Geography World Watch TG

A Geography Course
for Secondary Schools
CHRISTINE MOORCROFT
Geography
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Introduction
An outline of the course
World Watch is a geography course for the 21st century. It is designed for secondary schools that want to
stimulate curiosity, thinking skills, and a love of learning. The course comprises four components: Student’s
Books, Skills Books, My E-Mate companion website, and Teaching Guides.
Core features
• It draws its content and skills from international secondary school syllabuses while focusing on
Pakistan for examples.
• At all levels, learning is built on students’ knowledge; the teacher eliciting what they already know and
building on this, not simply loading them with facts.
• The language, content, and tasks are progressively graded according to class levels.
• Each level is split into separate units, each focusing on a different topic.
• High priority is given to independent and critical thinking skills.
• Ideas for discussion are provided to help students to express their own ideas in open-ended tasks.
• Mapping skills are taught in a progressive way that builds on the students’ previous learning.
• Diagrams and charts/tables are used to vary the presentation of content.
• Students are encouraged to make connections between the geographical environment and the way
people live.
Student’s Books
• The Student’s Books form the core of the course. The illustrations, photographs, and maps bring alive
the familiar environment and distant places, and both natural and man-made geographical features.
• The ‘Contents’ page details the learning outcomes for each unit.
• Each unit of the Student’s Book consists mainly of reading texts and making observations, followed by
assessment questions.
• The ‘Overview’ at the end of each unit virtually represents the various topics in the unit and how they
are interlinked to each other.
• Fact boxes contain interesting information about the relevant topics and key fact boxes at the end of
each unit summarize the unit.
Skills Books
• At each level, there is an accompanying Skills Book.
• The tasks are varied and enjoyable, and include maps, diagrams, charts or tables, crosswords, fill-in-
the-blanks, and situational questions.
• Skills Book pages should be introduced in class and can be completed either in class or for
homework.
• Students are usually expected to write in the Skills Book.
• There is a brief learning outcome at the top of every page.
Teaching Guides
Teaching Guides are an invaluable resource for the teacher. It provides a framework for formative
assessment of students during each lesson. It has the following features:
• background knowledge
• student learning outcomes
• step-by-step lesson plans
• ideas for further activities and student research
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Contents
Teaching objectives Learning outcomes
Page Nos/ Units Students should be Keywords and phrases
Student’s and Skills Books
able to:
Page • to develop the students’ • explain how the stars and constellation, nebula, galaxy,
1
knowledge of the Earth’s planets were formed and orbit, solar system, force,
Unit 1
place in the universe, describe their movements. gravity, solar eclipse, lunar
The universe including the formation of • differentiate between different eclipse, planet, star
the stars and planets heavenly bodies in space.
• to encourage the students • explain how eclipses occur.
to observe the sky, and to
help them to understand
and question their
observations
Page • to explain the connection • explain how the year and day axis, rotate, rotation, tilt,
9
between seasons, the and night are related to the Equator, latitude, longitude,
Unit 2
calendar, and the Earth’s orbit and rotation. Prime Meridian, time zone,
Satellite Earth measurement of time • explain how time is measured solstice, equinox
• to develop an and the need for time zones
understanding of the use linked to longitude.
of longitude in measuring
• explain how the Earth’s tilt
time
causes the seasons.
Page • to explain the key • relate how maps developed. symbol, key, scale, grid line,
17
elements of maps and • read and draw scale plans grid reference, grid square,
Unit 3
scale drawings and maps. easting, northing
Mapping the
• use grid references and lines
world
of latitude and longitude to
locate places.
Page • to explain the history of • relate how maps developed. physical map, relief map,
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maps and how and why • use political, physical, and thematic map, sea level,
Unit 4
they developed thematic maps to find elevation, plain, climate,
Types of maps • to develop an information about places. precipitation, population
understanding of the density
• explain how to use different
purposes of different types
types of maps.
of maps: political, physical,
and thematic • interpret thematic maps that
provide data on themes such
as population or average
temperatures.
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c onte nts

able to:
Page • to explain the difference • identify the factors that affect climatic zone, humidity,
31
between weather and the climate of a place. precipitation, heat wave,
Unit 5
climate • discuss extreme weather in permafrost, foundations,
Living with the • to explore how people Pakistan and other parts of vegetation, desalination, arid,
climate adapt their lives and the world. temperate climate, tropical
buildings to suit the • give examples of how people climate, Mediterranean
climate adapt their lives to live in climate, mountain climate,
• to develop students’ extreme climates. polar climate, tundra, irrigation
knowledge about the • explain how climate affects
climatic zones of Pakistan the way buildings, roads, and
other parts of the
infrastructure are built.
Page • to introduce different types • explain how climate and conifer, coniferous, deciduous,
38
of forests physical features affect a mountain range, canopy,
Unit 6
• to develop an appreciation forest. emergent layer, tropical
Forests of the of the importance of • describe how people live in rainforest, habitat, basin,
world forests to the environment tropical rainforests. plain, erosion, rubber-tapping,
• explain how forests and desertification, pollution
woodland improve the
environment.
• compare planted forests in
Pakistan and the UK.
Page • to develop an • explain how the movement of tectonic plate, plate boundary,
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understanding of how the tectonic plates has changed fold mountain, fault block
Unit 7
movement of tectonic the landscape. mountain, volcanic mountain,
Mountains, plates has shaped the • explain how different types of magma, lava, dome mountain,
plateaus, and land, and continues to do mountains, plateaus, and plateau, rift valley, landform,
valleys so valleys are formed. contour line, elevation
• to explain physical • use contours to find out about
features and their the elevation and shape of a
formation: mountains, landscape.
plateaus, and valleys
• to explain how contour
lines are used on maps
Page • to explain where in the • recognize and describe plain, grassland, desert,
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Unit 8 world are plains located different types of plain. prairie, savannah, steppe,
• to explain the course of a • explain how physical features pampas, tundra, river plain,
Plains and river and the formation of and climate affect vegetation channel, sediment, source,
rivers the features of each part of a plain. spring, rapids, gorge, canyon,
of its course • identify and describe the tributary, reservoir, irrigation,
features of different parts of hydroelectricity, meander,
the course of a river. oxbow lake, delta, estuary,
river mouth, tide
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con tents

able to:
Page • to develop an awareness • describe the various mountain pass, confluence,

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of the variety of landscapes of Pakistan and mud volcano, mudflat,
Unit 9
landscapes found in locate examples of them. headland, mangrove,
Landscapes of Pakistan • explain how the physical deforestation
Pakistan • to explore the ways in features of the land affect
which the physical features people’s lives.
of the land affect the • discuss how mangrove forests
development of are important for our
settlements environment and why are they
• to explain the importance disappearing.
of mangrove forests
Page • to develop an awareness • discuss how Pakistan’s rich population density, rural,
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of the differences and history has affected people’s urban, literacy rate,
Unit 10
similarities between the lives today. socioeconomic, ancestral,
The people of people of different regions • explore the distribution of the subsistence farming
Pakistan of Pakistan population of Pakistan.
• to develop an appreciation • describe the cultures of the
of the diversity of people of different regions of
languages, cultures, Pakistan.
traditions, and occupations
that characterize different
regions of Pakistan
Page • to demonstrate and • explain what makes different migrant, immigrant, emigrant,
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explain population people migrate. estimate, expatriate,
Unit 11
distribution within Pakistan • identify the places to and persecution, normalize,
Migration and globally from where Pakistanis asylum seeker, refugee,
• to develop an appreciation migrate, and give reasons for internally displaced person
of global migration this. (IDP), illegal immigrant,
• to develop an awareness • explore the reasons why drought
of the reasons why people people migrate to Pakistan.
migrate
• to explore migration
between Pakistan and
other countries
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U N I T 1 | T H E U N I V E R SE
UNIT
1
Background knowledge for the
The universe
Polaris (the North Star). Even an amateur should
be able to get a photo of star trails. (You see trails
unit of light made in a similar way in photos of other
This unit explains how observations of deep space moving lights at night, for example, the headlights
help scientists to discover, understand, and explain of moving vehicles.) To get a map of the night sky
the structure of the known universe, and how the where you are, go to http://www.skymaponline.net
stars and the planets formed. It helps the students and enter the place, date, and time.
to begin to understand these phenomena.
The stars have been described for many centuries
Before we proceed
as ‘fixed’, but as early as 1718 CE, scientists Before undertaking any work on space or the sky, it
made measurements over long periods of time that is vital to ensure that the students understand the
showed that the stars actually move. Modern danger of looking directly at the Sun, even when it
technology has enabled scientists to discover that darkens during an eclipse. Specially-made eye
stars move around other very distant stars, and protection is available to protect the eyes from the
entire galaxies of stars move around other galaxies, ultraviolet radiation of the Sun that can cause
but the distances are so vast that this movement damage to the eyes.
is otherwise unnoticeable from the Earth. The It is useful to remind the students that
positions of the stars in the sky in relation to our geographers, astronomers, and others make
solar system have remained the same for many observations and try to explain them. Sometimes
thousands of years. they find new information that challenges their
Two factors affect the observable differences theories, and may lead them to change their
between the positions of the stars viewed from the explanation a little, to explain the new
Earth: observations, or they might have to come up with a
new theory.
i) The Earth’s orbit against the background of the
stars, because this enabled astronomers in the For example, the Sun looks as if it orbits the Earth,
past to calculate the position of the Earth in its because it appears to move across the sky from
orbit. (Although before the 16th century most of east to west and to reappear in the east. The
them believed that the Sun and the planets brightest planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and
orbited the Earth.) Their instruments enabled Mercury) can be seen without a telescope, so even
them to measure the angles between the stars ancient astronomers could observe their
and other objects. movements. They used mathematics to try to
explain why, if the planets and the Sun moved
ii) The Earth’s rotation, which makes the stars
around the Earth, the planets appeared to change
appear to rotate around Polaris, the Pole Star,
direction. The first astronomer known to suggest
because this star is directly above the North
that the planets move around the Sun was
Pole.
Aristarchus of Samos (in Greece), who lived from
The students could make their own observations of 310–230 BCE. As scientific instruments improved,
the effect of the Earth’s rotation on the apparent notably with the invention of the telescope in 1608
positions of the stars. On a clear evening, after CE, astronomers could observe space more clearly.
dark, place a camera on the ground facing directly As instruments such as telescopes, satellites, and
up at the sky with the shutter on a manual setting spacecrafts improve, modern scientists make new
so that it stays open. The effect will be circular discoveries that help them to improve their
trails of light, as if the stars were moving round theories—and they find new phenomena to explain.
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U N I T 1 | THE U N I V E R SE
the star’s gravity and the outward force from the

Expected learning outcomes pressure caused by the expansion of gases as they
Students should be able to: heat up. Studies of other stars have helped
• describe how the stars and planets were formed scientists to calculate that the Sun will burn up its
and explain their movements gases over the next 5 billion years.
• differentiate between different types of physical After a star forms there is still a large amount of
bodies in space dust and gas around it. The star’s gravity pulls
• explain how eclipses occur together the dust and gas that are orbiting it and
• explain how space exploration, including the use this forms planets which continue to orbit around
of the Hubble telescope, helps scientists to the star’s centre of gravity.
discover and explain the universe Animations of the life of a star can be found on
• explain that space is empty with nothing (not www.science.nasa.gov, www.bbc.co.uk, and on
even air) between the bodies in it, and that all YouTube (nebula star formation), also through any
objects exert a gravitational pull on others, even Google search for ‘How a star is formed’.
in the space Before reading page 2, set some homework, asking
• explain that the Sun is a star, formed when a the students to look at the sky after dark. It is
nebula collapsed, and that stars are held best to face south. If they do not have a compass,
together in galaxies by gravity they can usually find which direction is south, with
• explain that moons orbit planets, planets orbit an adult’s help. They could use a GPS app on a
stars, stars orbit their galaxy’s centre of gravity, mobile phone or find their street on a map and
and galaxies orbit other galaxies check which side of their house faces south. They
could use what they know about where the Sun
rises and sets to find east and west and so figure
Pages 2–3 out which direction is south.
The stars that are visible depend on the time of
‘Constellations’; ‘Where year, but Ursa Major and Orion are usually visible
did stars come from?’; ‘A and their distinctive patterns make them easy to
spot. Students could copy the pictures of
star is born’; ‘The stars’; constellations in the Student’s Book and Skills
and ‘Galaxies’ Book and take them home to help. Point out that
these might not appear the same way around in
the sky, so they might need to rotate the diagrams
Resources to compare them with the constellations they see.
• a star-shaped object Ask them to make a sketch of the sky, showing
• Skills Book pages 2–3 ‘Star constellations’ where they saw each constellation. They should add
the directions east, west, and south.
Introduction
After completing these activities, you could show
A star forms from a nebula (a massive cloud of
them how to spot Polaris, the Pole Star using the
dust and gas in space). The nebula’s gravity makes
two pointers in Ursa Major.
the dust and gas gather together. The mass
becomes hotter and hotter. When it is hot enough
for nuclear reactions to begin, a star begins to
form. The reactions give out energy that keeps the
core of the star hot. This is how the Sun formed.
Stars change, and eventually die out. Their lifespan
depends on how much matter they contain. Our
Sun is at a ‘stable’ point in its life: the forces in it
are balanced. These forces are the inward force of
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Polaris, the Pole Star, is above the North Pole, so

when the Earth rotates, the star is always above
the North Pole.
Ursa Minor
Using the Student’s Book
Ursa Major Ask the students to read pages 2–3 of the
Student’s Book.
Ask the students how Polaris and other stars are
helpful to sailors. (Sailors have used star maps for
many years to find their way at sea when out of
sight of land.) Also remind them of what they have
learned from their history lessons about the
ancient instrument, the astrolabe. Ask them to
North Star or the Polaris answer Questions A2, A3 a–b.
These two stars point to Polaris. Using the Skills Book

Finding Polaris Ask the students to observe the sky and look for
constellations at night and then draw a star map in
Ask the students to look at one or two constellations their Skills Book on page 3.
in addition to Ursa Major and Polaris at different
times on the same evening and to make a note of
where in the sky they see them. Afterwards, ask if Pages 4–5
these were always in the same place or if they
seemed to move. Ask why this happens. (This is
because the Earth rotates.) They should notice that ‘How did our solar system
Polaris does not move. Ask them to explain this. It is form?’ and ‘What makes
because Polaris is directly above the North Pole.
the planets orbit the Sun?’
Resources
• a ball

It is useful to begin this work at a time when one
or more planets are visible in the night sky (check
on the Internet or in the newspapers). If the
students have observed the stars, they will know
that these change position in the sky because of
the Earth’s rotation, but we cannot see this
movement because it is very slow, as the stars are
so far away. Stars used to be called fixed stars
because astronomers could not detect any
Demonstrating that the Pole Star is always above the movement, apart from the apparent movement due
North Pole to the Earth’s rotation and orbit. Find out where the
visible planet is likely to be (or, if you are lucky, two
Activity or more planets). There are several websites that
You could demonstrate this in class. Fix a star will help, for example, www.earthsky.org/astronomy,
shape to the ceiling. A student sits on a chair www.space.com, www.nakedeyeplanets.com, www.
below the star and looks up at it. The student nasa.gov. Some of these also provide pictures of
turns the chair to face different directions (keeping the planets that will help students to spot them if
the chair below the star). The star is always above they have binoculars or a telescope.
the chair. This is like when the Earth rotates:
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For homework, ask the students to look at the sky Ask the students to read pages 4–5 and to answer
around sunset and watch out for a bright object Question A1, A4 a–c.
that moves across the sky. (This will not move very
fast, but it will be noticeable.) Remind them not to Discussion and review
look directly at the Sun, so this activity is safer just Ask the students what they have learnt in this
after sunset. Explain that if they see a bright object lesson. They could make a note of this,
moving, it is not a star. There are more than 3000 summarizing the lesson, for example:
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth, but these • I learned how the planets were formed and how
move across the sky more quickly than planets. they move.
Look near the horizon for Mercury and Venus.
Because Mercury and Venus are closer to the Sun • I learned that there is no air in space.
than the Earth is, they can only be seen near the • I learned that planets orbit stars and that the
Sun. Mercury can be difficult to spot because it is Sun is a star.
very small and very near the Sun, but Venus can • I learned how space exploration helps scientists
be seen from around one to two hours before to discover and explain the universe.
sunrise or after sunset.
Stars twinkle because the Earth’s atmosphere
distorts their light. Most planets do not twinkle Pages 5–6
because they are much closer to the Earth than
the stars are. The only twinkling planet is Mercury,
because of the way light scatters when reflected ‘Planets in our solar
from it. This scattering of light also gives the sky a
red tint at dawn or sunset—the only times when system’
you can normally see Mercury.
In class, explain that people have known about the
Sun, stars, the Moon, and the planets since Resources
ancient times and had different ways of explaining
what they observed. Over time they made more • 1–2 boxes of chalks (different colours, if
observations and measurements and kept changing possible)
their ideas bit by bit. Through observations and • a big ball of string or twine (you’ll need at least
increasingly accurate measurements of other stars 20 metres—possibly more)
and solar systems made possible by advanced • eight large balls (as we are not focusing on
technology, modern scientists can discover how our
scale, these can be the same size)
solar system came into being, and even figure out
that it is approximately 4.6 billion years old. • eight cards or pieces of paper (strips about a
Point out the photograph of the Hubble telescope third of A4) each with the name of a planet
on page 5 and ask where it is. Ask how the • Skills Book page 4 ‘Planets and years’
telescope stays in orbit around the Earth. Explain • Skills Book page 5 ‘About the planets’
that it was launched by an American Challenger
spacecraft and, because it is outside the Earth’s Using the Student’s Book
atmosphere (so it is in space), it orbits just like the Ask the students if they can name the planets in
Moon. It needs power for its instruments and this our solar system. Perhaps they know a mnemonic
comes from solar energy: it has two very big solar
(say ‘nem-on-ic’) for remembering their order from
panels.
the Sun. Here is an example of a mnemonic
Demonstrate the following activity to explain the (words, pictures, or actions to help us remember
concept of gravity.
something): My Very Easy Maths Just Shows Us
Activity Numbers.
You could hold out an object such as a ball of The diagram of the solar system on page 5 of the
paper and ask what will happen if you let go of it. Student’s Book shows eight planets. Older
Ask what makes it fall to the ground. (The Earth’s diagrams show a ninth planet, Pluto. Scientists are
gravity pulls it.) Explain that gravity affects how discovering more and more objects that orbit the
everything moves in space. Sun like small planets for example, an object larger
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than Pluto, which they named Eris, was discovered Split the class into eight groups—one per planet;
in 2005. Then, in 2006, after the minor planet give them their planet cards and ask them to
named ‘2060 Chiron’ was discovered, they decided decide how far out their planet should be from the
that Pluto should no longer be classed as a planet. Sun. Choose a student to chalk the orbit of
In 2006, the International Astronomical Union Neptune, the farthest planet from the Sun. Another
defined the term ‘planet’. To understand the student stands on the Sun holding the end of a
definition requires a higher level of knowledge than
piece of string while the first student holds the
the students will have in Grade 6, but it can be
other end and walks to the closest wall. He/she
found on the Internet.
cuts the string to that length, ties it round a piece
In addition to new planets, advanced technology is
of chalk, and chalks a circle, keeping the string
helping scientists to find more and more moons
around the planets. Sometimes other observations taut so that it acts as a compass.
suggest that there must be another moon; also the The other groups work inwards from Neptune to
criteria for whether an object is a moon must be decide how far their planet should be from the Sun,
applied. cut the string in the same way, and chalk its orbit,
The planets nearest to the Sun—Mercury, Venus, each in a different colour. Encourage them to do
Earth, and Mars—are terrestrial planets made up this quite quickly; it’s not a work of art. They will
mainly of rock and metal. The others—Jupiter, need to cooperate to avoid tangled strings. After
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—are ‘gas giants’, this the string is no longer needed.
made up of hydrogen, helium, and water in different
Ask each group to choose one student to hold the
physical states (liquid, gas, or solid ice).
planet card. Each of the eight selected students
The movement of objects through space, unlike on
takes a ball and a planet label and lines up to
the Earth, is not affected by forces such as friction
begin their orbits as if on a straight track. Mark
and air resistance because there is no air in
space. Once moving, an object continues to move where they begin their orbits. Ask them in which
because of inertia (the resistance of any physical direction they should walk their orbit
object to any change in its state of motion, (anticlockwise). Then they walk in step as you (and
including a change in direction). So the planets the rest of the class) count ‘One, two, three,
continue to move, having been set in motion by four…’ The others watch and check that they stop
movement in the nebula where they originated. The when they get back to the marker. When the last
force that changes the direction of their movement one stops, ask what they notice. Do the planets
is their star’s gravity, which pulls them towards the keep together or do some overtake others? Which
star. This is not strong enough to make them crash planets have a shorter year than the Earth? Which
into the star, so they orbit this star: that is what ones have a longer year?
makes the Earth and the other planets of our solar
system orbit the Sun. Now that the students know how planets formed
and what makes them orbit the Sun, ask them to
Photographs from the Hubble telescope have
helped scientists to discover how distant stars and explain how the Moon was formed and what makes
their planets form and thus to explain how our it orbit the Earth. Ask if any other planets have
solar system formed. moons and, if so, which planets.
Discuss which planets are likely to be hotter than
Activity the Earth and which are likely to be colder. Mercury
Take the students into a large space where they is very hot where it is daytime but, because it has
can chalk on the ground (and rub off the chalk the thinnest atmosphere, it cools down on the side
later): the schoolyard, hall, or even the classroom where it is night. Its surface has the greatest
with the furniture moved to the sides. Mark the temperature range of all the planets from 173–
Sun at its centre. Explain that they are going to 427°C in the day at some parts of its surface.
make a giant model of the solar system and walk
Ask the students to answer Questions B1–4.
the orbits of the planets around the Sun to help
Ask the students to look at the photograph of the
them to find out about each planet’s year. Point out
orrery on page 8 and answer Questions C1 a–c in
that the model cannot be to scale because the
class.
distances are so enormous.
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Using the Skills Book

After the lesson ask the students to complete
pages 4–5 of the Skills Book (‘Planets and years’
and ‘About the planets’), which gives more
information about the planets: their sizes,
gravitational pull, length of day, highest and lowest
temperatures, and the length of each planet’s year
compared to an Earth year. It is useful to explain Demonstrating a solar eclipse
that the longer an orbit, the more slowly the planet This shows how an eclipse affects only part of the
moves, and that the size of the planet also affects Earth.
this. If you look at the time a planet takes to
complete an orbit in comparison to an Earth year, Explain that there is not a solar eclipse every
there are enormous increases once you get farther month because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth
out than Mars. The maths involved is quite is not on the same plane as the Earth’s orbit
complex. around the Sun.
You can use the same equipment to demonstrate a
Discussion and review lunar eclipse.
Ask the students what they have learnt in this
lesson. They could make a note of this,
summarizing the lesson, for example:
• I learned that there is no air in space and that
all objects exert a gravitational pull on each
other. Demonstrating a lunar eclipse
• I learned that moons orbit planets, and planets This time the Earth blocks out sunrays so that they
orbit stars. do not hit the Moon—so we cannot see it.

