Republic of the Philippines

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT
Sorsogon City Campus

RESEARCH PAPER
(BUILDING UTILITIES)

Prepared by:
MICHELLE F. VILLARANDA
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION TO HVAC SYSTEM THEORY OF HEAT, HEAT TRANSFORM, AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEM.

HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. This system provides heating
and cooling to residential and commercial buildings. You can find HVAC systems anywhere from
single-family homes to submarines where they provide the means for environmental comfort.
Becoming more and more popular in new construction, these systems use fresh air from outdoors
to provide high indoor air quality. The V in HVAC, or ventilation, is the process of replacing or
exchanging air within a space. This provides a better quality of air indoors and involves the
removal of moisture, smoke, odors, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases
as well as temperature control and oxygen replenishment.

The three primary purposes of an HVAC system are interconnected, particularly when it
comes to producing comfortable temperatures and appropriate indoor air quality. Even though
your home's heating and cooling system is frequently one of the most intricate and expensive, you
will quickly notice when it breaks down.

Both residential and commercial buildings can be heated and cooled using this technology.
HVAC systems are used to provide comfortable environments anywhere from single-family homes
to submarines. These systems, which are gaining popularity in new buildings, utilize outside air to
offer excellent indoor air quality.
 The replacement or exchange of air within a space is represented by the V in HVAC, or
ventilation. This improves interior air quality by removing moisture, smoke, smells, heat, dust,
airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other pollutants, while also controlling temperature and
resupplying oxygen.

HVAC can be used in building to:

•Maintain Internal air quality

•Regulate internal temperatures

•Regulate internal humidity

Purpose of HVAC systems:

HVAC systems are concerned with maintaining indoor air quality in addition to heating and
cooling the air.

These fields are all relevant to various HVAC components. IAQ (Indoor Air Quality) refers
to the air quality inside buildings or other structures as it primarily relates to the health and safety
of its occupants or any placed things or goods. Gas inclusion or contamination, as well as
uncontrolled mass and energy transfer, alter IAQ.

HVAC systems are used in homes, buildings, businesses, vehicles, aquariums, and many
other places for heating, cooling, and air conditioning. HVAC applications are growing over time,
and more study is being done in this area.

Depending on the HVAC architecture, HVAC cooling systems may be built individually
or in conjunction with HVAC heating systems. On an industrial scale, HVAC systems are also
used to keep machinery functioning by regulating the temperature in the area where the machines
are installed. Due to their many uses, HVAC water chillers have become crucial for any sector.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:

 AIR RETURN

The component of your system that signals the beginning of the ventilation cycle is your air return.
This return pulls air in, filters it, and then sends it into the primary system. A pro suggestion is to
regularly dust your returns because dust and debris can readily collect on your filters.

 FILTER

The second section of the air return where air is drawn through is your filter. Pro tip: To keep your
system in top condition, change your filters frequently.

 EXHAUST OUTLET

The exhaust outlets, where the exhaust produced by the heating system is discharged, are another
component of your system. Pro tip: Every year, inspect your chimney flue or vent stack, and tune
it up if required.

 DUCTS

Your ducts serve as the passageways for hot or chilled air. Pro tip: To maintain everything in
working order, get your ducts cleaned every two to five years.

 ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS

Although it can be a little difficult, this area of your system frequently experiences issues initially.
Check for a tripped breaker or dead batteries in your thermostat if something isn't operating
properly.

 OUTDOOR UNIT

When someone mentions your HVAC system, this is probably the component that comes to mind.
The fan that moves air is housed in the outdoor unit. Keep vegetation and debris away from your
unit since it can cause major issues if plants are sucked into your fan.

 COMPRESSOR
The compressor, which is a component of the outdoor unit, transforms refrigerant from a gas to a
liquid and delivers it to the coils. Check your compressor if something isn't functioning properly.
It frequently leads to numerous system failures.

 COILS

Coils chill the air as it goes through with a little assistance from the refrigerant and are typically
another component of the outside unit. Pro tip: yearly coil inspection. You might want to check
your filter and/or refrigerant levels if they start to freeze.

 BLOWER

Warm air is drawn into the main part of the unit by the blower. Pro tip: Your system will be more
robust the more effectively this air goes through it.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM-TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND APPLICATION

The process of air conditioning involves more than just heating or cooling to a specific
temperature. The process of conditioning or managing the air is known as air conditioning. The
subsequent procedures are all part of the overall air conditioning process.

1. Cooling or heating air

2. Addition of moisture in the air (Humidification) or removal of moisture from the air
(Dehumidification)

3. Controlling movement of air

4. Purification of air

5. Addition of fresh air from outside

6. Distribution of air

The apparatus or unit that provides air cooling in an air conditioning system is referred to
as an air conditioner. This device continually pulls air from a room that has to be cooled inside,
cools it in the refrigeration system, and then returns the air to the room. The indoor space is kept
cool at the necessary lower temperature that is needed for comfort cooling thanks to this continual
cyclical action of drawing, chilling, and recirculating the cooled air.

