Farm Structures

I. Introduction

At the beginning of a study of farm structures, it is a good idea to reflect on the question: “Just what are farm structures? A farm structure is
viewed in many different ways.

To city folk on a Sunday drive farm structures may appear as a group (or perhaps a “cluster” or “huddle” depending on the scene or on the eye
of the onlooker) of the generally familiar objects scattered around a farm house. A commercial farmer may view them as production equipment
that, for convenience, are grouped around a farm house. And to an agricultural home demonstration agent they may appear almost the reverse ---
a house around which is scattered an uninteresting collection of outbuildings. To specialists in hog production they may seem important in terms of
corn crib, a simple A-frame farrowing houses and a dwelling. Or, if one’s interest is large-scale fruit production, farm building may appeal chiefly as
shelters for spray equipment, trucks, and tractors and as refrigerated storage for 50,000 to 100,000 bu of fruit.

The farm-structures aspect on a prosperous farm may be one of a closely knit, well-kept group of obviously purposeful buildings; on a poor
backwoods farm, a nondescript collection of decaying shacks.

A farm-management specialist may regard structures mainly as a heavy and unfortunate expense that one should work to eliminate. A
structural engineer may see them chiefly in terms of loads, stresses, strains, materials and architectural details.

The fact is that no single view of the farm-structure field is likely to be correct. The structures needs themselves are regional and thus are
influenced by a great many variables such as climate, crops, markets, buildings materials, local traditions, social and economic patterns, and how
one interprets these variables in relation to structures will depend to a considerable extent on his special interests.

*”Structures” & “buildings” may appear to be applied interchangeably. Strictly speaking, “structures” is the broader classification and includes
buildings, such as dwellings or barns and other structures, such as bridges, fences and loading chutes.

Classification of Farm structures

Some idea of the diversity of structures involved may obtain from the classification given in Table 1. Some of the structures are simple
and inexpensive, for example, a movable hog house, a temporary corn crib or a gate. Others --- a dwelling, a fruit and vegetable storage, or a milk
pasteurization and bottling plant --- may be large, complicated and expensive.

To the list of structures on farms others may be added as legitimately within the province of farm-buildings specialists. These structures are
located off the farm but are closely associated with agriculture and have technical aspects similar to those of farm structures. Included in this
category are: trackside storages and warehouses; greenhouses; facilities of farmer cooperatives such as community food-locker plants, fruit and
vegetable storages, dehydrators, cotton gins, grain elevators, machinery-repair stations, milk-processing plants, etc.

Table 1. A list of various types of structures on farms is not an adequate means of describing their many characteristics. However,
knowing them and the diversity of structures involved might be useful. The types of farm structures and utilities are given as follows:

A. Farm Houses
1. Dwellings for
a. Operator b. Retired parents
c. Married relative d. Workers w/ families

B. Buildings for livestock

1. Barns
a. General-purpose c. horse & mule
b. Dairy d. beef-cattle
e. Sheep & goat
2. Hog Houses
a. Movable b. central c. field
3. Poultry buildings
a. Incubator cellars b. brooder houses c. range shelters
d. laying houses
i. movable ii. Central iii. battery
4. Small-animal shelters
5. Exhibition buildings
C. Buildings for Product Storage
1. Hay barn
2. corn crib
a. permanent b. temporary
3. Granaries
4. Bins
5. Farm grain elevators
6. Silos
a. permanent above-ground b. pit or trench 3. temporary
7. Vegetables storages
a. sweet potato b. onion c. cabbage & others d. farm & trackside
8. Fruit Storage
a. mango b. orange c. grapes d. others
9. Frozen-product storages
10. Ice houses

D. Building for Crop Production

a. Greenhouses b. Hot beds c. Cold frames

E. Building for Food and Crop Processing

1. Milk houses 6. Tobacco barns (air flue-fired cured
2. Pasteurizing and bottling 7. Forage dryers
3. Cheese Factories 8.Grain dryers
4. Smoke houses 9. Fruit& Vegetable
5. Slaughter Houses a. packing houses
b. washing plants
c. dehydration structures