Pages 6–7 Ask the students to read page 6 and look at the
illustrations on page 7 of the Student’s Book, and
invite volunteers to demonstrate a solar eclipse
‘Moons’ and ‘Eclipses’ and a lunar eclipse, using balls and a torch. Ask
the students to complete Questioons D1 a–c.
Discussion and review

Resources lesson. They could make a note of this,
• a small ball
• a large ball
• I learned that a solar eclipse happens when the
• a torch Moon moves between the Sun and the Earth
Introduction and blocks out sunrays.
To understand a solar eclipse, the students need to • I learned that there is not a solar eclipse every
know that the Moon does not give out light; we see month because of the shape of the Moon’s
it because it reflects sunlight. When we cannot see orbit.
the Moon, it is because sunrays are hitting the side • I learned that there can be an eclipse only on
of the Moon which is turned away from the Earth. the night of a full Moon, when the Sun, the
Earth, and the Moon are lined up, with the Earth
Activity in the middle.
Use a small ball, a larger ball, and a torch to
demonstrate a solar eclipse.
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4 a) A nebula collapsed when its gravity

Answers to assessment pulled it inwards. A mass of burning
A 1. Hubble telescope gases formed at the centre and became
2. a star, and solid material (rock and dust)
formed a thick disc around this. The disc
constellation a mass of burning split up and the pieces became planets
gases and moons.
galaxy a vast, very dense b) energy from the nebula when it
mass of dust, rock, collapsed
and gases
c) There is no force to stop them.
nebula a pattern of stars
d) the Sun’s gravity
star stars and other
material held together C 1. Explain that each metal disc shows a
by gravity planet’s orbit. Ask them to count the discs
and the planets shown as balls.
3 a) the Orion Nebula a) Not all the names of the planets can be
b) The students should use the Internet to seen, but the six discs represent the
find out more about the Orion Nebula. orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
They could write about how astronomers Jupiter, and Saturn.
know about this nebula and what they b) Uranus and Neptune are missing.
found out by observing it. c) These planets had not been discovered
4 a) It contains burning gases./It is burning. at the time when the orrery was made.
b) Students should draw some pictures of Uranus was discovered in 1741, and
stars and write notes to explain how a Neptune in 1846.
star is born. D 1 a) The Moon blocks out the sunlight.
c) A star is a mass of burning gases. Some b) The Earth’s shadow hides the Moon.
planets are made of gases (but not c) The Moon is not very bright because it
burning) and planets orbit stars. Stars has no light of its own but reflects the
do not orbit planets. Sun’s light; the Sun is too bright to look
B 1 a) the students’ own ideas and at safely.
explanations that should take into
account the planets’ distances from the
Sun
b) the students’ own ideas and
explanations that should take into
account the planets’ distances from the
Sun
c) students’ own findings
2 a) Neptune
b)
Mercury
3 a) Neptune (163.8 Earth years)
b) Mercury (88 Earth years)
c) This is because Neptune is farthest from
the Sun, and Mercury is nearest to the
Sun.
1 7
C. The students should notice that the four larger

Answers to Skills Book planets have much shorter days than the four
Pages 2–3 ‘Star constellations’ smaller planets, although the day length is not
exactly consistent with size within these
A 1. The students should make their own groups. They should deduce that the four
observations. larger planets must rotate more quickly than
2. Students draw star maps. the smaller ones.
Another interesting fact to note if they have
Page 4 ‘Planets and years’
checked the planets’ years in the Student’s
A 1. Book, is that Venus’s day is longer than its
What I have found out about the planets’ years year. Also interesting is that the four large
planets have very short days but very long
Planet Length of its orbit in Earth years, so they have a lot more days in a year
years or days than does the Earth.
Mercury 88 days
Venus 225 days
Earth 365 days
Mars 687 days
Jupiter 11.9 years
Saturn 29.5 years
Uranus 84 years
Neptune 165 years
Page 5 ‘About the Planets’

A 1. Mercury, Mars, Venus, Earth, Neptune,
Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter
2. Jupiter, Neptune, Saturn, Earth, Venus,
Uranus, Mars, and Mercury
3 a) false (The greater the mass, the greater
the gravitational force, so the statement
would be true if it were not for the ‘gas
giants’, which are less dense, since the
material a body is made up of affects its
gravitational pull.)
b) false (Although the farther a planet is
from the Sun, the lower its mean
temperature.)
c) false (Although the closer to the Sun a
planet is, the higher its mean
temperature.)
d)
false
e)
true
B. Jupiter has the smallest day. Venus has the
longest day.
8 1
U N I T 2 | S at e l l i t e Earth
UNIT
2
Satellite Earth
• explain that the Earth’s tilt causes the seasons,
and that the differences between summer and
unit winter are greatest near the Poles
As the rotation of the Earth, with sunrise and
sunset, is a continuous process, a starting point
Page 10
for the Earth’s travel around the Sun had to be
established. An international congress met in
Washington DC in 1884 to determine how to divide ‘What is a year?’
the world into time zones. They divided the surface
of the Earth into 24 zones (one for each hour of
the day and night), each covering 15° of longitude. Resources
The time for each zone was to be the time of the • pictures of constellations (Student’s Book page
meridian (line of longitude) that passed through its 2 and Skills Book page 2)
centre. Because most nautical charts at the time
were based on the Greenwich Meridian, that line of Introduction
longitude was chosen as the Prime Meridian (0°). The students will know from unit 1 that we can use
the positions of the stars in the sky to calculate
Before we proceed the Earth’s position in its orbit, and when it is back
Students will learn about the Earth’s rotation, day to where it started the orbit. They will also know
and night, and how time zones were created based that the planets orbit the Sun anticlockwise along
on lines of longitude. They learn how the Earth’s tilt almost parallel paths. A year is the time any planet
on its axis creates the seasons, how lines of takes to orbit the Sun. The students should know
longitude are numbered, and how to use them to from their work on unit 1 that each planet’s year is
of a different length.
calculate the time in different parts of the world.
Ask the students why the constellations of stars
To enable students to make observations of the
appear in different places at different times of the
night sky, this unit can be best carried out during year. They might think the change in the positions
seasons when sunset is quite early. of the stars is caused only by the Earth’s rotation.
Before undertaking any work on space or the sky, it If they completed the suggested homework activity,
is vital to ensure that the students understand the to leave a camera with the shutter open pointing at
danger of looking at the Sun. the sky during a dark evening, they will have
recorded the effects of the Earth’s rotation on our
Expected learning outcomes view of the night sky. Demonstrate the effect of the
Students should be able to: Earth’s orbit as follows:
• explain that as the stars are so far away, they Activity
appear to be fixed in the same places in the
sky, even though galaxies orbit other galaxies
Fix a picture of a star constellation to each
wall of the room. Ask the students to stand
• explain that a year is the time the Earth takes
to orbit the Sun (about 365.25 days)
so that they all face the same constellation.
anticlockwise, and that a day is the time the Ask them to rotate slowly until they are back
Earth takes to rotate on its own axis at the start. Remind them that a rotation of
anticlockwise the Earth takes 24 hours—one full day, so
1 9
U N I T 2 | Sat e l l i te E a r th
they are back at the same time as they Using the Student’s Book
began. Now ask a student to stand in the
Ask the students to read the information on page
centre of the room to represent the Sun. 10 of the Student’s Book. Ask how many days the
Ask another to represent the Earth. He/she Earth takes to orbit the Sun. Point out that each
then walks in a circle with his/her back to orbit takes a little more than 365 days. Ask how
the student who represents the Sun—always long that is (6 hours). How many extra hours is
looking at the walls. Another student should that after four years? It is 24 hours extra—a whole
guide the one who is walking around to day. So that is why we add a day to the length of
make sure he/she does not fall or bump the year every four years. Point out that even this
is not exactly right because the orbit actually takes
into anything. The circular path along which
365.2563666 days. Ask to find out from ‘It’s a
this student is walking represents an orbit.
fact’ how this is built into the calendar.
Remind this student not to rotate to avoid
Ask them to complete Questions B1–3 D1 a–f, E1
dizziness. Ask if he/she sees the same or a
a–c in their notebooks, and, if possible, use the
different view of the sky all the way around Internet to check the dates of leap years;
the orbit. Explain that the stars stay in the alternatively this could be completed for homework.
same positions in the sky. They do not move
around Earth and they are much farther Discussion and review
away from Earth than our star, the Sun. Ask the students what they have learnt in this
However, as the Earth orbits the Sun we get lesson. They could make a note of this,
a different view of the stars. This view summarizing the lesson, for example:
changes only slightly each day as the Earth • I learned that the stars do not move around the
rotates, but during the course of the year, as Earth.
the Earth moves around its orbit, our view of • I learned that the stars move around the centre
the stars will change. of their galaxies, but they are so far away that
we do not notice this.
• I learned that Earth’s orbit round the Sun makes
the stars’ positions shift a little each day until
they are back at the starting position.
• I learned that the Earth takes about 6 hours
longer than a year to orbit the Sun so an extra
day is added to every fourth year.
Page 10–13
‘What is a day?’ and ‘How

is time measured?’
Resources
• Skills Book pages 6–7 ‘Make a shadow clock’
Demonstration of the fact that stars have fixed

positions in the sky
10 1
U N I T 2 | S a t e l l i t e Earth
shadow) so it is probably not very late. We cannot

Introduction be more exact because we do not know the date
At least a day before the lesson, set a homework when the photo was taken.
task to make a sketch of the sky as in unit 1 Ask the students to complete Questions A1–4 B4
showing any constellations they recognize. They a–b, in class or for homework.
should add the directions north, east, west, and
south. Ask them to repeat this an hour later and, if Using the Skills Book
possible, another hour later, and so on. If they Before the lesson, on a sunny day, start a shadow
begin as soon as the stars are visible, they might clock with the students, who should follow the
be able to make three or four sketches, depending instructions on pages 6–7 of the Skills Book. They
on the time of year. can take turns to record the shadows during the
Ask the students to compare their sketches of the course of the day without taking time out of other
sky and describe what they noticed about the lessons. Photograph the complete shadow clock so
position of the constellation they watched. (They that it can be compared with another made about a
cannot see it moving but should notice after a month or so later. Ask how we can use it to tell the
couple of hours that it has moved.) Ask if they time, whether it matters where we put the shadow
know why. They have already learnt that the stars clock, or which way round. (It should face exactly
appear to move over the course of the year as the the same direction, so that the shadows match,
Earth travels through space on its orbit around the but it could be in a place nearby.) Ask them to use
Sun. Ask what else they know about the Earth’s it for telling the time and checking their watches.
movements. If necessary, remind them that it
rotates (spins) and that this makes the stars Discussion and review
appear to change positions slightly during the Ask the students what they have learnt in this
course of the day. They could visit the website lesson. They could make a note of this,
http://www.skymaponline.net to see a map of the summarizing the lesson, for example:
sky where they live. • I learned that a day is the time the Earth takes
to make a complete rotation on its axis.
• I learned that when different parts of the Earth
Ask the students to read ‘What is a day?’ on page face the Sun they have day and that they have
10 and ‘How is time measured?’ on pages 11–13.
night when they turn away from the Sun.
Ask them to discuss with a partner and then report
back on how the number 60 is useful in • I learned that as Earth rotates, the Sun appears
geometry—for example in dividing a circle into to move across the sky from east to west.
segments. (A complete revolution is 360 degrees, • I learned that the Sun is low in the sky at
which is a multiple of 60.) Elicit that the Earth’s sunrise, gets higher towards noon, and then
rotation is like this. (A complete rotation or sinks lower towards sunset.
revolution is a turn through 360°.) • I learned that this movement makes the
The students should then look at the photo of the directions and lengths of shadows change.
obelisk and find out as much as they can from the
• I learned how to make a shadow clock and use
shadows they see. Explain that the obelisk is on the
it to tell the time.
north-east side of the temple and ask them to point
out the directions of north and east. They could
draw a sketch of the photo and then draw lines on
their sketch to show these directions. Ask them in
which direction the shadows fall (south-east). Ask in
which direction the Sun must be (the opposite
direction to the shadows—north-west). So, what part
of the day is this? (It is past noon.) Ask if the length
of the shadows gives another clue. They are not
very short, but not as long as the objects
themselves—note the length of the obelisk’s
1 11

Pages 13–14 Ask the students to read ‘How does sunrise move
around the Earth’ on page 13 of the Student’s
Book. Ask why the people in the very distant past
‘How does sunrise move did not need to measure the exact time of day.
around the Earth?’ and (They needed only to know when it was night or
day. If necessary, they could tell when it was
‘What are time zones?’ midday by the position of the Sun.) Ask what they
have learnt about ancient civilizations that needed
Resources more accurate times. (They used shadows.) Explain
• a torch that they developed other ways of measuring time
• a globe when there were no shadows or no sunlight,
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan including water clocks and candles. They also made
• Skills Book pages 8–9 ‘Times around the world’ mechanical clocks.
• Skills Book page 10 ‘World time zones’ The students should then read the paragraphs on
time zones on page 14. Explain that lines of
Introduction
longitude were used for a long time before this to
Ask the students whether different places in the help in navigation, but not for measuring time. Ask
world have the same timings of sunrise and sunset. them to look at the diagram of lines of longitude
Explain that as the Earth moves around the Sun, the on this page. Ask whether lines of longitude are
parts that face the Sun have day while those parts parallel. (No—parallel lines never meet, but these
which are turned away from the Sun have night. lines meet and cross at the Poles. They are not
parallel.)
Activity Ask two students to use the globe and torch again
Invite a student to use the torch while you hold the to demonstrate the Earth’s rotation and sunrise
globe to demonstrate how sunrise moves around around the world. Ask how we know when a day
the Earth. Make sure you rotate the Earth in the begins in one part of the world and ends in a
correct direction. (Sunrise travels from east to west different part.
as the Earth rotates anticlockwise.) The students
Ask them to read ‘It’s a fact’ on page 14 to find
should notice that the sunrays (represented by the
out how this problem was solved. Look at the
torch) fall on those parts of the Earth that face the
diagram of the International Date Line (page 14)
Sun. The ones away from the Sun have night.
and ask which line of longitude it follows. Elicit that
the International Date Line is not one straight line
but changes direction in places. Ask why this
happens. (It would be confusing if parts of a small
island had different times and dates, so the line
has been drawn so that it goes around islands.)
Ask them to complete Questions F1–3 for
homework.

Split the class into groups of three or four and ask
them to discuss the scenario shown on pages 8–9
of the Skills Book ‘Times around the world’ before
writing their answers. They will need an atlas to find
the cities. They might be able to help one another if
some do not know which countries they are in. They
could check on the Internet. Let them check their
Diagram showing how sunrise moves around the answers on page 10 of the Skills Book ‘World time
Earth zones’. They should write the time differences
12 1
U N I T 2 | S a t e l l i t e Earth
between different cities on this page.

Activity
Ask the students which of the cities mentioned in
the Skills Book activity has sunrise first: London, Hold the globe so that the North and South Poles
Islamabad, Toronto, Sydney, or Honolulu. (Toronto). and the axis are perpendicular to the floor. Ask a
Honolulu gets sunrise last but it has the latest student to flash the light from the torch toward the
time in the scenario in the Skills Book. Ask why. globe. Repeat with the globe tilted (as it is
(Because it is still one day ahead of the others.) normally) on its stand. Ask what difference this
makes. They should notice that when the globe is
Discussion and review perpendicular, the Poles always have some light,
Ask the students what they have learnt in this but that the light hits the Equator at right angles.
• I learned that the Sun rises gradually round the
world from east to west.
• I learned that countries around the world agreed
on international time zones separated by lines
of longitude.
• I learned that the Prime Meridian is the line of
longitude that passes through Greenwich
Observatory in London and that the other lines
of longitude are numbered away from it to the Diagram showing direct sunlight at the Equator and
east and west. ‘glancing’ sunlight at the Poles
• I learned that longitude 180° is the International They should also notice that when the globe is
Date Line, and indicates where one day ends tilted, one Pole has continuous light for some of
and another begins. the time, while the other has continuous darkness,
and that one hemisphere has sunlight for longer
than the other, but that there is not much
PageS 14–15 difference at the Equator.

‘Why do we have seasons?’ They can then read pages 14–15 of the Student’s
Book, including ‘It’s a fact’. Provide a map or
Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan
Resources showing Tromsø, Norway and ask what they notice
• a torch about this city in early afternoon. (It is dark.) Ask
why this is. (Tromsø is near the North Pole so it
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan
has very short days in winter, when the northern
• globe or world map hemisphere tilts away from the Sun.) What do they
• Skills Book page 11 ‘Sunrise and sunset where notice about Helsinki, Finland at midnight? (It has
I live’ daylight.) Ask why this is. (It is near the North Pole
so it has daylight throughout the night in some
Introduction summer months because the northern hemisphere
Ask the students what they know about the seasons tilts towards the Sun.) Ask them to complete
of the year. Ask what causes the same sequence to Questions C1–2, G1–2, H1 a–d
happen every year. Some might think the Earth’s
rotation is the cause; if so, demonstrate the Earth’s Using the Skills Book
rotation using a torch and globe, to remind them that Ensure that the students know where to find out
this just causes day and night and show them pages about the times of sunrise and sunset in the place
14–15 of Student’s Book ‘Why do we have where they live, e.g. a local newspaper or the
seasons?’ Internet. For homework, ask different groups of
1 13
students to find the sunrise and sunset times for

different months. They should record the times in the
table ‘Sunrise and sunset where I live’ on page 11 of
the Skills Book.
They should compare sunrise and sunset timings
for different months. Ask them to describe any
pattern they see. (Sunrise gets earlier from winter
to midsummer and then starts getting later, while
sunset gets later from winter to summer and
earlier from summer to winter. The difference
between the two is greatest in summer and
smallest in winter.)

• I learned that the Earth’s axis is tilted.
• I learned that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the
hemisphere that tilts towards the Sun has more
hours of daylight and stronger sunlight—
summer—while the other hemisphere has
winter.
• I learned that in places on or near the Equator,
days have approximately equal hours of daylight
in summer and winter.
• I learned that the differences in the lengths of
the days in summer and winter are greatest at
the Poles.
14 1
U N I T 2 | S at e l l i t e Earth
F 1. It does not follow longitude 180° exactly

Answers to assessment because then it would even go through
A 1. anticlockwise small islands. This would mean that
2. China different parts of an island would have
different dates.
3. This comes from the Ancient Sumerians,
who divided the day into 2 sections of 24 2. They meet and cross one another.
hours. 12 is a factor of 60—a very useful 3. The students’ ideas; they should realize
number in timekeeping because it can be that the time at the North or South Pole
divided by many numbers. could be any time. This is because the
4. Look for the two pointer stars in the Poles are on all lines of longitude. Any time
constellation Ursa Major that line-up and would be correct, but having no official time
point to Polaris, the North Star. zone in Antarctica is not a problem,
because nobody lives there permanently. At
B 1. anticlockwise
the research bases, the organizers decide
2. 365.25 days which time zone to use. At the North Pole
3. by adding and extra day to every fourth year, there is no land, so anyone travelling there
except century years uses the most convenient time zone, for
4 a) 12.00 noon example, the time they used at the most
b) students’ own observations recent land they left, or the time of the
nearest land they will arrive at.
C 1 a) the winter solstice
G 1. There would be no seasons. The weather
b) the summer solstice
would be similar all year round and the Sun
c)
equinoxes would be just on the horizon all day and
2 a) During the winter, the North and South night, throughout the year.
Poles are tilted away from the Sun. 2. Day and night would always be about
b) During the summer, the North and South equal—around 12 hours. The weather would
Poles are tilted towards the Sun. be similar all through the year.
D 1 a) 366 H 1 a) It is dark, like night. This is because the
b) The Earth’s orbit takes about 6 hours northern hemisphere is tilted away from
longer than 365 days. This makes an the Sun in the winter.
extra day every 4 years. To adjust this b) It is light, like daytime. This is because
extra day there is a leap year every four the northern hemisphere is tilted
years. towards the Sun in summer.
c) After 4 years the Earth has taken 4 c) Wellington’s latitude is 41.28ºS. This is
years and almost an extra day to orbit in the southern hemisphere. The
the Sun. northern hemisphere is tilted towards
d) Yes, because century years are leap the Sun in June (summer) so the
years when the year is divisible by 400. southern hemisphere is tilted away from
the Sun in June (winter) so it would be
e) No, because 3000 is not divisible
dark at midnight in June. In December it
exactly by 400.
would be summer, so there would be
f) This depends on the date when the light in the early afternoon in December.
activity is undertaken: leap years are
d) The difference is because Wellington is
2016, 2020, 2024, 2028, and so on—
in the southern hemisphere and the two
years divisible by 4.
cities in Europe (Helsinki and Tromsø)
E 1 a) 360 degrees are in the northern hemisphere.
b)
24
c) 15 (360 degrees divided by 24)
1 15
hour of daylight in the evening. The

Answers to Skills Book clocks are then moved back one hour in
October. The effect of this is to give an
Pages 6–7 ‘Make a shadow clock’ extra hour of daylight in the morning.
A 1–4. The students follow the instructions to The purpose of this was to give farmers
make a shadow clock. and other outdoor workers an extra hour
B 1. The students mark out their shadow clock of daylight during their normal working
as instructed. day.
2. The students mark the end of the shadow Page 10 ‘World time zones’
each hour.
A 1. London–Toronto: 5 hours
C 1 a) The direction of the shadows changes
London–Islamabad: −5 hours
because the Sun’s position in the sky
changes. London–Honolulu: 10 hours
b) As the Sun moves from east to west London–Sydney: −10 hours
across the sky, the direction of the Islamabad–Sydney: −5 hours
shadow moves from west to east. Islamabad–Honolulu: 15 hours
2 a) The shadows get shorter towards noon Islamabad–Toronto: 10 hours
and then longer.
b) This is because the Sun rises higher in Page 11 ‘Sunrise and sunset where I
the sky until noon and then begins to live’
sink lower in the sky. (Note that if A1–2. Students should record information about
‘daylight saving’ time is used, this will the sunrise and sunset timings of their
change the time of the shortest cities.
shadow.)
3. The answers will depend on the date when
the activity is carried out. Shadows will be
longer in winter than in summer because
the Sun is lower in the sky due to the
Earth’s tilt.
Pages 8–9 ‘Times around the world’

A 1 a) Sunday
b)
Saturday
c) Honolulu is several hours behind
Islamabad.
B 1 a) London: −4 hours
b)
Toronto: −9 hours
c) Sydney: +5 hours
d)
Honolulu: −15 hours
C 1 a) London: −5 hours
b) The time in the picture story must have
been in the summer, when London was
using ‘daylight saving time’, when clocks
are moved forward 1 hour. In some
countries, especially in northern Europe,
clocks are moved forward one hour in
the summer so that there is an extra
16 1
U N I T 3 | M a ppi n g t h e w orld
UNIT
3
Mapping the world
One of these was Muhammad Al-Idrisi, in the 12th
century, who gained knowledge about Africa, the
unit Indian Ocean, and the Far East from merchants and
Ancient maps or map-like drawings dating back to explorers who had travelled to these places and
around 8000 BCE have been found. It is known that had brought back information about them. On the
the ancient Polynesians migrated across millions of basis of this information he produced the most
square kilometres of the Pacific Ocean around 8000 accurate map of the world that had ever been
years ago, but nothing is known of any maps they drawn at that time.
might have used, although their navigation
techniques are known. However, the ancient Before we proceed
Babylonians used accurate surveying techniques to For this unit it will be useful to have plenty of
help them to draw maps on clay tablets, one of examples of different types of maps available, so
which dates back to around the 25th–24th century that the students can use them to learn how to
BCE. It shows the names of the features, the size of use maps, to identify the purposes of different
a field, and the name of the person who owned it. kinds of maps, and to look for (and use) the key
Another clay tablet from the 14th–12th century BCE elements: title, north sign, symbols and key, scale,
shows the walls and buildings of the city of Nippur and grid lines.
in ancient Sumeria. The collection of maps should include a globe,
The earliest surviving map of the world (around physical and political maps of the world and of
600 BCE) comes from the ancient Babylonians. Pakistan, maps of some students’ hometowns,
Other significant map-makers from ancient times tourist maps, street maps, and plans of places
include the ancient Greeks. While many of their such as shopping malls, tourist centres such as
maps showed the Earth as a flat disc, there were wildlife parks, housing schemes, etc.
some philosophers who thought the Earth was
spherical—notably Aristotle, who is considered to Expected learning outcomes
have proved this with his observations that the Students should be able to:
lunar eclipse is always circular, that ships appear • relate how maps developed
to sink as they move away from the view over the
• interpret and create scale drawings, plans, and
horizon, and that some stars can be seen only
maps
from certain parts of the Earth.
• use the key elements of maps: the title,
The Chinese are known to have made maps since
compass rose, symbols, key, and grid lines in
at least the 5th century BCE, although they are not
order to discern information from maps
known as great explorers. But an important link
between ancient map-making and the huge • draw simple plans and maps to scale, using the
expansion of exploration, navigation, and map- north sign, symbols, and key
making by Europeans in the 14th century came from • use grid references and latitude and longitude
the Islamic scholars of Baghdad, led by the to locate places
Abbasid caliph, Abdullah Al-Ma’mun, between 813
and 833 CE. He encouraged the work of
geographers, scientists, and astronomers, and the
collection and translation of ancient Greek books
into Arabic.
1 17
U N I T 3 | M a ppi n g th e wo r ld
they have any information about the places outside

their hometowns? They might have relied on
Pages 18–19 information passed on by their ancestors or others
in their communities. When they travelled to new
places as they migrated or traded, they might have
‘The first maps’ narrated the tales of their travels to others and
this is how people gathered information about
other places in the world, which eventually became
the source of information for creating maps. If no
Preparation student mentions sea voyages, tell them that
Collect as many different types of maps as people who sailed out to the sea began to make
possible for the students to look at in order to maps to record the places they went to, which
decide on their purposes. could also help with their future sea voyages.
Resources Using the Student’s Book