COMPONENTS OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

The basic components of the air conditioning system are:

1. Fans: For circulation of air

2. Filters: For cleaning air

3. Heating element: Heating of air (It may be an electric heater, steam, hot water)

4. Control system: It regulates automatically the amount of cooling or heating.

5. Grille: It adjusts the direction of conditioned air to the room.

6. Tray: It collects condensed water

Classification of Air conditioning system / Types of Air Conditioning System:

1. According to the arrangement of equipment

a. Unitary Air Conditioning System

In this system, various air conditioning system components are produced and put together as a
whole in a factory. This device is placed inside or close to the area that needs conditioning.

b. Central Air Conditioning System

In this system, various components are produced in factories and assembled on location. The air
in theaters, movie theaters, restaurants, exposition halls, large industry spaces, etc. is conditioned
using this type of system.

All of the parts of the central air conditioning system are placed in one central room, and the
conditioned air is then transferred from this room to the necessary locations via an extension duct
system. The compressor with motor drive, condenser with cooling coil, and throttling mechanisms
are the primary elements of the central system. The units in this system have a considerable
capacity. (more than 25 tons) either the direct or indirect method of central air conditioning.

2. According to the purpose

a. Comfort air conditioning system

b. Industrial air conditioning system

3. According to the season of the year

a. Winter air conditioning system

b. Summer air conditioning system

c. Year-Round Air Conditioning System

4. According to Working substance used in the system:

a. All Air system.

b. Chilled water system

c. Air-water system

DIFFERENT TYPES OF EVAPORATORS AND THEIR APPLICATION

Forced-Circulation Evaporators

The importance of mechanical recirculation must be evaluated

throughout the tubular evaporator's design phase. The addition
of a pump and a few new controls may initially raise the
expenses of installation, maintenance, and operation.

But it's important to realize that recirculating some of the

concentrate into the feed stream would boost heat transfer,
which is sufficient to shrink the evaporator and ultimately lower
costs.
Additionally, the increased liquid velocity in the tubes will be crucial in removing fouling and
decreasing downtime.

Applications: Applications in which forced circulation is used include, urea, sodium sulfate,
sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, caustic potash, citric acid, and ammonium sulfate.

Falling-Film Evaporator

A variation of the long-tube rising film evaporator is the long-

tube falling-film evaporator. The apparatus is kept in this
position with the tubular heat exchanger perched atop the liquid
separator compartment.

The distributors equally divide the feed into each tube when it
enters the evaporator from the top. Feed distribution is
extremely important, and while there are several acceptable
distributor designs, they are often built around a perforated plate that is positioned on top of a tube
sheet.

Applications: The concentration of dairy products, sugar solutions, phosphoric acid, and black
liquor.

Rising/Falling-Film Evaporator

In order to combine the advantages of both evaporators into one, the rising-falling film evaporator
combines a rising film evaporator with a falling film evaporator. The tube bundle can be divided
into two pieces, the first of which functions as a rising-film and the second of which operates as a
falling-film, for use in applications where a very high ratio of evaporation to feed is required.
 Agitated Thin-Film Evaporators

Agitated thin-film evaporators are thought to be the best choice for

difficult-to-handle materials. Although a variety of materials can
be effectively evaporated using tubular evaporators, these devices
have had little luck with heat-sensitive, fouling, viscous, and high-
boiling liquids. Tubular evaporators frequently experience
degradation due to high residence times, fouling of the heat transfer
surfaces, tube clogging, limited heat transmission, and significant
pressure drops.

Agitated films provide solutions for the aforementioned issues in materials that are difficult to
handle. Simply put, this method quickly separates volatile and less volatile chemicals by using
mechanical agitation of product films and indirect heat transfer.

Applications: Widely used to purify organic chemicals including natural oils, fatty acids,
herbicides, insecticides

Food concentration and pharmaceuticals including, vegetable and fruit purees, plant and vegetable
extracts, biological solutions, etc.

TYPES OF CONDENSERS

Condensers are classified depending on various parameters like condensing medium, method of
heat transfer, applications, etc.

 Direct Contact Condensers: Heat transfer takes place through direct contact between the
gas and liquid.
 Indirect Contact Condensers: Heat exchange happens through a thermally conductive
boundary medium like a plate, shell, or tube.
 Surface Condensers: They are basically shell and tube heat exchangers used in large
thermal power plants and refrigeration systems. They are again classified as tube-side
condensation and shell side condensation.

Depending on application condensers are classified as:

  Refrigeration and HVAC condensers
 Car or Automotive condensers
 Process Condensers like distillation column condensers.
 Marine Condensers

However, the major classification of condensers is based on condensing media. Three types of
condensers are based on the condensing medium used to extract heat from the system. None of the
three condensers offers a significant advantage over the others. Each one should be used wisely,
depending on the situation.

1. Air-cooled Condenser:

This kind of condenser has a finned constant tube coil. The coil's top receives the vapor from
the compressor discharge, which exits the coil's bottom and flows into receivers at the base. A fan
mounted on the compressor motor pulleys blows air across the condenser coil. The unit needs to
be stored in a cool, well-ventilated area. For a given capacity, less electricity is needed the lower
the ambient air temperature.

The simplicity of installation and low cost of this type of condenser are its key advantages.
Self-contained equipment, like home refrigerators, freezer cabinets, display cases, water coolers,
and air conditioners, are used the most frequently. In order to remove heat from the system, this
condenser uses air as the external fluid. In condensers that are air-cooled, the refrigerant passes via
copper coils. However, forced and natural convection are two subsets of this type, so that doesn't
give the full picture.

