3.

UT
Principle:
The ultrasonic waves have been allowed to pass through the material & receiving reflection
from discontinuity in the form of echo.

Basic Theory of UT:

Ultrasonic is sound waves, which frequency is greater than 20KHz
1. Subsonic 𝑓 < 16𝐻𝑧
2. Audible 𝑓 > 16𝐻𝑧 < 20𝐾𝐻𝑧
3. Ultrasonic 𝑓 > 20𝐾𝐻𝑧 < 20𝑀𝐻𝑧
4. Supersonic 𝑓 > 20𝑀𝐻𝑧

Sound:
Sound is defined as mechanical vibration (To & Fro)
1. One complete to & from motion is called as 1 cycle
2. Sound travel trough in the form of wave, Lambda (𝜆)

Wavelength:
The distance covered by sound through one complete cycle
Unit of wavelength is (𝜆)
Frequency:
The number of cycles sound makes in one second
Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz)
1 Cycle per second = 1 Hertz
For conventions in industrial UT, we use frequency in MHz
1KHz = 103 Hz
1MHz = 106 Hz
Generally in industrial UT, we use frequency in range from 1MHz to 5MHz

Velocity (V):
Rate of change of displacement

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Velocity (V) = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Unit of Velocity is (m/s)

The velocity is different in different medium.
V𝛼𝜌
Where,
V= Velocity
P= Density of medium
E= Elastic Material or Young’s Modulus

Acoustic Impedance (Z):

The resistance of material to passage of ultra sound movement, higher the Acoustic impedance
ratio of the material higher the sound energy reflection & lower the Acoustic Impedance ratio
of the material then higher sound energy transmission, this is the product of material Density 𝜌
& sound Velocity (V)

Z= 𝜌V
T+R= 1
T= transmission
R= Reflection

(𝑍 −𝑍2 )2
R%= (𝑍1 2
1 +𝑍2 )

R%= Reflection in Percentage

𝑍1 = Acoustic Impedance in medium-1
𝑍2 = Acoustic Impedance in medium-2

Percentage of Reflection depends upon:

1. Type of discontinuity (Slag or Porosity)
2. Size of discontinuity (Big or Small)
3. Distance of discontinuity from probe surface (less distance more reflection & more distance
less reflection)
4. Orientation of discontinuity

Relations in V, f, 𝝀:

𝑉 𝑉
f=𝜆 or 𝜆= 𝑓
(Higher the frequency, lower the wavelength)
Where,
V= Velocity
f= Frequency
𝜆= Wavelength

Sensitivity:
Ability to detect the smallest discontinuity is called as sensitivity
𝜆
In industrial UT, the smallest discontinuity can be detected is 2
For Example:
Steel
1. Higher the frequency = Higher the Sensitivity
2. Higher the frequency = lesser penetration

Frequency Selection:
(For plate forging & rolled section)
1. If thickness is < 32mm 2.25MHz to 5MHz
2. If thickness is > 32mm 1.5MHz to 2.5MHz
For casting any frequency
Then use low frequency because of scattering of coarse & range 1.0MHz to 1.5MHz

Generation of Ultrasonic Wave:

Ultrasonic generated by PIEZO electrical field
Conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy & mechanical energy into electrical
energy
Modes of Wave:
1. Longitudinal or compressive wave
2. Transverse or Shear Wave
3. Surface & Rayleigh Wave
4. Plate or Lamb Wave

1. Longitudinal or Compressive Wave:

1. Particle motion is along the axis of direction of wave motion (Parallel)
2. Velocity is represented by 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐿(𝐴𝑙) = Longitudinal Velocity of Aluminum
3. This wave mode travel in all Solid, Liquid & Gas medium
4. This wave mode is used in normal beam probe

2. Transverse or Shear Wave:

1. Particle motion is perpendicular or transverse to the direction of wave motion
2. Velocity represented by 𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑇(𝑣𝑙) = Transverse Velocity of Steel

1
𝑉𝑇 (Transverse Velocity) = 2 𝑉𝐿 (Longitudinal Velocity)
3. This wave mode travels only in solid medium
4. This wave mode is used in Angle beam probe construction
Example:
Longitudinal Velocity of Steel
𝑉𝐿(𝑆𝑡) = 5920 m/s

Transverse Velocity of Steel

𝑉𝑇(𝑆𝑡) = 2960 m/s

3. Surface or Rayleigh Wave:

1. Particle motion is elliptical in surface wave. This wave mode travels along the contour or
profile of object
2. This wave mode penetrate up to 1λ thickness
3. Velocity Represented by 𝑉(𝑠𝑢𝑟)
𝑉(𝑠𝑢𝑟) = 0.9𝑉𝑇
4. This wave mode travels only in solid medium