• a
collection of various types of maps: street Ask the students to read about the ancient maps
maps of towns or cities, tourist maps, physical shown on page 18 of the Student’s Book. Ask
and political maps of the world, map of them what the Babylonian map has at its centre
continents and countries (Babylon) and point out that many old maps show
• a globe the hometown of the map-makers at their centre.
They worked outwards from the places they knew
• Internet access, if possible best. Ask the students what they can tell from the
Note: (These maps will also be useful for later map about the Babylonians’ knowledge of the world
work in this unit.) and about the land around their city.
Ask them to look at the map drawn by Ptolemy, an
Introduction ancient Greek. Ask what they can see on the map;
Ask the students to read the first paragraph of for example: ‘What is the blue part in the south?’
page 18 and to discuss their own uses of maps. (the sea; the Bay of Bengal); ‘What is the paler
Then ask them to imagine having no maps. Would part?’ (the land); ‘What are the yellowish patches?’
this matter? If there were no maps what problems (mountains; the Latin word ‘mons’ means
would they face? mountain). They should be able to see the word
‘India’ on the map. Ask what river and its
Activity tributaries they can see towards the west. The
Invite the students to look at the collection of distinctive delta might at first suggest the Indus,
maps and to consider what purposes they would be but look more closely at the land nearby and at the
used for. Ask them what features of a map make it labels. The label Gangeticus Sinus shows that the
useful for a particular purpose: for example, a river is the Ganges. (‘Sinus’ means bay, so this
political map of the world would be useful for part of the sea is named ‘the Bay of the Ganges’,
finding the location of distant places in relation to now the Bay of Bengal.) Farther north, on the land,
their own town, or to find out where countries or India extra Gangem means India beyond the
cities are because it marks and names different Ganges (now Bangladesh and Bhutan). Farther west
countries, their borders, and their main cities. A we can see India pars intra Gangem (India within
street map of a city, however, would be useful for the Ganges). The students might now be able to
finding the location of a specific street or building, identify the mountains and possibly some of the
as these would be marked and named on the map. cities.
However, it would not give any information about After this they should discuss Question A1 about
the landscape: hills, mountains, plains, etc. Ptolemy’s map and report their answers.
Ask the students to imagine what the first maps Then ask the students to read page 19 of the
looked like. Why might people have needed a map Student’s Book and compare Muhammad Al-Idrisi’s
in ancient times? Many people in ancient times map from the 12th century with the modern map of
travelled around the world without using maps. Did the same area on page 20. They should be able to
18 1
identify parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, the Indian

Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea,
Introduction
the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Black Sea. Explain that maps have essential elements that
Several rivers, including the Nile, can also be help people to use them. Ask them to find these
identified. on their maps and to say what information they
give: the title says what the map is about; the
Ask them to complete Questions A1 a–e. north sign indicates the north direction and helps
the user to find the other compass directions. Ask
Discussion and review what symbols they can see on their maps and how
Ask the students what they have learnt in this they know what the symbols mean. (There should
lesson. They could make a note of this, be a key.) Note that symbols can be small icons,
summarizing the lesson, for example: lines, or areas of colour or shading.
• I learned that people began to draw maps in Ask the students to compare their own maps with
ancient times. those of others in the class and say what they
• I learned that there are different types of maps notice about the sizes of the areas shown on the
for different purposes. maps: the entire world, a continent, a group of
• I learned that the first maps were drawn by neighbouring countries, a country, a province, a city,
navigators and explorers, and by scholars who etc. Discuss the amount of detail each map can
learned from them. show and introduce the idea of scale (the number
of times smaller the map is than the real area).
Ask if their map has grid lines. If they have a map
Pages 19–21 with lines of latitude and longitude, explain that
these are a special type of grid lines which are
used to locate places on Earth.
‘How are maps read?’ Activity
(If lesson time is limited, this could be a homework
activity, using a list of small objects the students
Preparation are likely to have at home.)
Ask the students to bring in any map they have Place sets of small objects on the floor (so that
used with their parents or others to find a place, groups of students can easily see them) and invite
for example, a tourist map of a place they visited the students to look at them from above and make
on holiday, a street map of a town or city, a road a quick sketch of them. Then ask them to draw a
map showing roads linking towns, a railway map, or map of the objects. The challenge is that their map
a map of a park or other large site. should fit into a rectangle measuring 10 cm by 8
cm! They should not spend too long on this.
Resources
Ask how they fitted the objects into the small
• maps brought by the students to school
rectangle. They will have used a scale—even if it
• sets of any small objects (some in multiples, for was not exactly accurate. If any students used an
example, 3 pairs of scissors, 2 pencils, 3 pens, accurate scale, invite them to explain how they did
4 rulers, 6 coins, a book)
it.
• large rulers (e.g. 1 metre) or long tape
measures Using the Student’s Book
• a compass (if possible, one compass per group Ask the students to read pages 19–20 and ask
of 4) them to identify the differences between the
photograph and the aerial view of the furniture on
• Skills Book pages 12–13 ‘The sixteen points of
page 21. Ask them to look at the plan of the same
the compass’
furniture. Then ask what information the
photographs and the plan give. (The photographs
show exactly what the furniture looks like, but from
different views: shape, pattern, and colour, but not
1 19
size.) The plan shows the exact size of the space • I learned about the different types of
the furniture takes up on the ground and its shape information shown by photographs, aerial views,
as seen from above. It does not show what the and plans.
furniture looks like and it does not show its height. • I learned how the key elements of maps help us
Ask the students if they can think of a way of to use the map: title, north sign, symbols, key,
showing height on a plan. (They could use colour
scale, and grid lines.
for anything above specific heights, shading it
darker the higher an object gets but most plans are • I learned how to draw a plan using a scale.
floor plans that do not show height.) • I learned how the compass can be divided into
Tell them that this time they are going to try to sixteen points.
draw a plan that is as accurate as possible in
shape and scale. Pages 21–22
The students should complete the exercise on
page 21; ‘Draw a plan of your classroom’. Ask
them to complete Question C1.
‘How are grid references
Using the Skills Book used?’
This activity reinforces and extends the students’
understanding of compass points and how to use a
magnetic compass. Resources
Show the students a compass and ask which of • Skills Book page 17 ‘Grid references’
the key elements of maps involves the compass
(the north sign). Ask which direction is north from Using the Student’s Book
the classroom, and how the compass helps them Remind the students of what they learned
to check. Remind them how to use a compass: the previously about grid lines, where they used the
moving magnetic pointer points north, so place the numbers that run from west to east (left to right)
compass on a flat surface, not near any metallic, along the bottom of the map and up the side of
magnetic, or electronic items; wait for the pointer the map (from south to north) to identify a square
to settle, then turn the compass so that the ‘N’ is on the map. To help them to remember that we
aligned with the pointer. Ask the Students to point give the number along the bottom of the map first,
north, then south, then east, then west. Ask which point out the mnemonic ‘First go along the corridor,
directions are: between north and east, east and then go up the stairs’. Introduce the geographical
terms for these numbers: ‘eastings’ because the
south, south and west, and west and north. Ask
numbers along to bottom are numbered towards
how many compass points they now know (eight).
the east, and ‘northings’ because the numbers up
Explain that the compass can be split into much
the side are numbered towards the north.
more accurate directions by adding others between
these. Ask the students to read the information about grid
lines and to give the easting for the orange square
Ask the students to turn to page 12 of the Skills (76), then the northing for the orange square (25),
Book, ‘The sixteen points of the compass’ and to and finally, the complete grid reference for the
look at the drawing of a compass. Ask how many orange square (7625).
compass points it shows (16). Ask the students to
They should answer the Questions on page 22.
read the information to find out what we call the
direction that is halfway between north and north-
east. They can complete the activity, finding out
about the other points of the compass.

20 1
Answers to exercise ‘About Grid Using the Student’s Book

references on page 22: Ask the students to look at the map on page 23 of
this book. Tell them that first they are going to
A 1 a) 7433 b) 7027 locate some features using grid references in the
c) 7033 d) 7633 way they used them for finding the coloured
2 a) green b) orange squares on page 22. Ask them to find the features
c) blue d) purple at grid references B4, C16, and E4. Ask them to
give grid references for Karachi University, Steel
Then they should complete Questions D1–2.
mills, and Karachi Port.
Using the Skills Book They should complete Questions B1–3.
Ask the students to complete the activity on page
21 of the Skills Book ‘Grid references’.
Discussion and review lesson. They could make a note of this,
Ask the students what they have learnt in this summarizing the lesson, for example:
lesson. They could make a note of this, • I learned how to locate places on a map using a
summarizing the lesson, for example: grid square.
• I learned that the numbers across the bottom of
the map are called eastings because they are
Page 23
numbered towards the east.
• I learned that the numbers up the side of the
map are called northings because they are ‘How are maps drawn?’
numbered towards the north.
• I learned that a grid references gives the
easting first and then the northing. Resources
• maps collected at the start of this unit
Pages 22–23 Using the Student’s Book

Tell the students that they are going to look at
maps of small areas and to learn about the
‘What is a grid square?’ symbols they use. If possible, show them a map of
a small area, such as a tourist resort or feature
that uses symbols.
Resources Ask them to use the key to find the meanings of
• maps collected for the first lesson of this unit the symbols and then give them practice at
• rulers locating specific features on the map using the
symbols.
Introduction Tell the students that they are going to use what
Explain that, just as the compass can be divided they have learnt to help them to draw a map of a
into smaller sections for greater accuracy in stating small area, their school. It will be useful for them
direction, grid squares can be divided into smaller to walk around the school to check where features
sections for greater accuracy in locating places. and objects are located.
Explain that these smaller sections are not marked They should follow the instructions on page 23. The
by extra lines on the map because this would make students should draw a frame for their map, then
the map difficult to read; instead we have to add the main features. Lastly, they should use
estimate where they would be drawn. Show them colours and symbols as instructed.
how this is more accurate than it might seem. Remind them to make a key that explains the
symbols. For homework, they could add grid lines
to their map (not too close together: 2–4 cm,
1 21
depending on the size of their map). ii) Longitude lines are numbered east and west
from the Prime Meridian (0°). They go from 0° to
Discussion and review 180° east and west.
Ask the students what they have learnt in this iii) Unlike vertical grid lines, longitude lines are not
lesson. They could make a note of this, parallel.
iv) Both latitude and longitude lines are really
• I learned how symbols are used on a map. imaginary circles that go around the Earth.
• I learned how to draw a map of a small area, v) In grid references we give the easting (the
using symbols. number along the bottom of the map) and then
the northing (the number up the side of the
map). With latitude and longitude, it is the other
Pages 24–25 way around: we give the number up the side of
the map (latitude) and then number across the
bottom (longitude).
‘How are places located on Ask the students to read page 24 and to complete
a map?’ the exercise on page 25.

Ask the students to complete the table on page
Resources 14, using information on pages 14–15 of their
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan Skills Books, ‘Where latitude meets longitude’. Ask
them to complete ‘Drawing a route on a world map’
• a globe
on page 16.
• rulers
Explain that, like grid squares, the spaces between
• S
kills Book pages 14–15 ‘Where latitude meets lines of latitude and longitude can be divided into
longitude’ smaller sections for greater accuracy. Ask them to
• Skills Book page 16 ‘Drawing a route on a world look at a map, where they will see that there is a
map’ very large gap between each degree of latitude or
longitude. Explain that these gaps are divided into
Introduction 60 sections called minutes. (Each of these can be
Ask the students if a map of the world would have further divided into 60 seconds, but we shall not
grid lines. They could look at one in Oxford School use those in this activity.)
Atlas for Pakistan or on a globe. Remind them that
Show the students how to find the location
maps can use lines of latitude and longitude or the
indicated in Faisal’s first message, and then ask
type of grid lines they have just learnt about. Explain
them to complete the table for the others.
that maps of large areas, such as a country or the
world, usually use lines of latitude and longitude. Discussion and review
Using the Student’s Book Ask the students what they have learnt in this
Ask the students to look carefully at the map of
the world on page 24. They should look carefully at
the lines of latitude and longitude. Ask how these • I learned how to use lines of latitude and
are different from the grid lines they learned about longitude to find places on a map.
in the last lesson. Remind them that grid lines are • I learned how to use lines of latitude and
numbered in one direction across the map and in longitude to describe the locations of places on
one direction up the side of the map. Ask how a map.
latitude and longitude are different:
• I learned how grid squares can be used to
i) Latitude lines are numbered north and south locate places and features accurately.
from the Equator (0°). They go from 0° to 90°
both north and south. The North and South
Poles are at 90°.
22 1
D 1 a) 7749 b) 7743 c) 8245

Answers to assessment
d) 7950 e) 8447 f) 7946
A 1 a) The students’ own responses. These
should include ideas about the blue part g) 8149
in the south (the sea—the Bay of 2 a) a star b) a circle c) a circle
Bengal), the paler parts (land), and the d) a star e) a circle f) a heart
yellowish patches (mountains). They
should recognize the word ‘India’ and
identify the Ganges, some of the
mountain ranges and possibly some of
the cities. Answers to Skills Book
b) The students’ own ideas, which should Pages 12–13 ‘The sixteen points of a
include India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and compass’
Bhutan. A 1 a–c) Check that the students have
After this they should discuss the marked in the correct places.
questions about Ptolemy’s map and 2 a) 90°
report their answers.
b)
45°
c) the students’ own responses, supported
c)
180°
by references to Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan 3. 22.5°
d) the students’ own responses, supported Pages 14–15 ‘When latitude meets
by references to Oxford School Atlas for longitude‘
Pakistan
A. Students top read these messages and
e) They should be able to identify these as e-mails carefully.
mountains.
B.
B 1 a) Lyari b) Sarjani town
c) Taiser town and Super Highway 1 Pakistan 2 England, 3 Scotland,
UK UK
d) Airport e) Korangi f) Lyari River
2 a) H3 b) B3 c) D3, E3 4 Iceland 5 the USA 6 China
d)
E5 e)
E6 f)
C4
g) 7 Australia 8 Sri Lanka 9 Pakistan
B4
Page 16 ‘Drawing a route on a world
3 a) Medical University
map’
b) Quaid-e-Azam Mausoleum
A 1–2. Check that students marked the
c) Clifton following places:
d) Karachi Port Pakistan, England, Scotland, Iceland, the
C. USA, China, Australia, and
Sri Lanka.
View Plan
1 d Page 17 ‘Grid references’
2 a A 1 a) i) 2461
3 b ii) 2360
4 c iii) 2559
b) i) railway station ii) library
iii) shopping mall iv) bank
v) park vi) swimming pool
1 23
U N I T 4 | Typ e s o f m a p s
UNIT
4
Types of maps
that shows their shape as well as by using a colour
key to denote their height.
unit More detail can be shown on large scale maps of
Maps represent three-dimensional places in a smaller regions, in which contour lines are drawn to
two-dimensional form (length and width), so they link land of the same elevation. Where contour
show the outlines of land masses and other lines are far apart, the land slopes gently; where
features. To represent the third dimension (height/ they are close together, the slope is steep; where
depth) they use colour-coded keys. contour lines meet and run along the same line,
Generally, physical maps show colours according to there is a cliff.
conventions such as: blue for water (darker blue for
deeper water), and brown, shaded through green/
Before we proceed
yellow for land elevation. Different colours may be In this unit the students will use different types of
used on larger scale maps. maps to find information about places including
some with very high and very lowland elevations,
The size of an area is indicated by the scale of the
such as Peru, the Dead Sea, and Djibouti. They will
map. For instance, if the scale of a map is
compare the land elevations, annual rainfall, and
1:100,000, it means that 1 cm on the map equals
population density for places around the world, and
100 km on the ground.
use information from physical maps, relief maps,
The most commonly used maps of the world or and weather and climate maps to draw comparisons
large regions of the world, such as continents are: between different places of the world.
1) political maps that show the borders of
countries; they usually mark and name capital Expected learning outcomes
cities and, sometimes, the major rivers. Large Students should be able to:
lakes may also be marked and usually named. • explain the purposes of different types of maps
2) physical maps that show and name geographical • use thematic maps that provide data such as
features such as mountain ranges, deserts, average annual temperature, rainfall, or
rivers, lakes, and often main roads and railways. population density
Thematic maps show information about the • identify relationships between information from
physical geography of regions or countries, such different maps
as: climatic regions, average temperatures, average • use combinations of thematic maps to help
annual rainfall, forests, or land elevation. They can them answer questions
also show information about the human geography
of regions or countries: population density, life
expectation, literacy, and types of industry (and
even more specifically, details such as gemstone
production, coal mines, or hydroelectric power
output).
It is useful to use a political map alongside a
physical or thematic map to identify the countries,
which are not always named on these maps in
order to avoid clutter.
Relief maps show the shape of the land by
representing features such as mountains in a way
24 1
U N I T 4 | T y p e s o f maps
They should now be able to answer the following

question correctly, and explain their answer:
Pages 28–29 Which city is nearer to Beijing, China: Vancouver,
Canada, or New York, USA? (Vancouver, going
eastwards from Beijing)
‘Maps and globes’ and Ask the students to read pages 28–29 and to
‘Types of maps’ complete the activity on page 29 and Questions B1
a–c.

Preparation Ask the students what they have learnt in this
Collect as many different types of maps as lesson. They could make a note of this,
possible for the students to look at in order to summarizing the lesson, for example:
decide on their purposes.
• I learned that globes and different types of maps
Resources can show the Earth in different ways.
• a globe • I learned that on a map of the world we can see
• different types of maps the entire world at once, but on a globe we can
only see a part of the Earth at any one time.
Using the Student’s Book • I learned that a globe shows distances between
how the students a globe and a map of the world,
S places more accurately than a map does.
and ask them about their differences. List their
responses. They should note that:
Pages 29–31
• the globe is spherical but the map is flat
• they can see all parts of the world at once on a
map, but only half of it on a globe
• they can use a globe, but not a map, to show
‘Physical maps’ and ‘Relief
how the Earth rotates maps’
• the globe shows the distances between
countries more accurately than the map does
• the globe shows that the area on the western Resources
side of the map is connected to the area on the • Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan
eastern side.
• Skills Book page 18 ‘Mountain ranges of the
Ask the students about the purposes for which a world’
globe or a map of the world would be more useful.
If necessary, ask them to think about planning Introduction
long-distance journeys; learning about the Earth’s Tell the students that they are going to compare
shape, rotation, or orbit; or comparing the sizes of political and physical maps. Ask what land
countries. elevation means. If necessary, explain that it
means the height of the land above or below sea
Activity level.
Ask the students to look at a rectangular map of
the world to answer the following questions: Using the Student’s Book
Which city is farther from Anchorage, Alaska: Ask the students to compare the physical and
Vladivostok, Russia, or London, UK? (London. If the political maps of the world on page 30 with the
students did not realize that the shorter distance is political map in Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan.
west from Anchorage to Vladivostok, ask them to Ask what information each map gives about the
use the globe to check.) world. They should notice that a political map
shows the borders and names of the countries, as
1 25
well as their coasts, and the seas, oceans, and

main rivers. Where there is space to do so, it also Using the Skills Book
shows the capital cities. The students should use the maps in this unit of
The physical map also shows the elevation of the the Student’s Book to help them to complete the
land with different colours and a key. It names the map in the Skills Book ‘Mountain ranges of the
mountain ranges, some of the main mountains, and world’ on page 18 to show the mountain ranges
other physical features such as deserts, plains, that are higher than 1500 metres, the deserts, and
and plateaus. Ask if it is possible to find where, in the plains they know. They should also make a key
each country, the highest and lowest land for the map, using colours.
elevations are located. Ask them to identify which
parts of countries have lowland and which have Discussion and review
highland. This is possible because of the shading
and the use of raised relief to show mountains.
The students could then be asked to describe the
landscapes of different countries: for example, the
United States, Brazil, Chile, Peru, or the • I learned how maps are marked to show the
Netherlands. coasts, borders, and names of countries.
Ask the students to read pages 29–30. Ask what • I learned to use the shading and key on maps
the two maps on page 30 tell us about land to find out about the elevation of the land.
around the world. Ask what information it gives that
we cannot find out from the map on page 29. (The
first map gives highest elevation of each country Pages 31–32
and the second gives the lowest elevation of each
country.) Ask the students to describe how the land
is shaded in the maps that shows countries by
their lowest and highest land elevations.
‘Scaling up’
Ask them to use the two maps (with the help of a
political map of the world) to find any countries
where all the land is somewhere between −500 Introduction
and +2000 metres (Jordan is probably the easiest Remind the students of their previous learning
to find). Other questions they could answer, using about scale and ask them what the scale of a map
the maps on page 34 include: In which countries is shows. Explain that world maps have to be drawn
all the land higher than 500 metres? (An example using a very small scale so that they can fit on a
is Mongolia.) Which countries have some land
page of a book, but maps of a country can have a
higher than 2500 metres and some lower than 100
larger scale, depending on the size of the country.
metres? (An example is Egypt.)
Ask the students to use the tables on page 35 to Using the Student’s Book
find out about some of the places that have the
Ask the students to compare the scales of the
highest and the lowest land elevations on Earth.
maps of the world in this unit with the scale of the
Ask if they notice anything about the places that
map of Djibouti, in Africa. Ask which map has the
have the lowest land elevations. (Many have lakes
largest scale. (The map of Djibouti because it has
or inland seas, because streams and rivers run
downhill, and water collects on lowland.) Explain a greater area on the page for each kilometre on
that these lakes and inland seas have very salty the ground.) Ask what they can find out from this
water (for example, The Dead Sea in Jordan is map of Djibouti that they could not find out from
famous for its very salty water). Tell them that they the world map. They can see much more detail in
will find out more about one of these saltwater the land elevation in different parts of the country,
lakes in their next lesson. the names of mountain ranges, mountains, many
The students can then complete Questions A1–2, more rivers and lakes, many more towns, and even
C1–3, D1, E1, F1. some of the main roads.
They can complete unfinished questions as Ask the students to find the places in Djibouti that
homework have the highest and lowest land elevations. The
26 1
highest is Moussa ’Ali, in the north-west (2021

metres). The lowest land is around the shores of
the lakes—below sea level. Ask if they remember,
Pages 33–35
from their last lesson, the part of Djibouti where
the land is lower than −155 metres (155 metres
below sea level): this is on the shores of Lake ‘Thematic maps’
Assal. Ask what they learnt about these inland
lakes and seas that are below sea level. (They
have very salty water.) Ask the students to look at
Resources
the map of Djibouti and to say whether the rivers
are running into, or out of, Lake Assal, and how • Skills Book pages 19–20 ‘Showing information
they can tell. They should notice the elevation of on a map’
the land the rivers cross. If they cannot figure this • Skills Book pages 21–22 ‘How well do you know
out, ask if the rivers will run uphill or downhill. They the world?’
should then know that both of the rivers marked on
the map must be flowing into the lake. Introduction
Explain that rivers carry sediment (particles of rock Tell the students that they are going to learn how
and soil), which they deposit in the sea or in a maps can be used to show information about
lake. This is what makes the sea salty—it is also weather and climate, or about population, that helps
what makes lakes like Lake Assal salty. Ask if any us to compare different places.
rivers could flow out of the lake. (No—because the Using the Student’s Book
land around it is higher—and rivers cannot flow Ask the students to read the paragraph that
uphill.) introduces thematic maps on page 33, then the
The students should then use the maps to help paragraph on temperature map, and to look at the
them to answer Questions A3 a–e. temperature map. Ask what information this map
shows. They could also explain the key. Ask them to
Discussion and review identify a country that has a hot climate, then invite
Ask the students what they have learnt about maps them to ask questions that others can answer by
and grid references in this lesson. They could make looking at the map.
a note of this, summarizing the lesson, for Ask the students to look at the rainfall map on
example: page 34. Ask them what information this map
• I learned how to use physical maps to find out shows. They could also explain the key. Ask them
about the elevation of land in different parts of to identify a country that has a dry climate, then
the world. invite them to ask questions that others can
answer by looking at the map.
• I learned how raised relief maps show the
shape of the land clearly, as well as its Ask the students to use both maps to help them to
elevation. list countries that are: i) hot and dry; ii) hot and wet;
iii) cold and dry; iv) cold and wet. (Examples: i)
• I learned how larger scale maps can show
Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Chad in north-west
greater detail than small scale maps.
Africa; Saudi Arabia and Oman in Asia; and Central
• I learned how the water in lakes and inland Australia; ii) Venezuela and parts of Brazil in South
seas below sea level becomes salty. America; Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New
Guinea, and parts of China in Asia; iii) parts of
Greenland, northern Canada, and Russia; iv) small
areas of Greenland and Russia. (Few very cold
places have a high annual rainfall.)
Ensure that the students know the meaning of
‘population’, and introduce the term ‘population
1 27
density’. Ask what this means. If necessary, explain • I learned how to use a thematic map to find out
that it means the number of people living in a about population density around the world.
given area (usually 1 square kilometre or 1 km2). • I used information from temperature, rainfall,
Ask the students to look at the population density and population density maps to answer
map. Ask them what information this map shows. questions about how climate affects population
They could also explain the key. density.
Ask them to identify three countries that have very • I learned how to record and present information
high population densities, then invite them to ask using a distribution map.
questions that others can answer by looking at the
map. They can then compare the information on
the population density charts with the information
shown on the map.
Now ask them to compare the population density
map with the temperature map and the rainfall
map. Ask if they can find any relationship between
population density and climate. Ask them to explain
any relationship they find: for example, Australia
has a low population density, but it has a large
area that is hot and dry (desert).
Also ask the students to compare the population
density map with the physical map on page 29.
Ask if they can find any relationship between
population density and land elevation. Ask them to
explain any relationship they find: for example,
mountainous areas, such as the Himalayas, have
low population densities.
They can then complete Questions E2 a–b, E3 a–b,
E4–5.

