling coils use evaporating refrigerant or chilled water to lower the
temperature of air and dehumidify it. DX coils are typically constructed of
copper tubes arranged in rows with aluminum fins. Chilled water coils cool
air as it passes over tubes arranged in rows. Heat from the air transfers
through the copper of the tubes, and warms the cool water thereby cooling the
air.

New Terms

flooded evaporators Use refrigerants to chill water flowing

through tubing. Flooded evaporators require a large supply of
refrigerant inside the unit.

dry expansion evaporators Use refrigerants to cool air,

they have a small amount of liquid refrigerants inside the
unit.

cooling coils Are evaporator tubes, configured as coils that

cool air.

chillers Are refrigeration machines that cool water or other

liquids.

Lesson - 8 201
Flow Control Devices
Flow control devices are mechanisms that limit the flow rate of refrigerant
into the evaporator coil. Regulating the flow by the amount of superheating of
the outlet refrigerant gas is typical but other methods are common.
Superheated gas at the outlet insures that no liquid refrigerant enters the
compressor.

Flow control devices are usually of capillary tube, thermostatic expansion

valve, automatic expansion valve, electronic valve or float designs. Capillary
tube control devices reduce flow and pressure by presenting a very small
opening through a long piece of tubing. Adding length to the capillary tube
reduces flow by increasing the resistance to flow through the tube. Small
systems, such as a household refrigerator, may utilize a capillary tube to
regulate refrigerant flow rate. Capillary tubes are used in conjunction with dry
expansion evaporators and are constructed of lengths of small diameter
copper tubing. The length of the tubing will vary according to the application
but is usually between 30 and 60 inches and the inside diameter is less than a
pencil lead.

New Term

capillary tubes Are devices that regulate refrigerant flow

rate using a combination of small diameter tubing and the
length of the tube.

Flow control valves can use different properties of the refrigeration system to
control the flow rate of refrigerant. For example, a thermal expansion valve,
TXV, uses a sensing bulb attached to the evaporator outlet to measure the
amount of superheat the exiting refrigerant has. Closing the valve will raise
the superheat. TXVs can respond to large load changes.

Automatic Expansion Valves, AXVs, respond to the pressure in an evaporator

and close if the pressure starts to raise. Lowering the pressure of a fluid
lowers the boiling point of that fluid but also reduces the amount of
refrigeration effect available. This type of valve is used where the load is
closely controlled and temperature control is critical. A water cooler is a good
example: you don’t want the water to freeze in the evaporator and the
temperature of the incoming water and flow rate through the cooler are within
narrow limits.

202 Lesson- 8
 Thermostatic expansion valves (TXV) frequently control refrigerant flow in
commercial dry expansion cooling systems. With a TXVs, a fluid-filled bulb
is attached to the refrigerant outlet line of the evaporator where temperature
changes are sensed. This same bulb is attached to the valve by a small tube.
When the system cooling load is too low (refrigerant temperature is too low),
the valve closes to restrict the flow of the refrigerant. If the system load is too
high (refrigerant is too warm), the valve opens to increase refrigerant flow
and starts to decrease the temperature. The opening of the valve is controlled
by a combination of the pressure exerted by the sensing build on the evap
outlet, opposed by an adjustable spring. As the suction line gets colder the
pressure in the sensing bulb falls and the spring acts to close the valve
reducing refrigerant flow. If the suction line gets warmer (from an increased
load) the bulb pressure increases opening the valve letting in more refrigerant.
Superheat can be maintained within a narrow range preventing liquid
refrigerant from reaching the compressor and damaging it.

Float type flow control devices are used with flooded evaporators to control
the level of refrigerant in the evaporator. They operate similarly to the float in
a toilet tank, as the level of refrigerant drops due to evaporation the ball float
lowers and opens a valve admitting more refrigerant. These types of systems
have little superheat at the compressor inlet. They ensure that liquid doesn’t
enter the compressor by locating the inlet well above the level of the
refrigerant in the evaporator.

Compressors
Compressors reduce the volume of vapor and concentrate its heat on its way
to the condenser. Compressors can be driven with electric motors, gas or
diesel engines, or gas and steam turbines. There are two main types of
compressors: positive displacement and centrifugal compressors. Table 8.3
describes their characteristics.

Table 8.3 Compressor type characteristics

Compressor types Characteristics

Positive displacement compressors Raise pressure by reducing gas volume.

Centrifugal compressors Raise pressure by increasing kinetic energy of gas.

Positive displacement compressors reduce the volume of vapor to increase

temperature and pressure. Once vapor fills the compressor cylinder, the
interior volume is reduced, increasing its pressure.

Lesson - 8 203
 Centrifugal compressors reduce the volume of gas by increasing its kinetic
energy. The compressor unit applies enough spinning force on the gas that its
kinetic energy (velocity) raises, in the volute that velocity is converted into
pressure.
New Terms

compressors Reduce the volume of gas, thus increasing gas

pressure.

positive displacement compressor Decreases gas volume to

increase pressure within the compression chamber.

centrifugal compressor Increases gas pressure by changing

its kinetic energy.

Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors elevate the pressure of a contained gas by
reducing its volume. Types of positive displacement compressors include
reciprocating, rotary, and screw compressors. These compressors can be
configured either as hermetic, motor and compressor contained within a
shell, or open, motor and compressor separate with a pressure barrier device
at the shaft entrance to the compressor.

New Terms

reciprocating compressors Move pistons up and down in a

cylinder to draw vapor in and then compress it and force it
out the discharge.

rotary compressors Have parts that move in a circular

motion on a hub instead of on a wheel.

helical rotor/screw compressors Compress gas between

two large screws.

hermetic compressors Are compressors that are

manufactured with the compressor motor, shaft, and all the
moving parts sealed up inside the casing.

open compressors Are manufactured with the shaft

exposed so that an external connection can be made to a
motor.

204 Lesson- 8
 Reciprocating compressors are most commonly found on smaller chillers (20
to 100 ton), DX air conditioning, refrigeration and heat pumps of most sizes.
Reciprocating compressors consist of five main components: pistons,
cylinders, crankshafts, valves, and connecting rods, and they are of either
hermetic or open construction. Table 8.4 lists the function of compressor
components.

Table 8.4 Reciprocating compressor component functions

Reciprocating compressor
Function
components

The piston is forced up and down within the cylinder by the

Piston
crankshaft. Think of a can being shoved into a pipe.

Cylinder The chamber in which the piston moves to compress the gas.

Crankshafts A rod with one or more cranks in it to transmit motion.

Valves Devices that limit flow direction of fluids in a compressor.

The piece that connects the piston to the crankshaft in the

Connecting rods
compressor.

Reciprocating compressors consist of one or more cylinders and pistons. The

pistons are connected to a motor-driven crankshaft by connecting rods.
Spring-loaded valves allow low-pressure refrigerant to enter the cylinder
during the piston down-stroke and high-pressure refrigerant to exit on the up-
stroke. The piston rises rapidly in the cylinder, 1800 to 3600 times a minute.
If any liquid refrigerant is admitted into the cylinder the liquid cannot be
discharged through the discharge valve as rapidly as the piston rises so the
pressure will quickly rise to the point that something will break. Usually the
piston and/or connecting rod will be damaged beyond use but it is possible for
the compressor head assembly to relocate explosively to the other side of the
mechanical room.

Rotary compressors are common in household cooling applications. They

employ a circulating rotor offset from the center of the compressor casing. As
the offset center of the rotor circulates on the shaft, pockets of vapor are
trapped and forced out the discharge valve. A floating vane rides on the rotor
and maintains the pressure seal between the discharge and suction sides. As
the rotor turns, gas is compressed till its pressure is high enough to force its
way out the discharge valve.

Lesson - 8 205
 Helical rotary compressors are used for large cooling applications and employ
two large screws. One of the screws is the driven and the other is the driver.
The driven screw is often referred to as the male rotor, and the driver or
powered screw is often referred to as the female rotor. The rotors, or screws,
are generally not the same shape and do not have the same number of lobes
there being more on the female driver.

The capacity of a screw compressor can be controlled by changing motor

speed or by a slide valve, which varies the length of the helical screw’s
compression area.

New Term

slide valves Controls the capacity of a screw compressor by

limiting the length of the compression area.

Scroll compressors are used for small and medium-sized cooling applications
and employ two scrolls to generate pressure. One scroll is situated inside the
other, one is fixed and the other oscillates but doesn’t rotate. The refrigerant
gas is pushed into the center of the compressor and discharged.

Centrifugal compressors

Centrifugal chillers are available in a wide range of sizes, from 100–10,000

tons. Centrifugal chiller systems can be designed to meet a wide range of
chilled liquid (evaporator) and cooling fluid (condenser) temperatures. They
can be driven by turbines, electric motors, or internal combustion engines.

The operation of the compressor is similar to a centrifugal fan or pump.

Refrigerant vapor enters the inlet and passes through inlet guide vanes into
blades radiating from the center of the impeller. The impeller, rotating at high
speed, throws the gas to the outer circumference of the impeller blades by
centrifugal force, increasing the velocity of the gas. The gas is then thrown
from the impeller into the volute, where most of the velocity (kinetic energy)
is converted to pressure. The pressure rise is usually small compared to
reciprocating compressors. Low pressure refrigerants have been the
refrigerant of choice for these compressors till recently. High pressure
refrigerants are now used but several impellers are often put in series to create
a greater pressure difference and to pump a sufficient volume of refrigerant
gas. Where a low pressure centrifugal compressor might have to raise the

206 Lesson- 8
 refrigerant pressure from 10 “HG Vac to 10 PSIG a high pressure centrifugal
compressor might have to raise the pressure from 30 PSIG to 130 PSIG or
more. This can be accomplished more efficiently by sharing the pressure rise
between several steps.

New Terms

inlet vanes Are adjustable dampers in compressor suction

that regulate the flow of refrigerant, controlling volume.

Normally, inlet guide vanes (pre-rotation vanes) located in the suction side of
the compressor are modulated to control the capacity of a centrifugal
compressor. Modulating the impeller speed can also control capacity.

The three main types of compressors used in commercial chilling systems are
the reciprocating, screw and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating
compressors are mainly used in smaller cooling systems with capacity ratings
up to 150 tons. Screw compressors are mainly used in medium to large
cooling systems with capacity ratings from 20- 750 tons. And centrifugal
compressors are good for large cooling system applications with capacities
between 100 and 10,000 tons. Sample compressor capacity ratings are listed
in Table 8.5 below.

Table 8.5 Compressor capacity ratings

Compressor type Capacity rating

Reciprocating Up to 150 tons

Screw 20 - 750 tons

Centrifugal 100 - 10,000 tons

Centrifugal compressors are subject to surging if not properly loaded. When

not enough refrigerant volume is available, as in a light load situation,
maintaining flow through the compressor wheel is a problem. When the mass
flow rate through the compressor drops off, the higher pressure vapor in the
volute can rush back across the face of the wheel to the lower pressure inlet.
This causes a loud high pitched swooshing noise that makes you want to head
for the door. This is surging. The noise won’t damage anything, but, the thrust
changes across the wheel will. The compressor wheel will be forced in and
out, loading then unloading its thrust bearing causing excessive wear. If that
bearing wears enough the wheel can strike the volute housing and destroy the

Lesson - 8 207
 compressor. The key to avoiding this situation is straightforward, don’t run
the chiller lightly loaded.