2. Water-cooled Condenser:

Condensers that are water-cooled are used with compressors that are one horsepower and up.
When there is a sufficient supply of clean, affordable water with little corrosion and a sufficient,
affordable method of water disposal, condensers are often the most cost-effective solution. In this
type of condenser, water is utilized to cool the hot refrigerant and turn it into a liquid. In order to
calculate cooling capacity, the components are matched to condense the necessary refrigerant mass
flow rate. The condensing temperature rises and the cost of energy increases with the amount of
water used in a water-cooled condenser.
 3. Evaporative Condenser:

The evaporative condenser is the condenser's ultimate form. It is a condenser that can be both
water- and air-cooled. In evaporative condensers, either air or water serves as the condensing
medium. A sump in the condenser sprays water over the coils. A fan blows air into the condenser.
The heat needed for the water to vaporize is obtained from the heat of the refrigerant when it is
sprayed across the coils. A small amount of water was circulated by descending into the sump, but
to make up for the amount that evaporated, more water is added to the sump's water supply.

TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
 Centrifugal Compressors
These compressors perform admirably in a range of refrigeration-related vapor
compression scenarios. They belong to the category of axisymmetric turbomachinery and are also
referred to as radial compressors.
In these compressors, a pressure increase is made possible by kinetically accelerating a fluid flow.
A rotor or impeller strikes and propels this fluid. This impeller drives a vapor against an outer
diameter in a circular motion. It has a straightforward design, and the several impellers increase
the pressure attained. High speeds are used because pumping pressure rises with speed. It is most
frequently used in systems with a capacity of 5,000 tons or more.
 Rotary Compressors
The most popular applications for this kind of compressor are heat pumps, refrigeration
devices, and window air conditioners. Rotating blade or fixed blade rotary compressors are both
available. The blades or vanes on the shaft of the compressors work to seal the vapor inside the
device. The vapor in front of the blades is compressed as low-pressure vapor is drawn into the area
behind the blades and rotates there. The vapor is driven through an exhaust port and into the high
pressure side of the condenser by the pressure produced by the whirling blades, which also raises
the temperature.
 Scroll Compressors
Heat pumps and home HVAC systems both use scroll compressors. It is quite effective and
has fewer moving parts than other models. It makes less noise, less friction, and less vibration. The
scroll revolves inside a scroll that isn't moving. Gas is pushed to the scroll's center as the motion
revolves. The gas pocket is gradually driven to the center, resulting in a smaller and smaller pocket.
When it reaches dead center and is then released, it has reached its maximum discharge pressure.
The scroll compressor operates continuously to draw in gas and discharge it at intervals of six,
which results in high efficiency.
 Screw Compressors
 Most frequently, systems weighing between 20 and 300 tons use this kind of compressor.
Two alternative approaches are used to present this compressor. The ammonia-using open screw
compressor is an externally driven device. Halocarbon refrigerants are used by the hermetic
compressor, which is internally powered.
The compressor in the externally driven presentation is propelled by an external, electric motor. It
rotates the drive shaft. Two helical rotors—a male and a female—are housed in the housing.
Together, they work to contain and compress moving air.
Flow is controlled by a capacity control mechanism built within the screw compressor. The system
can discharge vapor at acceptable amounts thanks to the device's multiple control options.
 Reciprocating Compressors
This compressor is constructed much like an engine's components. Compression is
achieved using a cylinder, a piston, and a rod. An electric motor provides the necessary power by
imparting its rotating motion to the action that needs to be converted to a back and forth motion.
The crank and piston are connected by a rod to do this. A crankcase or housing houses the entire
procedure.
Gas is drawn into the action through the intake valve from the suction line while the piston is in
the down position. The cylinder space is now filled with gas. The gas or vapor is compressed into
a smaller area as the piston rises. The exhaust valve is then used to drive the gas into the condenser.

AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT AND CONTROL

The basic goal of the air conditioning system is to improve the comfort of the space by
regulating the temperature, humidity, and airflow. The air-conditioning systems are equipped with
three controls: temperature controls, humidistats, and airstats, which regulate the relative humidity,
temperature, and airflow inside the room, respectively. Let's examine each of these in greater
detail.
Temperature Control Devices – Thermostat
The temperature control mechanisms keep the room at the ideal temperature for our
comfort. These devices turn off the air conditioner's compressor when the intended temperature is
reached, and they restart it when the temperature deviates somewhat from that goal. The user can
change the temperature manually or automatically using the air conditioning system's remote
control.
The room thermostat is one of the most often used devices for regulating room temperature.
It detects the room's temperature and uses that information to decide whether to open or close the
electrical contacts that control the compressor. The bimetal room thermostat is the most often used
type of thermostat among all others. It consists of two metals that, at a certain temperature, are the
same length. However, as the temperature is raised, one metal's length expands more than the other
due to the differing coefficients of expansion of the two metals. The bimetal tends to bend when
heated, which aids in opening or shutting the compressor's electrical supply.
Humidistat
Devices called humidistats assist in managing the humidification machinery installed in air
conditioning systems. Since the humidity of heated air decreases, it might be preferable to add
humidity to it. It could be required to heat the air and add humidity to it in particular circumstances
when it is really cold outside. It could be required in some circumstances to reduce the air's
humidity. In air washers, humidity is typically added, and it is typically removed by lowering the
air's temperature below its dew point temperature or by using a dryer. The humidistat regulates the
operation of these devices.
Both low voltage and line voltage can be used with the humidistats. They are made of nylon
ribbon, which is incredibly sensitive to the relative humidity in the space. The humidification or
dehumidification equipment is controlled by the ribbon wound on the bobbin.
Airstats
The airstats serve as fan safety cut-off devices rather than controlling the airflow through
the air conditioning systems. The air conditioning systems might use one of two different types of
fans. The first kind of fan draws cool air from the cooling coil and blows it into the space that
needs to be cooled. The heated return air from the room is absorbed by the second type of fan and
sent to the cooling system. In the second instance, the return air temperature can occasionally rise
to a point where a fire might start. In certain circumstances, the airstat turns off the fan.