They could then proceed to the exercise in the
Skills Book on pages 19–20, or complete this for
homework. Explain that their task is to use
information from a chart that lists world squash
champions in order to create a distribution map of
squash champions that will show very clearly which
countries have produced the most world squash
champions, as well as the most male and female
champions.
The should complete pages 21–22 as homework.

• I learned how to use thematic maps to find out
about average temperatures and rainfall for
different countries.
28 1
E 1. any country that has land below sea level,

Answers to assessment especially islands and countries whose
A 1. a physical map or relief map coasts are below sea level; examples from
2 d) the height of the land above or below this unit: USA (New Orleans area),
sea level Thailand (around Bangkok), the
Netherlands; also parts of Jordan, Syria,
3 a) Moussa ’Ali
Djibouti, China, and Kazakhstan.
b)
Lake Assal
2 a) Most people in Greenland live around
c) Djibouti, Obock, or Tadjoura the coasts, especially the south; inland
d) Randa, Adailou, Sibhi, Bankouale, or is mainly glacier or covered with ice all
Day year round; the south coast has the
e) the students’ own responses, using warmest climate.
information from the text and maps in b) It is a large country but the land is
the Student’s Book mainly covered with ice and the climate
B 1 a) Albania is in Europe with its western is very cold.
shore on the Mediterranean Sea. It has 3 a) The climate map of the world in Oxford
borders with Greece, Macedonia, School Atlas for Pakistan shows that
Kosovo, and Montenegro. most of Australia has a dry, semi-
b) Its capital city is Tirana. desert climate.
c) They should use a political map. b) The population density map of the
C 1 a) in northern Asia and Europe world in Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan
would show that most of the population
b) Hungary, Ukraine, Russia, north
in Australia lives near or around the
Kazakhstan, Mongolia
coast.
2. the students’ own responses,
4. students’ own responses
supported by the table and map
5. The population density of Egypt is 95 per
3 a) China
sq km but in areas along the banks of the
b) any South American countries except River Nile and on the coast, near the Nile
Suriname, Guyana, Paraguay, or Uruguay Delta it is more than 1000 people per sq
c)
Nepal km. This is because most of the land is
D 1. desert or mountain, but the land is flatter
and has a lower elevation around the Nile
Highest Lowest and at the coast.
land land F 1. Mauritania is in north-west Africa. It has
Country Continent
elevation elevation the Sahara Desert in the eastern half of
(metres) (metres) the country and a few mountains in the
Chile South 6000–7000 0 –100 centre and north. Students should use a
America political map and a physical (relief) map.
Pakistan Asia 8000–6000 0–100
Portugal Europe 2500–3000 0–100
Mali Africa 1000–1500 0– −100
New Oceania 3000–4000 0–100
Zealand
1 29
Answers to Skills Book
Page 18 ‘Mountain ranges of the world’
A 1 a–b) Check that the students mark the
mountain ranges as instructed.
Pages 19–20 ‘Showing information on a
map’
A 1. Students to read information on page 24.
B 1 a–b) Check that the students mark the
countries of the respective players in
the correct places.
Page 21–22 ‘How well do you know
the world?’
A 1. Check that the students have marked the
map in the correct places.
B. Check that the students have marked the
map in the correct places
30 1
U N I T 5 | Livi n g w i t h t h e c l im a t e
UNIT
5 Living with the climate
Background knowledge for the resistance. Trees can store large amounts of water,
whereas water easily evaporates from plains, so
unit forested areas have higher humidity, while plains
Climate affects a region’s agriculture, buildings, tend to be dry, or even arid.
infrastructure, clothing, and many aspects of Urban areas are usually warmer than nearby rural
everyday life. These differences are more areas, mainly because the buildings trap heat and
noticeable when extreme climates are compared: release it slowly back into the atmosphere. The
for example, in extremely cold regions, such as heat released from energy consumption in homes
parts of Russia, the permafrost makes the digging and industry also increases the temperature of the
of foundations for buildings very difficult. As a atmosphere of urban areas.
result, most buildings are placed on pillars, which
requires a smaller volume of land to be dug out, Before we proceed
and pipelines for sewage and water, and cables for It is useful to begin with the students’ own
electricity and communication are kept above the experiences of different climates. They could be
ground, rather than laid underground. asked to prepare a presentation on a place that
Homes in different climates are noticeably has a different climate from that of their
different: for example, in regions that have a lot of hometown, focusing on a description of the climate
snow, roofs tend to be steep and flat roofs are and anything they noticed about how it affects
rare; in hot, sunny climates, many homes have everyday life, buildings, cities, agriculture, etc.
window shutters that can be closed to keep out Questions such as ‘How are the homes different
strong sunlight, and white or light colours are used from ours?’ and ‘Why do you think the homes were
to reflect sunlight. Towns and buildings in hot built like that?’ are useful for focusing on the
climates are designed to provide shade and to effects of climate.
allow air to circulate easily.
If possible, the students could also exchange
Physical features such as mountains, plains, information with their friends or family who live in a
valleys, lakes, rivers, and forests affect the local different climatic zone.
climate. Urban and rural places in similar locations
can have different climates. Expected learning outcomes
Night temperatures in valleys are lower than on any Students should be able to:
surrounding hills because, in the winter, heavier
cold air drops down into the valleys. This can • distinguish between weather and climate
cause fog or mist. In the summer, winds make the • identify the factors that affect the climate of a
air colder on the hills. place: latitude, elevation, landforms, land mass
size, distance from the sea, and ocean currents
Places on the sheltered side of mountains have
less precipitation than those on the windward side • identify the main climatic zones of the world
because they are in a rain shadow. They can have • describe how people adapt their lives and
much higher temperatures in winter than places on buildings to suit the climate
the windward side of the mountains.
In summer, forests have lower temperatures than
plains because they trap heat. Forests also reduce
wind speed, whereas open plains offer little wind
1 31
U N I T 5 | Livi n g w i th th e c l im a t e
4. Warm or cold sea currents

Page 38–39 Many places near the sea have a maritime
climate. As well as the difference made by being
near the sea, warm ocean currents also give
‘What is the difference them a warmer and wetter climate than places Page 42–43
between climate and at the same latitude and elevation that are not
affected by ocean currents. Cold ocean currents
weather?’ have the opposite effect.
5. Wind
Resources The prevailing wind is the main wind direction in
• a globe a place. If the prevailing wind crosses an ocean
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan or sea it can increase the rainfall. When
prevailing winds blow over land areas, they can
• Skills Book page 23 ‘Weather or climate?’
help to create a desert climate. An example of
Introduction this is Kuwait.
Ask what climate means. Ask ‘Is climate the same
as weather?’ Explain the main factors that affect
climate. Ask the students to read page 38, then ask what
factors, other than latitude, affect climate. These
1. Latitude / distance from the Equator
are:
The Earth’s curvature means that the farther an
area is from the Equator, the lower the air • land elevation—the height of the land
temperature. Near the Poles, sunlight has to • the size of the land mass—larger land masses
pass through a larger area of atmosphere and tend to have greater differences between
the Sun is at a lower angle in the sky. Also, white summer and winter than smaller ones
and lighter colours reflect more light than darker
• distance from the sea—because the sea warms
colours, so the ice and snow near the Poles
up and cools down more slowly than land does,
reflect more sunlight than most land surfaces.
places near the sea tend to have milder
2. Land elevation / altitude climates than inland places
Locations at a higher altitude have colder • warm or cold sea currents—the seas flow in
temperatures. Temperature usually decreases by directions influenced by the Earth’s rotation and
1°C for every 100 metres in altitude because other factors.
air pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As air
rises, air pressure decreases. You can Then ask the students to look at the map of the
demonstrate this using a bicycle pump. As you world’s climatic zones and to name places that
depress the pump this puts pressure on the air have:
that is to be forced into the tyre. This increase • a polar climate
in temperature is enough to be felt (safely) by
• a temperate climate
hand. If you release air from a tyre, the air is
under less pressure as it escapes, so the air • an arid climate
expands and cools; so air escaping from a tyre • a tropical climate
feels cool. • a Mediterranean climate (note that this type of
3. Size of the land mass / distance from the sea climate is not restricted to areas around the
Mediterranean Sea—other places can have a
Water heats up and cools down much more
similar climate)
slowly than land. So places near the sea are
usually cooler in the summer and warmer in the • a mountain climate
winter than inland places at the same latitude
and elevation.
32 1
Activity Introduction
Show the students a globe and ask different student Tell the students that they are now going to locate
volunteers to come forward and point out parts of countries in their respective climatic zones. Explain
the world that have very hot climates, then very cold that this will also reinforce what they learned in
climates. Ask how they knew. They should have units 3 and 4 about types of maps and key
chosen, for very hot climates, places between the elements of maps.
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and for very cold
climates, places near the Poles. If necessary, remind Using the Student’s Book
them of the meaning of latitude, and that latitude
has a great effect on climate, but that there are Ask the students to look again at the map of
other factors that affect climate, too. climatic zones on page 38. Ask them to find out
the climatic zone of Pakistan. For this, they should
Ask them to point out any places near the Equator
remember how to use the key of a map. Point out
that have a climate that is not very hot, and
anywhere within the Arctic Circle that is less cold that there are different climates within Pakistan,
than other places at around the same latitude. Ask but the map does not show all of them because its
them to explain their choices, and tell them that scale is too small. Then ask them to use the key
they are going to find out about the factors that to find other countries with similar climates. They
affect climate. will need to use Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan or
a political map of the world marked with the names
Using the Skills Book of the countries.
Ask students to complete the Skills Book activity Ask the students to read ‘Living with the climate’.
‘Weather or climate?’ on page 27 to help them to Ask what they have learned from this section
understand the difference. The students could work before they proceed to the next section ‘What is
in pairs on this activity, and then give feedback to extreme weather?’
the class. They should now have a clear idea about
First, remind them that weather can change from
the difference between weather and climate.
day to day or even several times during the day,
Discussion and review and that climate is the weather pattern of a place
recorded over a long period of time. Ask them to
give some examples of extreme weather. These
could include flooding caused by very heavy rains
over a short time, drought, very hot or very cold
• I learned the difference between weather and weather, or very strong winds.
climate.
After reading this section, the students should
• I learned about the factors that affect the complete Questions D3 a–b, E1–2.
climate of a place.
• I learned about the Earth’s main climatic zones. Using the Skills Book
Ask the students to turn to page 24 of the Skills
Pages 39–40 Book ‘Locating places in different climate zones’.
Explain that some climates are very cold, like those
of the ice cap and polar tundra, and others are
‘Living with the climate’ very hot like those of hot deserts.
and ‘What is extreme They will need Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to
weather?’ locate the cities mentioned in Question 2.

Resources Ask the students what they have learnt in this
• Skills Book page 24 ‘Locating places in different summarizing the lesson, for example:
climatic zones’
1 33
• I learned to use a thematic map to find places

that have a similar climate.
Activity
Demonstrate with the help of a torch and a globe
• I learned some examples of extreme weather
why winters are long and dark in the Arctic. Hold
and how this is different from very cold or very
the torch, which will represent the Sun, at an angle
hot climates.
so that its light falls directly on the Equator. During
the winter, the Arctic is tilted away from the Sun
Pages 41–42 and that is why it receives very little sunlight.
Hence its winters are long and dark.
‘Polar climate’
Resources
• a globe
• a torch
Introduction
Ask the students what they know about polar Demonstrating that the Arctic is tilted away from the
climates, and why these places are very cold. Ask Sun during winters
if polar climates are wet or dry. Ask them to
explain their answers before they read the
Student’s Book pages 41–42 ‘Polar climate’. Ask the students what they have learnt in this
Using the Student’s Book summarizing the lesson, for example:
Ask the students to read ‘Polar climate’ to find out • I learned that the climate of a place with a polar
how accurate their ideas about this type of climate climate is influenced mainly by its distance from
were. After they have read this introductory the Equator.
paragraph, ask why does it snow so little in the • I learned that polar climates have very little rain
Arctic and why are the winters so long and dark or snow because the air has very little water
there? vapour.
Explain that humidity means the amount of water in • I learned that the low humidity in polar climates
the air. They might remember that when water is because the sea freezes in the winter; water
evaporates from lakes, rivers, land, and sea into does not evaporate into the air.
the air, it increases the humidity in the
atmosphere. Remind them that the warmer the air,
the more easily the water evaporates (becoming Pages 42–43
water vapour). When water vapour cools in the
atmosphere, it forms droplets of water (mist, fog,
and clouds). This falls to the ground as rain or ‘Living in a very cold
drizzle, and in cold weather as snow or sleet. In
cold climates such as the Arctic, water does not
climate’
evaporate because the sea is frozen, and hence
there is very little humidity there.
The students should then use the maps and the Resources
globe and torch to help them to answer Questions • room thermometer, or make a note of daily/
A1–2. weekly record of air temperatures for your city or
town each day
34 1
Preparation Discussion and review

For a few days before the lesson, make a note of Ask the students what they have learnt in the
the air temperature for your city or town each day. lesson. They could make a note of this,
Also find out the lowest-ever recorded temperature summarizing the lesson, for example:
for your area.
• I learned how a very cold climate affects
Introduction people’s everyday life.
Tell the students that they are going to find out • I learned how a very cold climate affects how
how people live in very cold climates. Ask them buildings are constructed and how pipes and
what they think the temperature of the place where cables can be laid for important services such
they live is at that time. If you have a thermometer, as water, sewage, electricity, and
place it in a shaded place outdoors to measure the communication.
air temperature. The students can then check their
estimates against this. If not, tell them the
temperatures for your area for the past few days.
Pages 43–45
Then ask them if this is hot, warm, cool, or cold.
Inform them of the lowest temperature that has
ever been recorded for your area. Then explain that
‘Living in a very hot
some places in the Arctic Circle have temperatures climate’
as low as −44°C, which is much colder than the air
in a freezer (typically around −20 to −18°C). Ask
what problems people who live in such places
might face. Resources
• a
weather thermometer or make a note of the
Using the Student’s Book air temperature for your city or town each day
Ask the students to read page 42 ‘Living in a very
• S
kills Book page 25 ‘Living in places with very
cold climate’ and ‘How are the houses built?’
hot and very cold climates’
Explain that when a building is constructed, the
foundations are first dug deep into the ground,
otherwise the weight of the building will push it
Preparation
down into the ground. You could show them a photo F or a few days before the lesson, make a note of
of the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy, which was built the air temperature for your city or town each day.
on poor foundations, so that it sank unevenly into Also find out the highest-ever recorded temperature
the ground until it settled on solid rock. for your area.
However, in Arctic regions, the permanently frozen
ground, called permafrost, is really very hard to dig
Introduction
into. Though the permafrost seems solid, if the top Tell the students that they are going to find out
part of it melts in warm weather, the foundations of how people live in very hot climates. Remind them
the buildings will be insecure. The builders dig of what they found out about the temperature
smaller, deep foundations for pillars on which where they live.
buildings are supported.
Inform them about the highest temperature that
Ask why pipes and electrical cables are laid above has ever been recorded for your area. Then explain
the ground in Yakutsk, Russia. The students can that some places near the Equator have average
read the blog from the resident of Yakutsk. If summer temperatures of between 44°C and
possible, ask them to look this up online in order 46°C—sometimes even higher. The highest ever
to read any updates. They might even be able to
temperature recorded in Kuwait was 53.8°C on 31
communicate with the writer via the blog. If so,
July 2012. This is the highest recorded
encourage them to prepare some questions they
temperature in Asia and the third highest in the
would like to ask about life in Yakutsk.
world. Temperatures in Kuwait are hardly ever lower
Ask them to complete Questions B1–3, C1–2, E3. than 10°C, even at night in the winter.
1 35
Ask why places near the Poles have very cold

climates and why places near the Equator have Answers to assessment
much warmer climates. The students should now A 1. Arctic regions have very long days
be able to explain this easily, referring to the throughout the summer, with 24 hours of
distance of the Equator and the Poles from the
daylight for some of the time. In winter they
Sun.
have very short days, with 24 hours of
Using the Student’s Book darkness for some of the time.
2 a) The land is very flat, with very low
Ask the students to read ‘Living in a very hot
vegetation, and hardly any trees.
climate’ on pages 43–45. Ask how the hot, dry
b) Trees grow very slowly in cold climates
climate of Kuwait affects the land and vegetation.
Ask what makes the climate there so hot and dry, and the soil that is not frozen is not
apart from its nearness to the Equator. They might deep enough for their roots.
be able to compare the climates of Kuwait City and B 1 a) Accept the students’ own ideas, which
Quito in Ecuador (which is on the Equator) and should include how to keep warm; how
explain the differences. Point out the difference the cold climate affects their everyday
made by the land—its elevation and the landforms activities; and how their homes, other
(mountains, plains, valleys, and plateaus). buildings and the infrastructure are built.
The students can complete Question D1 orally, as b) The students should write their own
a whole-class activity before continuing to read questions and find out their answers
about life in Kuwait City, including how the climate from the Internet or reference books.
affects the way in which houses are built. Ask them 2 a) Permafrost makes it difficult to dig
to identify as many features as they can that help foundations because the frozen ground
to keep houses cool. Also ask how the problems of is very hard.
living in a very dry climate with very little water are b) They dig deep but small areas for pillars
solved. which rest on solid rock deep in the
They might be able to explain how some of the ground. The buildings are erected on
problems of living in a hot, dry climate can be these pillars.
solved and complete Questions D2 a–f, E3–4. 3 a) Students should write their own
responses. These might include whether
Using the Skills Book or not they would be able to play
Ask the students to use what they have learned outdoors, the type of clothes they would
from the Student’s Book to help them complete the wear, etc.
Venn diagram on page 25 ‘Living in places with b) Students should write their answers.
very hot and very cold climates’. They might like to ask him about his
profession and whether he has ever
Discussion and review travelled to another region with a
Ask the students what they have learnt in the different climate.
lesson. They could make a note of this, c) Students should discuss their questions
summarizing the lesson, for example: with their friends and tell you their
• I learned how latitude, land elevation, and answers.
landforms affect the climate of a place. C 1 a) Oulu, in Finland, Tromsø, in Norway,
Barrow in Alaska, and Reykjavik in
• I learned how people solve the problems of
living in a very hot, dry climate. Iceland; students’s own research
b) Cities on smaller land masses, nearer the
sea, or at lower elevations, and sheltered
by mountains have less extreme climates.
36 1
2 a) Students should find out the average b) rain at any time of the year
annual temperatures and rainfall for c) cold all the year, very cold
these cities. 3 a) false (Temperatures are quite high in the
b) Reykjavik has higher annual rainfall than summer.)
Yakutsk. b) true
c) Reykjavik has higher average c) true
temperatures than Yakutsk. d) true
D 1. land elevation, landforms, such as plains, e) true
mountains, and plateaus and distance from
f) false (There is no precipitation in
the sea
Yakutsk so it never rains or snows
2 a) It is near the Equator, on very flat land. there.)
b) It has an arid climate which is very hot, 4. The coastal areas of Thatta and Badin are
so people need to find ways to stay cool often flooded by sea water when the sea
and to keep homes, other buildings, and level rises during the rainy season. People
streets cool. There is very little water move to safer places and return to their
because there are no lakes or rivers and homes once the sea level goes down. The
very low rainfall. Strong winds blow Indus plain is also flooded during the rainy
across the flat land of the nearby desert, season and people have to be displaced to
causing dust storms. safer areas.
c) They use sea water that is desalinated
(has the salt removed) in desalination
plants.
d) Very hot temperatures can kill plants but Answers to Skills Book
they grow some crops in temperature-
controlled glasshouses and polytunnels. Page 23 ‘Weather or climate?’
These let in sunlight but control the A 1 a) weather b) climate c) climate
temperature. d) climate e) weather f) climate
e) Wind-towers with openings make the air
move around buildings and thus keep Page 24 ‘Locating places in different
them cool, and narrow streets with tall climatic zones’
buildings provide shade from the Sun. A 1–2. Check that the students mark the map in
f) Buildings are painted white or a light the correct places.
colour to reflect the sunlight during the
day. They have courtyards that provide Page 25 ‘Living in places with very
shade during the day, but the walls cold and very hot climates’
absorb heat from the Sun. This warms
A 1. Check that the students write the relevant
the air at night. statements in the correct parts of the Venn
3 a) the students’ own descriptions; a long diagram.
period of high temperature which is
higher than the regular climate of a
certain place
b) floods in Lahore during 2011–2014;
heatwave in 2014; coldest December in
2013
E 1 a) temperature, sunshine, rain
b) weather, year
2 a) very cold, rain
1 37
U N I T 6 | For e sts o f th e w o r l d
UNIT
6
Forests of the world
Temperate deciduous forests
unit (eastern USA and Canada, most of the
There are many definitions of forest. ‘Forest’ usually Europe, and parts of China and Japan)
means a collection of trees, but there is no agreed An enormous variety of animal life, such as insects,
minimum size or precise distinction between a forest spiders, slugs, frogs, turtles, and salamander;
and a wood, although woods are generally agreed to various birds, e.g. hawks, cardinals, snowy owls, and
be smaller than forests. A forest is not just a group woodpeckers; and mammals, including deer,
of trees, but includes the soil that supports the raccoon, opossums, porcupines, and foxes. Animals
trees, and the water and air around them. This of the temperate deciduous forest have to adapt to
makes up a complex ecosystem that supports many the changing seasons, migrate, or hibernate in the
living things, including shrubs, vines, grasses, and winter.
other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae,
fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, Types of forests
and microorganisms.
Latitudes between 10°N and 10°S of the Equator
Forest habitat are mainly covered with tropical rainforests.
A forest is usually a habitat for numerous animal Tropical rainforests receive rainfall in all months of
species, depending on its location and climate, for the year and have a hot, humid climate, with
example: average monthly temperatures between 18°C and
35°C. There are also tropical dry forests in some
Asia regions whose climates are warm all year. They do
not necessarily have a low annual rainfall; in fact,
Eastern Himalayas: Asian elephant, snow leopard,
many tropical dry forests have several hundred
panda, tiger, one-horned rhino
centimetres of rain per year, but they have long dry
Mekong River Forest: tiger, rhino seasons lasting several months. These droughts
Borneo and Sumatra: orangutan, rhino, pygmy affect all the living things in the forests. Examples
elephant, tiger, elephant of tropical dry forests are Doi Inthanon National
Yangtze River Forest: giant panda, snow leopard Park, in the north of Thailand, and Chacachare, in
the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Other
Amur-Heilong Forest (north-eastern China and
examples are in Sri Lanka and Guatemala.
eastern Russia): tiger, leopard
Deciduous forests lie between 45°N and 45°S in
Africa the temperate climatic zone. Coniferous forests are
Namibia: elephant, black rhino, white rhino found at very high altitudes with very cold climates,
mainly in the northern hemisphere.
Madagascar: lemur, tortoise, gecko, chameleon
Congo Basin: mountain gorilla, chimpanzee, Most forests that are made up mainly of broad leaf
elephant trees have many more species of living things than
those made up mainly of conifers.
South America Some forests, such as tropical rainforests and
Amazon Forest: jaguar, macaw, black spider monkey, temperate deciduous forests, have numerous tree
poison dart frog species in a small area; coniferous forests have a
few species over a large area.
38 1
U N I T 6 | F o r e s t s o f t h e w orld
Around 66% of the world’s forests are in just ten makes a thin, diagonal cut to remove a thin slice of
countries. About 80% of the Earth’s plant biomass bark and fixes a small bucket below this to collect
is contained in forests, mainly under the ground in the latex. Latex runs out for about six hours and
roots and in rotting plant material. then stops. Usually about 2.5 litres of latex can be
collected each day from a single tree. The next day
Primary forests are natural forests, although most
the tree can be tapped again, but most rubber-
have had new trees planted. Planted forests are
tappers tap different trees the next day.
planted for a purpose. Most forests are a mixture
of primary and planted. A dilute acid is added to the latex, which is left to
thicken in shallow metal pans. This forms a soft
The benefits of forests block of thickened latex.
A report by the FAO (Food and Agriculture The block of thickened latex is then passed
Organization of the United Nations) in 2016 through rollers to squeeze out the water. Then it is
concluded that, although agriculture is the main washed to remove the acid, and rolled again, to
cause of deforestation, forests and trees actually squeeze out the water.
support sustainable agriculture. They do this by
After rolling, the sheet of raw rubber is hung to dry
stabilizing the climate and soil. They also provide on a rack over a wood fire. The smoke from the fire
protection from water erosion and flooding and stabilizes the rubber. This rubber is then sold to
provide shade from sunlight, and shelter from wind manufacturers.
and storms. In addition, they provide a habitat for
insects and other species that pollinate plants, as Before we proceed
well as animals that feed on insects and other
It is useful to show students the maps of world
species that destroy crops.
ecosystems from Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan, to
The FAO report describes projects in Costa Rica, help them identify the countries where different
Chile, the Gambia, Georgia, Ghana, Tunisia, and types of forests are located.
Vietnam that have shown that agricultural
Also help them identify the climatic zones of the
productivity can be increased without deforestation,
countries where these forests are found.
and even while reversing deforestation.
Reference books about forests and trees will be
Forests provide food, energy, and income for
useful in finding examples of coniferous and
hundreds of millions of people around the world.
deciduous trees. The students could also find
Non-food products include timber, paper, charcoal, information on websites such as www.
and other wood products, both for construction and pakistangeographic.com/forests.html and Forest,
energy; cork, tar, turpentine (used for thinning Wildlife, and Fisheries Department of Pakistan
paints and furniture polish) rubber, and creosote http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk, and the Food and
(used for protecting timber and in the chemical Agriculture Organization FAO www.fao.org.
industry). Numerous chemical products are by-
products of wood. Expected learning outcomes
Food products from forests include those from Students should be able to:
trees growing naturally, such as Brazil nuts, other • describe the climates of different types of
nuts, fruits, berries and seeds; also edible fungi forests
grow among the trees. • compare primary and planted forests
Food also comes from the animals of the forest • explain how forests and woodland improve the
habitat, such as fish, shrimps, oysters, crabs, and environment
cockles from mangrove estuaries; and honey from • identify the characteristics of the main layers of
bees in numerous forests. a tropical rainforest
Rubber-tapping • explain some of the ways in which people make
a living in forests
A rubber tree takes about six years to grow enough
for its sap (latex) to be harvested. The tapper
1 39