New Term

surging When vapor in the discharge volute squirts back

across the face of the compressor wheel to the wheel inlet.
This results in the generation of noise, vibration, and damage
to the compressor if allowed to continue.

Condensers

Condensers are heat exchangers that use water or air to absorb and remove the
heat energy that the evaporator absorbed or compressor generated during the
refrigeration process. There are three main types of condensers: air-cooled,
water-cooled, and evaporative. Condensers remove latent heat and some
sensible heat from the hot gas of the compressor discharge enabling the
change of state to a warm liquid refrigerant.

Air-cooled condensers consist of a series of finned tubes, or coils, that

compressed, hot refrigerant gas flows through. A fan forces air over the coils
causing the hot vapor to condense as it cools.

Water-cooled condensers are most often of the tube and shell type but there
are other designs. Compressed, hot gas refrigerant passes through the cylinder
shell, and a network of tubes carries water through the cylinder. The water
absorbs heat from the surrounding refrigerant, which cools and condenses it.
This condenser type can use a cooling tower to dissipate the heat absorbed in
the condenser, usually on a higher capacity machines like a centrifugal chiller,
or can use a domestic water supply and flush the warm water down the drain,
called a waste water condenser. A typical waste water condenser will use 1.5
gallons per minute per ton of refrigeration.

Evaporative-cooled condensers are similar to air-cooled condensers.

However, in an evaporative system, refrigerant vapor is piped to the
evaporative condenser, water is sprayed over the refrigerant coil and air is
blown over it to help evaporate the water and cool and condense the
refrigerant. This type of condenser is less popular because of additional
maintenance requirements and the added quantity of refrigerant the system
requires.

208 Lesson- 8
New Terms

air-cooled condensers Passes heat absorbed in a

conditioned space to outside atmospheric air, changes
refrigerant from hot gas to warm liquid.

water-cooled condensers Changes the state of the

refrigerant by passing its heat into a water stream.

evaporative-cooled condensers Changes the state of the

refrigerant by spraying water over a coil containing the hot
refrigerant gas. The refrigerant changes state, gas is
condensed to liquid, water changes state, liquid evaporated to
vapor.

Review
Four main pieces of equipment make up cooling systems that aid in the
removal of heat from a facility.

Evaporators are most commonly available in the dry expansion (DX) type and
flooded type.

Flow control devices come in capillary tube, thermal expansion, automatic

expansion or electronic valve varieties and floats to control the flow rate of
liquid refrigerant.

Compressors are available as either positive displacement or centrifugal

models. Positive displacement compressors raise the pressure and temperature
of gas by reducing gas volume. Centrifugal compressors raise gas pressure
and temperature by increasing the kinetic energy of the gas.

Condensers are available in three different types. Air-cooled condensers

transform vapor into a liquid using cold air. Water-cooled condensers use cool
water and evaporative-cooled condensers use cool water and air flowing
through coils.

Lesson - 8 209
Exercises: 8.3
1. What is the functional difference between a chiller and a cooling coil?

2. Explain the difference between a DX evaporator and a flooded evaporator?

3. Explain how a dry expansion chiller functions.

4. What is the purpose of a flow control device?

5. Describe the operation of a thermostatic expansion valve.

6. How does a capillary tube function as a flow control device?

7.What is the purpose of a compressor and how does one operate?

8. What does positive displacement mean in relation to compressors?

210 Lesson- 8
 9.What are three main types of compressors used in a commercial cooling
system?

10. What is a condenser and how does it fit into an HVAC cooling system?

11. Match the correct description below with its corresponding condenser
types.

Description Answer Condenser type

Air aids in lowering the temperature A. Water-cooled

Water aids in lowering the temperature B. Evaporative-cooled

Absorbent liquids aid the cooling process C. Air-cooled

Lesson - 8 211
212 Lesson- 8
8.4 Absorption Refrigeration
As you learned in the previous section, vapor compression is one main type of
refrigeration system. Absorption refrigeration is another. Many materials
are drawn together by specific properties of each other much like the north
and south poles of a magnet. They can’t explain it, they just like each other.
These materials are said to have an affinity for each other. Absorption
refrigeration uses a specific substance’s affinity for another substance to
achieve refrigeration. Its magic.

For example, table salt or sugar left out in the kitchen will absorb water vapor
from the air and become a lump in the shaker. Ever see rice in a restaurant
table salt shaker? The rice absorbs any moisture that gets in the shaker and
keeps the salt granular and pourable. The salt and sugar and rice have a high
affinity for water vapor. Another type of salt, lithium bromide, has the ability
to absorb a large quantity of water molecules. Water cannot easily be used in
the vapor compression cycle because it generates such large volumes of vapor
but it is a good refrigerant. It has a very large latent heat of vaporization.
Water that has been vaporized will easily be absorbed by a solution of
Lithium Bromide salts. So, how do you make water vaporize at temperatures
that will be suitable for refrigeration? Lower the pressure to a deep vacuum.
The absorption refrigeration process is ideal for large-scale cooling system
applications with a low cost or waste heat source. Other absorption
refrigeration cycles are in common use but not for large scale HVAC
applications and won’t be considered here.

New Term

absorption refrigeration Relies on the attraction of lithium

bromide salt for water vapor to sustain a refrigeration
process.

Absorption refrigeration systems have several operational advantages over

vapor compression refrigeration. Unlike the vapor compression chillers
described earlier, the absorption chiller has very few moving parts. Because a
compressor is not used, there is less vibration and less noise. The absorption
cycle uses a heat source to move heat from the chilled water system to the
condenser water system.

Lesson - 8 213
 Single effect absorption chiller

The absorption cycle uses a substance known as an absorbent (1) to absorb

evaporated refrigerant vapor in the absorber (2) section. The absorber section
is kept at a very low pressure so that the boiling point of the refrigerant,
water (3), is below the temperature of the chilled water returning from the A/
C load (4). The combination of the diluted absorbent and the refrigerant is
moved into a generator (5) section, where heat (6) is used to evaporate the
refrigerant from the absorbent fluid. The more concentrated absorbent
solution (7) is then returned to the absorber section to mix with the water
vapor again. The refrigerant vapor in the generator section (8) is condensed
back to liquid water (9) and returned to the evaporator to be heated to boiling
again.

214 Lesson- 8
New Terms

absorbent Is the substance used in the cooling cycle to

soak up evaporated refrigerant vapor.

absorber Is the section of an absorber chiller that provide

the area for absorption to take place when the refrigerant
water is sprayed over the evaporator coils.

evaporator Are the devices where refrigerant boils and

evaporates, absorbing heat and cooling the chilled water.

generator Is the area in an absorber chiller where the dilute

absorbent is concentrated and the refrigerant (water) is
separated.

Absorption chillers are normally used where a heat source, such as exhaust
from a steam turbine or waste heat is available at a very low cost. They are
also commonly used to reduce electric load during peak demand periods.

Absorption Refrigeration Components

A LiBr absorption refrigeration machine consists of a number of components,
including a condenser, an evaporator, a generator, an absorber and a couple of
pumps. Table 8.6 describes these components.

Table 8.6 Absorption refrigeration component functions

Absorption refrigeration
Component function
system components

Heat exchanger that cools and condenses water vapor into liquid
Condenser
form so that it can be returned to the evaporator.

Heat from facility chilled water is absorbed by refrigerant in the

Evaporator
evaporator section.

Heat exchanger that uses steam or other heat energy to boil the water
Generator
vapor from the dilute LiBr solution.

Absorber Section that absorbs the water vapor with the salt solution.

Lesson - 8 215
Absorption Refrigeration Operation
The absorption refrigeration cycle can be divided into two steps. The first half
of the absorption refrigeration process is the absorption cycle. The absorbent
solution, also known as the strong solution at this point in the cycle, is
sprayed through the refrigerant vapor in the absorber section. The absorbent
absorbs the refrigerant vapor. The generator pump moves this diluted mixture,
also known as the weak solution, through a heat exchanger, where it picks up
some of the heat from the strong solution returning from the generator, and
then on into the generator section
.

New Terms

absorbent cycle The first half of the absorption

refrigeration cycle where the absorbent substance is sprayed
through the refrigerant vapor where it becomes a diluted
mixture after absorbing some of the absorbent liquid.

strong absorbent The absorbent substance before it

absorbs the liquid refrigerant.

weak absorbent The absorbent substance after it absorbs

the liquid refrigerant.

refrigerant cycle Second half of the absorption

refrigeration cycle where the absorbent/refrigerant mixture
changes phase cools.

In the generator, the weak solution is heated to evaporate the refrigerant and
concentrate the weak solution back to a strong solution. The strong solution
then flows through the heat exchanger, giving up heat to the weak solution,
and then returns to the spray heads of the absorber to complete the absorption
cycle. A single effect absorber will have but one generator, a double effect
absorber has two generators, the second using left over heat from the first
effect to boil even more water from the solution increasing the efficiency of
the machine.

The second half of the absorption refrigeration process is the refrigerant

cycle. It begins with the refrigerant vapor that was boiled out of the strong

216 Lesson- 8
 solution in the generator. The vapor migrates out of the generator and into the
condenser where it is cooled until it condenses into a liquid, water. The liquid
refrigerant then flows into the evaporator, where the refrigerant pump sprays
it over the chilled water coils. The heat from the chilled water evaporates the
refrigerant liquid. The resulting vapor then migrates to the absorber, where it
is once again absorbed by the strong solution and pumped to the generator to
complete the refrigerant cycle.

Absorption chillers in HVAC systems typically use lithium bromide as the

absorbent, with water as the refrigerant. The generator, absorber, and all
connecting piping are sealed and evacuated to maintain an absolute air
pressure of 0.25 in. Hg. Under these low-pressure conditions, the refrigerant
boils at 40° F. This allows the refrigerant to cool the system water to about
45° F. As the water refrigerant boils it will increase the pressure in the
absorber unless the vapor is removed. That’s what the strong solution is
doing. Maintaining the deep vacuum in the absorber section by removing the
water vapor.

To control capacity, a LiBr absorption chiller usually either varies the heat
input to the generator, which controls the rate that the refrigerant is boiled out
of the dilute solution, or controls the flow of the dilute solution to bypass the
generator entirely. During shutdown this same heat control or bypass valve is
used to put the machine into what is called the dilution cycle. The generator is
bypassed and the weak solution routed back to the absorber where water
vapor is continuing to be absorbed. Eventually the LiBr solution cannot
absorb any more vapor and the pressure in the shell will start to rise. The
boiling point of the water rises with the pressure and the refrigerant stops
boiling.

All LiBr absorption chillers require that condenser water be maintained at a

constant design temperature. Low condenser water temperature can cause the
strong solution to thicken and stop flowing at the outlet of the strong solution
to weak solution heat exchanger. This requires a major effort to correct
involving perhaps days of down time for the machine.