AIR CLEANING
When used properly, air cleaners and HVAC filters can help reduce airborne contaminants
including viruses in a building or small space. By itself, air cleaning or filtration is not enough to
protect people from COVID-19. Filtration can be an element of a strategy to lessen the possibility
of COVID-19 transmission indoors when used in conjunction with other best practices advised by
the CDC and other public health organizations, such as social seclusion and mask use.
Air cleaners and HVAC filters are meant to filter pollutants or toxins out of the air that
travels past them. Air filtration and cleaning can aid in lowering airborne pollutants, such as virus-
carrying particles.
In order for an air cleaner to be effective in removing viruses from the air, it must be able
to remove small airborne particles (in the size range of 0.1-1 um). Manufacturers report this
capability in several ways. In some cases, they may indicate particle removal efficiency for specific
particle sizes (e.g. “removes 99.9% of particles as small as 0.3 um”). Many manufacturers use the
Clean Air Delivery Rate (CADR) rating system to rate air cleaner performance. Others indicate
they use High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters. In order to select an air cleaner that
effectively filters viruses from the air, choose: 1) a unit that is the right size for the space you will
be using it in (this is typically indicated by the manufacturer in square feet), 2) a unit that has a
high CADR for smoke (vs. pollen or dust), is designated a HEPA unit, or specifically indicates
that it filters particles in the 0.1-1 um size range.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
An air conditioning system, including a condenser for condensing a refrigerant, a first
expansion device for throttling the refrigerant passed through the condenser, a second
expansion device for throttling the refrigerant passed through the first expansion device, an
evaporator for evaporating the refrigerant passed through the second expansion device, a
compressor for compressing the refrigerant passed through the evaporator and the refrigerant
injected after branched between the first expansion device and the second expansion device,
and a control unit for detecting a value of at least one operating parameter and determining
a target opening degree of the first expansion device on the basis of a stored set value
corresponding to the detected value of the operating parameter.

VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Vertical transportation systems are critical to the effective operation of a structure as well
as the experience and comfort of its residents. Elevators, often known as lifts, are an important
success factor for high-rise buildings.
WSP's experts consider a variety of factors when developing a vertical transportation (VT)
strategy, including client requirements, occupancy levels for different types of development,
elevator cabin capacity, waiting times, and ways to maximize lettable space in the building without
compromising elevator efficiency, cost-effectiveness, or energy consumption. We also specialize
in escalator design and installation.
Vertical Transportation for High-Rise Buildings
A tall building's vertical transportation strategy is critical to its success. Elevators take up
a lot of space and thus have an impact on the amount of lettable space in the building. However,
the elevator capacity must be sufficient for the building to function correctly. This is especially
true for tall, thin structures and mixed-use complexes.