4. Plate or Lamb Wave:

1. Particle motion is definite. This wave mode generates only if thickness of plates ≤ 1𝜆
2. This wave mode travels only in solid medium
Properties of Sound:
1. Medium is require for sound travel
2. Sound travels in medium in the form of wave follow sin curve
3. While sound traveling in medium, following things can happen
[A] Due to scattering sound gets absorb, this effect is called as Attenuation
[B] Highly Attenuated material UT is not possible

Snell’s Law:
Reflection & Refraction Theory

Reflection:
Ultrasonic waves are reflected by the object or interfaces in their path. When waves strike on
mirror it reflects with the angle of reflection which is known as law of Reflection
Angle of Incident = Angle of Reflection

Refraction:
When ultrasonic waves passes from one medium to another medium where both two mediums
are having different Acoustical Velocity.
i.e. The beam changer direction or Angle in vertical plane

Medium-1
𝑉1= Velocity of Medium-1
i = Angle of Incidence

Medium-2
𝑉2= Velocity of Medium-2
r = Angle of refraction

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑉
= 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑉 2

 Snell’s Law states that ratio of velocity in medium-1 & medium-2 is equal to ratio of sin
angle of incidence to sin angle of refraction.
 It’s also known as Angular Relationship

Requirement to carryout UT:

1. Job/Drawing
2. Acceptance Standard
3. UT procedure
4. Equipments- Ultrasonic Flow Director (UFD)
5. Cable
6. Probe
7. Couplant
8. Reference Block
9. Technician/ Operator

Equipments & Accessories:

1. Cables:
Cable is used to connect probe to equipment
Types of Cables:
Co Axial (+ -) both in one cable

[A] End Connection: mini limo (o) Small Socket for Probe Connection
[B] Bigger than mini limo (O) Socket for UT machine connector
[C] BNC (Bi Normal Conductor)
2. Probes / Transducer / Search Unit:

Probe

Normal Beam Probe TR Probe Angle Beam Probe

Probe

Single Crystal Dual Crystal / Twin Crystal

 Normal Beam Probe:

Sound enters the material with normal to the entry surface

 Single Crystal Normal Beam Probe:

Single crystal normal beam probe is identified by the size or diameter of the crystal
frequency & with one socket.

 Material of Crystal:
Some crystals are very good transmitter as well as receiver as like,
[A] Quartz: Good wear resistance & poor PIEZO electrical properties

[B] Barium Titanate (𝐵𝑎𝑇𝑖𝑂3): Good transmitter as well as good PIEZO electrical
property

[C] Lithium Sulphate (𝐿𝑖2 𝑆𝑂4): Good receiver & easily damped
Probe:
1. The most important part or probe is crystal
2. The crystals are cut into a perpendicular way & thickness to the properly
3. Most of the conventional crystal are X-Cut to produce compression
  The frequency of probe is depend upon the thickness of crystal
 Frequency

𝑉
F𝑓 = 2𝑡
Where, F𝑓 = Fundamental Frequency
V = Velocity of Crystal
T = Thickness of crystal
Fundamental frequency is frequency of the material (Crystal) where at that frequency
from material will travel

1. Normal Beam Probe:

Disadvantage:
1. Dead Zone:
 Dead zone is zone in which no discontinuity can be detected. In single crystal normal
beam probe, there is only one crystal which acts a transmitter as well as receiver.

 Time always lags between transmitting & receiving which causes dead zone.

 The dead zone increases when the probe frequency decreases.

2. Near Zone (Fresnel Zone):
 Sound Intensity is variable due to wave interface, therefore reflector or flaw
laying in this zone may appear smaller or larger than their actual size.

 The single height display on CRT is unexpected, this is desire to keep near zone
length to minimize.
𝐷
Near Zone (N) = 4𝜆
Where,
N= Near zone length in mm
D= Diameter of crystal
𝑉
λ = Wavelength (𝑓 )

Far Zone (Fraunhofer Zone):

In Far zone, the beam diverges resulting in decay in intensity as the distance
from the crystal is increased. In Far zone of ultrasonic beam there is no sound
interference therefore sound intensity in this zone is expected & actual flaw
amplitude will be appear in CRT.
𝐾𝜆
Sin𝜃 = Or KV = DF
𝐷
Where, Where,
𝜃 = Half Angle D = Crystal Diameter
K = Constant F = Probe Frequency
𝜆 = Wavelength (mm) V = Velocity of material (mm/s)