The coefficient of performance (COP) defined as cooling effect divided by

heat input, for a single effect LiBr absorption chiller is typically in the range
0.65 to 0.70.

Lesson - 8 217
Review
The absorption refrigeration cycle uses the processes of absorption and
evaporation to perform cooling operations.

The effectiveness of these processes depends on factors such as temperature

and pressure.

The absorption refrigeration process comprises both an absorbent cycle and a

refrigerant cycle.

This type of cooling system is quieter than the vapor compression

refrigeration process because it does not utilize a compressor.

It is usually implemented in larger HVAC systems where steam is readily

available.

218 Lesson- 8
Exercises: 8.4
1. What are the three advantages of absorption refrigeration devices over
vapor compression devices?

2. Explain the function of the absorber.

3. What are the main components of the absorption refrigeration cycle?

4. What does the generator do?

5. Explain the absorption refrigeration cycle.

Lesson - 8 219
220 Lesson- 8
8.5 Cooling Towers
Cooling towers remove excess heat from water-cooled condensers in both
vapor compression and absorption refrigeration systems. Cooling towers cool
heated condenser water before it returns to the condenser.

Cooling towers have several advantages. A water cooled condenser means a

compressor works against a more stable and usually lower discharge pressure
increasing the usable lifetime of the compressor. Piping water into a building
makes economic sense over piping refrigerant outside to an air cooled
condenser in large tonnage applications. The quantity of refrigerant needed
could be very much more expensive and costly to maintain. They
economically cool condenser water to within 5-10°F of the ambient outdoor
air wet-bulb temperature, the water consumption rate is a fraction of a waste
water condenser, potable water is usually very expensive, and the amount of
waste water that is discharged is so small that there is virtually no
environmental impact.

Cooling Tower Equipment

Heat is a by-product of refrigeration system processes. Excess heat must be
dispersed. A large portion of the transferred heat energy is lost through the
evaporation process of the condensing water. To disperse excess heat,
condenser water is pumped to the top of a cooling tower where it is
discharged as a spray of falling water. The condenser water will evaporate
carrying away its latent heat into the air as moisture. There will also be some
sensible cooling depending on the ambient temperature but the best you can
expect will be to get the condenser water temperature within 5 degrees of the
entering air wet bulb temperature during design load and ambient conditions.
After the water falls and is cooled, it is collected in the basin of the cooling
tower and recirculated.

Lesson - 8 221
 Cooling towers are made up of five main components: a fan, fill (baffles),
water spray, basin, and drift eliminators. Table 8.7 lists cooling tower
components.

Table 8.7 Cooling tower component functions

Cooling tower component Function

The water spray breaks the condenser water into fine droplets
Water spray
increasing its surface area, aiding heat transfer.

Provides a forced draft to carry the moisture laden air out of the
Fan
cooling tower.

Breaks up the water spray up and provides even more surface

Fill (Baffles)
area for heat exchange.

Collects the cooled water at the bottom of the cooling tower,

Basin
provides a positive suction for the condenser water pump.

Chevrons arranged in rows at the outlet of the tower to prevent an

Drift Eliminators
excess amount of water loss due to carryover.

Fans aid the dispersal of water vapor. Atmospheric air helps the cooling
process because it absorbs heat and aids evaporation.

Baffles are the fill components of a cooling tower, typically made from metal,
plastic, or wood. As water is sprayed into the tower, it hits the baffles on its
way down to the bottom of the basin and breaks up the water drop. The
smaller droplets of water speed the heat transfer and evaporation processes.

222 Lesson- 8
 Water spray is how the water enters the cooling tower. The spraying action
exposes more water surface area to air. The direct contact with air quickens
the evaporation and cooling process.

Basin is the base of the cooling tower, which collects the water before
recirculation.

Drift Eliminators are the panels with chevron shaped passages that sit atop the
cooling tower outlet and prevent water leakage. These panels are made up of
metal, plastic, or wood installed in rows that catch runaway water drops blow
off the fill below.

Cooling Tower Operation

There are three ways that a cooling tower may lose water: evaporation, drift
and blowndown. As water flows down into the tower and over the baffles, a
large amount of water evaporates. Water is also lost to the surroundings as
wind carries any drift away. And still another portion of water is lost from a
cooling tower when controlled drainage occurs. This blowdown is to prevent

Lesson - 8 223
 the deposit of sediment and other mineral debris in the basin of the cooling
tower or the condenser tubes.

The amount of water used in a cooling tower can be quite an expense

depending on how a facility is charged for its water consumption. Often a
sewage charge is incorporated into the water bill. The amount of water
evaporated depends on the refrigeration load at any given time. It takes about
1000 BTU’s to evaporate 1 pound of water. That’s about 1.8 gal per ton.
There’s not really much we can do to change that. Drift loss is usually small
unless there’s something mechanically wrong with the cooling tower.
Blowdown is something we can effect. Blowdown is used to dilute the
mineral concentration that builds up in the cooling tower sump as makeup
water is evaporated. One way we can effect the amount of blowdown is by
making the makeup water purer. This is generally too costly to do. Another
method is to add chemicals that prevent the minerals from depositing. This is
fairly common and very cost effective if done properly. Using the proper
chemicals can increase the cycles of concentration (multiples of mineral
concentration in the cooling tower water) by a significant amount. This
reduces the amount of blowdown needed and reduces the overall water
consumption of the cooling tower. Here’s an example based on a fully loaded
100 ton chiller

Table 8.8 Cooling tower water consumption

.
Water consumed 2cycles of 4 cycles of 8cycles of
for: concentration concentration concentration

evaporation 180 gal/hr. 180 gal/hr. 180 gal/hr.

blowdown 90 gal/hr. 60 gal/hr. 26 gal/hr.

total 270 gal/hr. 240 gal/hr. 206 gal/hr.

Other chemicals are added to the cooling tower as well to control corrosion,
mold and bacterial growth (Legionnaires Disease among them).

Just for comparison, that same 100 ton chiller, using a wastewater condenser,
would send down the drain 1.5 gpm/ton * 60 min./hr. * 100ton = 9000 gals/hr.
Yes, 9000 gallons per hour! That’s an expensive cooling season if you’re
using municipal water.

224 Lesson- 8
New Terms

drift This occurs when wind and air carry water away from
a cooling tower.

blowndown This occurs when water is lost due to

preventative maintenance drainage.

Types of Cooling Towers

Cooling towers are available in different sizes and models to meet the needs
of various cooling systems. The two main types of cooling towers are the
direct contact, and the indirect contact cooling tower. An effective variation
to both of these types of cooling towers is the mechanical draft tower.

New Terms

direct contact cooling towers Directly expose water to

atmospheric air where weather elements such as wind, snow,
and thermal energy all affect the cooling process.

indirect contact cooling towers Are covered basins that

chill water in pipes.

mechanical draft towers Use fans to increase air circulation

for promoting heat transfer out of water molecules through
evaporation.

Direct cooling towers cool warm condenser water by spraying the water into
the top of the tower. The warm water slowly filters down through the fill,
releasing its heat to the air that is flowing upward through the fill from the
bottom of the basin. The heated air escapes through the top of the tower, while
the cooled condenser water is collected at the bottom of the tower.

Indirect cooling towers or fluid coolers cool warm condenser water by

spraying water from the cooling tower reservoir supply into the top of the
tower. The spray flows over the closed circuit condenser water coil,
transferring the heat from the coil to the cooling tower water then the air
flowing upwards through the coil. The heated air escapes from the top of the

Lesson - 8 225
 tower and the spray water is collected in the tower basin. The cool condenser
water exits the tower from the bottom of the closed coil. The condenser water
and cooling tower water are separate streams that don’t mix.

There are several advantages for using indirect cooling towers. The condenser
water is protected from outside contaminants as well as from other liquids
that may be involved with the cooling system because the condensing water is
contained in a closed piping system.

Mechanical draft cooling towers can be of either direct or indirect design.

Mechanical cooling towers use fans and other mechanical means to cool water
in a basin type arrangement. Fans and other equipment increase air mobility
which increases the water cooling rate.

Review
Cooling towers provide the condenser water supply for cooling system
operation. A cooling tower enables the heat generated in the condenser to be
displaced to the atmosphere. The large surface area inside a cooling tower
aids the evaporation process.

Refrigerants are liquids that boil at low temperatures. This is an important

property of any substance used as a refrigerant.

Heat energy always travels from a higher energy source to a lower energy
source. A boiling low-temperature liquid makes heat transfer through an
absorption or evaporation process easy, fast, and often inexpensive because
minimal energy is spent on vaporizing a refrigerant. Compression refrigerants
utilize the low-temperature boiling points of liquids to perform cooling
processes. Absorption refrigerants utilize the interaction between a refrigerant
and an absorber to perform cooling processes.

226 Lesson- 8
Exercises: 8.5
1. Explain cooling towers and their function in a cooling system.

2. Describe the difference between Direct Contact Cooling Towers and

Indirect Contact Cooling Towers.

3. What is the function of fill?

Lesson - 8 227
228 Lesson- 8
8.6 Refrigerants
Liquids that have a low boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure are
generally the most desirable for use as refrigerants. Large quantities of heat
are absorbed when liquids undergo a change of phase into a vapor.
There are currently many chemical formulations used as refrigerants. With
more to come. A refrigerant only needs to be able to boil and condense at a
reasonable temperature and pressure to be viable. The chemicals used in the
past have shown environmental side effects and are being replaced as fast as
the technology can be developed.
Table 8.9 Refrigerants

ASHRAE Empirical
Uses Notes
designation Formula

R-11 CFC low pressure, centrifugal chillers EPA banned for ozone damage

high pressure, med temp,

R-12 CFC residential/commercial freezers & EPA banned for ozone damage
refrigeration

R-22 HCFC high pressure, air conditioning EPA banned for ozone damage

R-123 HCFC low pressure, centrifugal chillers, replacement refrigerant for R-11

high pressurized temp, residential/

R-134a HFC replacement refrigerant for R-12
commercial freezers & refrigeration

high pressure, low temp,

R-502 CFC commercial freezers & ice EPA banned for ozone damage
machines

high pressure, low temp,

R-507 HFC commercial freezers & ice replacement refrigerant for R-502
machines

high pressure, med temp,

R-409a HCFC residential/commercial freezers & replacement refrigerant for R-12
refrigeration

R-410a HFC high pressure, air conditioning replacement refrigerant for R-22

high pressure, low temp, uses

R-290 HC propane
expanding

high pressure, low temp, large

R-717 NH3 ammonia
commercial uses only

high pressure, med temp

R-744 CO2 yes, carbon dioxide
refrigeration

Lesson - 8 229
 This table list a few of the many compounds used as refrigerants today. The
all have their strengths and weakness. It will take time for the industry to
finally select the ones that work the best, just like VHS and Betamax had to
fight it out.