Building Transportation System is the system for conveying people in buildings. The
mechanical transportation of people and goods is an energy-using service, which is also known as
VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM includes: Elevators, Escalators, and Walkalators.
ELEVATORS (LIFTS) is a vertical transport equipment that efficiently moves people or goods
between floors (levels, decks) of a building, vessel or other structure.
ESCALATOR. Continuous conveyors designed for moving large numbers of people quickly and
efficiently from one floor to another. Staircases that could move upward or downward.
WALKALATORS/MOVING WALKWAY is a moving walkway or moving sidewalk
(colloquially sometimes travelator, horizontal escalator, walkalator, autowalk, movator) is a slow-
moving conveyor mechanism that transports people across a horizontal or inclined plane, over a
short distance. Moving walkways can be used by standing or walking on them.
Safety Inspection of Vertical Transportation is very essential to ensure public safety. It is
important for building owners and personnel, as well as elevator contractors and mechanics, to
realize that standards vary by locality. They need to stay current with the requirements of their
governing body.
Benefits of Inspection of Elevators, Escalators & Walkalators/Moving Walkway
Hazards are identified and eliminated plugs to preclude loss of life, damage to equipment and loss
of business. Inspection results influence user future action. Tool for improved and guaranteed
elevator and escalator safety.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Acceptance - an inspection approval of installation and or modification to the device and
related parts.
 Annual - an inspection that occurs yearly, wherein the property maintenance engineer, and
property agent or owner agent must be present to witness evaluation for safety, operation,
and testing.
 Applicant - individual applying for permit and completing permit application.
 Building Address - address where equipment is physically located.
 Building Name - name of current tenant occupying area that includes device.
 Commercial Elevator - an elevator that is in a dwelling or building that is used by the
public.
 Construction Use (Temporary Use) - an interior elevator that will be used temporarily to
transport materials while a primary building is being constructed or altered. Temporary
usage is granted at 90 day intervals.
 Contract Value - the monetary cost for the agreed upon work to be performed.
 Contractor - Virginia Department of Professional and Occupational Regulation registered
business or individual that will perform the proposed work.
 Decommission - retirement of a device/equipment for some time where inspection and fees
are ongoing.
 Dumbwaiter - a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car of limited size that
moves in guide rails and serves two or more landings that is used exclusively for carrying
materials and is classified by the following types.
 Electric - a power elevator where the energy is applied by means of an electric driving
machine.
 Elevator - a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car that moves within guides
and serves two or more landings.
 Equipment - (Device) (Vertical Transportation) an elevator, escalator, dumbwaiter, lift, and
or moving walk.
 Escalator - power driven, inclined, continuous stairway used for raising or lowering
passengers.
 Fire Service Access Elevator (FSAE) - elevators designed with additional standards to
allow firemen and first responders to utilize the elevator for the purpose of quickly
accessing floors as well as evacuating occupants in the event of an emergency. The device
is functional for a longer period of time and must have a minimum capacity of 3500 pounds.
 Hoist - a device affixed to a building, with one or dual cars, which the car is raised and
lowered by a hoist mechanism only for transportation of materials and only during
construction, renovation or demolition.
 Hoistway - (shaft) an opening through a building or structure for the travel of elevators,
dumbwaiters, or lifts, extending from the pit floor to the roof or floor above.
 Installation - a complete build/furnish of a new device (equipment) including its hoistway,
hoistway enclosures and related construction, and all machinery and equipment necessary
for its operation.
 Lift - a hoisting and lowering mechanism normally classified as an elevator, equipped with
a car that moves within a guide system installed at an angle of greater than 70 degrees from
the horizontal, serving two or more landings
 Moving Walk - a type of passenger-carrying device on which passengers stand or walk,
and in which the passenger-carrying surface remains parallel to its direction of motion and
is uninterrupted.
 Permit Fee - fees due as a result of permitting for proposed work.
 Periodic - an inspection that occurs six months after an annual inspection, for safety and
operation of device is evaluated.
 Pneumatic - a hoisting and lowering mechanism which operates as vacuum using air
pressure.
 Removal - the complete demolition of a device/equipment where all maintenance,
inspections and fees cease.
 Repair - reconditioning or renewal of parts components and or subsystems necessary to
keep equipment in compliance with applicable code requirements.
 Replacement - the substitution of a device or component and or subsystems in its entirety,
with a unit that is basically the same as the original for the purpose of ensuring performance
in accordance with applicable code requirements.
 Value of Materials - the monetary worth of all materials used for the work to be performed.
 Vertical Transportation Certificate - annual certificate permitting a device to operate,
issued following an approved inspection.
 ELEVATOR SYSTEM; COMPONENTS, APPLICATIONS AND TECHNICAL
INFORMATION
Vertical transit systems are often comprised of elevators and escalators in any multistory
academic, administrative, athletic, or residential facility. Because these units are costly, correct
design, installation, and maintenance are critical to building operations and public safety. As a
result, effective asset management has emerged as a critical responsibility for all facility managers.
Types of Elevators
Elevators in modern buildings are classified as one of four types: hydraulic, geared traction,
machine-roomless compact gearless traction, and gearless traction. Each elevator type has unique
properties that, when used correctly, make it suitable for a given building or usage application.
 Hydraulic Elevators
Hydraulic elevators have commonly been used in low-rise, low-use buildings of two to five
stories and typically operate at a maximum speed of 150 feet per minute (fpm). Hydraulic elevators
are available in three configurations, depending on the application. These are (1) direct plunger,
(2) indirect telescoping, and (3) indirect “roped.” All hydraulics achieve their vertical motion from
a hydraulic plunger moving within a hydraulic cylinder.
The direct-plunger hydraulic elevator is the most common type, with the plunger attached to
the bottom of the elevator car. The plunger moves in a hydraulic cylinder that extends as far into
the ground as the elevator's vertical travel in the building. The plunger(s) of an indirect telescoping-
type hydraulic are offset at the side(s) of the elevator car and are fastened to the bottom of the
elevator car. In the case of an indirect roped-type hydraulic elevator, the plunger, similar to a
traction elevator, acts on steel cables or hoist ropes to lift the elevator car, with the cables tied to
the bottom of the car. These types of hydraulic elevators are typically used in situations where the
elevator has a longer-than-average travel distance and may have limited overhead space.
To raise the elevator car, all hydraulic elevators use a pump powered by an alternating current
(AC) electric motor, which forces oil into the hydraulic cylinder. Electrically operated valves
control the car's start-up, slowdown, and leveling. When a valve is opened, gravity acting on the
weight of the elevator car forces oil from the cylinder(s) back into the oil reservoir, lowering the
car.
 Geared Traction Elevators
Geared traction elevators have historically been used in mid-rise, moderate-use buildings of 5
to 15 stories and typically operate at speeds of 200 fpm to 500 fpm in passenger-, service-, and
freight-elevator applications.
An AC electric motor directly coupled to a worm (gear) shaft propels a geared traction elevator
vertically. Electrical rotation of the motor is transferred to mechanical rotation of the main pinion
and worm gear, which in turn operates upon a bigger ring gear linked to the main drive sheave
shaft. Steel cables or "hoist ropes" in quantities ranging from four (4) to seven (7) ropes, each with
a typical diameter of 12 in. to ¾-in. Run from the end of the elevator car over the drive sheave and
back to a counterweight, depending on capacity, speed, and travel height. The downward force
caused by gravity acting on the weight of the car and counterweight creates friction between the
steel cables and the drive sheave, thus creating “traction.” As the drive sheave rotates, the elevator
car is raised or lowered. This roping configuration is referred to as 1:1 and is preferred for elevators
of 700 fpm or less, or where specialty configurations require alternate roping configurations.
Passenger elevators and standard-capacity service elevators with geared traction hoist
machines are increasingly being replaced by the newest type of elevator, known as "machine-
roomless" traction elevators, or MRLs, which use an energy-efficient permanent-magnet
alternating-current (PMAC) "compact gearless" hoist machine. Geared traction hoist machines are
still in use, but mostly in large capacity service and freight elevators.
 Machine-Roomless Traction Elevators
MRL traction elevators use "compact" gearless traction hoist machines that are typically
mounted within the hoistway's confines. The machine can be installed above structural members,
built-in, or attached to one of the elevator shaft guide rails (known as "self-supported"). The actual
machine-support requirements vary depending on the manufacturer, but the location is always at
the top of the elevator shaft above the last floor served. Typical elevator speeds are 200 fpm, 350
fpm, and 500 fpm, though at least one manufacturer can achieve 600 fpm. Multiple manufacturers
are currently working on new products to increase the speed of this type of equipment to 700 fpm.
MRL compact gearless traction machines work on the same principles as geared traction hoist
machines. However, with PMAC machines, there is no need to house shafts and gears within oil-
filled casing. Electrical energy is turned into rotation mechanical energy for the purpose of turning
the main drive shaft, which is easily located outside the rotating portion of the armature in self-
supported machines. This configuration may be viable for building-supported machines, while
there are still designs that allow the rotating armature, coupled directly to the main drive sheave,
to operate similarly to the geared traction machine.
Based on the design of the specific elevator manufacturer, two alternative types of suspension
material can be given. One approach uses standard steel wires, while the other uses a much newer
technology known as "suspension media" or "belts" due to the diverse designs. Finally, this
terminology simply refers to a collection of steel belts coated in polyurethane (or a similar
material) and measuring less than 14 in. in diameter, from the top of the elevator car to the top of
the counterweight. MRL traction hoist machines outperform geared traction hoist machines in
terms of energy efficiency and ride quality because to the PMAC machine design.
 Gearless Traction Elevators
Gearless traction elevators with traditional full-size gearless traction hoist machines are used
in high-use buildings with 20 or more stories and typically operate at speeds ranging from 500 fpm
to 2,000 fpm, though speeds exceeding 2,000 fpm are becoming more common as more supertall
and megatall buildings are built. In 2021, the world's fastest elevators in commercial operation will
travel at speeds of more than 1,260 meters per minute (m/min), or slightly more than 4,100 feet
per minute (fpm). They were installed by Hitachi at the Guangzhou CTF Finance Center, a 530-
meter-high skyscraper in Guangzhou, China. These elevators surpassed the 1,230-m/min elevators,
or 4,000-fpm elevators located at Shanghai Tower in Shanghai, China, installed by Mitsubishi.
Both installations eclipsed the previous record of 3,300 fpm at the Taipei Financial Center in
Taiwan.
Traditional gearless traction hoist machines and tiny gearless MRL traction hoist machines
work on the same concept. A traditional gearless hoist machine's drive sheave is directly connected
to the motor shaft. Traditional gearless elevators can travel at significantly faster speeds due to
their large physical size and low revolutions per minute (RPMs), and they provide the best
performance and ride quality. These units often use an alternative 2:1 roping configuration, which
enables for 50% of the machine revolutions to provide the same elevator speed.