F. Building for Equipment and supplies

1. Implement sheds 4. Fuel Storages
2. Garages 5. Utility Buildings
3. Farm shops

G. Miscellaneous Structures
1. Fences, walls & gates, corrals ( a pen for livestock)
2. Waterers 5. Manure Pits
3. Self Feeders 6. Roadside stands
4. Dipping Vats 7. Tourist cabins

*Source: Farm Structure by Barre Sammet

BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1. Tension Members
 Slender structural members subjected to tensile stresses ( e.g. tie rods,
hangers)
2. Beams
 Structural member subjected to loads perpendicular to the long axis of the
member
 Normally in horizontal position (e.g. floor joists, girders) but sometimes
found in an inclined and vertical position (e.g, rafters in roof and studs)
3. Compression Members
 Vertical members that resist axial compression compressive loads ( e.g. columns)
4. Combined Members
 Members subjected to combined effects of compression/tension and bending (e.g.
beam columns)

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF STRESS ANALYSIS

Stress – internal resistance to an external force
Basic Stress Formula:
𝑷
𝛔= 𝑨
where: 𝛔 unit of stress
P external force (N)
A cross-sectional area (m2)
Assumptions
 Stress is uniformly distributed over the area
 Load is axial or perpendicular to the area
THREE BASIC KINDS OF STRESS
a) Compression –results from a force that tends to compress or crush a member.
b) Tension - results from a force that tends to stretch or elongate a member
c) Shear – results from the tendency of two equal and parallel forces, acting in opposite directions, to cause adjoining surfaces of a member
to slide one on the other.
Types of Shear

Horizontal Shear
(Slides horizontally)

Factors Involved
The two basic considerations for determining the structural requirements of a farm buildings are as follows:

1. The magnitude and direction of loads and stresses to which the building will be subjected and ;
2. The design specifications of construction materials.

The structural requirements of farm buildings are unique in many ways and must be determined independently for other types of
commercial building and public service buildings and for urban construction. Farm buildings are often subjected to higher wind stresses due to
exposed locations. Farm buildings must be designed for varying loads of storage materials.

Farm buildings may be designed with smaller factors of safety than generally used public buildings or other commercial types of
structures. In the conventional type of framing for farm buildings practically all members including studs, rafters, joists and ties are spaced 12, 16,
or 24 inch on center. One, two or a few of these members might fail in one building without critically affecting the over-all structural strength of
the building. Another consideration is that most farm service buildings shelter very few people at one time and therefore a complete failure would
not incur disastrous loss of life as compared with public buildings.

The designer of farm service buildings should strive toward that point of structural adequacy at which the owner is not penalized by
either excessive initial investment or excessive costs of maintenance and repair.
*Source: Farm Structure by Barre Sammet
Loads on Structures

Generally, the loads on structures consist of dead load, live load and the dynamic or impact effects of live load. The weight of the
structure itself together with the material permanently attached to it is called dead load and is regarded as fixed in magnitude and location. Since
the dead load must be approximated before the structure is designed, the preliminary data are only tentative. Revision must be made if initial
estimation is not satisfactory.
All loads other than dead load may be called live loads. Live loads are generally classified as movable loads and moving loads. Movable
loads are loads that may be transported from one location to another on a structure without dynamic impact; for example, people, furniture, and
goods on a building floor, or snow or ice on the roof. Moving loads are loads that move continuously over the structure, such as railway trains or
tracks on a bridge, wind on a roof or wall, or hydrostatic pressure on an abutment. Moving loads may also be applied suddenly to the structure; for
example, the centrifugal and longitudinal forces induce by the acceleration of vehicles and the dynamic forces generated by earthquakes.
In an ordinary structural design all loads are treated as static loads in order to simplify the analysis. In this way the impact due to a
moving live load or the impact effects of live load is expressed as a percentage of the live load, and the earthquake force is commonly considered
to be a horizontal force equal to a fraction of the weight of a structure.
Other load consideration may include thermal effects and resistance to bomb blasting.
*Source: Elementary Theory of Structures by Wang/Eckel; Elementary Theory of Structures 2nd ed. by Yuan-Yu Hsien

Selection of Materials in Relation to use

Selection of materials involves judgment. To develop good judgment in the selection and use of materials one must know their basic
characteristics. This information must be supplemented by a broad knowledge that is acquired largely by direct personal observation of materials
in service under a variety of conditions. The basic characteristic of these materials includes the following:

1. Strength of Materials
This aspect of a material has to do with response to the stresses and strains created when it is loaded. It is closely related to structural
design. It is a characteristic which often must be judged in relation to conditions to use. Ex. Wood

2. Durability
Materials are considered durable if they retain their strength and other properties over a considerable period of time. It varies with the
material and service condition. An important test for durability of wood for example is its resistance to decay.