As you can see there are two main categories of refrigerants, high pressure
and low pressure. High pressure refrigerants have a boiling point temperature
at atmospheric pressure within the range of -58Deg F to +50 Deg F. In a
cylinder, at room temperature, the pressure of the refrigerant can be hundreds
of pounds. Your household refrigerator uses a refrigerant in this class. These
types of refrigerants are typically used in conjunction with positive
displacement compressors as they require a high compression ratio. Low
pressure refrigerants have a boiling point temperature above +50 Deg F at
atmospheric pressure. They can look and act just like water at room
temperature and pressure. These refrigerants are commonly used with
centrifugal compressors. They are low compression ratio systems. Water,
while it can boil and condense like the special chemicals used above, is not
used as a refrigerant in compression refrigeration cycles because each pound
of water boiled creates a very large volume of vapor. The compressor would
be huge. It is used as a refrigerant in the absorption cycle.

New Term

refrigerants Fluids that work well as refrigeration agents

because they vaporize at a low temperature at atmospheric
pressure.

Refrigerants are selected for a range of properties including the ability to

absorb or give up heat (latent heat) as they change between liquid and vapor
phases.

The earliest refrigerants used in mechanical systems were very dangerous

chemicals that you wouldn’t want in your home. They were soon replaced
with much safer compounds known as halocarbons. They have been used as
refrigerants since the 1930s because of their excellent characteristics for
temperature, pressure, oil mixing ability, heat transfer ability, specific heat
contents and so on. Halocarbons are also nontoxic, stable, and inexpensive.

230 Lesson- 8
New Terms

halocarbons The short term used to reference fluorinated

halocarbons.

Halocarbons can be divided up into three categories: chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs). Table 8.10 lists halocarbon subgroups and their components.

Table 8.10 Halocarbon subgroup components

Halocarbon subgroups Components

Chlorine
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Fluorine
Carbon

Hydrogen
Chlorine
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Fluorine
Carbon

Hydrogen
Hydrofluorocarbons Fluorine
Carbon

Since the 1980s the halocarbon refrigerants have been used less and less due
to their relationship to the depletion of ozone in the stratosphere.
Hydrofluorcarbons started replacing them till the concerns about greenhouse
gases and global warming became preeminent. Interest is now growing in the
use of the natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide, propane ethane blends,
ammonia and others. This is an ongoing evolution as more is constantly being
learned.

Refrigerant Types
Refrigerants can be sorted by their use in compression type processes or
absorption type processes.

Lesson - 8 231
Compression Type Refrigerants
Compression type refrigerants as used by the refrigeration industry are based
on their evaporating temperatures. They are divided into groups by their
boiling point at atmospheric pressure. Low pressure refrigerants have a
boiling point above +50° F (10 ° C). High pressure refrigerants have a boiling
point above -58° F(-50 ° C) and below +50° F (10 ° C). Very high pressure
refrigerants have a boiling point below -58° F (-50 ° C).

Low pressure refrigerants are used in centrifugal chillers. These are low
compression ratio machines and have good COP’s. High pressure refrigerants
are used for most common residential refrigeration and air conditioning
applications as well as many commercial and industrial large scale
installations utilizing high compression ratio compressors. Very high pressure
refrigerants are used in applications requiring evaporator temperatures below
-40° F (-40 ° C).

Refrigerants are also identified by numbers following a prefix R-.

Refrigerants derived from methane are assigned 2-digit numbers. Refrigerants
derived from ethane are assigned a 3-digit number below 170. The units digit
of the number specifies the number of fluorine atoms per molecule. The tens
digit number is one more than the number of hydrogen atom per molecule.
This identification has been standardized by the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).

Vapor compression type refrigerants commonly used in the HVAC industry

include R-123(low pressure), R-134a, R-410, R-507 and a host of others.
Many refrigerants using chlorine in their makeup have been banned for use
and manufacture including R-11, R-12 and R-22.

Absorption Type Refrigerants

Absorption type refrigerant machines use two materials: the refrigerant
and the absorbent. Absorbent type cycles commonly used in the HVAC
industry include water/lithium-bromide and ammonia/water. Table 8.11
contains a list of absorbent refrigerants.

232 Lesson- 8
New Terms

absorbent type refrigerants Use a refrigerant and an

absorbent to perform the cooling process.

refrigerants Are liquids used to aid the cooling process in

a refrigeration system and have low temperature boiling
points.

absorbents Are substances that soak up refrigerant to aid

the evaporation and cooling process of a liquid.

Table 8.11 Absorbent refrigerants

Absorbent type refrigerants Description

Water is the refrigerant and lithium bromide is the absorbent.

Water/Lithium Bromide
This is the most common type of absorption system in use.

Ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent. This is

Ammonia/Water
common in small commercial industrial systems.

Water/lithium bromide is the most common type of HVAC absorption system.

This system type uses water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the
absorbent. The generator and the absorber and all connecting piping are
evacuated and sealed to maintain an absolute air pressure of 0.25 in.Hg.
Under these low pressure (vacuum) conditions, the refrigerant water will boil
at 40° F. This will allow the refrigerant to cool the chilled system water to
about 44° F. These systems are sized from 100 tons and up.

Ammonia/water refrigerant systems are commonly used in small commercial

industrial systems and they use ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the
absorbent. These applications generally use air cooled condensers. The high
latent heat content of the ammonia allows large refrigeration capacity with
relatively small equipment. It has a boiling point of -28° F at sea level. The
latent heat content at 5° F is 565 BTU/lb. These systems are seldom above 10
ten tons capacity.

Lesson - 8 233
Exercises: 8.6
1. Why is a low boiling point desirable for a refrigerant?

2. List five good physical properties for a refrigerant.

3. R-12 and R-123 are examples of what type of refrigerant?

4. Why are refrigerants with chlorine in them banned?

234 Lesson- 8
 9
Recognizing air distribution systems

Identify fan types and distribution methods and

equipment in an air distribution system.

• Fan systems

• Fan laws

• Air delivery systems

• Air delivery system equipment

236 Lesson -9
9.1 Fan systems
Fans are the most important piece of equipment involved in an air
distribution system because they provide the necessary force to deliver
conditioned air throughout a facility. After all, conditioned air does not affect
occupant comfort if it is not sent to the areas in a building where people
reside.

New Terms

fans Create air movement by accelerating an air stream across a

rotating plane.

air distribution system Is the operating relationship between an

HVAC system’s heating and cooling systems and the terminal
units that deliver the conditioned air throughout a facility.

Fan types
Fans are available in many shapes, sizes, and capacities. There are two main
types: axial fans and centrifugal fans. Fan classification is dependent upon
the direction of air flow through the impeller. In an axial fan the direction of
airflow is unchanged, remaining parallel with the fans shaft. In a centrifugal
fan the airflow is changed, entering the fan parallel with the shaft and then
changing by 90 degrees to exit the impeller

Lesson- 9 237
New Terms

axial fans Pull air along the fan shaft and blow it out in the
same direction.

centrifugal fans Pull air along the fan shaft and blow the
air out from the center in all directions.

impeller Is the blade portion of a fan that forces air to

move through and out of the blower unit.

Axial fans

There are three types of axial fans: propeller, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial. The
key difference between the types is the impeller section of the blower unit.
Table 9.1 lists the different axial fan types and a description of each.

Propeller axial fans are constructed with a propeller-type wheel mounted on a

ring. This type of fan resembles the design of a propeller on an airplane
engine and has a low efficiency rating. This fan type is for low delivery
pressure and high capacity.

238 Lesson -9
 Tubeaxial fans are basically a heavy duty propeller fan mounted in a cylinder.
While they can be mounted to duct works, the air exiting them has a spiral
motion that increases the duct losses making them a poor choice.

Vaneaxial fans are tubeaxil fans with guide vanes behind the fan blades that
help to counter the rotation of the airflow through the blower unit. These
guide vanes straighten the airflow making the vaneaxil fan compatible with
ductwork.

Lesson- 9 239
 Table 9.1 Axial fan descriptions

Axial fan types Description

Low efficiency. Constructed much like the design of a propeller on

Propeller
an airplane engine and are restricted to low pressure application.

Tubeaxial Medium efficiency. Heavy duty propeller fan in a housing.

Vaneaxial Good efficiency. Tubeaxil fan with guide vanes to straighten flow.

Centrifugal fans

There are five types of centrifugal fans: airfoil, backward inclined, backward
radial, forward curved and radial fan types. Table 9.2 lists the different
centrifugal fan types and a description of each.

The differences in these types of centrifugal fans also stem from variances in
the impeller portion of the fan unit. The impeller section of the fan is the
blower component that actually generates the power to drive the air flow
through the fan unit. Fans create a pressure differential as an internal wheel
rotates and the air is forced out of the blower. As the fan wheel turns, air is

240 Lesson -9
 accelerated across the wheel and into the fan volute. Different designs of the
wheels and the blades on them give the fans different pressure and volume
characteristics. In the volute, the velocity of the air is converted into pressure.
Backward curved blades operate more efficiently on average resulting in
lower horsepower requirements and quieter operation.

Airfoil fans operate with the most efficiency as compared to all other
centrifugal fans. Airfoil blades are shaped like the wing of a plane and they
are curved backwards. These fans are quiet in operation, will generate high
static pressures, and will not overload the motor driving it. The initial costs of
these fans are higher so they are used in larger fans. They are suitable for
clean air only

Backward inclined fans and backward curved fans operate at a slightly lower
efficiency rating than airfoil fans and the impeller blades are curved
backwards slightly from the direction that the fan wheel rotates. They
generate a high to medium static pressure.

Forward curved fans have blades that are sloped forward. They also have a
lower efficiency rating than the other types of centrifugal fans. They can
operate at lower speeds moving large volumes of air at low static pressures.

Radial fans are simply designed fans that have higher pressure characteristics
than most other fan types. The blades are flat or curved. These fans are noisy
and typically used for general ventilation like exhaust applications.

Lesson- 9 241
 Table 9.2 Centrifugal fan descriptions

Centrifugal fan types Description

Most efficient. airfoils are curved away from the direction of

Backward curved
rotation. Quiet in operation, used on large fans, high volume,
airfoil
medium pressure, clean air.

Backward inclined or Very efficient. Blades are inclined away from the direction of
curved blade rotation. high volume, medium pressure, light dust loadings.

Backward curved
Efficient. Fan has back-curved blades.
radial

Forward curved Blades curve in direction of rotation, high flow, low pressure,
bladed general ventilation for clean air, lower speed rotation

Radial Least efficient. Fan is of simple design.

Fan selection and installation

Fans are available in many shapes, sizes and capacities and choosing the right
one for the job is important for efficient HVAC operation. A fan is an air
pump and the pressure differential generated by the air pump is the driving
force behind transferring air throughout a facility.

Selecting and installing a centrifugal fan involves taking all design factors
into consideration. The important factor when choosing to install a fan is
knowing the pressure loss curve of the air distribution system in order to
choose the correct fan size. Installing the correct fan size will reduce noise
and increase energy conservation. Fan construction, arrangement, and
location of installation are all important considerations to recognize for
selecting a fan

Factors such as duct arrangement, construction materials, and air discharge

outlet arrangement are all important factors to consider when planning to
install a fan for efficiently operating an air delivery system. Noise is
generated in an air distribution system as a result of design, efficiency, total
pressure, and volume flow rate. For example, fan design and the connecting
ductwork all affect noise because exiting air hitting sharp turns in sheet metal
ductwork will emit an echoing bounce. Volume flow rate and pressure also
affect the whistling of air as it passes through the sheet metal ductwork. The
most efficient, and therefore the quietest, air delivery systems have fans and

242 Lesson -9
 ductwork that match the pressure needs of the system. The fan installation
location is an important factor to consider because enough room has to be
available around the fan so that the unit can be accessed for routine
maintenance and repairs.