Elevator Components
From commercial elevators to industrial ones, every lift is made up of several different
components, each with a unique function, to provide movement and safety in equal measure.
 ELECTRIC MOTOR AND DRIVE UNIT
Responsible for shifting the electrical power into mechanical power and run by a standard AC/DC
motor, the electric motor is designed to drive traction cables, counterweighting the hoist system to
offer a smooth, silky, uninterrupted ride.
 ELEVATOR RAILS
The vertical up-and-down drive system of an elevator is only made possible by the elevator rails.
The elevator rail, often referred to as the ‘guide rail’, allows for the safe and stable movement of
the lift cabin and its counterweight when in motion.
 CABIN
The central component of any lift or elevator system, the lift cabin is the open space in which
goods or passengers occupy when in transit.
 SPEED GOVERNORS
A vital component of an elevator or lift system, the speed governor is the regulating system that
controls the velocity of the cabin. If for any reason, the elevator begins to surpass the designated
speed limit, the speed governor will kick in and reduce the speed accordingly.
 ELEVATOR SHAFT AND BUFFERS
The elevator shaft is the space in which the cabin moves up and down when in operation. The size
and shape of your elevator shaft will vary, depending on the size and shape of the lift cabin. For
instance, elevator shafts are much smaller for passenger carriages but will be much larger for those
responsible for carrying heavy goods in factories or warehouses.
At the bottom of every elevator shaft, however, is a buffer. A buffer is designed to protect
passengers or goods in transit, providing an emergency stop that can halt the descending car
through accumulating or dissipating the kinetic energy of the lift car.
 DOORS
Every elevator needs a set of doors. The priority entry and exit point for the lift cabin, elevator
doors come in two different variations:
Manual Doors: Common among industrial elevators, manual doors require an individual to open
the doors by hand.
Automatic Doors: Most elevators are fitted with automatic doors as standard, and are found in
supermarkets, hotels and car parks etc.
 SAFETY DEVICE
A vitally important mechanical device attached to the elevator, the safety device is crucial in
providing protection for passengers and goods in transit. In case of emergency, or if the lift has
surpassed its maximum speed limit, the safety device helps maintain a safe and secure ride.