2. TR / Dual Crystal / Twin Crystal:

In TR probe there are two separate crystals in which one acts as a transmitter & another
acts as a receiver. There is no time lag between transmitting & receiving, hence dead
zone is eliminated.
  Maximum thickness can be tested by TR probe is limited by roof angle which is
given by probe manufacturer
 TR probe is identified by diameter of the crystal frequency & by two sockets

3. Angle Beam Probe:

 Exit point on the probe from maximum intensity of sound leaves the probes
 In angle beam probe the sound enters in material with angle to the normal w.r.
to entry surface.
 Angle beam probe is identified by size of crystal (Rectangular) frequency, angle &
with one socket
 Standard angle probe available in 45°, 60° & 70°.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑉
How to calculate 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑉1
2
Selection of angle:
1. For plate & planner section:
𝜃 = 90 – T
Where, 𝜃 = Probe Angle
T = Thickness of job to be tested
If T = 10 mm
𝜃 = 90 – 10
𝜃 = 80°
If the angle beam probe is not available then use the nearest angle probe
If T ≥ 45 mm then 𝜃 = 45°

2. For Weld:
𝛼
𝜃 = 90 - 2
Where,
𝜃 = Angle of Probe
𝛼 = Included angle given by drawing (WPS)

If the calculated angle is other than 45° then in addition to calculate angle 45° will be used for
root discontinuity
3. Pipe & Tube:
For Axial Scanning
𝜃 = 90 – T
&
For Circumferential Scanning
𝐼𝐷
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 𝑂𝐷

Couplant:
Couplant is used to couple probe surface & job by removing air gap as air is poor transmitter of
sound.

Type of Couplant:
1. Water
2. Oil
3. Grease (Grease is better among all as couplant)
4. Oil & Grease
5. Glycerin
6. Petroleum Jelly

Selection of Couplant:
Selection of the couplant is depend upon as follow,
1. Type of material to be tested
2. Surface Condition
3. Surface Profile

Decible (dB):
The decibel is logarithmic base unit which use to calculate sound intensity. A change in sound
intensity denotes in “dB” which can be measure by comparing signal’s height in calibrated CRT.
Change is given by Formula:

𝐻
dB = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐻1
2

Where, 𝐻1 & 𝐻2 are the respective signal height.

By transposing formula, it is possible to determine ratio of signal height when dB difference is
known.
Calibration Block:
Calibration blocks which have known discontinuity & produces consistent & repeatable results

Calibration Blocks material:

The calibration blocks are made from low or medium carbon ferrite steel to produce fine
homogeneous structure throughout the block.

Tolerance:
During practical, the limit on dimension should be +0.1 mm

Basic Calibration Blocks:

Basic Calibration blocks are used to calibrate CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) or equipments
(IIW – International Institute for Welding [Geneva])
1. IIW - 𝑉1 Block
2. IIW - 𝑉2 Block
3. Step Block
4. Half Moon Block

1. IIW - 𝑽𝟏 Block:
 25 mm thickness IIW - 𝑉1 Block for normal beam probe calibration
 25 mm Radius & 100 mm Radius for angle beam probe calibration
 Angle beam probe calibration requires two known radiuses
 Diameter 1.5 mm to check sensitivity in UT system
  Diameter 50 mm, 23 mm, thick Perspex: To compare the velocity 23 mm of Perspex is
ultrasonic 50 mm of steel. i.e. Velocity in steel is little more than double of Perspex both
are same echo.
 100 mm 91 mm, 85 mm: To check the resolution of probe (Ability to show in CRT)

Resolution: Ability to show distinguish between adjacent discontinuities

 5 mm, 10 mm: To check the dead zone in probe

2. IIW - 𝑽𝟐 Block:
 12.5 mm thickness for normal beam probe calibration
 25 mm Radius & 50 mm Radius for angle beam probe calibration
 Diameter 1.5 mm hole to check the sensitivity in UT system
3. Step Block:
(< 12.5 mm for TR Probe)
 Step block is used to calibrate TR probe
 TR probe calibration requires two known thickness
 Step thicknesses are 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 10
mm.