Bearing and air inlet arrangements also affect the efficiency of an air
delivery system. There are many different bearing and air inlet arrangements
available for centrifugal fans such as bearings on each side of the wheel, two
bearings on a base on one side of the wheel (overhung), single width single
inlet (SWSI), double width double inlet (DWDI) and on.

New Terms

bearings Part of the fan on which the wheel and blades

revolve.

air inlets Openings in which air enters the fan.

Lesson- 9 243
244 Lesson -9
9.2 Fan laws
Three Fan Laws represent the relationships between fan speed, flow, static
pressure and power. Fan laws are useful in predicting fan behavior after
changes have been made to these variables.

The first fan law represents the relationship of the volume flow rate and fan
speed.
Fan Law 1

Airflow varies directly with the fan speed.

RPM 2
CFM 2 = CFM1 ×  ---------------
RPM 1
The second fan law represents the relationship of the static pressure and fan
speed.
Fan Law 2

Static pressure varies as the square of the fan speed

RPM 2
P 2 = P 1 ×  --------------2-
 RPM 1
The third fan law represents the relationship of the fan power and fan speed.
Fan Law 3

Power varies as the cube of the fan speed

RPM 2 3
HP 2 = HP 1 ×  ---------------
RPM 1

Certain stipulations pertain to fan laws due to the nature of the performance
variables involved, the results will be invalid if they are obtained using one
model fan and are applied to another. Fan laws can only be used to predict the
operation of a specific fan as its operating conditions change.

The third fan law is particularly significant for us as it shows that as we

reduce fan speed the power needed to run the fan reduces as a cube function.
This reduction in energy consumed is one good reason for the growth in
variable speed drives seen in recent years.

Lesson- 9 245
Review
Fans are very important to an air distribution system because they generate
the force that makes the delivery of conditioned air possible. These air pumps
generate static pressure and velocity to move air through an air delivery
system.

There are two main categories of fan types, centrifugal and axial, and the
distinctions between the two are dependent upon the direction of air flow
through the impeller.

Selecting the correct fan for a job requires considering several factors specific
to the job. The design arrangement of the bearings, air inlets, and air
discharge position impact the effectiveness of a fan. The installation location
for the fan will also impact fan choice because spatial limitations may hinder
accessibility to fan parts after the unit is installed.

No matter which fan type is chosen, fan laws can be used to predict changes
in fan operation when performance variables are modified.

246 Lesson -9
Exercises: 9.2
1. Explain the purpose of a fan.

2. Explain the difference between axial and centrifugal flow fans.

3.Explain the difference between a tubeaxial and a vaneaxial fan.

Lesson- 9 247
248 Lesson -9
9.3 Air delivery systems
Air delivery systems are just as varied as the components that make up an
HVAC system. HVAC delivery systems can be divided into three main
categories, dependent upon the type of fluids they use. These systems, all-air,
all-water, and air-water can be further broken down into categories dependent
upon where the equipment components come from and the number of zones,
or areas in a building, that a system controls.

All Air

All-air, air delivery systems that use only air as the fluid for transferring
heating or cooling throughout a building. All-air systems can also be divided
into single or dual duct categories. Single duct air delivery systems consist of
the main heating and cooling coils and a common network of ducts that
deliver conditioned air throughout a facility. Dual duct systems typically
consist of one duct system for chilled air and another duct system for heated
air.

All-air delivery systems are just as varied as the components that make up the
system and they can be divided up into five main categories, each utilizing
different components with different control requirements. The five categories
are single zone system, reheat system, multizone system, dual duct system,
and variable air volume.

Single zone systems have air handlers that deliver air through a single duct to
a room or group of rooms. There is no individual room control over the
conditions of the air in these separate spaces. When the air temperature in the
room that houses the thermostat raises above the set point, the air delivery
system will send cool air to the entire zone that a particular thermostat
monitors. If the temperature in any of the other rooms within that zone were
already cool enough, they will become uncomfortable for occupants as the
cool air continues to blow into the space.

Reheat systems are air delivery systems that incorporate separate reheat coils
in each zone for individual comfort. With this type of system, a thermostat
residing in the local zone monitors temperature and sometimes humidity
levels in the room. When more heat is required, warmed air is added to the
space by the electric reheat coils located in the immediate location.

Multizone systems incorporate separate ducts, that are attached to one damper
each in each zone, to supply a mix of hot and cold air to meet zone

Lesson- 9 249
 requirements. One system serves multiple zones from a single, centralized air
handling unit but each zone is still controlled without affecting any others.
For example, if a thermostat senses that a space is too warm, the HVAC
system will only send cool air to that particular space and the temperature
change will not affect occupants in other areas.

Dual duct systems are designed with heating and cooling coils that are
connected to separate heating and cooling ducts. Each zone has its own
mixing box and the room thermostat regulates the dampers, ensuring that the
proper mixture of heated and chilled air is delivered to the zone. Dual duct
systems can have a single fan supplying both ducts or individual fans, one for
the hot duct and one for the cold, each with some kind of volume or pressure
control driving a volume damper or fan speed control.

Variable air volume systems (VAV) limit the volume of air that is passed into
a zone. Whereas the other systems are constant air volume (CAV) systems,
VAV systems control temperature by controlling the rate of cooled air flow
into the zone. This can reduce operating costs by reducing the fan energy
consumed and the quantity of air that gets cooled.

All Water

All-water delivery systems are also known as hydronic systems and use only
water as the fluid for transferring heat throughout a building. All-water
delivery systems heat or cool a space with hot or chilled water using a
combination of conduction, convection or radiation to transfer thermal
energy. Hot water is piped throughout the building and hot water releases
thermal energy into air that is cooler than the temperature of the water
flowing through the pipes. Similarly, heat is absorbed through pipes
containing chilled water as it flows through space that is warmer than the
water.

Air - Water

Air-water air delivery systems use a combination of the other two types of
systems because both air and water are used to transfer heat throughout a
building.

250 Lesson -9
 Table 9.3 Fluid-classified air delivery system functions

Fluid-classified air
System function
delivery systems

All-air Use air only to add or remove heat from facility air.

All-water Use water only to add or remove heat from facility air.

Air-water Use both air and water to add or remove heat from facility air.

Air delivery systems are also categorized into two groups according to how
and where a system is built. When the air delivery system equipment is
purchased separately as components and installed on the building site by the
contractor, the system is referred to as a central system. When the air
delivery system is constructed at the manufacturer’s site, with the heating and
the air conditioning components factory selected and assembled, the system is
referred to as a unitary system.

New Terms

central system Is a site built system where the heating and

air conditioning components are individually purchased and
installed.

unitary system Is a pre manufactured air delivery system

where the heating and air conditioning components are
typically factory chosen and packaged.

Review
Air delivery systems come in many designs. They can be categorized into
three main groups, all-air, all-water, and air-water, dependent upon the type of
fluid the system uses to add or remove heat from indoor air.

All-air delivery systems can be further divided into five main categories
dependent upon the design of the duct system and how zone conditions are
monitored and controlled.

Lesson- 9 251
Exercises: 9.3
1. Name the three delivery systems that are classified by the type of fluid they
use and explain the differences between them.

2. Name the five subclassifications that all-air delivery systems can be

divided up further into and list some advantages and disadvantages of each.

3. Determine if the following statements are True or False. If the statement is

false, correct the statement to make it true.

Statements True or False

The manufacturer chooses and assembles the components of a unitary air

delivery system.

If the thermostat in one room of a four-room multizone HVAC system senses that
the air is too hot, it will deliver chilled air to all four rooms.

All-water systems supply water to all the sinks in a building.

A combination of both water and air are used to condition air in an air-water
delivery system.

The contractor selects and installs the components of a central air delivery
system.

The amount of air entering a room can be used to control room air temperature.

Separate main air ducts for hot and cool air are used in dual duct air systems.

Each zone has its own reheat coil and duct for a reheat air delivery system.

252 Lesson -9
9.4 Air delivery system
equipment
Air delivery systems require many different pieces of equipment that all
operate together in order to transfer air efficiently throughout an HVAC
system. Air handlers, humidifiers, dehumidifiers, filters, and air supply
devices all work together to ensure that sufficient amounts of properly
conditioned air is delivered throughout a facility.

Air handling units

Unitary systems are the type of system most commonly used in HVAC
applications and these types of systems can be further divided up into three
categories, depending on the type and function of the equipment used.

The three categories are rooftop units, room units, and unitary
conditioners.

Rooftop units are unitary pieces of HVAC equipment that come from the
factory with the heating and air conditioning equipment already assembled
inside. The compressor and the condenser may be separate and heat
adaptations are available. Rooftop units need to be constructed from weather
and corrosion-proof materials. In larger buildings there may not be enough
rooftop available for all the units needed or there may be architectural
concerns, in this case you will find the air handling units in mechanical rooms
or closets close to the areas being served. These air handlers have some
typical general configurations.

The most common configurations of these air handlers are, 100% outside air,
mixed air single path, mixed air multizone, dual duct, variable air volume and
the packaged roof top unit.

Lesson- 9 253
 The 100% outside air unit provides fresh air for areas with large ventilation
requirements. That may be somewhere like a production area using plastics
or volatile chemicals, a commercial kitchen area or a gym.

The name “mixed air single path” air handler refers to the facts that return air
is combined with fresh outside air to make up the supply air and there is one
outlet for this mixed air. The ratio of outside air to return air can be altered
depending on indoor cooling requirements and outside air temp or enthalpy.
The placement of the heating or cooling coils can be before or after the supply
fan, called draw through or blow through.

254 Lesson -9
 The mixed air multizone also combines outside air with return air for
supplying the interior zones of a building. If possible, outside air can be used
for cooling to minimize mechanical cooling runtimes. More than one zone is
supplied by this unit and each zone can be maintained at a different setpoint.
The air flow path on this unit has the air being cooled first then reheated as
needed for each zone.

The dual duct air handler provides two air streams throughout the building.
One air stream is cooled the other is heated. Terminal units in each zone will
use some percentage of each air stream to maintain a zone temperature. The
units can have either a single fan pressurizing both ducts or individual fans in
each duct. An economizer cycle can also be used for cooling when outside air
conditions allow.

Lesson- 9 255
 The variable air volume air handler has all the attributes of the single path
unit except that the fan has some method of changing its air flow to meet the
requirements of the terminal units. These methods are commonly variable
speed drives for the fan motors but also include inlet dampers to restrict the
air entering the fan.

The packaged roof top unit is very common. It usually contains both the
heating and cooling equipment needed for the zone.

256 Lesson -9
 Room units are HVAC equipment types that controls air conditions in an
individual room. They do not control humidity or air cleanliness very well but
they are low-cost and easy to install and operate. They are either designed as
through-the-wall units or window units. Room units are not as efficient as
central plants but are inexpensive to purchase and are used in multi-room
buildings such as hotels and motels.