Pages 48–49 Ask the students to do page 28 ‘Planted forests’
and ask what a planted forest is and how it differs
‘What is a forest?’; ‘Types from a primary forest. Using Oxford School Atlas for
of forests?’; ‘Coniferous Pakistan, help them locate the countries listed on
the page and mark them on the blank political map
forests’; and ‘Deciduous of the world.
forests’
Resources
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan summarizing the lesson, for example:
• Skills Book page 28 ‘Planted forests’ • I learned about the factors that affect the type
• access to the Internet, if possible of forest that grows in a place.
Introduction
Pages 49–51
Ask what is meant by a forest. Point out that there
is no real distinction between a wood and a forest,
although most people agree that a forest is bigger
than a wood. If they have visited a forest, students ‘Tropical rainforests’ and
could describe how a forest is different from other ‘Layers of the rainforest’
landscapes; the difference made by the trees to
the weather, local climate, other plants, and
wildlife.
Resources
Show them the map of the world’s main forests, and
explain the difference between primary forest and
planted or semi-planted forest. • S
kills Book page 26 ‘Layers of a tropical
rainforest’
Activity • Skills Book page 27 ‘The climate of a tropical
rainforest’
Ask the students to use the Internet or reference
books to find out about the different types of Introduction
forests found in different climatic zones. They could
Tell the students that they are now going to find
mark a world map to show the locations of the
out more about tropical rainforests, and ask them
world’s coniferous and deciduous forests.
to look at the map on page 50 that shows the
tropical rainforests of the world. Ask them which
latitudes most tropical rainforests lie between. Also
Ask the students to read the following sections of ask them to name any countries at the same
pages 48–49 ‘What is a forest?’; ‘Coniferous latitudes as these forests that do not have tropical
forests’; and ‘Deciduous forests’. Then ask them rainforests. Ask them to explain why some tropical
to describe coniferous and deciduous forests, regions have rainforests while others do not. Point
giving examples of some of the trees and to say out that some tropical regions have arid climates—
what kind of climate is suitable for each type of deserts, which do not support trees; others have
forest and why. Ask why some parts of Pakistan are tropical dry forests (see Before we proceed).
suitable for coniferous trees, although Pakistan is Explain that forests, particularly rainforests, can be
not in a cold climatic zone. (Because the split into horizontal layers. Each layer has a different
coniferous forests grow at high altitudes, where collection of plants and animals depending upon the
temperatures are much colder than in the lowlands, amount of sunlight, water, and food available. From
e.g. Juniper forest in Ziarat, Murree, and northern the ground upwards, these layers are:
areas of Pakistan.)
40 1
• forest floor—rotting leaves, animal dropping, • I learned how different trees and other plants
and dead trees, which form new soil and provide survive together in a tropical rainforest.
nutrients for the plants; living plants, including
• I learned that a tropical rainforest can be split
ferns, grasses, fungi, and tree seedlings
into layers, with the tallest trees growing to the
• under canopy—bushes, shrubs, and young trees top layer—the emergent layer.
that can survive in the shade under the canopy
• canopy—branches, twigs, and leaves of mature
trees, where the tops of the tallest trees get
Pages 51–52
most of the sunlight
• emergent layer—in tropical rainforests, where a
few scattered trees rise above the canopy
‘Making a living in the
rainforest of Brazil’
Activity
If possible, show the students an example near the
school of any area of vegetation and ask what they Resources
notice about the heights of the plants. (They are
usually different heights, with some needing more
sunlight than others which survive in the shade.) • pictures of products of the Amazon rainforest
Explain that forests are like this: some trees grow
taller than others and there are many plants that
Introduction
grow well in shady places, while some reach the Ask the students to locate Brazil on a map of the
sunlight by climbing up others. world. Ask them to describe its location (continent,
neighbouring countries, seas/oceans, and latitude).
Using the Student’s Book Ask them to find the main river in Brazil, and to
Ask the students to read ‘Layers of the rainforest’ name it. They should be able to describe the
and to look at the diagram of a rainforest. Ask them climatic zone of the area around this river (the
to describe the layers of a rainforest without Amazon). Using a physical map of Brazil/South
referring to the Student’s Book. Then ask them to America, they should be able to describe the land
give an example of a tropical rainforest tree, saying there (whether it is mountainous, a valley, a plain,
which layer of the rainforest it belongs to, and why or a plateau).
this layer suits it. They should be able to name the
kapok tree and to say why it is suited to the Activity
emergent layer. After reading this section, the Show the students some pictures of the products
students should complete Questions A1–2. of the Amazon rainforest: rubber and Brazil nuts (if
possible show the nuts in their shells—perhaps
Using the Skills Book use nutcrackers to open them for the students to
Ask the students to turn to page 26 of the Skills eat.) Explain that the nuts grow in pods—around
Book ‘Layers of a tropical rainforest’. They should 10–21 nuts in each pod.
try to complete this without referring to the
If you are unable to find Brazil nuts, show them
Student’s Book. They can proceed to page 27 ‘The
pictures of Brazil nuts and tell them that a pod is
climate of a tropical rainforest’, or complete this
approximately the size of a baseball. Its outer shell
for homework.
is very hard. It falls from the trees when it ripens.
Discussion and review Using the Student’s Book
Ask the students to read the sections about
rubber-tapping and Brazil nut harvesting. After they
have read these, ask if they think the workers face
• I learned about the climate of a tropical any dangers. (Many workers are injured, or even
rainforest
1 41
killed by Brazil nut pods falling from trees as these them that they are going to learn some of the
are hard and quite heavy. They also face possible reasons why people plant forests and about some
danger from some of the animals of the rainforest.) examples.
Ask if rubber-tapping and Brazil nut harvesting
harm the rainforest, and why not. Inform them that
Ask the students to read the sections of pages
rubber trees have a wax-like liquid called latex in
52–53 ‘What is the difference between primary and
their bark which is tapped by rubber-tappers. Ask
planted forests?’, ‘Why do people plant forests?’,
them to name some of the products made from
‘Urban planted forests’, and ‘It’s a fact.’ Point out
rubber. Give them examples like rubber shoe soles,
the photo of the Shelterbelt Forest on Sanjiang
balloons, tyres, pencil erasers, etc. Ask them to Plain, China, and ask how it is useful. Explain that
complete Questions B1–3. for centuries, dust storms from the Gobi Desert
Discussion and review have affected the major cities of China like Beijing
and are a major cause of desertification. Since
Ask the students what they have learnt in this 1978, the Chinese government has started planting
lesson. They could make a note of this, forests to address this issue and it has been quite
summarizing the lesson, for example: successful in this regard. The vegetation has
• I learned that the rainforests contain trees that increased and the intensity of the dust storms has
are very useful to people: for example, the decreased.
rubber tree and the Brazil nut tree. Explain that, as well as protecting the land from
• I learned how Brazil nuts are harvested and sold dust storms, a planted forest could be useful in
without harming the trees and rubber-tappers another important way, and ask what this might be.
collect latex without harming the trees, and sell (A forest can protect the land from wind that could
cause soil erosion, where soil is blown away by the
it to rubber manufacturers.
wind, leaving the land much poorer for farming. It
could also help to prevent soil being washed away,
Pages 52–53 as the tree roots hold the soil.)
Ask the students not to refer to the Student’s Book,
and invite volunteers to say what they have learnt,
‘What is the difference and to give examples of primary and planted
forests. Also ask why people plant forests, apart
between primary and from making the environment look pleasant. If they
planted forests?’; ‘Why do do not mention it, remind them of the information in
‘It’s a fact.’ and ask how forests can help to protect
people plant forests’; and the environment. Explain that carbon dioxide is a
‘Urban planted forests’ gas that is released into the air when animals
(including humans) breathe, and that many human
activities, such as industry and transport, release
Resources carbon dioxide into the air. Point out that carbon
dioxide replaces other useful gases in the air, such
• Skills Book pages 30–31 ‘Advantages of planted as oxygen, which we and other animals need in
forests’ order to stay alive. Carbon dioxide is one of the
gases that help to keep the Earth warm, but too
Introduction much carbon dioxide leads to global warming. Trees
Remind the students about the term ‘primary and other plants take in carbon dioxide during the
forest’ and ask them to explain it. Point out that day, when they use energy from sunlight to produce
there are very few forests that have grown glucose from carbon dioxide and water. They build
completely naturally, but most forests began as new material from glucose. So large forests are
primary forests, and new trees have been planted important for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide
in and around them. Ask if they have visited, or in the air. The tropical rainforest of Brazil makes a
heard of, a forest that was planted specially, and if huge difference to the entire world this is why many
they know what the trees were planted for. Tell countries are helping Brazil to protect its forest.
Ask the students to complete Questions C1–3.
42 1
Using the Skills Book Using the Student’s Book

Show pages 30–31 of the Skills Book to the Ask the students to read ‘How do forests help a
students that feature a series of quotations from city?’ on pages 53–54. Invite the students to
different people about a new forest that is being explain what makes the air in cities warmer than
planned for land in a rural area that is being used the air in the surrounding countryside, and how a
for farming. forest can help to cool the air in a city. Ask them
They could read the quotations in groups and to complete Question C4.
discuss the effects of the planned forest and then Using the Skills Book
write what they think each group of people would
want the planners to do. Visit each group and ask Show the students the diagram on page 54 and
them to explain their answers. Each group could ask them to discuss how a forest could help to
also plan a presentation for the rest of the class, improve the atmosphere and keep the air in a
or they could arrange a mock ‘consultation neighbouring town/city cool, and where it could be
meeting’ with different students taking the roles of planted. The students could also discuss whether
the people described on the pages. Encourage everyone in the city or town would be in favour of
them to represent their characters’ views in a planting new forest, and give reasons to support
persuasive but polite way. their answers. This is an opportunity for a class
debate, also using what has been learned in
Discussion and review previous lessons.
Ask the students what they have learnt in this The students could complete this exercise on page
lesson. They could make a note of this, 29 for homework.
• I learned about the differences between primary
and planted forests and can describe some
examples of each type of forests.
• I learned some of the purposes for which
• I learned how a forest can help to cool hot air
forests are planted, including to help reduce
in a city.
climate change.
• I learned how trees can help to prevent air
pollution in a city.
Pages 53–54
Pages 54–55
‘How do forests help a city?’
‘A planted forest in
Pakistan: Changa Manga’
Resources and ‘A planted forest in the
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan UK: Kielder Forest’
• Skills Book page 29 ‘How forests cool a city’
Introduction Introduction
Tell the students that forests are an important part Ask if any of them have visited Changa Manga
of our environment. They affect the atmosphere of Forest near Lahore, in Punjab. They could tell the
the neighbouring towns and cities. others about their visit. If not, tell them that Changa
Manga is one of the oldest planted forests in the
world and was once the largest, but it is now much
1 43
smaller than it used to be, because of clearing

forests. Changa Manga is on a plain in a region with
a hot, dry climate, and before the forest was Ask the students what they have learnt in this
planted, scrubland was cleared of bushes and lesson. They could make a note of this,
irrigation canals were dug. The first trees to be summarizing the lesson, for example:
planted were chosen because they could adapt to
• I learned that forests that are planted for timber
this type of climate: sheesham and kikar (coniferous
can become pleasant places for recreation and
trees, whose wood is useful for many purposes, and
for protecting wildlife.
parts of the trees have medicinal uses); also white
mulberry (a broad-leafed tree that has many • I learned about the similarities and differences
medicinal uses as well as being a grown for feeding between a planted forest in Pakistan and
silkworms). Eucalyptus trees were planted later. another in the UK.
Ask if any student knows the purpose of Changa
Manga forest, where planting began in 1866. They
might remember from their history lessons that this
was during the time of British rule, and that the
British were keen to build railways for transporting
military personnel and goods as well as crops such
as tea. The forest provided wood for railway
construction and for fuel for steam trains. Tell the
students that they are going to find out about the
new purposes for Changa Manga and another
forest in England that was planted with different
coniferous trees for a different purpose, but now
has a very similar purpose to Changa Manga.

Ask the students to read the sections of pages
54–55 ‘A planted forest in Pakistan: Changa
Manga’ and ‘A planted forest in the UK: Kielder
Forest’ and to look at the photos of the forests.
Then they should use Oxford School Atlas for
Pakistan to find the locations of the Kielder and
Changa Manga forests.
Ask the students what Kielder forest was planted
for (timber). It is still one of the UK’s main sources
of timber for various industries. Ask them to
compare these two planted forests. They should
comment on the types of trees, the wildlife, and
the new purpose for each forest. Ask them if using
wood as a material or fuel is harmful to the
environment or whether it could be helpful. Explain
to them that a forest where new trees are planted
to replace the ones that have been cut down can
be in better condition than a forest left to nature. It
can also provide a sanctuary for wildlife. The
students could find out more from http://fwf.
punjab.gov.pk. Ask them to complete Questions C2
a–e.
44 1
c) Some plants do not need much sunlight;

Answers to assessment others can climb up the taller plants to
A 1 a) T ropical rainforests are found between reach the sunlight.
the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. B 1 a) They make a small cut in the bark of the
Their climate is hot and humid. They tree and fix a cup to collect the latex
receive rain throughout the year and the that runs out. Later in the day, they go
average temperatures each month are back to collect the cups of latex. The
between 18°C and 35°C. The world’s next day, they tap different trees.
largest tropical rainforest is in Brazil. b) The rubber-tappers and Brazil nut
b) between 10° north and 10° south of the harvesters look after the forest by
making sure they do not damage the
Equator
trees. They are aware of the fact that
c) a hot climate with no dry season, and they need the forest so that they can
rain during every month of the year make a living out of it. The rubber-
2 a) Emergent layer: the topmost layer, which tappers tap different trees each day and
receives the most sunlight. Leaves are hence do not damage them. The Brazil
big and leathery or hairy, with a pointed nut harvesters collect Brazil nut pods
that have fallen and cut down other nuts
shape that lets water run off easily.
carefully.
Canopy: the second layer, which has
c) Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru
shorter trees that do not need much
2 a) kapok tree, Brazil nut, rubber tree
sunlight. The leaves are so dense that
they form a canopy and block out sunlight b) The government pays them to help them
to the lower layers. Most of the animal make a living from the trees in the wild.
Only wild trees are tapped, so no forest
and plant life of the forest is found here.
is cut down to plant rubber trees. They
Under canopy: the third layer, which has tap different trees each day.
shorter trees than the canopy and need
c) Each morning they go along forest trails
even less sunlight, but need shelter from to gather the pods of nuts that fall from
heavy rain. They get water that drips off the trees.
the leaves of the canopy trees. They open the pods using a machete
Forest floor: the bottom layer, which is and then take out the nuts. They put the
very cool and shaded, so very few plants nuts in large bags and carry them to a
grow there, apart from those that do not nearby house or settlement near a road
need much sunlight, such as shrubs, or river. Then they hand over the nuts to
mosses, ferns, and bushes. Some small the people who transport them by road
trees can grow up to 3.5 metres, while or river to processing plants in towns.
other forest floor plants grow up till the 3 a–b) Accept the students’ own responses.
trees to reach sunlight. The acai berry is a small, round, dark
purple fruit, similar to a grape, but
b) It is an emergent tree that grows very
smaller and with less pulp. It grows
quickly to the top of the canopy, where
on the acai palm in rainforests. It is
plenty of sunlight reaches it. It has a
thick trunk and many roots that spread used in making fruit juices and other
out to support the tree in shallow soil. healthy food products. The leaves are
These large roots help the tree to take used for making hats, mats, baskets,
up water. Its leaves turn to face the Sun brooms, and roof thatch. The trunk
and their fan shape helps the rain to run wood is used in construction as well
off them. as for producing dietary minerals.
1 45
C 1. The students’ own responses should

include the effects on farmers (who might
lose some of their farmland); people in Page 26 ‘Layers of a tropical
nearby villages, towns, or cities (who could rainforest’
benefit from the reduction in pollution and
flooding and fresher, cooler air, and enjoy A 1. emergent, canopy, under canopy, forest
floor
visiting a forest for recreation); local
businesses (whose trade could benefit 2. Answers will vary. Plants might include:
from visitors).
banana, coffee, Brazil nut, rubber, tea,
2 a) gyps vulture, blue bull, urial, spotted kapok.
deer, peacock, partridge, various
species of monkey Page 27 ‘The climate of a tropical
b) They can go to the zoo, walk in the rainforest’
forest, ride on the train, visit the pagoda, A 1. hot; Tropics of Cancer; Capricorn; humid;
water turbine, or waterfall. They can also rises; clouds; cool; condenses; rain; tree
go to the children’s play area, on the canopy; under canopy; nutrients; dead
boating lake, and have a picnic. plants and animals decompose quickly;
c) students’ own responses shallow; nutrients; water.
d) The forest could help to prevent Page 28 ‘Planted forests’
flooding, because trees take up a lot of
A 1. Check that the students mark and label
water from the soil. It could provide
the planted forests in the correct places.
shelter from wind and hot sunshine. It
provides a pleasant place for a day out. 2. a–b) students’ own responses
It brings tourists to the area; this could
provide income for local businesses. It
Page 29 ‘How forests cool a city’
could also make local roads and A 1. students’ own answers
railways busier. This might lead to
Pages 30–31 ‘Advantages of planted
improved roads for the area which
could be useful for local people and forest’
businesses. A 1. Students should read the information.
e) the students’ own responses, using 2. students’ own responses
information from this unit and from
leaflets from Changa Manga, and the
Internet
3. The correct answer is ‘b’
4 a) true
b)
false
c)
false
46 1
UN IT 7 | Mo u nt ai ns , p l at e au s , and v alle ys
Mountains, plateaus,
UNIT
7
and valleys
Valleys
unit A valley is an area of lowland between mountains.
It is usually longer than it is wide. Most valleys are
Mountains V-shaped or U-shaped, depending on how they were
There is no exact definition of a mountain, nor any formed. V-shaped valleys are usually formed by
precise distinction between a hill and a mountain, fast-flowing water in streams or rivers. U-shaped
although mountains usually have steeper sides valleys are usually formed by glaciers. Rift valleys
than hills and are usually higher than 300 metres. are formed by the movement of tectonic plates.
There are three main types of mountains: volcanic,
fold, and fault block, all formed by plate tectonics: Before we proceed
when parts of the Earth’s lithosphere (the crust A useful way to introduce the topic of mountains
and upper part of the mantle) move upwards, and of helping the students to notice the
downwards, or sideways on top of the significant similarities and differences between
asthenosphere (the part of the mantle that is
mountains is to provide as many photos of different
immediately below the lithosphere which has a
mountains as possible, and ask the students to
viscous consistency). The main mountain ranges
are found along tectonic plate boundaries. work in groups to sort them into sets, according to
similarities they notice. They can then give each
The movement of magma (molten rock) can form set a name or description that distinguishes it from
volcanic mountains. Magma collects in magma the other sets before learning how each type is
chambers (pools beneath the surface of the Earth),
formed into its distinctive shape.
where it stays until it either cools to form igneous
rock, moves into another magma chamber, or erupts In a similar way, a selection of photos of plateaus
as a volcano. Magma rises through cracks in the can be used to help the students to come up with
crust because it is less dense than the surrounding a definition of a plateau.
rock. It can form a dome mountain where it pushes
a large area of rock upwards. Photos of different types of valleys can be sorted
in a similar way to the photos of mountains, to
Plateaus encourage the students to notice their distinctive
A plateau is an area of high ground (a high plain), features before learning how each type is formed.
with a fairly flat surface and usually with one or
more steeply sloping sides, or even cliffs. Plateaus
Expected learning outcomes
can be formed in different ways. Magma rises from Students should be able to:
the mantle, pushing large, flat areas of rock
• explain that tectonic plates are parts of the
upwards, in a similar way to dome mountains, but
wider and flatter. Where lava spreads outwards from Earth’s crust and the top layer of the mantle
cracks and weak areas in the crust, this can form a that have been split up into massive pieces
plateau. Plateaus can be formed where glaciers • explain how the movement of tectonic plates
erode mountain ranges, leaving high areas between has formed the landscape
the main mountain ranges. A plateau can also be
formed where water erodes the softer rock of • explain how different types of mountains,
mountains or other landforms, leaving a high, flat valleys, and plateaus are formed
area of harder rock. • use contours to find out about the elevation and
shape of a landscape
1 47
U N I T 7 | Mou n ta i n s, p l a teau s , and v al l e y s
plates moving towards one another and pushing

against one another. The towels represent the
Pages 58–59 edges of the tectonic plates. Ask the students to
use what they observe to help them to explain how
tectonic plates form mountains when they push
‘How were mountains against one another. (The forces push the edges of
formed?’; ‘The internal the tectonic plates upwards so that layers of rock
forces that form mountains’; fold into ripples.)
‘Types of mountains’; and Ask the students to read ‘Fold mountains’ and
complete Question D1 a.
‘Fold mountains’
Ask the students to do pages 32–33 ‘Tectonic
Resources plates and mountains’ using a physical map of the
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan world to help them to locate and name the
• 5
towels (about the same size) in different mountain ranges listed. They should leave out the
colours section on volcanoes until after the next Student’s
Book pages have been completed.
• 2 boxes of books, or other heavy items
• Skills Book pages 32–33 ‘Tectonic plates and Discussion and review
mountains’
Introduction lesson. They could make a note of this,
Remind the students of how they sorted the photos
of mountains into sets (see Background knowledge, • I learned the locations of the world’s main
above) and the descriptions they gave to each set, mountain ranges.
according to the appearance of the mountains. • I learned that mountains are formed by forces
Explain that the shape of mountains depends on caused by movements within the Earth.
how they were formed, and that they are going to
learn about the main ways in which mountains are • I learned that fold mountains are formed where
formed. two tectonic plates push against one another.
Ask them to look at a physical map of the world to

find and name the main mountain ranges on each Page 60
continent.