3. Hardness
Resistance to indentation is the characteristics most frequently associated with hardness. It is a quality usually measured by some form of
indentation test. The customary test for metals is the Brinell test, in which a 3000-kg load (500-kg for nonferrous metal) is applied for 15 sec
through a 10-mm steel ball, the Brinell hardness number being load divided by the area of indentation remaining after the removal of the
load. Hardness of wood is measured in terms of the load required to embed a 1⁄2 – in steel ball to one-half its diameter.

4. Toughness
The term toughness applies to the capacity of a material to resist fracture under impact loading. The modulus of toughness for mild steel
is found in this way to be approximately 16,000 in-lb/in3. Toughness of wood is measured by the height of drop by a 50-lb steel hammer which
is necessary to cause complete fracture of a standard size specimen tested in bending.

5. Resilience
The quality of absorbing impact loads without passing the elastic limit is referred to resilience. In specific terms it is measured for some
materials as the maximum amount of energy per unit volume that can be stored in a material by stress and completely recovered when the
stress is removed. Modulus of resilience for steel springs can be determined on this basis.
The resiliency of materials such as flooring can be compared by a scleroscope test, which consists of measuring the height of rebound
that occurs when a small, standard-weight ball is dropped from a standard height to the surface of the specimen.

6. Workability
This characteristic of a material measures the ease with which it can be worked or shaped. With regard to metals it is closely related to
malleability and ductility, but in connection with materials for farm buildings the term needs to be interpreted broadly.
Steel is considered a “workable” material in a machine or fabricating shop fully equipped for cutting, welding, drilling and punching steel,
but it ranks low in workability if such operations must be performed on a farm lacking such equipment. The “workability” of steel for
construction on farms can be increased by prefabrication at the factory to minimize the need of special tools at the site.
 Wood is regarded as a workable material, although there are some exceptions. Uniformly textured woods are highly workable material,
wood which are hard and haul uneven texture as usually not workable, except in cases where the work does not require a large amount of
mortising, dowering, cutting and shaping.
Concrete is usually regarded as a highly workable material since, when first mixed, it is semi-fluid that can be molded at the site into
almost any shape. However, this is not always true in all conditions. For light construction the concrete work is facilitated by means of small
precast unit. However, for other subjects such as window trim or door frames are not easily attached unless suitable inserts are incorporated
in the concrete when it is poured. The so called “nailable” concrete has been developed to cope with this difficulty.

7. Dimensional Changes
Dimensional changes in metals, and in concrete and masonry, result primarily from temperature variations; in woods, changes in
dimension observed with change in temperature result partly from an actual thermal change in dimension and partly from change in moisture
content.
In farm buildings, dimensional changes in metals due to temperature variation are concern principally in connection with sheet-metal
sliding and roofing; the problem consist mainly of providing adequate fastening. The tendency of nails to creep (work themselves out of the
wood) is generally attributed to repeated dimensional changes in both the wood sheathing and metal nail. The dimensional changes in the
wood consist of the combined effects of variations in temperature and moisture content.
Dimensional changes in concrete occur with normal day-to-day variations in atmospheric temperature and moisture content. In addition,
shrinkage occurs as new concrete cures and dries. Shrinkage in concrete is a complicated process but is mainly the result of reduction in
moisture content as the concrete dries and of reduced temperature as the chemical process of hydration of the cement is completed.
In wood the amount of dimensional change due to differences in moisture content varies considerably with the species and direction of
the grain. This fact should be considered in selecting the species, especially for such purposes as millwork or flooring where minimum
dimensional change is most important.
Differences in the amount of shrinkage occurring at different points in a piece of lumber may cause defects such as checking, knot, split,
cup, crook, bow, or twist.