Unitary conditioners are assembled by the manufacturer as packaged

components in units. A common unitary air conditioner is a split system AC.
Unitary conditioners are very popular in small commercial applications and
residential applications.

Lesson- 9 257
New Terms

rooftop unit Unitary pieces of HVAC equipment that come

from the factory with the heating and air conditioning parts
already assembled inside.

room unit HVAC equipment that controls air conditions in

an individual room.

unitary conditioner Air conditioners that are assembled by

the manufacturer in packaged components, units.

Humidifiers
Humidifiers improve air quality by converting liquid water into water vapor
that can be introduced to dry indoor air. Thus, the humidification process is
one that requires latent heat from some external source.

Moisture-controlled air keeps building occupants comfortable and healthy.

Excessively dry air affects respiratory functions in building occupants and
may irritate mucus membranes in nasal cavities. Common problems
experienced by occupants residing within a building that has overly dry air
are scratchy throats, itchy eyes, and irritated and dry sinus cavities. Adding
moisture to the air in winter means occupants can be comfortable at lower
room temperatures while in the summer, lower humidity can mean comfort at
higher temperatures.

New Term

humidifier Device that converts liquid water into water

vapor and adds that moisture to the air passing through the
air handling unit.

258 Lesson -9
 When humidification equipment is required, it must be located in such a
position that the air passing through it will be at a temperature that will enable
it to absorb the required moisture. Generally, humidifiers are located
downstream from a heating device.

Humidifying the air is usually accomplished using steam or sprays of water.

However, there are many types of humidifiers: air washers, pan humidifiers,
steam injection units, and water sprays. Table 9.4 lists different humidifier
types and a description of each.

Air washers are one of the most popular types of humidifiers used in larger
HVAC applications. An air washer consists essentially of a chamber in which
is provided a spray nozzle system, a tank is at the bottom for collecting the
water as it falls, and an eliminator section at the exit to remove drops of water
from the air. As air is drawn in through the washer, heat transfer takes place
between the air and the water. This results in either humidification or
dehumidification depending upon the method of operation and the relative
temperatures of the air and sprayed water. Humidification can be
accomplished in three ways with an air washer. An air washer recirculates
spray water with no treatment of the air, it preheats the air and washes it with
recirculated spray water, and it uses heated spray water.

Although the whole air stream passing through a washer is not completely
saturated, the efficiency of an air washer may closely approach one hundred
percent. Because of the high degree of saturation that takes place, the air

Lesson- 9 259
 leaving a washer usually requires reheating to produce the required
temperature and relative humidity in the conditioned space.

Pan humidifiers consist of an open pan of water with a heating element in it,
located in the air duct. The pan is usually located downstream from the
heating coil. Pan humidifiers have very limited capacity and are applicable to
systems having only a small requirement for humidification. The water in the
pan is maintained at a constant level by a float-controlled, water-fed valve and
an overflow drain.

Steam injection humidifiers operate by injecting a fine steam jet into the air
stream. Accurate control of humidity is possible with a steam jet humidifier
because of its quick response at high capacity. The addition of moisture is
accomplished with only a slight increase in dry bulb temperature. With this
type of humidifier, it is very important to have a clean steam source since
boiler compounds in water will cause offensive odors. The preferred location
is downstream from a heating coil.

A humidity controller positions the steam valve to maintain the space’s

relative humidity. The steam valve closes when the fan is turned off, to
prevent duct rusting and water damage due to leakage.

Water spray atomizer humidifiers spray water into the air in a fine mist so that
all of the water may be vaporized. The heat required for vaporization must
come from the air. Sensible heat is removed from the air as it passes through
the humidifier making it very difficult to precisely control air temperature.
Good atomization and a two-position control are basic requirements with this
type of humidifier.

Table 9.4 Humidifier descriptions

Types of humidifiers Description

Air is drawn in through a washer and heat transfers between the air
Air washers and the water. Humidification takes place when air temperature is
higher than water temperature.

An open pan of water with a heating element in it, located in the air
Pan humidifiers
duct. The pan is usually located downstream from the heating coil.

Steam injection Injecting a fine steam jet into the air stream adds moisture to the air.

Water is sprayed into the air in a fine mist so that all of the water is
Water sprays
vaporized. The heat required for vaporization comes from the air.

260 Lesson -9
Dehumidifiers
Dehumidifiers remove excess moisture from the air by converting water
vapor into liquid water that can be expelled from the HVAC system. Too
much moisture content in the air can damage building interiors and may
promote mold and mildew growth. Excess moisture is absorbed from indoor
air by either chemical dehumidifiers or chilled water / DX coils.

New Term

dehumidifier Device used to absorb or condense moisture

out of the air passing through the air handling unit.

A fan inside the dehumidifier housing cabinet pulls moist room air in through
the cold coils, removing the excess moisture as it cools below the dew point.
The remaining cool air is reheated in the condenser and then dispersed into
the room again as moistened air.

Chemical dehumidifiers use a chemical absorbent to absorb excess moisture

from the air. One type of dehumidifier uses silica gel in a wheel that revolves
through the conditioned air stream to absorb moisture. The gel then revolves
through heated air which dries the gel. This heat is transferred to the
conditioned air, so re-cooling is necessary
.
Chilled water or DX coils reduce humidity by condensing some of the water
from the air. For this reason it is necessary to provide a drip pan under cooling
coils. This method is really a by-product of the air conditioning process. A
dedicated dehumidifier usually requires reheat coils to prevent the space from
becoming too cold.

Another type of system uses a water-absorbing liquid chemical that is sprayed

over a cooling coil in the conditioned air stream. This chemical absorbs
moisture from the air. Some of the chemical is pumped to a regenerator where
it is sprayed over heating coils. The chemical gives up the moisture to an air
stream which is delivered outside.

Table 9.5 Dehumidifier descriptions

Types of Dehumidifiers Description

Chilled Water or DX Coils Coils condense water out of the air.

Chemical Dehumidifiers Use a chemical absorbent to absorb water out of the air.

Lesson- 9 261
Filters
Air filters are very important to the air conditioning system because filters
remove dirt and/or odors from the air. Good air quality equates to clean air
and clean air is necessary for occupant comfort and health. For example, dirty
air has unfavorable affects on individuals that suffer from asthma and
emphysema.

New Term

filter Remove dirt and gas pollutants from the air.

Filters enhance the performance of an HVAC system when they are properly
selected for the job and when they are regularly cleaned or replaced.

Air filters remove dirt and odors from the air through several different
methods: electrostatic precipitation, impingement, and straining.

Electrostatic precipitation filters clean the air by electrically charging the air.
The filter is a grid constructed out of a collection of metal plates that are
oppositely charged so that the dust particles and other pollutants are attracted
to the metal plates. The plates are usually coated with some kind of adhesive
so that the dust particles stick when they hit the plates. This type of filtering
system is very effective yet costly. And the unit has to be turned off in order
to clean the plates.

262 Lesson -9
 Impingement filters clean the air by trapping dust particles and other
pollutants as the air passes through the filter. The dust particles travel along in
the air current and as they hit the filter made of course fibers and some kind of
an adhesive, they stick to it. The dust is removed from the system when the
filter is taken out and either cleaned or replaced. This type of filter is common
in residences and replacement filters are readily available and easy to change.

Straining filters have very closely knit fibers that only allow the air molecules
to pass through the surface. Most dust particles are larger than the space
between these fibers so they are stopped from continuing through the filter
medium. These types of filters are dry, they do not have an adhesive coating
covering the fibers. A very efficient dry-type filter is the High Efficiency
Particulate Air (HEPA) filter. It has the ability to remove virus sized particles.
HEPA filter fibers are so closely constructed that the flow rate of air through
the filter significantly reduces when it hits the filter surface, so these filters
are pleated to extend the surface area.

Lesson- 9 263
 Table 9.5 Air filter descriptions

Air filter methods Description

Electrically charged air pollutants are attracted to and

Electrostatic precipitation
stick to an oppositely charged metal plate filter.

Clean the air by trapping dust particles and other

Impingement
pollutants as the air passes through the filter.

Filters have very closely knit fibers that only allow the air
Straining
molecules to pass through the surface.

Air distribution requirements

Good air quality is important to occupant comfort and process conditions and
air supply devices are used to distribute conditioned air evenly throughout a
facility. Selecting proper air supply devices is critical to efficient HVAC
operation and should be based on architectural and structural requirements of
the facility, temperature differentials, quantity, size, and location of
installation. Air temperature and velocity are several air distribution
characteristics that affect the quality of indoor air. The temperature
throughout an occupied zone should be maintained around + 2° F (1°C) of the
set point temperature to be acceptable to most occupants.

The type and location of air supply devices also affect the overall efficiency
of air distribution within a facility. Air supply devices are available in many
different models: ceiling diffusers, plenum ceilings, registers and grilles, and
slot diffusers.

Ceiling diffusers are air delivery terminal units located in the ceiling panels in
the occupied zones of a building. These diffusers may be rectangular, round,
or square in shape and they are used to control the direction of air as it leaves
the ducting system and enters each zone. Perforated panel-type diffusers are
often used with typical ceiling panels to help blend the diffusers in with the
rest of the ceiling materials.

264 Lesson -9
 Plenum ceilings are types of ceilings that are constructed out of suspended
panels. The open space above the ceiling panels serves as an airpath for the
conditioned air to circulate. The ceiling panels are constructed out of
perforated material that allows the conditioned air to infiltrate into the room,
or zone, below the ceiling at an equal dispersal rate.

Registers and grilles are air supply devices that are constructed with bars
attached parallel to each other inside of a frame. The bars are adjustable so
that air flow is directed by the angle of the bars. A register is simply a grille
that has a volume control damper attached behind the grille bars.

Slot diffusers are elongated air outlet devices that have narrow openings for
air circulation. Slot diffusers are often times combined into a light fixture for
longer light bulb life as well as for hiding the air diffuser. A light bulb will
last longer when a slot diffuser is installed into the light fixture because the
circulating air keeps the bulbs cool. The lower temperature of the bulb
conserves energy as well as wear and tear on the illuminating filament.

The location for installing air supply devices into a building should be
considered even before the types of devices are chosen. Location is important
because the design of the air delivery system is going to determine the overall
effectiveness of the system. There are five main locations for installing air
supply devices into a facility: high on the wall, in the ceiling, low on the wall,
on the floor, or on a window sill. Accessibility and space availability may

Lesson- 9 265
 limit the choices to just one or two air supply device models and two
satisfactory places that they can be installed and none of these possibilities
may be what the HVAC contractor originally had in mind. For example, an
HVAC contractor may have intended to install an air supply device that rests
on the sill of a window. However, after examining the architect’s drawings,
the HVAC contractor discovers that the style of window going into the facility
will not accommodate sill-type air supply devices.

Review
Air delivery systems are very important to the success of an HVAC system
because it would not do any good to condition building air if it could not be
dispersed throughout the building.

In order to deliver air that will maintain comfort in all the different zones
within a building, an air delivery system needs to utilize an air handling unit,
a humidifier or dehumidifier, and filters.