Ask the students to read the sections on page 58 ‘Fault block mountains’
‘How were mountains formed?’ and ‘The internal
forces that form mountains’. Tell them that they
are going to carry out an investigation to show how
the force of tectonic plates pushing against one Resources
another forms mountains.
Activity
Introduction
Set up the investigation to find out how fold
mountains were formed (page 59). The students Tell the students that they are now going to find
should follow the instructions on page 59 and then out about two other ways in which mountains are
complete the exercise. Tell them that the boxes of formed. Explain that tectonic plates can pull apart
books or other heavy items represent tectonic with immense force that sometimes makes them
break along weak points or cracks.
48 1
UN IT 7 | M o u nt ai ns , p l at e au s , and v alleys
Using the Student’s Book Introduction

Ask the students to read ‘Fault block mountains’ to Tell the students that they are going to find out
find out what happens. Ask them to compare the how some volcanic mountains form. Explain that
photos of the fault block mountains with the volcanoes can be:
photos of fold mountains on page 59 and to • Active (erupting or likely to erupt): Most
describe the differences they can see. If they find
scientists consider a volcano as active, if it has
this difficult, draw their attention to the folded
erupted in the last 10,000 years; has exhibited
ripples shown in the layers of rock in fold
unusual seismic activity; or produced significant
mountains and the straighter layers with sharp
new gas emissions.
breaks in fault block mountains. They should also
use Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to find the • Extinct (no written records of its activity): It is
locations of the mountains in the photos. Ask the unlikely to erupt again because there is no
students to complete Question A1 a. longer a supply of magma.
• Dormant (not known to be active): It has shown
Discussion and review no sign of volcanic activity but there is still a
Ask the students what they have learnt in this supply of magma.
summarizing the lesson, for example: Activity
• I learned how fault block mountains are formed. Put a layer of clay in the base of the beaker.
Explain that this represents rock below the Earth’s
crust. Pour some thickened water onto the clay
Page 61 (about 1–2 cm deep). Explain that this represents
a magma chamber (a pool of magma that has
collected under the Earth’s crust). Make a hole
‘Volcanic mountains’ about 5 mm diameter in the other layer of clay and
push this onto the water, explaining that this
represents rock in the Earth’s crust. The water
should come upwards through the hole (a little
might escape at the sides of the layer of clay.)
Resources Explain that this is what happens because of the
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan downward pressure of the rock: magma escapes
upwards with great force through cracks and holes
• a beaker
in the rock.
• enough clay to make two layers of clay that will
just fit into the beaker, as shown in the diagram Using the Student’s Book
below
Ask the students to read ‘Volcanic mountains’ on
• w
ater mixed with flour to thicken it (the paste page 61, including ‘It’s a fact.’ Ask them to
should be a fairly thick liquid) complete Questions A1 b, D2 a–b.
• Skills Book pages 32–33 ‘Tectonic plates and
mountains’ Using the Skills Book
The students can complete the exercise on pages
32–33 of the Skills Book ‘Tectonic plates and
mountains’, using a political map to help them to
locate the countries. They should mark the
volcanoes as accurately as they can, but the map
might help them only to place these in the correct
countries.
Ask what they notice about the locations of the
main mountain ranges of the world and many of
the volcanoes. (They are all close to the
boundaries of tectonic plates.)
1 49
the rest of the class how each type of mountains

Discussion and review is formed.
lesson. They could summarize this as follows: Discussion and review
• I learned how cone volcanic mountains are Ask the students what they have learnt in this
formed when magma under the Earth’s crust is lesson. They could make a note of this,
forced upwards and escapes onto the Earth’s summarizing the lesson, for example:
surface. • I learned about the differences between cone
and dome mountains.
Page 61 • I learned how dome mountains are formed when

magma pushes a block of rock upwards.
‘Dome mountains’ Page 62
Resources ‘Plateaus’
• Skills Book page 34 ‘Formation of mountains’
Resources
Introduction
Ask the students to look at the photo of Castle
Dome Peak in Arizona and to describe its Introduction
appearance. Ask what is unusual about it. They Tell the students that they are going to find out
should notice the flat-topped mass of rock. Ask how about a landform called a plateau. Ask if anyone
it could have formed. Explain that these mountains can describe a plateau. Explain that a plateau is a
were formed by volcanic activity that was different type of plain, so the land is fairly flat, but it is on
from the formation of a cone volcano. They might be high ground.
able to locate these volcanoes on maps and note
their position in relation to tectonic plate Using the Student’s Book
boundaries.
Ask the students to read ‘Plateaus’ on page 62.
They should look at the photos of plateaus on
Using the Student’s Book these pages and notice how these are different
Ask the students to read the information about from plains on lowland. Then they should use
dome mountains and study the diagram on page Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to find the location
61. Ask them to explain how a dome mountain is of each of the plateaus mentioned.
formed (if possible, without looking at the Student’s Invite the students to explain the different ways in
Book). Ask them to point out the similarities and which plateaus can be formed.
differences between the two types of mountains.
Ask them to complete Questions A1 c–d, D2 c, D3. Ask them to complete Questions B1 a–d.
Using the Skills Book Discussion and review

Ask the students to re-read the pages of this unit Ask the students what they have learnt in this
and then to complete page 34 of the Skills Book lesson. They could make a note of this,
‘Formation of mountains’ and to write the correct summarizing the lesson, for example:
headings for and label the diagrams. Different • I learned the meaning of plateau and how a
students could also use the diagrams to explain to plateau is different from a plain or a mountain.
50 1
Pages 62–64 Page 65
‘Valleys’ and ‘Rift valleys’ ‘Landforms on maps’
Introduction Resources
Ask the students to define a valley (an area of • m
odelling clay, a very large stone, or small piece
lowland between mountains). A valley is usually of rock (about the size of a closed fist)
longer than it is wide. Ask if they can give • a
n indelible felt-tipped marker pen (fine) in a
examples of any valleys they know. dark colour (black is best)
Using the Student’s Book • a ruler
Tell the students that valleys are formed in • a map that has contour lines
different ways and ask them if they have any idea • Skills Book page 35 ‘A contour model’
about how a valley is formed. They could make a
note of their ideas before reading pages 62–64 Introduction
including ‘Rift valleys’ and looking at the photos of
the different types of valleys. Ask them to look at Ask the students if they have seen contour lines on
maps in Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to find the a map and, if so, whether they know what they are
locations of these valleys. for. Tell them that they are going to learn how to
interpret contour lines, which show not only the
Ask the students to name the three main types of elevation of the land, but also its shape.
valleys they have read about. Write the names of
these valleys on the board: V-shaped, U-shaped, Activity
and rift valleys. Then invite volunteers to describe
If you have enough clay or stones and indelible
how each type of valley is formed. They could write
marker pens the students could carry this out in
notes about each type of valley and then, in their
groups; if not, it could be presented as a
notebooks, write explanations of how they formed,
demonstration.
using diagrams to help.
Ask them to complete the Questions C1–3.

• I learned to recognize the main types of valleys.
• I learned how these different valleys are formed.
Demonstrating how contour lines are drawn

Make a hill-like shape from the clay (or use a large
stone); it should have a gentle slope and a steep
slope.
1 51
At several point around the base of this hill,

measure points that are 1 cm above the base of
the hill. Measure vertically, not along the side of Ask the students to read page 65 ‘Landforms on
the hill. The base represents sea level. Mark each maps’. In their notebooks, they can also draw
point with the marker pen, then join up all the dots, some hills viewed from above, with contour lines,
keeping the line 1 cm higher than the base, as for a partner to draw these hills as they would be
shown in the diagram. seen from the side.
Repeat this for a line that is 2 cm higher than the Using the Skills Book
base; then a line 3 cm higher than the base, and
so on, until you reach the highest point that you Ask students to complete exercise ‘A contour
can mark. model’ in their Skills Book on page 35.
Point out that each line joins places of the same Discussion and review
height above the base, and ask the students to
look at the hill from each side and then from Ask the students what they have learnt in this
above. From above they will see something like lesson. They could make a note of this,
this: summarizing the lesson, for example:
• I learned what contour lines look like on a map.
• I learned how to use contour lines to find out
the elevation and shape of the land on a map.
View of the ‘hill’ from above

Ask what they notice about the lines on the steep
side of the hill. (They are close together when
viewed from above.) Ask what they notice about the
lines on a gently-sloping side. (They are much
farther apart.)
The students should then draw pictures of the ‘hill’
viewed from different sides, marking the contour
lines. They should then draw a view from above,
with the height marked on each contour.
Show the students a map that has contour lines
and point out different sections of the map (using
grid references, if these are included on the map).
Ask them to describe the land in each section you
choose. These should include a gentle slope, a
steep slope, and a cliff, as well as places where
there are hills of different heights side by side, or
mountains with more than one peak.
52 1
Answers to assessment 3.
A 1 a) normal
Name of the
b) an active cone volcano mountain or Type of
c) Both are formed by magma pushing up Country
the mountain mountain
from under the Earth’s crust. range
d) A volcano erupts but a dome mountain
does not: instead, the magma forces a Rocky Canada fold
huge section of rock upwards. Karakoram Pakistan fold
B 1. a plain on high ground
Sierra
USA fault block
a) lava flows (e.g. the Columbia Plateau) Nevada
and the movement of tectonic plates
(e.g. the Tibetan Plateau) cone volcano
Mayon Philippines
(active)
b) to the south, the inner Himalayan range;
to the north, the Kunlun Range; to the Castle Dôme Arizona,
dome
north-east, the Qilian Range (An answer Peall USA
giving ‘the Himalayas’ is approximately
correct.)
c) Cascade Range; Rocky Mountains
d) Both are on high ground, surrounded by
mountains. Both have rivers running
from them. Pages 32–33 ‘Tectonic plates and
C 1. A valley is an area of lowland between mountains’
mountains. It is usually longer than it is A 1–2. Check that the students mark in the
wide. correct places.
2 a) V-shaped 3. students’ own observations
b)
U-shaped
Page 34 ‘Formation of mountains’
3 a) Tectonic plates pull apart so that a huge
block of bedrock drops to a lower level A 1–2. Check that students have written the
between the two plates, or tectonic correct headings and labels.
plates grind past one another.
Page 35 ‘A contour model’
b) Examples: (tectonic plates pulling apart)
East African Rift Valley, Ethiopia; (tectonic A 1. Students should look at the picture and
plates grinding past one another) draw the contour lines of the island.
Californian Rift Valley, USA 2. Students should draw contour map of the
D 1 a) A labelled diagram showing how fold land.
mountains form where tectonic plates B 1. Students should draw a contour map of
push against one another, as on page the land.
69.
b) A labelled diagram showing how fault
block mountains form where pieces of
tectonic plates drop down between two
faults, as on page 70.
2 a) magma
b)
lava
c) cone volcano; dome mountain
1 53
U N I T 8 | Pla i n s a n d riv e r s
UNIT
8
Plains and rivers
North Africa, South Africa, and Australia.
The Eurasian Steppe is the largest plain on the
unit Eurasian Plate. There are mountains around this
Plains plain where smaller tectonic plates collided and
formed this large plate.
Plains are large areas of flat or gently sloping
lowland. There are different types of plain, formed The North American Plain formed on the North
in different ways: American Plate as the Pacific and the North
American Plates collided, and the pressure forced
• erosion of highland by glaciers and streams the Rocky Mountains upwards. Most of the rain
• volcanic eruptions causing magma to spill comes with winds that blow from the Pacific Ocean
across the surface of the land on the west. Hence, the eastern, sheltered, side of
the mountains on the North American Plain has too
• tectonic activity, where a number of small pieces low an annual rainfall for trees, but enough for
of continental crust collide and then join up; grass and small flowering plants.
later, glaciers, rivers, and streams running down
from mountains erode the mountains and leave Rivers
debris on the plains
Rivers are bigger and wider than streams, but there
• deposits from melting snow and heavy rains, is no precise distinction between a river and a
which fill rivers and overflow their banks, flooding stream. A river or stream is a natural flow of fresh
the surrounding land; they deposit the mud, water whose source begins on high ground (or
sand, and silt that they would normally carry several sources that produce streams that meet). It
downstream, building up floodplains; examples can be difficult to find the exact source of a river.
include the Indus and the Nile floodplains
The course of a river consists of the upper course
• rivers and streams rushing down from steep (near the source), the middle course, and the lower
mountains and valleys towards flatter land; course. Each course has distinctive features
water carrying sediment is spread across flat because of the landforms it flows through, the
land in fan shapes which become alluvial plains; amount of water the river carries, the force of the
an example is the Huang He River (Yellow River) water, and how the river changes the landforms.
in China
Rivers and streams alter the land they flow through
• build-up of sediment on the ocean floor from by erosion and by deposition of sediment.
rivers forms stretches of lowland called coastal
plains; these form beside seas or oceans with Some rivers disappear underground, where they
mountains or plateaus between the plain and may form subterranean (underground) lakes, and
the inland area; the submerged parts of coastal eventually flow out from under the ground.
plains are the continental shelves; an example Rivers usually run from inland to a coast, because
is the Atlantic Coastal Plain along the eastern land near the coast is usually lower than inland; or
coast of North America, which has underwater they might flow into a lake. If a lake is below sea
plains that slope down gradually under the level, no rivers or streams run out of it.
ocean
The mouth of a river is where it meets the sea, but
There are large plains in North America, South people disagree over the exact locations of the
America, Asia, and Eastern Europe, Central and
54 1
U N I T 8 | P l a i ns a nd riv e r s
mouths of rivers. They also disagree over the are all fairly flat but the vegetation will differ
length of a river because of different ways of because of the different climates. Ask if the town
measuring a river that passes through a lake, or or city where they live is on a plain.
they disagree over which tributaries to include. This
is why the published lengths of many rivers vary. Using the Student’s Book
Ask the students to read ‘What is a plain?’ and
Before we proceed ‘What are plains like?’ on page 68.
A useful way to introduce the topic of plains is to
They should then read ‘Grasslands’ and ‘Deserts’.
provide photos of different plains (including
Ask what causes the differences between deserts
deserts, tundra, prairies, savannahs, and
and grasslands. Ask them to complete Questions
floodplains), and ask the students to work in
A1–2.
groups to describe the distinctive features of
plains. Discussion and review
In a similar way, a selection of photos of rivers and Ask the students what they have learnt in this
streams can help the students to come up with a lesson. They could make a note of this,
definition of a river or stream. summarizing the lesson, for example:
Expected learning outcomes • I learned the locations of the world’s main
plains.
Students should be able to:
• I learned the main ways in which plains are
• recognize and describe different types of plains
formed.
• identify and describe the features of different
parts of the course of a river
Pages 69–70
• describe the climate and vegetation of plains
• explain how rivers can change the landscape
‘Arctic tundra’; ‘River
plains’; and ‘Locating
Pages 68–69
plains on the world map’
‘What is a plain?’; ‘What are Resources

plains like?’; ‘Grasslands’; • Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan
and ‘Deserts’ Introduction
Tell the students that they are going to find out
Resources about other types of plains: Arctic tundra and river
plains. Ask where they would look on a map of the
• p
hotographs of plains (including deserts, tundra, world for Arctic tundra plains (in and around the
prairies, savannahs, and floodplains), rivers, and Arctic Circle). What do they think the conditions are
streams (including different parts of the courses like on these plains? They should know from their
of rivers) previous work on climates, that the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles have cold climates, few trees grow
Introduction there, the ground has permafrost (a permanently
Ask the students to look at a collection of photos frozen layer), and even the top layer of the ground
of different types of plains and to say what is is frozen for most of the year, while in some places
similar about them. They should be able to come it remains frozen throughout the year. They could
up with a definition of a plain (a large, wide area of locate the Arctic tundra on the map on page 70.
flat land). Ask how the plains are different—they
1 55
Ask them to name any river plains and locate them

on the map. They should be able to find the Nile
Introduction
floodplain in Egypt and the Indus Plain in Pakistan. Explain that this section is about the different
stages of rivers, called courses: the upper course
Using the Student’s Book (beginning with the source of the river), the middle
course, and the lower course (near the sea). Tell
Ask the students to read ‘Arctic tundra’ to find out
the students that they are going to find out about
more about these plains. They could also describe
the courses of rivers by referring to the River Indus
what it is like there, referring to the photo on page
in Pakistan and how it affects the landscape it
69. Ask how plains have lakes and bogs, even
flows through, beginning with the source and
though very little rain falls there.
learning about some features of the upper course
They should read ‘River plains’, after which they of a river.
could try to explain how rivers form plains, without Ask where rivers come from. The students might
referring to the Student’s Book. remember from their previous learning about the
Point out the map on page 70 and ask the water cycle, that rivers come from rainfall and
ground water (or from a glacier). Remind them that
students to use the key to find out about the main
the source of a river is usually a tiny spring that
plains. As a class activity, they could take turns to
comes out of high ground and flows downhill, and
name a plain for the others to give its highest and
point out the photo of the tiny spring on page 71
lowest elevations. Keep a record of these so that
which is the source of one of the largest rivers in
afterwards, the students can identify the elevations
England, the Tyne.
of the main plains found on each continent.
After reading this section, the students should read
‘It’s a fact.’ and then complete Questions B1–4, Ask the students to look at the diagram of the
using a political map in Oxford School Atlas for upper course of a river (page 71) and ask what
Pakistan to help them to identify the countries determined the course of the river. (Did the river
flow this way because there was a valley, or did the
where the plains are located.
river cut the valley?) Explain that when water flows
Discussion and review downhill, it follows the easiest route, but over time it
cuts away and erodes the rock. Ask if they are
Ask the students what they have learnt in this surprised that water can wear away rock. To help
lesson. They could make a note of this, them understand this, ask them to think about the
summarizing the lesson, for example: force of water coming out of a tap turned on fully, or
• I learned about the different types of plains in through a hosepipe—then imagine this water
different regions of the world. carrying tiny bits of grit and soil (called sediment).
The force of these tiny particles of sediment can
• I learned how plains are formed. wear away a lot of rock over millions of years. (Note
that softer rock wears away more easily than harder
rock.)
Pages 71–72 Now ask the students to read pages 71–72, about
‘Rivers’ and ‘The upper course of a river’. Then ask
if they remember the word for the place where a
‘Rivers’ and ‘The upper river starts as a tiny spring (the source), what we
course of a river’ call a young river as it begins to flow downhill (a
stream), and how the stream changes the landscape
over time. Ask them to describe the shape of the
valley that the stream cuts (V-shaped) and about any
Resources small landforms that are common in the upper
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan courses of rivers (spurs and interlocking spurs).
Invite volunteers to describe other features of the
upper course of a river, and how they are formed
56 1
(rapids, waterfalls, gorges, canyons). They might be channel. The river channel has also deepened, and
surprised to see the size of the gorge cut by the the river flows more powerfully and has a larger
River Allen, which is not at all unusual, because of volume of water. Because the river channel is
the power of the fast-flowing water and the larger, there is less friction, so the water flows
abrasive action of the stones and sediment it faster. It spreads out sideways where the land is
carries. Explain that fast-flowing water carries flatter, creating a floodplain.)
sediment (bits of sand, soil, and silt) but once it Discuss what the students know from previous
slows down, it deposits (drops) the sediment. They lessons, and from history studies, about the
might find it interesting to know that since this floodplains of the Indus and the Nile rivers, and
photo was taken, the river flooded its banks and how these floodplains have been useful since
washed away sections of the footpath where the ancient times because of the rich soil deposited by
photographer stood! The sediment and other the river, and for irrigation.
material that was washed away was deposited
farther downstream. Ask them to complete Using the Student’s Book
Questions C1–2. Explain that the features of the middle course of a
river are different from those of the upper course,
Discussion and review and that human activity has changed the features
Ask the students what they have learnt in this of the middle course of some rivers. Ask what
lesson. They could summarize this as follows: kinds of human activity might change the middle
• I learned that rivers begin at a source, which is a course of rivers. These include the construction of
small spring where water pushes through a weak canals that take away river water for irrigation and
point in the ground. transport, and dams that have several purposes.
Ask how a dam changes a river. (It stops the flow
• I learned that in the upper course, the ground of water so that the water builds up to form a lake.
slopes quite steeply and the river flows quickly, So a dam would not be useful on a wide plain, as
carrying sediment. the plain might flood, but it would be useful in a
• I learned that the force of the fast-flowing water valley, which could contain a lake.)
of a river in its upper course cuts many features Ask the students to read the information about
in the landscape. dams and to look at the photo of the Tarbela Dam
on page 73.
After they have read this, ask them to explain how
Pages 73–73 the Tarbela Dam has changed the course of the
River Indus and the landscape the river flows
through, and how the dam is useful (if possible,
‘Dams’ and ‘The middle without looking back at the Student’s Book).
course of a river’ Tell the students that they are now going to learn
about the natural features of the middle course of
a river, focusing on the Indus. They should read
‘The middle course of a river’ to find out why rivers
Resources take a much more winding course when they reach
• Skills Book page 39 ‘Erosion and deposition’ their middle course. After they have read it, see if
they can explain this winding course—and how
• Skills Book page 40 ‘Fertile floodplains of the
oxbow lakes form, without looking back at the
River Nile’
book. Ask them to complete Questions C3–4, E1.
Introduction Using the Skills Book
Tell the students that they are going to learn about Ask the students to re-read the pages of this unit
the middle course of a river, where the fast-flowing and complete page 40 of the Skills Book ‘Fertile
water reaches land that slopes much less steeply. floodplains of the River Nile’.
Ask how this change in the landscape will affect They should try to remember what they have
the flow of the river. (The gradient here is gentle read—or take notes, to help them to complete
and sideways erosion has enlarged the river
1 57
page 39 of the Skills Book ‘Erosion and deposition’

for homework.
Ask the students to re-read the pages of this unit
Discussion and review to remind them of what they have read about the
Ask the students what they have learnt in this three parts of a river to help them to complete
lesson. They could make a note of this, page 36 of the Skills Book ‘The course of a river’.
summarizing the lesson, for example: For homework, they could complete the crossword
• I learned about the different natural features of on pages 37–38 of the Skills Book ‘Parts of a
the middle course of a river. river’.
• I learned how human activity has changed the Discussion and review
features of the middle course of rivers, through
building dams, and how dams are useful.
• I learned the meaning of the word delta and the
Pages 74–75 different ways in which a delta is formed.
‘The lower course of a river’
Resources
• Skills Book page 36 ‘The course of a river’
• Skills Book pages 37–38 ‘Parts of a river’
Introduction
Tell the students that they are going to find out
about the lower course of a river, where the rivers
approach the sea, and have collected a lot of water
and become deeper and wider. Ask what the part
of the river where it meets the sea (mouth) is
called. Explain that here rivers are usually flowing
through much flatter, lower land. Introduce two new
words that they will encounter for the different
forms of the mouth of a river: delta and estuary.
They have probably heard of the Indus and the Nile
Deltas. Ask/Explain what the terms mean before
they read the next section of the Student’s Book.