Types of warping are:

Cup, bow, crook and twist

The extent to which these defects occur will depend on the evenness of grain and on the care with which the wood is seasoned. Much of
the trouble can be eliminated by proper drying. It is important to remember that when unseasoned lumber is used in construction the drying
defects appear after the material is in places, frequently with unfortunate results.
Changes in moisture content of wood take place slowly. They occur through the wood surface chiefly as a function of a relative humidity
and to a minor extent, as a function of temperature and vapor pressure. The slow rate of moisture change in wood explains why dimensional
 changes due to moisture content usually are a seasonal rather than day-to-day problem. The rate of change can be greatly retarded by the
application of paints, varnishes, fillers or stains which will fill the surface pores and provide a moisture-or vapor-resistant surface coating.

8. Imperviousness
This characteristic should be regarded as referring only to the resistance of the material to the passage of liquids. Some so-called
impervious materials will pass moisture in the form of vapor or absorb by capillary or hydroscope action. Impervious materials are required
for roof and exterior wall coverings and occasionally for floors and in wet locations for basement walls.
Sheet metals, asphalt-impregnated felts, cement-asbestos sheet, slate, and tile are sufficiently impervious materials to be used in building
construction if installed so as to prevent leakage at the joints. Wood shingles, although not impervious, can be installed so as to provide a
watertight roof. Unless subjected to water pressure, concrete in the relatively thin wall section in farm buildings may be regarded as generally
impervious, especially if concrete is of high density and free of cracks.
Brick, concrete-block, and cinder-block exterior walls sometimes required waterproofing to prevent moisture from passing through the
wall during driving rains. This protection sometimes may be supplied carefully pointing all defective mortar joints.

9. Ease of Cleaning
This quality is important in materials for surfacing walls, floors, ceilings, contour tops, etc. It is usually associated with high density of
surface and hardness. Dense hard surfaces resist penetration of dirt into the pores of the materials so that less adheres to the surface and
what is retained is easier to reach with solvents or more readily removable by brushing or scrapping.

10. Acoustical Properties

With regards to farm buildings, acoustical properties of materials are significant primarily in the construction of houses. Occasionally
special treatment may be required to reduce the noise level within a room and portions of the ceiling or walls may be covered with special
acoustical materials having a surface texture with low sound-reflective properties. A more common need in houses is to minimize the transfer
of sounds from one room to another. The required reduction in sound level depends on the tolerable level and the level of sound at the
source. Typical sound levels measured in decibels are:
Barely audible 15 decibels
Audible but not understandable 25 decibels
Ordinary conversation 65 decibels
Loud radio 80 decibels
Thus, if the sound level of ordinary conversation (65 decibels) is to be reduced to a barely audible level (15 decibels) in an adjacent room, the
sound-reduction capacity of the partition must approximately 50 decibels. Studies show that the sound-reduction capacity of a wall depends chiefly
on its weight per square foot. For homogeneous walls the sound reduction was found to vary directly with the logarithm of the weight per square
foot. In nonhomogeneous walls and ceilings sound reduction is increased if the wall surface is connected to the structural portion with flexible or
resilient fasteners rather than with rigid attachment
*Source: Farm Structure by Barre Sammet
II. WOOD

Wood continues to be the primary structural material for farm buildings, although it is a nonhomogeneous
natural product requiring judgment and critical appraisal. Full information on the physical properties and strength values
of wood is necessary designing purposes.

By classification hardwoods come from broadleaf deciduous trees and softwoods from coniferous evergreen
trees having needlelike leaves.
*Source: Agricultural Engineers’ Handbook by C.B. Richey, et al