ESCALATOR SYSTEM; COMPONENTS, APPLICATIONS AND TECHNICAL

INFORMATION
An escalator is a series of interlocking steps that are powered by an electric motor. To move
the steps, a pair of chains looped around two pairs of gears rotates, while a larger metal structure
called a truss encases the entire mechanism to connect the floors. The steps then move like a
conveyer belt, entering a special guide system at the top and bottom of the truss to form a level
platform for passengers to board or exit.
UNDERSTANDING THE PARTS OF AN ESCALATOR
Similar to elevators, escalators operate most efficiently when each individual part is up to code
and in excellent working condition. Though parts may vary depending on the make and model,
most escalators consist of these components:
ESCALATOR SAFETY MECHANISMS
 Inlet guards
 Operating panel
 Safety switches
 Step switches
TOP AND BOTTOM PITS
 Control panel
 Drive unit
 Main Gear
  Drive chain
 Sprocket (top)
 Safety switches
TRUSS
 Main track
 Trailing track
 Moving handrail drive unit
 Sprocket (bottom)
 Moving handrail drive chain
 Inlet guard
BALUSTRADE
 Moving handrail
 Interior panel
 Deck board
 Skirt guard
STEPS
 Step tread
 Riser
 Step demarcation line
 Driving roller/trailing roller
 Step chain

Components of Escalator
1. Top and Bottom Landing Platforms
These are the platforms which are both curved sections of the tracks, and also the gears and
motors move the steps. The platform at the top carries a motor assembly accompanied with the
main drive gear, whereas the bottom holds the return step sprockets. Other than this the platform
also consists of a floor plate and a comb plate. The floor plate provides a place for the individual
to stand before stepping directly onto the moving stairs. This plate has a nicely finished floor and
is hinged or removable to allow easy access to the machinery installed beneath it.
2. The Tracks
Inside the truss, a good track system is built that guides the step chain well and continually pulls
up the steps from the bottom platform and back to the top in a continuous loop. There are two
tracks which are installed, one is the front wheel of the steps commonly known as step-wheel track
and the other one is the back wheels of the steps commonly known as trailer-wheel track.
 As they move away from the comb plate, the positions of these tracks are responsible for
forming a staircase. The straight section of the truss allows the tracks to be spaced as far apart as
possible. This feature forces the back of one step to be 90 degrees apart, which is its relative
position in relation to the step behind it. This is done because the right angle is what bends the
steps into the shape of a stair. This is the primary reason for arranging the stairs in a flat sheet-like
pattern, one after the other, so that they can travel easily.
3. The Steps
The steps that are created are solid, mostly one-piece aluminum casts. Rubber mats may be
affixed to the surface of the stair to decrease sliding, and some yellow demarcation lines may be
placed to clearly highlight the sharp edges of the staircase to avoid accidents. The steps of the
staircase are linked together to form a continuous chain, forming a consistent closed loop with
each step and bending at the appropriate time corresponding to its adjacent staircase.
4. The Railing
The railing is installed to provide people riding the escalator with a convenient handhold. It is
divided into four distinct sections. One is a slider, also known as a glider ply, which is made by a
layer of cotton or synthetic cloth in the center of the railing. The most important function of any
slider layer is to allow the railing to move freely along the track. The layer immediately adjacent
to this layer is known as the tension member, and it is made up of a steel or flat steel cable that
provides the handrail with the necessary strength and flexibility.
5. Truss
The truss is a structure made up of metal that bridges the lower and upper landings. It carries
the straight track sections.
6. Handrail
The railing provides a convenient support to the passengers while they are riding the escalator.
Just at the middle of the railing is one more layer known as a slider layer, which helps the railing
to move smoothly along its track. Handrail is generally made up of polymers or rubber.
7. Balustrade
The structure that supports the handrail of the escalator. Balustrade may be made of metal,
panels or glass.