4. Half Moon Block:

D – Type block is designed for distance & beam index calibration of angle beam probe. This is
simple block for calibration of shear wave probe. The block has 1 inch radius overlying a 2
inches radius on 180° half circle. This block produces 1 inch & 2 inches echoes & calibration
makes easy. This block can be easily machined & can be useful when standard blocks are not
available for non ferrous material testing block thickness is 1 inch.
Equipment:
Equipping & assembling different components to perform a given task UFD (Ultrasonic Flaw
director)
There are two types:
1. Analog (Knob System) Old Model
2. Micro Processor (Digital) Latest new model

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):

1. X – Axis represents the material path travel by sound which is called as Range time base
2. Y – Axis represents the echo amplitude in percentage (%)
3. X – Axis divided into 10 main divisions
4. Echo main division is further divided into 5 sub division
5. Metal path travel by sound = (Position of echo in CRT) * (Value of echo sub-division)
Total sub-division = 10*5 = 50 Sub-divisions

Ranges:
 If the Range is 0-50
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
Then value of each sub-division = 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 50 = 1 mm

 If the Range is 0-100

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 100
Then value of each sub-division = 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 50 = 2 mm
  If the Range is 0-150
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 150
Then value of each sub-division = 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 50 = 3 mm

 If the Range is 0-200

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 200
Then value of each sub-division = 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 50 = 4 mm

Example-1
Job Thickness = 12 mm
Range = 0-50

Example-2
Job Thickness = 10 mm
Range = 0-100

Example-3
Job Thickness = 12 mm
Range = 0-100

Calibration Procedure of machine:

Calculation:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = mm

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
 Number of echoes in CRT = 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Echoes

𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
 Position of 1st echo in CRT = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = @ mm

Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 2*1st echo = @ mm

.
.
.
Position of 𝑛𝑡ℎ echo in CRT = 𝑛*1st echo = @ mm
1. By Normal Probe (UFD):
If Range is 0-100
Requirement:
1. Given Normal Beam Probe having diameter of 10 mm & frequency of 4MHz
2. Select the required cable
3. UFD – Couplant
4. Basic calibration blocks 𝑉1 or 𝑉2

By 𝑽𝟏 Block
Block Thickness = 25 mm
 Range = 0-50
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 50 = 1 mm

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Number of echoes in CRT = 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 25 = 2 Echoes

𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 25
 Position of 1st echo in CRT = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 25 mm
1

Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 2*25 = 50 mm

By 𝑽𝟐 Block
Block Thickness = 12.5 mm
Range = 0-50
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 50 = 1 mm

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Number of echoes in CRT = 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 12.5 = 4 Echoes

𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 12.5

 Position of 1st echo in CRT = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 12.5 mm
1

Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 2*12.5 = 25 mm

Position of 3rd echo in CRT = 3*12.5 = 37.5 mm
Position of 4th echo in CRT = 4*12.5 = 50 mm

2. By TR Probe:
TR Probe
Diameter = 10 mm
Frequency = 4 MHz

Requirement:
1. Select the required cables
2. UFD, Couplant
3. Use step block
4. Step Block
Selected Steps for Step block calibration are 5 mm & 10 mm
Step thickness = 5 mm
Range = 0-50
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 50 = 1 mm

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Number of echoes in CRT = 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 10 Echoes
5

𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 5
 Position of 1st echo in CRT = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 = 5 mm

Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 2*5 = 10 mm

Position of 3rd echo in CRT = 3*5 = 15 mm
Position of 4th echo in CRT = 4*5 = 20 mm
Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 5*5 = 25 mm
Position of 3rd echo in CRT = 6*5 = 30 mm
Position of 4th echo in CRT = 7*5 = 35 mm
Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 8*5 = 40 mm
Position of 3rd echo in CRT = 9*5 = 45 mm
Position of 4th echo in CRT = 10*5 = 50 mm

Step thickness = 10 mm
Range = 0-50
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 50 = 1 mm

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 50
 Number of echoes in CRT = 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 10 = 10 Echoes

𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 10
 Position of 1st echo in CRT = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 5 mm
1

Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 2*10 = 20 mm

Position of 3rd echo in CRT = 3*10 = 30 mm
Position of 4th echo in CRT = 4*10 = 40 mm
Position of 2nd echo in CRT = 5*10 = 50 mm

3. Angle Beam Probe:

Angle beam Probe
Size 8 x 9 mm
Angle 45°
Frequency 2 MHz

Block 𝑉2
Range = 0-100
Probe facing to 25 mm
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 100
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 50 = 2 mm
 1st echo will be appeared on 25 mm
 Then sound will travel 50 mm radius distance 25 mm radius distance (Total distance 75
mm). Hence after adding 75 mm in 25 mm, 2nd echo will be appeared on 100 mm
distance.
 1st echo will be appeared on 25 mm
2nd echo will be appeared on 100 mm

Range = 0-100
Probe facing to 50 mm
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 100
 Value of each sub-division = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏−𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 50 = 2 mm
 1st echo will be appeared on 50 mm