Ask the students to read ‘The lower course of a
river’ on pages 74–75. They should look at the
photos and map of rivers on these pages to find
out what a delta looks like from the air. Ask how
the delta got this name. Then ask them to describe
the differences between a delta and an estuary.
Invite the students to explain how each of these
types of river mouth were formed. Ask them to
complete Questions D1–3, E2.
58 1
Answers to assessment 4 a–b)

A 1. a large, wide area of land that is flat, or Type of Countries Vegetation
almost flat plain
2 a–c) Steppe Mongolia, Russia, grass
Siberia
Type of Climate Example Prairie Canada, the USA grass
grassland
Pampas Argentina, southern grass
plain
Brazil, Uruguay
steppe temperate with very Eurasian
Savannah Kenya, Tanzania grass
low rainfall, hot Steppe
summers, and cold Desert Afghanistan, Algeria, very little
winters Angola, Australia,
Botswana, Chad,
prairie temperate with a Great Plains
Chile, China Egypt,
warm summer and of North
Eritrea, India, Iraq,
cold winter, and low America
Jordan, Kazakhstan,
rainfall
Kuwait, Libya, Mali,
pampas warm temperate, Pampas Mauritania, Mexico,
with warm summers of South Mongolia, Morocco,
and mild winters, America Namibia, Niger,
and low annual Oman, Pakistan,
rainfall Peru, Qatar, Saudi
savannah tropical savannah: Serengeti Arabia, South Africa,
warm throughout Plains of Sudan, Tunisia,
the year, with a Central Africa Turkmenistan, United
dry, mild winter Arab Emirates,
and more rain in Uzbekistan, Western
summer, but fairly Sahara, Yemen, the
low annual rainfall USA
Tundra Alaska (USA), grass and
B 1 a–b) students’ own answers Canada, Finland, low-growing
2 a) They have very dry climates; few trees Greenland, Russia, plants; very
Sweden few trees
grow there; the land is flat.
b) Desert plains have a very hot climate; C 1 a) source
Arctic tundra plains have a very cold b) spur
climate. Desert plains are near the c) interlocking spurs
Equator or the Tropics; tundra plains are d) gorge
near the Poles.
2. The students’ own explanations should
3 a) northern regions of the USA and some include:
parts of Canada
• T he river flows fast and carries
b) Europe and northern Asia, stretching
sediment that erodes the rock and cuts
from Moldavia, through Ukraine, Russia,
a V-shaped valley.
Kazakhstan, Xinjiang (China), and
Mongolia and Manchuria, with part in • It flows around harder rock, leaving
Hungary spurs, or a series of spurs called
interlocking spurs.
c) Northern Tanzania to south-western
Kenya
1 59
• A
fuller answer will include reference to
cascades, rapids, and waterfalls, and Answers to Skills Book
how they are formed; also the Page 36 ‘The course of a river’
formation of gorges or canyons.
A 1. source 2. interlocking spurs
3. A floodplain is formed in the middle 3. waterfall 4. riverbank
course of a river, where the river spreads
5. meander 6. oxbow lake
out across gently-sloping land.
7. floodplain 8. estuary
4. Students should draw a sketch of the river
based on the photo on page 88, with the Pages 37–38 ‘Parts of a river’
directions ‘upstream’ and ‘downstream’, A 1. Across Down
and the right bank, and the left bank
2. delta 1. stream
correctly marked. The slope on the right of
the meander shows the direction in which 3. deposits 3. downstream
the river is flowing: 4. tributary 6. upstream
D 1. The nearest coast might be on the far side 5. estuary 10. erode
of higher land, but the river cannot flow 7. sediment
uphill. 8. spring
2. delta, estuary 9. channel
3. It deposits sediment where it slows down: Page 39 ‘Erosion and deposition’
for example where it spreads out to form
A 1. middle course
a delta, and in the middle course, on the
insides of bends. 2. students’ own responses
3. students’ own responses
E 1 a) meanders, oxbow
b) outside, inside Page 40 ‘Fertile floodplains of the
c) cliff River Nile’
d) sediment, beach A 1. Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia,
2 a) mouth Kenya
b) delta 2–3. students’ own responses
c) estuary
d) sediment
60 1
U N I T 9 | L and s c a p e s o f P a kistan
UNIT
9 Landscapes of Pakistan
Background knowledge for the and Rawalpindi to the end of the Karakoram
Highway.
unit Many roads also follow valleys, for example,
Pakistan has many different types of landscapes: Peshawar, Bannu, and Kohat valleys in Khyber
coast, plateau, plain, hill, mountain, river, valley, Pakhtunkhwa; Neelum, Hunza, Swat, Naran, and
desert, and forest. The northern, north-eastern, and Chitral valleys in the north, and Quetta and Ziarat
western parts are mountainous, with the Indus valleys in Balochistan.
Plain to the east and south-east, and the coastal
The largest plateaus are the Balochistan Plateau
plain to the south.
and the Potohar Plateau (mainly in Punjab); the
Some of the world’s highest mountains are in largest plain is the Indus Plain in the east and
northern Pakistan, including Nanga Parbat, south-east; the main river system is the Indus and
Gasherbrum I, Broad Peak, and Gasherbrum II, all its tributaries.
of which are more than 8000 metres high.
Before we proceed
Mountain passes While focusing on the varied landscapes of
A mountain pass is a gap of lower land through a Pakistan, this unit also provides an opportunity to
mountain range or over a ridge. This gap is often consolidate the students’ learning about the
the low point in a ridge. A common site for a natural physical features themselves (mountains,
mountain pass is just above the source of a river; plateaus, valleys, plains, rivers, deserts, and
so the pass is close to a watershed (highland that forests), which were introduced in previous units.
separates water flowing in different directions
There are also opportunities to develop students’
downhill). Some passes are very short, with steep
understanding of how the landscapes affect the
slopes to the top of the pass; others are valleys,
lives of people who inhabit them and how these
several kilometres long. The tops of many passes
physical features have influenced the development
are the only flat land in an area.
of settlements.
In the mountainous areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
and Gilgit-Baltistan in the north, and FATA and Expected learning outcomes
Balochistan in the west and south-west, mountain Students should be able to:
passes provide very important gaps in the highland
for roads. These roads have developed from • locate and describe the various landscapes of
ancient trade routes: for example, the Karakoram Pakistan
Highway, on the ancient Silk Route. The Karakoram • explain how physical features of the land affect
Highway is known as the Asian Highway or, in people’s lives
China, as the Friendship Highway; it was built • explore and discuss how and why settlements
through cooperation between the governments of developed in particular places in Pakistan
Pakistan and China. Construction of the 1300
kilometres-long road began in 1959 and it was
opened in 1979. It runs from Kashgar, in the
Xinjiang region of China, to Abbottabad, in Pakistan.
The N-35 highway extends the Karakoram Highway
south-west from Abbottabad to join the Grand Trunk
Road (N-5) at Hasan Abdal. This links Islamabad
1 61
U N I T 9 | Lan dsca p e s of P ak i s t an
two ‘It’s a fact’ panels on pages 79–80. Ask what

they notice about the elevation of mountain
Pages 78–79 passes.
Ask how mountain passes have influenced
‘What is the land like in transport routes. Also discuss how the landscapes
Pakistan?’ and ‘Mountain of mountains, valleys, rivers, and passes have
influenced trade routes and the development of
landscapes’ settlements. By referring to physical and political
maps of Pakistan, they should observe that the
routes of roads and railways are planned around
Resources valleys and mountain passes. Also elicit that most
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan settlements have developed along valleys and
• S
kills Book pages 41–42 ‘Mountains of passes, especially where two valleys meet, or a
Pakistan’ pass meets a valley. Ask them to complete
• Skills Book page 43 ‘Mountain passes’ Questions A1–3.

Ask the students to name as many physical The two activities in Skills Book on pages 41 and
geographic features as they can. List these on the 42 ‘Mountains of Pakistan’ and ‘Mountain passes’
board. They should include: mountain, coast, valley, on page 43 will help to consolidate students’
plateau, plain, desert, river, and forest. learning about these parts of Pakistan. These
could be completed during the lesson or given as
If they do not mention mountain passes, ask what
homework.
they know about these. They will probably have
heard of the Khyber Pass and Khunjerab Pass, and
possibly others in Pakistan.
Ask them to discuss mountain passes in small
groups for a few minutes and to come up with a
definition of a mountain pass. Invite each group to
give their definition, which should indicate that a • I learned the names and locations of the main
mountain pass is a gap of lower land through a mountain ranges of Pakistan.
mountain range or over a ridge. • I learned the names and locations of the main
mountain passes that link parts of Pakistan and
Using the Student’s Book link Pakistan with neighbouring countries.
Ask students to identify the locations of the most • I learned how landforms have influenced the
mountainous parts of Pakistan. They can check development of roads, railways, and settlements
their answers by looking at a physical map of in mountainous areas of Pakistan.
Pakistan. Encourage them to describe the locations
of the mountains by referring to the provinces
where they are located and using compass Pages 79–80
directions. This is an opportunity to do some
revision of compass points and on using the key of
a physical map, where different shades of colour
are used to show land elevation. Remind them of
‘Skardu: a city in the
the meaning of elevation (height above or below mountains’
sea level).
Ask the students to read the sections of page 78
‘What is the land like in Pakistan?’ and ‘Mountain Resources
landscapes’ and to look at the map and photos • Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan
and read the captions. They should also read the
62 1
U N I T 9 | L a nd s c ap e s o f P akistan
Tell the students that they are going to find out Explain that this section begins with plateaus.
about a town situated in a mountainous region of Some students might know what a plateau is (a
Pakistan: Skardu, the capital of Gilgit-Baltistan. Ask large area of fairly flat or gently sloping land at a
them to find Skardu on the map on page 78. high elevation; a high plain). Ask them what they
know about the location of the two plateaus of
This is an opportunity to focus on the effect of
Pakistan (the Potohar Plateau and the Balochistan
landforms on the development of settlements. Ask
Plateau), and ask what they know about these
the students to discuss, in groups, why Skardu
plateaus (province, main towns or cities, and other
developed in this location. Invite feedback. Tell
features such as rivers, canals, roads, and
them that Skardu is in a valley, and discuss what
railways).
makes a valley a suitable place for a settlement.
They should also notice the location of Skardu in Using the Student’s Book
relation to communication links: mountain passes
and valleys, where roads can be built. Ask the students to read about the Potohar Plateau
and the Balochistan Plateau, and then ask them to
Using the Student’s Book identify the similarities and differences between the
Ask the students to read about Skardu and to two plateaus: elevation, what the land is like, cities
consider what it might be like to live there. They or towns, and any other features they notice.
can then complete Questions B1–3 using Oxford Now ask the students to read pages 82–83, about
School Atlas for Pakistan and the Internet to find ‘Plains and lowlands’, ‘Rivers’, and ‘Valleys’, after
out more. which they could try describing these without
Discussion and review looking back at the Student’s Book. Ask how the
River Indus affects the plains it flows through and
Ask the students what they have learnt in this how it could have influenced the growth of
lesson. They could make a note of this, settlements. Ask them to complete Questions C1
summarizing the lesson, for example: a–d, D1 a–c.
• I learned how the city of Skardu developed in
the Karakoram Mountains. Discussion and review
• I learned about life in Skardu. Ask the students what they have learnt in this
lesson. They could summarize this as follows:
• I learned about the physical features of the two
Pages 80–83 largest plateaus in Pakistan.
• I learned how river basins are formed by
rainwater running down mountains.
‘Plateaus’; ‘The Potohar • I learned about the main rivers and valleys of
Plateau’; ‘The Balochistan Pakistan.
Plateau’; ‘Plains and

lowlands’; ‘Rivers’; and Pages 83–85
‘Valleys’
‘The coast’; ‘Ports’; and
Resources
‘Mangrove forests’
Resources
1 63
Ask what they know about the coast of Pakistan. (It Ask the students to look at the physical map of
is to the south of the country, bordering the Pakistan in Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan to help
Arabian Sea; the only provinces with a coastline them to locate the deserts. Ask what they know
are Balochistan and Sindh.) If any students have about deserts. (They are usually plains with a very
been to the coast, they could say where they went hot arid climate.) Ask if any animals live there
and anything they remember. This way you could (livestock belonging to people who live there, and
build up a list of features of the coast, such as some wild animals, mainly a variety of reptiles).
mud volcanoes, mangrove forests, bays, cliffs,
beaches, ports, and docks. Using the Student’s Book
Using the Student’s Book Ask the students to read page 85 about ‘Deserts’,
The students should now read about the coast and including ‘It’s a fact’.
ports on pages 83–84, and look at the photos, Ask them to explain why the main natural wildlife
including the captions. They could use Oxford consists of reptiles. (These animals can squeeze
School Atlas for Pakistan to locate the main ports
into small areas of shade between rocks for shelter;
and suggest why they developed in these places.
they can burrow, run, dive into loose sand, swim
Ask about the industries around the coast. They across loose sand; they are cold-blooded, so they
should know about tourism, fishing, transport, and need to bask in the sunshine some of the time to
industries that develop around cities, including the keep their bodies warm; they are more active in the
steel industry in Karachi.
warm seasons and in the warmer parts of the day.)
Ask what the students know about mangrove
forests. (They grow in water near the sea—in river Ask if the students found anything about the desert
estuaries where the water is salty but not as salty population surprising. (The Thar Desert has quite a
as the sea itself.) They can then read about the high population for a desert, and it has towns and
mangrove forests on pages 84–85. Now ask why other settlements. Not all the inhabitants are
mangrove forests should be protected. Ask them to nomadic.)
complete Questions E1–2. Ask them to complete Questions F1–3.
Discussion and review They could use the Internet to find out more about
deserts before completing the Skills Book activity.
lesson. They could make a note of this, Using the Skills Book
Ask the students to re-read the pages of this unit
• I learned about some features of the coast.
to remind them of what they have read about the
• I learned how ports developed on the coast of deserts of Pakistan.
Balochistan and Sindh.
They could first try to complete the Skills Book
• I learned about the importance of mangrove
activity on page 44 ‘Deserts’ without referring to
forests.
the Student’s Book; then, if necessary, they could
use the Student’s Book to help them to fill in any
gaps.
Page 85
‘Deserts’ Ask the students what they have learnt in this
• I learned the names and locations of the main
Resources deserts of Pakistan.
• Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan • I learned about some of the animals, plants,
• Skills Book page 44 ‘Deserts’ and human inhabitants of the Thar Desert.
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U N I T 9 | L and s c a p e s o f P a kistan
2 a–b) The students’ own notes should

Answers to assessment mention anything they think might be
A 1 a) Mountains are a barrier to travel, as important that they do not know
roads and railways have to find a way about Skardu, including questions
either around them or through a they would like to find answers to.
tunnel.
c) The students’ own notes should
b) The mountains form a barrier between indicate where they will find answers
Pakistan and China and between to their questions, such as tourist
Pakistan and Afghanistan, so that there information centres and websites, the
are few roads between the countries; government of Gilgit-Baltistan website,
these roads follow mountain passes. and other Internet sites.
The high mountains cause difficulties for
d) The students’ own answers should be
building railways.
supported by evidence from the
c) No; a railway was built but it was closed sources they used.
in 2006 after floods damaged and
3. Bagrot, Kaghan, Soan Sakaser, Urak
blocked it.
C 1 a) Indus, Ravi, Sutlej, Jhelum, and Chenab
2 a) Kashgar, Karakul, Tashkurgan, Sost,
Passu, Shishkot, Karimabad, Nagar, b) The students’ own responses should be
Chait, Gilgit, Chilas, Dasu, Kamila, supported by evidence from the sources
Madyan, Abbotabad they used. They should include the
irrigation canal system; dams for
b) The students’ own responses should
hydroelectricity, and for a water supply
focus on the opening up of routes
for domestic use and industry; the fertile
between the two countries, and co-
soil of floodplains of the Indus and, in
operation between Pakistan and China
places, transport.
on road links for trade as far south as
Gwadar in Balochistan (China-Pakistan c) It floods each year, leaving rich mud on
Economic Corridor). They should also the land.
refer to the ‘adventure tourism’ industry, d) Layyah, Sukkur, Hyderabad, Dera Ismail
which at present attracts mainly Khan
Pakistanis and overseas citizens of D 1 a) The Balochistan Plateau is higher (up to
Pakistan, and mountaineers and cyclists 900 metres).
who visit the area. b) They are the world’s second largest salt
3. Khyber Pass mines, and produce more than 350,000
B 1. The students’ own responses, should tonnes of salt each year. The mines
mention the dry climate with cool summers have also been developed as a tourist
and cold winters, and what they know of attraction that attracts about 250,000
travel routes to and from Skardu, and how visitors per year.
these are affected by the winter weather. c) Rainwater running down the mountains
They should describe the landscape: forms lakes in hollows. The water carries
beautiful valleys, waterfalls, lakes, and high sediment from the mountains that leaves
mountain peaks of Gilgit-Baltistan that the soil rich and fertile. When the water
attract tourists; fruit farming, livestock, fish dries up in these hollows, called
and honey bee farming, the mineral and ‘basins’, it leaves mineral salts, which
gemstone mining industry, and annual gives rise to the nickname ‘salt lakes’.
events such as the harvest festival and E 1 a) any five from: beach, mud volcano, bay,
Shandur Polo festival. mudflat, mangrove forest
1 65
b) Karachi Port, Port Qasim, Gwadar Port F 1.

c) It has a deep natural harbour that is Desert Province Area in square
suitable for large ships, so it has been kilometres
used for international trade since the Thar Sindh and 50,000 sq km
late 19th century. Punjab
2 a) The governments of Pakistan and China Cholistan Punjab 25,000 sq km
worked together to develop this port, Thal Punjab 20,000 sq km
which can handle container ships, so it Kharan Balochistan 20,000 sq km
is useful for trade between the two
2 a) The highest land is in the north.
countries. The management of the port
was handed over to China in 2013. b)
true
It links the other ports, in particular c)
true
Gwadar, to Karachi, from where goods d) false (The Khyber Pass links Peshawar
can be shipped to other countries or with Kabul in Afghanistan.)
taken by road, rail, or river to other 3. the students’ own discussion notes
parts of Pakistan and neighbouring and explanation giving reasons
countries.
b) Gwadar Port is on a hammerhead
headland with bays on its either side.
This makes it an ideal site for a port.
3 a) They have built ports and roads, and
cut down mangrove forests (but now Pages 41–42 ‘Mountains of Pakistan’
they are trying to restore and protect A 1. Students to write the names of provinces
these). in the correct places on the map.
b) Mangrove forests; they are disappearing B 1–2. Check that the students mark the map
through deforestation to make way for in the correct places.
homes, farming, harbours, and so on,
3 a) Northern areas of Pakistan
and because dams built on the rivers
reduce the flow of fresh river water to b) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan
the coast. This makes the water in the c) Sindh and Punjab
deltas too salty for the mangroves to
survive. Water pollution has also killed Page 43 ‘Mountain passes’
some of the mangrove forests. A 1–3. students’ own markings
This is a problem because mangrove
forests are an important habitat for Page 44 ‘Deserts’
wildlife, including shrimps. They shelter A 1. vegetation; thorny trees; bushes;
farmland near the coast from the sea, vegetation, Thar; Kharran; Thar; towns;
and they protect the land from villages; nomads; snakes; chinkaras;
becoming too salty from sea water. grasses; food; livestock
66 1
U N I T 1 0 | Th e p e o p l e o f P akistan
10
UNIT The people of Pakistan
Background knowledge for the unit • explain that the people of Pakistan come from a
variety of different ethnic traditions
The population of Pakistan is made up of twenty or
• explain that more than seventy different
more different ethnic groups, many descended from
languages are spoken in Pakistan and that the
very old, and even ancient, civilizations, including
official language is Urdu, with English being used
the Gandhara and Indus Valley civilizations,
for official purposes
providing a rich variety of social, cultural, and
religious traditions. This unit explores how some of
those traditions give the different regions of
Pakistan their unique cultures, and how they are
Pages 88–90
also united by shared parts of their history and by
the country’s official languages, with many ‘The rich history of
Pakistanis speaking, or at least understanding,
more than one language. Pakistan’ and ‘Population
Before we proceed distribution of Pakistan’
Students will learn about the population distribution
of Pakistan, (building on their previous learning Resources
about population density) and use maps to find out • S
kills Book pages 45–47 ‘Where do people
about population densities. They will learn about live?’
the different languages spoken by the people of
different regions. Introduction
They will have opportunities to compare and The students should know, from unit 9 ‘Landscapes
contrast the educational opportunities and of Pakistan’, about the physical geography of each
outcomes of people from different regions, family province, and from unit 5 ‘Living with the climate’,
values and traditions, the occupations, and arts about the climates of these regions. This provides a
and crafts that predominate in different regions. useful starting point for work on unit 10 and the
students could work in groups to list all they know
Parts of the culture of the people of different
about a specific province—each group working on a
regions that the students will learn about includes
different province and then presenting their ideas to
dress (including traditional costume), music and
the class. It is probable that these will focus mainly
dance, sports, cuisine, language, festivals, and
on climate and landscape, perhaps with some
traditions connected with saints and Sufis. mention of industry.
Expected learning outcomes Elicit what they know about the people of each
region, beginning with the similarities, which will
Students should be able to: include: most are Pakistanis; most are Muslims;
• use a population density map to find out about many speak, or at least understand, Urdu, English,
the population densities of different regions of and a regional language. Now ask about the
Pakistan differences, which might include: their origins
(ethnic and geographical), their traditions,
• ask questions to help them to learn about the languages, and culture.
people of different regions of Pakistan
Tell the students that they are going to learn about
• why some regions are more densely populated the rich variety of cultures in Pakistan and about
than others the people of the different provinces.
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U N I T 10 | Th e p e op l e o f Pak i s t an
• I learned that population densities are greater in

Using the Student’s Book urban areas than in rural areas.
Ask the students to read ‘The rich history of
• I learned about some of the ways in which
Pakistan’ and ‘Population distribution of Pakistan’
physical geography affects population density.
on pages 88–90 of the Student’s Book, including
‘It’s a fact’. Also ask them to look at the
photographs and map. Remind them of the
introductory discussion, where it was established
Pages 90–92
that cities have higher population densities than
rural areas, and ask if this means that most of the ‘Literacy and education’;
people of Pakistan live in cities. The answer is no,
because, although the cities themselves have a
‘Family values and
high population density, most of the people live in traditions’; ‘Languages’;
the rural parts of Pakistan. Ask what they have ‘Occupations’; and ‘Arts
learnt about the origins of the people of Pakistan
and about the history of its civilizations. and crafts’
Ask about the most and the least densely
populated areas and what they noticed when they Resources
compared the population density map with the • the students’ notes from their homework, about
physical map on page 96 of the Student’s Book. the languages and employment sectors of their
Ask why Balochistan and Gilgit-Baltistan have low families and neighbours
population densities. Ask them to complete
• S
kills Book page 48 ‘Literacy in urban and rural
Questions A1–2 in their notebooks.
areas of Pakistan’
Using the Skills Book • Skills Book page 49 ‘Languages of the people of
Ask the students to use the population density map Pakistan’
in the Student’s Book to help them to complete the • items or pictures of products that are made in
blank map on page 45 of the Skills Book ‘Where do Pakistan
people live?’. They can also use what they have
learnt to help them to complete pages 45–47 of Activity
the Skills Book where they consider the factors that
Before beginning this lesson, it will be useful if the
affect population density, in particular, the
students carry out a homework activity that involves
landscape.
finding out as much as possible about the
Revise the meaning of population density (the languages spoken, and the employment sectors of
number of people living in a given area, usually 1 people in their families and the immediate
km2). Ask which parts of Pakistan have high and neighbourhood of their homes. This will require
low population densities. They might recall that some help from their families. Explain that
mountainous areas and deserts tend to have lower employment sector means the industry or
population densities and coastal plains and fertile profession a person works in, for example:
plains (such as the Indus Plain) have higher medicine, agriculture, forestry, local government,
population densities; also, obviously, that cities police, steel, mining, retail, banking, etc. They
have greater population densities than rural areas. should not record the names of the people whose
languages and employment sectors they record, just
Discussion and review the numbers of people for each.
Ask the students what they have learnt in this They could record their results in tables, like this:
summarizing the lesson, for example: Draw tables like those the students used for their
individual surveys (possibly using a computer
• I learned that most people in Pakistan live in spreadsheet), on which the students can
rural areas. amalgamate the results of their homework. They
68 1
U N I T 1 0 | Th e p e o p l e o f P a kistan
should ensure that they record the total number of Employment sectors of my family and neighbours
people in the survey. in _____________(name of city, town, or village, and
Ask what conclusions they can draw from their province)
results (examples: the main employment sector in Number of people included in my survey _________
their neighbourhoods; the main languages spoken
in their neighbourhoods). They could compare these Employment sector Number of people
with the official statistics for their province
(available from the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
www.pbs.gov.pk).
Ask if the results would be similar or different for a
different neighbourhood or province. They could
check these with the same official source. Tell
them that they are going to refer to these later in
the lesson. Languages spoken by my family and neighbours in
(name of city, town, or village, and
Using the Student’s Book province)
Ask the students to read ‘Literacy and education’; Number of people included in my survey
‘Family values and traditions’; ‘Languages’;
‘Occupations’; and ‘Arts and crafts’ on page
90–92. Language Number of people
Ask what the students have learnt from this unit

about literacy and education across Pakistan: the
provinces, and the types of area with the highest
percentages of literacy. Ask if they can explain why
urban areas have a much higher literacy rate than
rural areas. Also ask about the possible reasons
why Punjab has the highest literacy rate in Pakistan, The students could discuss what they know about
and Balochistan the lowest. local arts and crafts. Ask which of those shown in
the photos in this unit interests them the most,
Ask how many generations of their own families live
and why. Ask them to complete Questions A2, B1,
together and how this affects the life of the family;
C1 a–b, D1–3 or this could be completed for
for example, how family decisions are made, how
homework.
family members care for one another when
necessary, how children are brought up, and so on. Activity
Ask how many languages the students recorded in Allocate one lesson to a presentation of the arts
their surveys. Did these include any listed on page and crafts of Pakistan. Divide the class into groups
90 of the Student’s Book, or any that were not of 4–5 students and ask them to prepare a brief
mentioned there? Ask if any members of their presentation. They could bring items from their
families or their neighbours speak or understand homes or print pictures and say something about
more than one language. Which were the most them, e.g. in which province these objects are
common languages? They could compare this with produced; what they are used for; whether they are
other provinces (see Pakistan Bureau of Statistics inexpensive or expensive; the process of producing
www.pbs.gov.pk). these objects, etc.
Ask if any employment sectors in their survey were
more common than the others. They could also Using the Skills Book
compare this with the national statistics for their The activities and discussion in class will provide
own province and for other provinces. Ask why information to help them to complete pages 48–49
different employment sectors have higher numbers ‘Literacy in urban and rural areas of Pakistan’ and
of employees in some provinces than in others. ‘Languages of the people of Pakistan’.
1 69
U N I T 10 | Th e p e op l e o f Pak i s t an
Explain that the people of any region or country