The air handling unit is the central control unit that governs the type of air
that will be sent to a zone and when it will be sent.

The humidifier adds moisture to dry air and the dehumidifier removes excess
moisture from air.

Filters remove most of the dust that is present in the conditioned air before it
is dispersed throughout the building.

Air supply devices are the last piece of HVAC equipment that conditioned air
encounters before entering the conditioned zone. These terminal units are
located directly in the rooms of a building that require the delivery of
conditioned air.

266 Lesson -9
Exercises: 9.4
1. What are the three categories of unitary air delivery systems?

2. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statements true.

____________________ must be weather-proof and

corrosion-proof and the compressor and condenser
portions of the unit are often remote.

____________________ are often installed into multi-

room buildings and they are not good energy conservers.

3. Explain the difference between a humidifier and a dehumidifier.

4. Match the type of humidity control device below with the letter of the
correct description.

Humidity control device Answer Description

Air washer A. Steam injected into air stream.

Refrigeration humidifier B. Moisture absorbed by a silica gel.

Steam injection C. An open pan of water and a heating coil.

Pan humidifier D. Water sprayed into air and collected in a tank as it falls.

Water spray E. Moisture condenses onto special DX coils.

Chemical dehumidifier F. Water sprayed in a fine mist that vaporizes.

Lesson- 9 267
 5. What is the purpose of a filter?

6. Match the type of air cleaning device below with the letter of the correct
description.

Air cleaning device Answer Description

Electronic A. Can remove gases.

HEPA B. Dust particles strike the surface and adhere.

C. Dust particles are too big to pass through the

Dry-type
openings in the filter so they get trapped for removal.

D. Electric charges cause dust particles to stick to a

Viscous impingement
plate of opposite charge.

7. What is the purpose of a diffuser?

268 Lesson -9
 10
Identifying terminal units

Identify terminal units and where they are

installed.

• Hydronic terminal units

• Air delivery terminal units

• Heat pump terminal units

270 Lesson 10-
10.1 Hydronic terminal units
Hydronic terminal units are heat exchangers that are attached to piping
systems that circulate heated or cooled water throughout a building. These
terminal units are located directly in the individual rooms or zones, of a
building. They either add or remove heat from the circulating water to or from
the zone.

New Terms

hydronic terminal units Employ heating and or cooling

coils to transfer heat to and from the individual room or
zone.

heat exchangers Transfer heat between two fluids.

Hydronic terminal units can be classified according to whether they are used
for heating or cooling purposes. These heat exchangers add heat to a zone or
transfer excess heat from a zone primarily by heat exchange with air.
Hydronic terminal units can also heat or cool by radiation.

Heating hydronic units

There are different types of hydronic terminal units used for heating purposes
in the HVAC industry: baseboard, convection, fin-tube, radiator, radiator
panel, and unit heaters. Table 10.1 lists the different types of hydronic heating
terminal units and gives a function description of each.

Table 10.1 Heating hydronic terminal unit descriptions

Heating hydronic
Description
terminal units

Thin sheet metal covers that are open at the bottom and vented at
Baseboard the top. Installed on the floor along the base of the wall and only a
few inches high.

Sheet metal cabinet houses finned tube or small cast iron heating
Convector
element. Both an air inlet and an air outlet grille.

Lesson - 10 271
 Heating hydronic
Description
terminal units

Similar to baseboard unit but the construction materials are sturdier

Fin-tube
and the heating element is larger.

Bulky groups of hollow steel, sheet metal, or cast iron tubes

Radiator
containing hot water or steam.

Pipes are installed into floors, ceilings, and walls so that zone
Radiator panel
temperature can be uniformly conditioned.

Use a fan to blow air through the terminal unit faster than natural
Unit heater
convection type unit.

Baseboard hydronic terminal units are short sheet metal casings that are
installed on the floor of a room along the base of an exterior wall, typically
below a window. Baseboard radiation units typically use a 1/2 or 3/4 inch
heating element. The casing is open at the bottom for taking in room air and
the top is vented so that the heated air can be convected out into the zone.
These types of terminal units are common in residential installations. Air-
outlet dampers can be used to manually control capacity for baseboard units.

272 Lesson 10-

 Convector hydronic terminal units are sheet metal cabinets that hold either a
small cast iron or finned tube heating element. An air inlet grille is usually
located at the bottom of the cabinet and an air outlet grille is typically located
at the top of the cabinet. The room air enters the convector unit through the
inlet grille, absorbs heat from the heating element, and is then convected out
as hot air through the outlet grille to warm the zone. Air-outlet dampers can
be used to manually control capacity for convector units.

Fin-tube hydronic terminal units are similar in design and appearance to

baseboard terminal units but the heating elements are larger, 3/4 to 2 inches,
and the construction materials are sturdier. Fin-tube radiation units are
primarily used for commercial and industrial installations. Air-outlet dampers
can be used to manually control capacity for fin-tube units.

Lesson - 10 273
 Radiator hydronic terminal units are bulky groupings of steel, sheet metal, or
cast iron tubes that contain hot water or steam. The heat from the hot water or
steam is transferred to the air in the zone where the radiator is located by
convection. Radiators are not very common anymore because they are bulky,
unattractive, and expensive.

Hydronic radiant panel systems are made up of a series of tubes that are
installed within the structure of the zone. Typically the floor is warmed as
water flows through the piping system. This design allows the zone to be
warmed by convection as the heated air rises and radiation from the warmed
floor. Radiant panel systems are very effective in uniformly conditioning
zones, but this type of system is expensive.

274 Lesson 10-

 Unit heaters are hydronic terminal units that utilize a fan to blow air through
the terminal unit. Unit heaters heat a zone more efficiently and faster than
natural convection type terminal units.

Cooling hydronic units

There are different types of hydronic terminal units used for cooling purposes:
fan-coil and induction units. Table 10.2 lists the various types of cooling
hydronic terminal units and gives a function description of each.

Table 10.2 Cooling hydronic terminal unit descriptions

Cooling hydronic
Description
terminal units

Fan-coil Consist of a coiled fin-tube, a centrifugal fan, a motor, and an air filter.

Cabinet containing cooling coils, air connectors and inlet jets, and a filter.
Induction
Induction air entrains room air across the coils.

Pipes are installed into floors or ceilings so that zone temperature can be
Radiant panels
uniformly conditioned.

Fan-coil hydronic terminal units are made up of several pieces of equipment:

coiled fin-tubes, a centrifugal fan, a motor, and an air filter. Fan-coil units can
be used for both heating and cooling.

Lesson - 10 275
 Induction hydronic terminal units are used in air-water systems and they can
be used for both heating and cooling purposes. The induction unit is made up
of several pieces of equipment: heating and cooling coils, air connectors and
jet inlets, and a filter. High pressure air is delivered to the unit from the
central air handling unit. It is directed across the coils and draws in room air
by the process of induction. Induction units are quieter and cost less than fan-
coil units because there is no fan motor to operate or maintain.

Radiant panel cooling systems have the piping network installed in the ceiling
so that the cold air falls down into the zone, due to the fact that warm air is
lighter than cold air.

Review
Hydronic terminal units are heat exchangers that are located directly in the
zones that they are conditioning. These units contain heated or chilled water
inside tubing to heat or cool indoor air.

276 Lesson 10-

Exercises: 10.1
1. Which terminal unit types are radiation type terminal units?

2. Summarize the similarities and differences between baseboard and fin-tube

radiation.

3 Explain the operation of an induction unit.

Lesson - 10 277
278 Lesson 10-
10.2 Air delivery terminal units
Terminal units are the devices between the air handling unit and the
conditioned space. There are two types of air distribution terminal systems;

Supply outlets in combination with return inlets and terminal boxes. The
supply outlet (register, diffuser) and return inlet (grill) attempt to deliver
supply air to a conditioned space quietly and without drafts. The temperature
of the space is controlled by changing the supply air temperature at the air
handling unit and usually serves only one zone.

Terminal boxes attempt to control the quantity and/or temperature of the

supply air at multiple zones. Terminal boxes can be split into two categories,
constant volume and variable volume.

Constant Air Volume

Constant volume reheat terminal units serve as a reducing valve and constant
volume regulator. They maintain a constant air quantity to a zone or space.
The temperature control of the space is by tempering the cooled supply air
with a heating coil.

Variable Air Volume

Variable air volume (VAV) terminal units control indoor air comfort by
controlling the flow rate of primary air entering a zone, not supply air
temperature. They require an air handling unit to serve as the primary air
supply source. In some instances outside air can be used to provide cooling
instead of mechanical cooling with the use of an economizer cycle. All VAV
boxes control space temperature by varying the volume of cooled supply air
delivered to the space. VAV terminal units have automatic controls that are
either pressure dependant or pressure independent.

Pressure dependant boxes control their damper position in response to room

temperature, flow may increase or decrease as duct supply pressure changes
with no movement of the damper. The room sensor is used to drive the damper
position.

Lesson - 10 279
 Pressure independent boxes measure the actual supply air flow and control the
flow in response to the room temperature. The room sensor is used to reset the
flow setpoint. The primary supply air flow is directly measured and
controlled.

New Term

variable air volume (VAV) Terminal units that control air

conditions by adjusting the volume flow rate of primary air
instead of by adjusting the primary air temperature.

VAV types
VAV terminal units can be used for heating and/or cooling and they are
available in numerous configurations: cooling only, cooling with reheat,
induction, dual duct, and fan-powered. Table 10.3 lists different types of VAV
terminal units and a function description for each.

Table 10.3 VAV unit descriptions

VAV unit types Description

Controls zone or space conditions by limiting the volume flow rate of

Cooling only
supply air, not the temperature of supply air.

Cooling with reheat A cooling only VAV with reheat coils.

Induction High velocity primary air is used to entrain and circulate room air.

Uses separate heating and cooling air supply ducts, can have separate
Dual duct
damper controls for each supply.

A VAV box with a small centrifugal fan inside blows supply and recirculated
Fan-powered
air into a zone.

Cooling only (throttling) VAV units control air conditioning by limiting the
volume flow rate of the supply air, not by controlling the temperature of the
supply air. Primary dampers are adjusted to circulate more or less supply air
into a zone in response to load changes. For example, when the space
temperature sensor of the VAV unit senses that the zone temperature is higher

280 Lesson 10-

 than the desired set point, the VAV dampers will open and air will blow into
the zone at a faster rate. If the sensor detects that the temperature is too cool
within the zone the damper can close to its minimum position. Cooling only
VAV units rely on a constant supply of 55 °F air from the VAV air handler.
These are the simplest and cheapest VAV terminal units. The units can go
completely closed at reduced cooling load, if set up with a minimum air flow
they can over cool a space. These boxes are typically used in interior zones as
they can often meet heating needs with heat from lights etc.

Cooling with reheat (throttling with reheat) VAV units control zone
temperatures by using hydronic or electric reheat coils located directly inside
the VAV box. The heating coil is situated after the damper to allow reheating
of air that will be supplied to the zone. These boxes are typically used in
exterior zones where the full heating cooling range is needed.They can
provide minimum airflow without over cooling the space. Airflow can be
reduced as a first step in control, heating can then be applied as a second step
or the reheat coil can be activated during cooling for dehumidification.