BREAKTHROUGHS AND INNOVATIONS IN ESCALATOR AND ELEVATOR DESIGN

Innovations and New Technology in Elevators
An update on the latest elevator industry news
 2017 was a busy year for the elevator industry. We’ve seen growth in construction and
ridership as well as new innovations which could transform how elevators operate and how they
are serviced. From smart and “green” elevators to elevators that are connected to the Internet, the
strides being made are pretty amazing. Here is a summary of some of the top stories from the past
year:
1. What’s so smart about smart elevators?
Much like smart phones and smart TVs, elevators are becoming more high-tech. As skyscrapers
continue to rise to even more dizzying heights, elevator manufacturers must make adjustments in
order to safely and quickly transport passengers. Smart elevators are among the new wave of
advancement in our industry.
How do they work? A passenger pushes a button to set his or her destination and an indicator will
direct them to a specific elevator that will transport him or her to that floor the fastest. This
advanced routing is a more efficient way of moving passengers, especially during high-traffic
hours in busy office buildings or hotels. These elevators can be programmed to operate differently
at certain periods throughout the day.
2. Elevators on the Internet
Connectivity is the future of elevators. It won’t be long before Internet-connected elevators
become more commonplace. A leading international company is already installing them.
Sensors gather data about usage and other factors, which can affect wear and tear on parts and
machinery. That information is then transferred to a cloud-based platform where it is processed
and analyzed to predict when maintenance might be needed. Accurately predicting future problems
could allow the elevator technicians to make repairs before there is a breakdown.
Another benefit is that companies would be able to service some aspects of elevators remotely,
which can help save money and time when repairs are needed.
3. Virtual reality diagnostics
Another cool innovation is called HoloLens. In collaboration with Microsoft, a leading
manufacturer is developing a virtual reality headset that might change the way mechanics do
elevator repairs. These devices allow mechanics to diagnose a problem without climbing tens of
floors or dangling in a lift shift. Once the mechanic puts the glasses on, he or she can use hand
motions to go close-up and explore the engine and individual parts. The view can also be widened,
allowing the mechanic to do a virtual “walk through,” looking for places where repairs or
replacement are needed.
4. The continued trend toward green elevators
Interest in saving energy remains high in real estate and construction. Green buildings are designed
to use less energy, and the trend has spread to elevators as well. How is an elevator classified as
“green”? It relates to not only energy consumption, but also the materials, processes, and
technologies used, as well as interior paints, flooring, control panels, lighting, and HVAC systems.
5. Destination controls
Calling an elevator is no longer simply pressing a button and waiting for it to arrive. New, high-
tech features “allow building managers to more intelligently group and assign passengers to
elevators, move people more rapidly to their destination, adjust passenger flow in real-time and
personalize touchscreens and kiosks.”
Elevators can be dedicated to high-traffic areas to more adequately answer passenger demands.
Building managers will be able to control everything remotely from anywhere in the building.
6. The fastest elevators in the world
Cities all over the world are competing to having the tallest skyscrapers, and a similar race is
happening regarding the speed of the elevators that serve them. The Shanghai Tower holds three
Guinness World Records for the world’s fastest elevator, the tallest elevator in a building, and the
fastest double-deck elevator. It travels at 67 feet per second. The elevator in the Guangzhou’s CTF
Tower (1,739 feet tall) makes its trip from floor 0 to 95 in only 45 seconds.
Watch out for the Jeddah Tower in Saudi Arabia, through, which will become the tallest building
in the world in 2019. That building’s elevators will use “ultrarope,” a carbon-fiber cable that has
incredible lift power. It will enable the machine to travel over 33 feet per second, reaching the
highest livable floor in 52 seconds.
These and other innovations in the world of elevators mean it’s an exciting time for our industry.
We look forward to the next wave of emerging technologies, many of which will influence the
daily operation of new elevators around the world.

Innovation in escalators.
KONE ECO3000 is the first escalator developed using the combined know-how and
experience of three of the world's leading escalator companies. Ideal for retail and commercial
buildings as well as airports, the new design achieves new levels of energy efficiency, space
savings, reliability and aesthetics.The new escalator takes design and engineering ideas proven in
over 45,000 installations in 80 countries and makes them better. According to Heimo Mäkinen,
Senior Vice President of KONE's Escalator Business, the international team "represents the best
in the world for design, engineering and production technology".

KONE subsidiaries O&K Rolltreppen (Germany) and Montgomery KONE (U.S.), in cooperation
with Toshiba, KONE's technology partner, joined together to share best business practices and
develop this world class product.
Innovative drive
The heart of this escalator is its innovative TransVario direct drive system. It features a
patented, chainless design that is 96% efficient, reducing energy consumption and environmental
impact. It also extends oil change intervals to 30,000 operating hours, nearly twice that of
traditional escalators. "This drive system, in combination with the optional EcoChain and other
energy savings features, allows us to offer our customers the most reliable and environmentally
friendly escalator on the market," says Harald Kirchner, Director of KONE Escalator Marketing.
The new escalator requires up to 10 percent less space than conventional escalators "which
means greater architectural and design flexibility," says Dr. Alexander Pietz, KONE's Escalator
R&D Manager, "and also makes this escalator perfect for renovations."
The escalator's tall glass balustrades and slender body achieve an aesthetically pleasing
balance between form and function. An attractive welcome area invites passengers to take a
comfortable ride. "Architects will enjoy the KONE ECO3000's simple lines, clear sense of
transparency, and wide range of finishing options," says Kirchner.
Safety and comfort
Great emphasis is placed on passenger ride comfort and safety. It features a balustrade
height of 1000 mm that extends from the ends through the inclined section, which safely contains
riders and puts the handrails comfortably within reach. TransVario's direct drive synchronizes
stepband and handrail speed to ensure a quiet and smooth ride. All major components undergo
rigorous testing and the new escalator meets or exceeds worldwide escalator safety code
requirements, including EN 115.
The escalator is currently being manufactured in Germany and the United States.
Production in China will also begin this year. Toshiba will build and market this product under its
own brand.
KONE is a leading global supplier of elevators and escalators. In addition to
manufacturing, the company provides comprehensive installation, modernization and maintenance
services. Founded in 1910 and based in Helsinki, Finland, the group operates in some 50 countries
and employs more than 22,000 people. Net sales exceeded EUR 2 billion in 1999. KONE is listed
on the Helsinki Stock Exchange.
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