Discussion and review have their own characteristics, interests, customs,
Ask the students what they have learnt in this traditions, and so on, that make them special,
lesson. They could make a note of this, unique, and different from the people of any other
summarizing the lesson, for example: region or country. Tell the students that they are
going to consider some of the things that make the
• I learned about the similarities and differences
people of Pakistan different from people of other
between the languages and cultures of people in
countries. Tell them that this will also help them to
different parts of Pakistan.
learn about the shared values and cultures of the
• I learned how literacy, education, occupations, people of Pakistan.
cultures, and languages vary in different parts of
Each group should find out about how their
Pakistan.
allocated topic affects the people of Pakistan
• I learned about traditional festivals, arts, sports, generally, and those where they live in particular.
and music in different parts of Pakistan. For example, if their topic is dress, they should
collect examples of anything special about the way
in which the people of their region, as well as other
Pages 92–95 regions of Pakistan, dress and draw comparisons.
They should also make notes about the influences
‘Dress’; ‘Cuisine’; ‘Influence on how people dress, e.g. culture, climate, etc.
Similarly, other groups should research cuisine, the
of Sufis and influence of saints and Sufis, festivals, music and
saints’; ‘Festivals’; ‘Music dance, or sports.
and Dance’; and ‘Sports’ Tell them that they can display their collections/
notes in the classroom. This could be a small wall
display and a table top area. Also, allow time for
the students to look at one another’s displays.
Resources
• s
tudents’ collections and notes from their Activity
homework, about dress, cuisine, the influence Allocate each group about 5 minutes to present
of saints and Sufis, festivals, music and dance, their findings to the class, and a few more minutes
or sports in their region and across Pakistan to answer questions.
Introduction Invite the students to say something about what
they have learnt from the other groups about the
This lesson provides an opportunity for the
different regions of Pakistan, and what makes the
students to explore what makes the people of any
people of each region distinct and different from
region or country distinct and different from others,
those of other regions. Examples could include how
and how their interests, traditions, and customs
some sports, like cricket, are popular in all regions
influence the place where they live. In this way they
of Pakistan, and how each region has unique
should develop their understanding of different
sports of its own. Using cricket as an example, the
people and places. students could also say something about how
Before beginning the lesson, it would be useful to cricket links Pakistan with other countries, such as
split the students into groups, and to allocate one Australia, Zimbabwe, and the United Kingdom; and
of the following topics to each group: how different countries also have other sport
preferences, such as football, skiing, or ice hockey.
a) dress
b) cuisine Using the Student’s Book
c) the influence of Sufis and saints
d) festivals, music, and dance Ask the students to read pages 92–95.
e) sports Ask the students to complete Questions C1 c, D4
a–c.
70 1
U N I T 1 0 | Th e p e o p l e o f P akistan
Discussion and review C 1 a) rural areas

b) Punjab
lesson. They could make a note of this, c) Sindh
summarising the lesson, for example: D 1 a) agriculture, forestry, fisheries, livestock
farming, business and trade, public and
• I learned how the special interests of different private sectors, etc.
regions or countries help to create a character
b) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
for a region or country.
2. the students’ own responses; (For example:
• I learned about the similarities and differences
they are mainly subsistence farmers, and
between the cultures of people in different
no one has invested money in mining
parts of Pakistan.
there.)
3 a) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Answers to assessment b) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
A 1 a) This is because of the geographical c) Sindh
location of Gilgit-Baltistan and the land d)
Gilgit-Baltistan
features and climate of Balochistan. The 4 a) the students’ own responses
students’ own explanations should refer
b) the students’ own responses
to the difficulties of living in
mountainous or desert landscapes and c) The students’ own responses, which
in very hot, dry climates or climates with should say why the fair or festival is held
very little rain, or great variations of and give some ideas about why it is
temperature. important.
b) It is a fertile plain that has supported
agriculture for many centuries and has a
milder climate than the north and west.
Cities and towns have developed on the Answers to Skills Book
flat land along the banks of the River
Indus and on the coast. The River Indus Pages 45–47 ‘Where do people live?’
has long provided water for irrigation. A 1. Check that the students mark the map
2 a–b) i) false (People in many parts of correctly.
Pakistan learn arts and crafts from B 1–6. Check that the students provide the
their elders.) correct answers.
ii) false (Tourism has developed in C 1. Check that the students complete the table
Balochistan and Gilgit-Baltistan, but with the correct answers.
not in FATA.)
2 a–c) students’ own observations
iii) true (Many languages are spoken all
over Pakistan.) Page 48 ‘Literacy in urban and rural
iv) true (Farming is the main industry areas of Pakistan’
across Pakistan, especially in rural A 1 a–c) Check that the students mark the
areas; these three provinces/ map correctly.
territories have large rural
2 a–b) students’ own observations
populations.)
B 1. The students’ own responses should Page 49 ‘Languages of the people of
mention advantages such as increased Pakistan’
employment and income for local people as A 1–2. students’ own observations
well as improved transport links; also
possible disadvantages, such as
deforestation, loss of farmland, pollution of
the air, water supplies, and the ground, and
harm to beautiful scenery.
1 71
UN I T 1 1 | Mi g r a ti o n
UNIT
11
Migration
their host country, which was desperately short of
industrial workers after the Second World War.
unit Many professional Pakistanis (including many
International migration means moving from one doctors and other healthcare professionals)
country to another to settle there. After the emigrated to the UK, the USA, and Canada in the
partition of the Indo-Pak subcontinent in 1947, 1960s and 1970s, and they continue to emigrate
huge numbers of people migrated across the there and to Australia.
India-Pakistan border at the same time. Around 6.5 Migration within Pakistan mainly occurs from rural
million Muslims migrated to Pakistan from India, to urban areas; Punjab has more of this type of
and about 4.7 million non-Muslims migrated from migration than any other province. There is very
Pakistan to India. Most of the migrants about 81% little migration to Balochistan from other provinces,
settled in Punjab, with 18% settling in Sindh; small and the exact figures are not known for FATA or
numbers went to other provinces. By 1951,5.3% of Gilgit–Baltistan. Most of these internal migrants go
the total population of Pakistan consisted of these to large cities: Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad,
migrants, but since then, very few migrants have Rawalpindi, Multan, Peshawar, Quetta, and
moved between these two countries. Islamabad. Karachi has the highest number of
internal migrants.
Pakistani emigrants
The natural increase of a population (births minus
Emigrants are people who move away from their deaths) is higher in rural areas than in urban
country to another country. In 2015, about 7 areas. In rural areas, farming is the main
million Pakistanis (approximately 4% of the total occupation; forestry and cottage industries are
population) were living in 140 countries around the minor employers; small number of labour work as
world. In addition to contributing to the economy of shopkeepers and artisans; and there are few
their host countries, most of the Pakistani opportunities for permanent unskilled work. These
emigrants were contributing to their own country’s are ‘push factors’ for migration from rural to urban
economy through payments they sent back to areas where there is industrial development, and
Pakistan. more opportunities for employment. In cities there
Emigrants from Pakistan have migrated mainly to are also opportunities for work in trade, transport,
the Middle East and western countries. After huge banks, insurance, telecommunications, service
rises in the price of oil in the 1970s, there was industries, and other economic activities. These are
enormous economic development in the oil- ‘pull factors’ for migration.
producing countries of the Middle East. These Other factors that cause internal migration, (both
countries, with low population densities, rural–rural and rural–urban) are natural disasters
encouraged immigrants, Many of these returned in such as earthquakes and floods, and regional
the 1980s and 1990s. The Middle Eastern conflict, when people move to safer places, mainly
countries affected by the Gulf War between 1990 cities.
and 1991 also attracted large numbers of
immigrants, many Pakistanis, who continue to Before we proceed
emigrate to Middle Eastern countries, mainly to
Students will explore the reasons why people
Saudi Arabia.
migrate, including: work, religious reasons, family
Thousands of skilled and semi-skilled workers reasons, education, escaping from wars or
emigrated to Britain in the 1950s, encouraged by conflicts, and escaping from natural disasters such
72 1
U N I T 1 1 | M i g ration
as floods or earthquakes. They will learn about their list from the introductory discussion includes
migration around the world, to and from Pakistan all the reasons for migration given in the Student’s
and within Pakistan, and about the ‘push and pull’ Book. Invite students who wish to speak about any
factors that have influenced this. experiences of migration in their own families. They
might be able to identify some of the ‘push’ factors
This unit also explores mass migration, in
that made them want to move away from the place
particular the mass migration across the Pakistan–
where they lived, and the ‘pull’ factors that drew
India border after Partition in 1947.
them towards the place where they live now.
Students will also learn about the effects of
Ask the students to read the rest of these two
migration on individuals, on their host countries,
pages, including ‘It’s a fact’, to find out more about
and on their home countries.
why people migrate. They might have their own
Expected learning outcomes experiences to contribute, such as family members
who have emigrated, or who migrated across the
Students should be able to: Pakistan–India border after Partition. Ask them to
• ask questions to help them to learn about complete Questions A1 a–b, A3 a–b, B1–3.
migration
• identify the ‘push and pull’ factors of migration
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of lesson. They could make a note of this,
migration summarizing the lesson, for example:
• I learned about the ‘push’ factors that make
people want to emigrate.
Pages 98–99 • I learned about the ‘pull’ factors that draw
immigrants to a place.
‘What does migration • I learned about some of the ways in which
mean?’; ‘Why do people immigration and emigration affect the places
people emigrate from and the places that
migrate?’; ‘Migration for receive immigrants.
work’; and ‘Migration for
religious reasons’ Pages 100–101
‘Migration to escape
Introduction violence, wars, or conflicts’;
Ask the students to define the word migration. If
necessary, explain that it means moving from one
‘Migration as a
place to live in another. Ask them to suggest way of life’; and ‘Migration
causes or reasons why people migrate. List their due to natural disasters’
answers and explain that they are going to learn
more about what makes people migrate and what it
is about some places that makes people want to
migrate to them. Introduce and, if necessary,
Resources
explain the terms ‘emigration’ and ‘immigration’. • the students’ cuttings and notes from their
homework about migrants who fled from danger
Using the Student’s Book • Skills Book page 50 ‘Migration vocabulary’
Ask the students to read ‘What does migration • Skills Book page 53 ‘Where are the world’s
mean?’ and ‘Why do people migrate?’ on page 98 refugees?’
of the Student’s Book, including the information in
the illustration about ‘push and pull’ factors. Ask if • calculators
1 73

Before this lesson it is useful to ask the students Ask the students to complete Skills Book page 50
to look for news articles from the recent or more ‘Migration vocabulary’ for homework. They can use
distant past about events related to violence, wars, words given in the text related to migration. They
or conflicts that have caused people to migrate to should also complete Skills Book page 53 ‘Where
seek refuge. They could collect newspaper cuttings, are the world’s refugees?’.
refer to the Internet, or make notes from TV or Ask the students to name the countries they know
radio broadcasts. Also ask them to find out about that have taken in refugees and then ask them to
natural disasters that have led to migration. read the table of countries with refugees on page
Encourage them to look for accounts from migrants 57 of the Skills Book. Explain that it shows the total
themselves and to find out how migration affected number of refugees living in the countries, not the
them. numbers the countries accepted each year—the
numbers have been changing over the years as
Activity more arrive in, or leave, the countries. Ask them to
consider the numbers of refugees compared with
Invite the students to tell the class what they found
the countries’ total populations. They can then
out about migration to escape from violence, wars, calculate the percentage of each country’s
or conflicts. They could recount some of the stories population that is made up of refugees:
of migrants who fled for their own safety. Their
Number of refugees ÷ total population x 100
findings could be written up and displayed on a
timeline showing this type of migration throughout Example: refugee population of China = 301,052
history. Tell the students that they are going to Total population of China = 1,364,270,000
read about these types of migration and also about Refugees as a percentage of the total population:
people who migrate as a way of life. 301,052 ÷ 1,364,270,000 x 100 = 0.022%
Using the Student’s Book Discussion and review
Ask the students to read ‘Migration to escape Ask the students what they have learnt in this
violence, wars, or conflicts’; ‘Migration as a way of lesson. They could make a note of this,
life’; and ‘Migration due to natural disasters’, summarizing the lesson, for example:
including ‘It’s a fact’ on pages 100–101.
• I learned how people have migrated throughout
Ask if they have learned anything new to add to history to escape from danger.
their timeline about migration to escape violence,
war, or conflict to their display about migration • I learned about the lifestyles of people who
caused by natural disasters. They could discuss migrate regularly as a way of life.
these topics in groups and come up with
questions; for example: What happened to the
migrants after they left their homes? Did they get Page 101
any help? Who helped them? They could make a
note of anything they would like to find out. ‘Advantages and
Ask what they learned about people who migrate disadvantages of migration’
as a way of life—why they do this and how it might
affect aspects of their lives such as the types of and ‘Illegal immigration’
homes they live in and their children’s education.
It is useful to spend some time re-reading ‘It’s a
fact’ with the students to ensure that they Resources
understand the different types of migration and the • Skills Book pages 51–52 ‘Net migration’
vocabulary used to describe them. Ask them to • S
kills Book pages 54–55 ‘Internally displaced
complete Questions A2 a–b, A4, E1 a–d in the persons’
Student’s Book.
74 1
U N I T 1 1 | M i g ration

This section of unit 11 provides enough material Skills Book pages 51–52 ‘Net migration’ can be
for 2–3 lessons and homework sessions. completed after the Student’s Book work has been
finished. Ask the students if it is possible for a
Before the first lesson, it is useful for the students
country that accepts a large number of refugees to
to watch, listen, or read the news and take note of
have a population that hardly changes—or even
any migration that is taking place, and how the
reduces. Ask how this is possible, then explain that
migrants’ needs are being met.
there is a term that describes this—net migration.
To begin the lesson, ask the students about any
Explain that net migration means the number of
migration issues that have been in the news. Ask
immigrants who arrive minus the number of
what migrants need when they arrive in a new
emigrants who leave. Also point out that some of
country and how these needs are being met.
the emigrants are actually former immigrants who
Also ask them about the advantages and stayed for a year or more and then returned to
disadvantages of migration: their home country or moved on to another country.
• for migrants (considering the reasons why they The students need to be aware that net migration
migrated) can be a negative number, and could begin by
reading the table on Skills Book page 51 to identify
• for their new country
countries that had negative net migration, including
• for the country they have left Pakistan. Re-reading unit 11 of the Student’s Book
will help them to realize how this might have come
Using the Student’s Book about (including the large numbers of Pakistanis
Ask the students to read ‘Advantages and who have emigrated to the United Arab Emirates
disadvantages of migration’ and ‘Illegal and Saudi Arabia).
immigration’ on page 101 of the Student’s Book. Remind the students that internally means within
The students should be able to complete Questions their own country and displaced means forced to
C1 a–c, D a–c, F1–4, before continuing to the leave the place where they lived. Ask about the
activity below. reasons that force people to leave the place where
they live to become internally displaced. They
Activity should read the introduction to check their
After the students have read the given pages, ask answers. Ask them to complete Questions A1–3
them to consider all they have learnt about working with a partner.
migration, and, in groups of about 6–8, to plan a They can also complete this exercise for homework.
short role-play about migrants arriving in a new
country. They should consider what feelings the Discussion and review
migrants might experience when they set off from
Ask the students what they have learnt in these
home, during their journey, when they first arrive in
lessons. They could make a note of this,
their new country, and after they have been there
for a while. Some of them could enact the parts of
people who deal with migrants, the people the • I learned the meaning of net migration.
migrants meet on their journey, and those they
• I learned about the effects of illegal
meet in their new country.
immigration.
Once they have planned their role-play, they could
• I learned about the effects of migration on
each work on their roles for homework. The role-
migrants, and on their host countries.
play of each group can then be presented during
another lesson, with the rest of the class watching
and noting anything they think might be incorrect
for discussion afterwards.
1 75
opportunities to set up halal restaurants

Answers to assessment and takeaways, bakeries, and shops
A 1 a) work or better pay, religious reasons, there.
family reasons, education, escaping from 2 a) The students’ own discussion should
wars or conflicts, escaping from natural include: the loss of health professionals
disasters such as floods or earthquakes and other professional workers; the loss
b) work—Pakistani emigrants to the UK, of skilled manual workers; loss of
Canada, Australia, Saudi Arabia, and working members of communities; but
other countries; religious reasons—after also the gains to families in Pakistan
Partition of India Pakistan in 1947, who received money from their emigrant
people crossing the Pakistan/India family members, who were now earning
border; family reasons—people from more than they would have in Pakistan.
many countries going to join their b) The students’ own discussion should
emigrant families in many countries include: the economic growth they
(Pakistanis to countries such as the UK, helped England to achieve; changes to
Canada, and Australia); education– the communities they joined, hostility
people from many countries go to the and conflict where they were not
UK, the USA, Canada, and Australia for welcomed; changes in the shops and
higher education; wars or conflicts— restaurants in the communities where
Afghan migrants to Pakistan, people from Pakistanis settled.
Democratic Republic Congo and from
3. The students’ own answers, based on
Syria to many other countries; natural
their research, should include problems
disasters—people within Pakistan who
of transport when large numbers of
migrated because of floods or
people were on the move, the unrest and
earthquakes
conflict between groups of people, and
2 a) Iraq, Iran, Bangladesh, Burma, and problems of homelessness for some
Somalia when they arrived in their new country.
b) They are mainly asylums seekes and C 1 a) the students’ personal responses
waiting to be resettled in developed
b) The students’ own explanations should
countries.
consider: benefits such as employment/
3 a) United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia improved pay; opportunities for learning
b) for highly-paid work and for helping their families; also the
4. They are large countries that had small support many give to developmental
populations, which could not supply the projects that help others in Pakistan.
workforce they needed across many sectors c) students’ own observations
for development. D 1 a) the students’ own responses (The
B 1 a) Some emigrated to escape from poverty, answer is: the USA in 2015 with
low income or unemployment, or for 46,627,102 immigrants and Germany
opportunities for better quality followed with 12,005,690.)
healthcare and education; others found
b) the students’ own responses (The
they could earn more there.
answer was Pakistan until June 2014,
b) England, as well as other parts of the and Turkey by the end of 2014, but later
UK, needed large numbers of doctors figures are not known at the time of
and, other professionals, and steel and writing. The students could find out if
textile workers were needed after the this has changed again.)
Second World War. Britain also needed
c) conflict and natural disasters
labour to rebuild the country. When
Pakistani communities developed in
British industrial towns, this provided
76 1
U N I T 1 1 | Mi g ration
E 1 a) economic migrants Answers to Skills Book

b) refugees
Page 50 ‘Migration vocabulary’
c) asylum seekers A 1–2.
d) internally displaced persons a) asylum b) asylum seekers
F 1 a–c) The students’ own responses should c) persecution d) refugees
include the problems faced by e) migrants f) emigrants
immigrants in a new country and by
g) immigrants h) economic migrants
those who already live there, for
example: i) internally displaced persons
j) illegal immigrants k) expatriate
For immigrants:
meeting their basic needs of food, clean
Page 51–52 ‘Net Migration’
water, sanitation, accommodation, and A 1. emigrants
access to services such as healthcare 2. It grew.
and education; also finding work and B 1 a) Australia, Canada, Saudi Arabia, the
adjusting to living in a new culture, and United States, the United Kingdom
sometimes facing hostility
b) China, Democratic Republic of Congo,
For people in the host country: Pakistan, Sudan, Syria
providing for the migrants’ needs and c) Canada encouraged immigrants because
helping them to provide for themselves; of its low population density which
mistrust of migrants they do not know; developed the need for workers in the
misunderstanding of the migrants’ country.
culture d)
conflict, civil unrest, poverty, and natural
2 a) The students can refer to reliable disasters such as volcano eruptions,
Internet sources like the websites of etc.
‘The United Nations High Commissioner
2 a) Australia
for Refugees’ agency.
b) It attracted many immigrants, because it
Country Number of refugees in offered job opportunities and high quality
2015 of living.
Syria 4.9 million 3 a) Syria/Afghanistan
Afghanistan 2.7 million b) The students’ own responses from
Somalia 1.1 million research, which focus mainly on the war
South Sudan 800,000 in Syria, with its consequent damage to
Democratic Republic 475,506 homes, buildings, and the infrastructure
of Congo (including schools, hospitals, electricity,
b) Reasons: Afghanistan —war; Syria— and water supplies, and supplies of food
war; Somalia—civil unrest; South to some parts of Syria).
Sudan—civil unrest; Democratic Talk about Afghan refugees. Since 1979,
Republic of Congo—civil unrest about 4 million refugees have migrated
3. the students’ class discussion on: ‘Should to Pakistan to escape from the Soviet–
Pakistan keep taking in refugees?’ Afghan war in their country and they
continue to migrate to Pakistan for
4. The students’ own research about
refuge whenever there is unrest in their
nomadic cultures of the world should
compare these with the people of the Thar country. About 2 million refugees have
Desert. also returned to Afghanistan.
1 77
Page 53 ‘Where are the world’s

refugees?’
A 1 a–b)
Chad: 3.43%, China: 0.022%
Ethiopia: 0.68%, Iran: 1.25%, Jordan:
9.9%, Kenya: 1.21%, Lebanon:
25.59%, Pakistan: 0.81%, Turkey:
2.09%, Uganda: 11.28%
Pages 54–55 ‘Internally displaced
persons’
A 1 a) internally displaced person(s)
b) They have not crossed an international
border.
2 a) FATA and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
b) They have experienced civil unrest or
natural disasters such as earthquake,
floods, etc.
c)
1,565,400
d)
FATA
e) Jalozal, Hangu, New Durrani, and Togh
Saral
3 a) Students’ own responses, which should
indicate a district with a high number of
IDPs (especially a high number for its size),
such as Bannu.
b) Students’ own responses, which should
take into consideration the size of the
district and the number of IDPs and
anything they can find out about the
infrastructure there (medical provision,
education, water, and utility supplies, food
production, and so on) and how the district
could cope with large numbers of migrants.
78 1

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A Geography Course

for Secondary Schools

Teaching objectives Learning outcomes

Teaching objectives Learning outcomes

Page • to develop an awareness • describe the various mountain pass, confluence,

the star’s gravity and the outward force from the

Polaris, the Pole Star, is above the North Pole, so

These two stars point to Polaris. Using the Skills Book

Using the Student’s Book

Using the Skills Book

Using the Student’s Book

Discussion and review

4 a) A nebula collapsed when its gravity

C. The students should notice that the four larger

Page 5 ‘About the Planets’

‘What is a day?’ and ‘How

Demonstration of the fact that stars have fixed

shadow) so it is probably not very late. We cannot

Using the Student’s Book

Using the Skills Book

between different cities on this page.

Using the Student’s Book

students to find the sunrise and sunset times for

Discussion and review

F 1. It does not follow longitude 180° exactly

hour of daylight in the evening. The

Pages 8–9 ‘Times around the world’

they have any information about the places outside

Resources Using the Student’s Book

identify parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, the Indian

Discussion and review

Answers to exercise ‘About Grid Using the Student’s Book

Pages 22–23 Using the Student’s Book

Using the Skills Book

D 1 a) 7749 b) 7743 c) 8245

They should now be able to answer the following

Discussion and review

well as their coasts, and the seas, oceans, and

highest is Moussa ’Ali, in the north-west (2021

Using the Skills Book

Discussion and review

E 1. any country that has land below sea level,

4. Warm or cold sea currents

Discussion and review

• I learned to use a thematic map to find places

Preparation Discussion and review

Ask why places near the Poles have very cold

Using the Skills Book

Using the Skills Book Using the Student’s Book

smaller than it used to be, because of clearing

Using the Student’s Book

c) Some plants do not need much sunlight;

C 1. The students’ own responses should

plates moving towards one another and pushing

Ask them to look at a physical map of the world to

Using the Student’s Book

Using the Student’s Book Introduction

the rest of the class how each type of mountains

Page 61 • I learned how dome mountains are formed when

4 a) A nebula collapsed when its gravity

F 1. It does not follow longitude 180° exactly

E 1. any country that has land below sea level,

c) Some plants do not need much sunlight;

C 1. The students’ own responses should

2 a–b) The students’ own notes should

b) Karachi Port, Port Qasim, Gwadar Port F 1.