Engineering Properties of Wood

The most important design factors are the strength and uniformity of the clear wood, the moisture content, the
duration of loads and the size, number, and location of strength-reducing features such as knots, cross grain, checks and
splits.
The strength of clear wood is closely related to weight or the density of the wood.
The moisture content of wood also affects its strength. When wood seasons, the loss of moisture is accompanied
by stiffening and strengthening of the wood fibers, but checking between fibers lessens resistance to shear or to tension
across the grain. Some net increase in bending strength with drying is recognized in structural lumber less than 4 in. in
thickness and in posts or columns of any thickness.
Structural lumber may be weakened by knots, checks, shakes, wanes, pitch pockets, holes, slope of grain, and
various combinations of these.
For farm building construction, yard lumber is generally used. Yard lumber is a lumber of all sizes and patterns
intended for general building purposes. The grading of yard lumber is based on the intended use of the particular grade
and is applied to each piece with reference to its size and length when graded without consideration to further
manufacture. Softwood lumber is divided into three main classes: yard lumber, structural lumber (often referred to
under the general term timber), and factory or shop lumber.
1. YARD LUMBER is divided into four subclasses entitled strips, common boards, common dimension, and timbers.
(1) Strips. Yard lumber less than 2” thick and less than 3” wide.
(2) Common boards. Yard lumber less than 2” thick, 8” or more wide.
(3) Common dimension. All yard lumber except boards, strips and timbers; that is yard lumber from 2” but not
including 5” thick, and of any width.
(4) Timbers. (Timber is defined as the product of the saw and planning mill and cut to the proper length.)
Lumber 5”or more in least dimension.
The common-dimension material is most popular for farm building structural purposes. The standard
dimensions of the various yard-lumber products are given in Table 1. Yard-lumber is usually carried in even foot lengths,
although multiple of 1ft is specified in the manufacturers’ association grading rules. Common-dimension-grade lumber is
usually available in lengths up to 18 ft, and some lengths beyond that can be obtained at a premium price.
 Table 1. Standard Dimensions of Yard Lumber

Light framing Joist and planks

5 5 5 5
2x 2 1 x 1 2x6 1 x5
8 8 8 8
5 5 5 5
2x3 1 x2 2x8 1 x7
8 8 8 8
5 5 5 1
2x4 1 8 x3 8
2 x 10 1 8
x9 2
5 5 5 1
3x3 2 8 x2 8
2 x 12 1 8
x 11 2
5 5 5 1
3x4 2 8 x3 8
3x6 2 8
x 5 2
5 5 5 1
4x4 3 8 x3 8
3x8 2 8
x 7 2
5 1
3 x 10 2 8
x 9 2
5 1
Center match 3 x 12 2 8
x 11 2
25 1 5 1
1x6 32
x5 4 4x6 3 8
x 5 2
25 1 5 1
1x8 32
x 74 4x8 3 8
x 7 2
5 5 1
2x6 1 x5 4 x 10 3 x 9
8 8 2
5 5 1
3x6 2 x5 4 x 12 3 x 11
8 8 2
5
3x8 2 8 x7
Boards
25 5
Shiplap 1x2 32
x1 8
25 1 25 5
1x6 32
x5 8
1x3 32
x2 8
25 1 25 5
1x8 32
x7 8
1x4 32
x3 8
25 1 25 5
1x 10 x9 1x6 x5
32 8 32 8
25 5
1x8 32
x7 8
25 5
1 x 10 x9
32 8
25 5
1 x 12 x 11
32 8

2. STRUCTURAL LUMBER is lumber intended for use where working stresses are required. Structural lumber may
be classified into:
(1) Beams and Stringers. Lumber of rectangular cross-section, 5” or more thick and 8” or more wide, graded
with respect to its strength in bending when loaded on the narrow face.
(2) Joists and Planks. Lumber of rectangular cross-section, 2” or more, but not including 5” thick, and 4” or more
wide, graded with respect to its strength in bending when loaded on the face as a joist or on the wide face
as a plank.
(3) Posts and Timbers. Lumber of square or approximately square cross-sectional 5” x 5” and larger, graded
primarily for use as posts and columns carrying longitudinal load, but adapted for miscellaneous uses in
which strength in bending is not especially important.
 3. FACTORY OR SHOP LUMBER comprise of factory plank graded for door, dash and other cuttings 1” to 4” thick
and 5” wide and over, intended for general millwork and other industrial commodities.