Induction VAV reduces the volume of primary air supplied as room

temperature falls but the higher velocity primary air is used to entrain room
air from the ceiling or plenum to maintain an almost constant volume delivery
in the space.

Lesson - 10 281
 Dual duct VAV unit arrangements use separate heating and cooling ducts, they
can have separate damper controls for each supply. These boxes can either
mix the airstreams supplied to the zone or deliver them separately.

Fan-powered VAV units incorporate a small centrifugal fan into the terminal
unit. The fan powered box provides for some amount of recirculated zone air
in addition to primary air. This can be particularly beneficial for efficient
reheat and maintaining good zone air movement under all conditions. The fan
may be in series or parallel with the primary air damper

With series boxes the fan is in the main airflow in series with the primary air
damper. The fan runs whenever the zone is occupied so the air delivered to the
zone is constant volume while the primary air delivered from the air handling
unit is variable volume. Having the box fan run during occupancy means the
supply fan can be sized smaller and affords initial cost savings.

282 Lesson 10-

 In parallel boxes the fan is outside the primary air stream parallel with the
primary air damper. The fan operates intermittently during occupancy
depending on heating or cooling demands of the space so the air delivered to
the space is variable volume. The primary cooling air is also variable air
volume. As the cooling demand decreases the primary air damper will close
decreasing air volume. At some point, the fan will start and primary air flow
will be at its minimum. This allows use of the heat generated in the room to be
used to maintain setpoint. If zone temperature continues to fall supplemental
heat will be needed.

Both types will maintain higher air circulation rates in zones at low cooling
loads while still reducing the load on the main air handler. As the primary air
cooling damper closes more plenum or room air is circulated. In perimeter
zones a hot water coil, electric heat, baseboard heat etc. can be sequenced to
make up for heat losses. When neither heat nor cooling is required room air is
still recirculated.

VAV disadvantages
VAV boxes are popular and inexpensive for many HVAC applications, yet
there are still some disadvantages associated with using VAV terminal units.
High humidity levels result in occupant discomfort and VAV boxes have
limited capabilities for overcoming humid conditions. Humidity is
particularly hard to handle in large open zones such as a gymnasiums and
meeting halls but it can be managed by maintaining the cooling air flow and
activating the reheat coils in the terminal boxes. Other considerations are the

Lesson - 10 283
 reduction of ventilation (makeup) air when the cooling requirement is met.
Again, reheat coils can be employed to maintain airflow.

When conditions require low air volume poor air distribution within the zone
is highly possible. Variable diffusers can be used in conjunction with VAV
boxes to obtain better air distribution. These diffusers have multiple openings
in them that narrow as the air flow rate decreases. The narrow openings means
the air velocity has to increase which will evenly distribute the air throughout
the zone. Reheat coils can be activated to operate whenever air volumes reach
minimum levels allowing tempering of delivered air and increased volumes.

New Term

variable diffusers Devices that work in conjunction with air

handling units to aid in the distribution of high velocity air.

Review
Variable air volume (VAV) terminal units control zone temperatures by
controlling the flow rate of supply and recirculated air.

VAV boxes can be classified according to how they are arranged: cooling
only, cooling with reheat, induction, dual duct and fan-powered.

Reheat coils can be joined with VAV boxes to improve temperature control
and allow increased ventilation and /or humidity control.

Humidity and continuous air distribution factors are harder to manage with
VAV units.

VAV terminal units are very energy and cost efficient.

284 Lesson 10-

Exercises: 10.2
1. Describe the basic operation of a pressure independent VAV controller.

2. List and describe four types of VAV terminal units.

3. What factors need to be considered before you install a VAV system?

4. Name a few disadvantages of using a VAV system and what can be done to
overcome these problems.

Lesson - 10 285
286 Lesson 10-
10.3 Heat pump terminal units
A heat pump is a terminal unit consisting of a reversible refrigeration system.
As you remember, an air conditioning or refrigeration system relies on
lowering the pressure in the evaporator to lower the boiling point temperature
of the refrigerant and absorb heat from an interior space. At the same time the
compressor is pushing the boiled refrigerant vapor into the condenser and
raising the pressure there. This raises the boiling point temperate and allows
the refrigerant to condense as it gives up its heat to the atmosphere outside.
The refrigerant is then circulated back to the evaporator as a liquid and start
the cycle over again. Heat pumps have an extra valve that allows the system
to be reconfigured such that the two heat exchange coils switch their duties.
The indoor evaporator can become the condenser and the outdoor condenser
can become the evaporator. This means that the heat from the outdoor air will
be moved indoors in the heating mode. More heat can be moved indoors using
a heat pump than the electricity used by the compressor would have generated
if supplied to a resistance heating element. In fact, as much as two to three
times as much heat or more will be moved indoors depending on the outdoor
temperature. Heat pumps can use either an outdoor air coil (air to air heat
pump) or a water cooled coil (water source heat pump) as the second heat
exchanger in the system paired with an air coil in the indoor unit. When using
a water cooled coil in conjunction with other heat pumps (heat pump loop)
heat from a zone in the A/C mode on the south face of a building can be
redistributed to a zone in the heating mode on the north face. The water
supplied to the coil can also come from several other sources such as a ground
source loop, or a well. A heat pump loop is usually supplemented with a
boiler for the winter heating season and a cooling tower for summer
operation.

Lesson - 10 287
New Term

heat pumps Are terminal units used for both heating and
cooling. Heat from the condenser can be used to satisfy the
indoor heating load of a space then the refrigeration cycle
can be reversed and the same coil can be used for cooling.

air to air heat pump A heat pump that uses an air flow to
transfer heat over each of its two heat exchangers, the indoor
and outdoor coils.

water source heat pump A heat pump that exchanges heat

with a water coil on one side of the system and air (usually
the indoor coil) on the other side.

Heat pumps can be delivered from the manufacturer in a unitary package

where all the components are included. Heat pump packages include a
compressor, indoor air coil, outdoor air coil or water coil, metering valve, a
refrigerant reversing valve, and one or more fans. They may also include
outside air dampers to control for fresh air. Table 10.4 lists heat pump
components and a description of each.

Table 10.4 Heat pump component functions

Heat pump components Description

Compressor Reduce gas volume to increase gas temperature and pressure.

Condenses hot high pressure vapor refrigerant into warm liquid

refrigerant. This function will be accomplished by either the indoor
Condenser coil
or outdoor air coil or water coil depending on the heat pump mode
of operation

Boils low pressure liquid refrigerant into superheated vapor. This

Evaporative coil function will be accomplished by either the indoor or outdoor air
coil or water coil depending on the heat pump mode of operation.

Control the amount of refrigerant admitted to the evaporator. Heat

Metering valve
pumps usually have two, one for each mode of operation.

288 Lesson 10-

 Heat pump components Description

Controls the direction of refrigerant flow in the refrigeration cycle

in order to meet cooling or heating needs. Directs the compressor
Refrigerant reversing valve discharge to either indoor or outdoor coil and the compressor
suction to the other coil. Changes position to control heat pump
mode of operation.

Fan Forces air across the indoor coil and outdoor coil if used.

Ventilation air damper Controls the addition of fresh outside air into the facility.

Heat pump operation

Heat pumps are available as either water-source or air-source. Heat pumps use
reversing valves to control the direction of the refrigerant flow. The position
of the condenser and evaporator in the refrigeration circuit can be swapped by
repositioning the reversing valve. The physical location doesn’t change, but
the role of the heat exchanger is changed. The finned coil in the airstream
serving the zone can be either a source of heat or can cool the zone.

Heat pumps operate differently between heating and cooling modes but they
operate with common equipment. During the cooling cycle hot gas is pumped
out of the compressor and into the outdoor coil or water cooled coil. The
indoor coil absorbs heat from the conditioned space. In the winter, the indoor
coil serves as the condenser and the outside coil or water cooled coil serves as
the evaporator or heat source
.
Refrigeration cycle mode Operation description

Summer cooling Refrigerant -----> Room coil (evaporator) -----> Cooled room air

Winter heating Refrigerant -----> Room coil (condenser) -----> Heated room air

Reversing the flow of the refrigerant involves using a reversing valve. A

reversing valve has four ports, two are connected to the compressor (suction
and discharge), the other two are connected to the indoor and outdoor coils.
Refrigerant can be directed to or from each according to heating or cooling
needs. The reversing valve may be energized to put it either in cooling or
heating mode. The operation of the valve is decided by the heat pump
manufacturer who generally tries to make the valve deenergized for the mode
most often used. That is, a heat pump manufactured for the southern region
where the heating requirement is minimal would probably have the reversing

Lesson - 10 289
 valve deenergized for the cooling mode while a heat pump manufactured for
the northwest where cooling use is minimal would probably have the
reversing valve deenergized for the heat mode.

The reverse flow of the refrigerant reverses the purpose of the room and
outdoor coils. When the room coil is used to cool air, it is considered an
evaporator coil. When the room coil is used to heat air, it is considered a
condenser coil.

290 Lesson 10-

New Terms

reversing valves Devices used to control the direction of

the refrigerant flow.

balance point The balance point occurs when the heat

pump can produce as much heat as a zone is loosing.

Heat pumps must be selected for a job so that they are correctly sized to
handle the heating and the cooling loads of the HVAC system. Typically the
heating and cooling loads are carefully calculated. The heat pump
refrigeration is sized to match the cooling load, supplementary heating is
added if the heating load exceeds the capacity of the selected equipment. As
the outdoor temperature drops the heat required in a zone or building will
increase. When the capacity of a heat pump just matches the heat loss of a
heating zone, that point is called the balance point. Heat pumps require
supplementary heat if the heating load increases beyond the balance point as
when the outdoor temperature continues to drop.

There are advantages to using a heat pump over other types of heating and
cooling equipment. For example, the reduction of equipment needed as a heat
pump is capable of meeting both heating and cooling load requirements. Heat
pumps are often more cost efficient to operate than other types of heating
equipment, meaning that a therm of heat (100,000 BTUs) can be cheaper to
deliver with a heat pump than another heating system such as an oil or gas
fired furnace.

Review
Heat pump terminal units are devices used to collect the heat energy that is
rejected to the condenser unit during the refrigeration cycle. During a normal
refrigeration cycle, thermal energy is generated as a by-product and this heat
is lost to atmospheric air or a body of water. Heat pumps can share this energy
with other heat pumps in a water source loop and apply it to heat air in other
zones.

The compressor always operates in the same direction but the evaporator and
condenser can change roles. The balance point is the intersection of the heat
pump capacity and the heating load totals. Heat pumps are often times more
cost efficient than other types of heating equipment.

Lesson - 10 291
Exercises: 10.3
1. Explain the purpose and operation of a heat pump.

2. Fill in the blank below with the correct word to make the statement true.

In heating mode, the inside coil acts as the _______________.

3. Fill in the blank below with the correct word to make the statement true.

In cooling mode, the inside coil acts as the _______________.

4. What are some advantages for using a heat pump over other products that
perform similar functions?

5. What is the balance point?

292 Lesson 10-