NOMINAL and ACTUAL SIZES

A timber is designated by the dimensions of its cross-section, which is indicated by the breadth and depth in
inches. By 4” x 10” is meant a timber 4” in breadth and 10” in depth, the length being variable. This size of the cross-
section is called the NOMINAL size and when using such nominal size the timber is called rough lumber.
The term ACTUAL size or sometimes called DRESSED size indicates the size of timber that has been dressed or
planed smooth on 4 sides (“S4S”). Planing reduces the nominal sizes, the amount of reduction depending upon the side.
For sizes from 2” to 6” reduce by 3/8” to get the actual or dressed sizes. For sizes bigger than 6” reduce by 1/2”. Dressed
timber is adopted when it is exposed to view and it has to be dress.
COMMERCIAL SIZES OF THE PHILIPPINE TIMBER

1x1 2x2 3x3 4x4 5x5 6x6 7x7 8x8 10x10

1x2 2x3 3x4 4x6 6x8 8x10 10x12
1x4 2x4 3x6 4x8 6x10 8x12 12x12
1x6 2x5 3x8 4x10 6x12 8x14 12x14
1x8 2x6 3x10 4x12 6x14 8x16 12x16
1x10 2x8 3x12 4x14 6x16 8x18 14x14
1x12 2x10 3x14 4x16 - - -- 14x16

*Source: Structural Design Vol. I Timber Design by Napoleon O. Nazareno & Agricultural Engineers’ Handbook by C.B. Richey, et al

III. BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR IN BEAMS

CLASIFICATION OF LOADS ON BEAMS

1. Concentrated or Point Load

2. Uniformly Distributed Load

 3. Uniformly Varying Load

CLASIFICATION OF BEAMS ACCORDING to SUPPORT

1. Cantilever Beam is one that project beyond a support, such as a beam built into a wall and extending out
beyond the face of the wall. It has one end fixed and the other end free.

2. Simply Supported Beam or simple beam is one that rests upon a support at each end, there being no
restraint in the supports.(restraint-holding deving-something that is fastened to limit somebody’s freedom of movement)

3. Overhanging Beam is one that projects beyond one or both supports.

4. Rigidly Fixed or Built-In-Beam is one having one or both ends restrained against rotation. Such beams are
found infrequently in timber construction.
 5. Continuous Beam is one that rests on three or more supports.

CLASIFICATION OF SUPPORTS on BEAM

1. Hinged or pinned support

2. Roller support
3. Fixed support

Hinged or pinned support

The hinged support is capable of resisting force acting in any direction of the plane. Hence, in general the
reaction at such a support may have two components, one in horizontal and another in vertical direction. To determine
these two components two equations of statics must be used. Usually, at hinged end the beam is free to rotate but
translational displacement is not possible.
Roller support

The roller support is capable of resisting a force in only one specific line or action. The roller can resist only a
vertical force or a force normal to the plane on which roller moves. A reaction on this type of supports corresponds to a
single unknown figure.

Note: The hinged and roller supports are also termed as simple supports.

Fixed Support

The fixed support is capable of resisting force in any direction and is also capable of resisting a couple or a moment. A
system of three forces can exist at such a support (i.e., two components of force and a moment).
 Beam supports and its reactions

Beam Design. Wood members should be designed so that they do not exceed the allowable design unit values
for (1) the extreme fiber stress caused by flexural loads, (2) the maximum horizontal-shear stress, and (3) the stress in
compression across the grain at the end bearings. Deflection should also be considered, particularly in buildings where
this might cause trouble, as in plastered ceilings. Where the actual and nominal sizes of lumber differ, the allowable unit
stress values should be applied to the actual size of member.
For a rectangular shaped beam supported at the ends and uniformly loaded, the stress may be determined as
follows:
3𝑊𝑙
S= 4𝑏𝑑²
from S or f = 6 M/bd² where M = 1/8 WL
where: S = stress in outermost fiber, psi (f)
W = total uniformly distributed load, lb
L = length, in.
b = width, in.
d = depth, in.
Horizontal shear in beams is determined from the general formula

𝑉𝑄
SH =
𝐼𝑏
where :SH = maximum horizontal-shear stress, psi
Q = (area above or below neutral axis, sq. in.) x (distance from neutral axis to
the center of gravity of the area, in)
V = vertical shear, lb
I = moment of inertia about neutral axis, 𝑖𝑛4
b = beam width at neutral axis, in.
For rectangular beams, this becomes
3𝑉
SH = 2𝑏𝑑

where: d = depth, in.

The area required for end bearing on a wood beam is governed by the allowable unit stress in compression
perpendicular to the grain or by the allowable bearing stress on the support, whichever is smaller.