Sensitivity Block:
1. Sensitivity blocks are used to set acceptance level
2. Sensitivity blocks are the same heat treated condition of the job to be tested.
Sensitivity Blocks:
1. Flat Bottom Hole Block (FBH)
2. Side Drill Hole Block (SDH)
3. Notch Block (NB)

 2 mm Diameter for General Applications

 1.2 mm Diameter for Nuclear Applications
 0.8 mm Diameter for Aerospace Applications

All types of blocks must be 50 mm diameter

Or
More diameter size & height
1⁄ T 1⁄ T 3⁄ T
4 2 4

T = Thickness of Sensitivity Block

1. Flat Bottom Hole Block:

FBH block is used to set acceptance level by using Normal Beam Probe.
If thickness is 50 mm for general application
2. Side Drill Hole Block:
SDH block is used to set acceptance level by using Angle Beam Probe

3. Notch Block:
(U & V Blocks)
This block is used to find cracks

D = Depth of Notch 𝛼 Sensitivity level

D is 2% of wall thickness

W = Width of notch
W is 6 mm
L = Length of notch
L is 1 inch or 50 mm Maximum
All these notches are referred by ASME, Section V, Article 23 and Section 21
Notch Block finds the linear discontinuity
1. Axial Longitudinal Notch:
If the notch block is having axial structure then it is called as Axial & Longitudinal Notch Block &
used to set the acceptance level for circumferential scanning.

2. Circumferential Notch:
If the notch block is having circumferential structure then it is called as Circumferential Notch
Block & used to set acceptance level for axial scanning.
Notch blocks are used for Pipe & Pipe Weld

DAC Using Angle Beam Probe:

Half Beam Path:
The distance covered by the sound corresponding the beam hits to the bottom of corner of te
job.

Half Skip Distance:

The surface distance of edge of the job to exit point of the probe is corresponding to half beam
path

Full Beam Path:

The distance covered by sound corresponding to beam hits the top corner of the job.

Full Beam Distance:

The surface distance from the edge of the job to the exit point of probe corresponding to full
beam path

DAC Using Angle Beam Probe with SDH Block:

Requirement:
1. UFD (Ultrasonic Flaw Detector)
2. Given Angle Beam Probe
3. Cable
4. Couplant
5. IIW 𝑉1 to 𝑉2 Block
6. SDH Block
UT Method:
1. Through Transmission:
Disadvantages of through Transmission:
1. Both surfaces shall be accessible & parallel to each other
2. Difficult to transmitter, receiver & the same access
3. Nature, type & depth of the discontinuity can’t be determined

2. Pulse Echo:
A – Scan
B – Scan (Cross Section View)
C – Scan (Plan View like Radiography)

3. Immersion:
The part to be tested will be dipped in the liquid medium.

Advantages of Immersion:
1. Sensitivity fully automatic high accuracy
2. Inspection productions are high
3. Since dead zone is eliminated the section can be effectively tested

Disadvantages of Immersion:
1. Initial sect up cost is very high
2. Suitable only for mass & batch production
3. Frequent Tendency
4. Corrosive is a problem

UT of Plate (ASME Section-5, Article 4, 5, 23)

1. Standard- Article 4 for in service UT
2. Specification- Article 5 for UT of any job
3. UT Testing- Article 23, Standard specification

As per Article 23 of ASME Section-5

SA-435 UT of steel plate by normal beam
SA-577 UT of steel plate by angle probe
SA-578 UT of plane CS & clad steel plate for special application

Plates for special application

SA-435 UT of plate
T < 12.5mm

Raster Scan:
1. Transducer moves in to & fro from the weld
2. Manual or Automatic (Encoded for position)
3. Slow
Line Scan:
1. Transducer moves along the weld
2. Fixed distance from weld
3. Manual or automatic (encoded for position)
4. Fast

Different Types of Probe Movement:

1. Orbital:

2. Swivel
3. Lateral:

4. Depth:

Defects in Plate Material:

1. Lamination:
When billet flat end & spread out then lamination causes in pipe. Porosity also may cause by
lamination.
2. Inclusion:
A] Linear inclusion:

B] Scattered Inclusion:
3. Stringer:
When non-metallic inclusions in the ingot

 The signal response is like linear inclusion signal

 The rolling direction. The BWE is steel present but the signal can be maintain along the
defect length.

4. A Rolling Lap:
Defects occurs in rolling process
Defects in Weld:
1. Lack of Penetration:
1. High amplitude corner signal’s both the sides of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude on
rotational path
2. Plotting at plate thickness depth, the width of root gap apart with no cross over

 Sharp echoes from both sides of end

 Indication remains at the same position when pole is moved along the length
2. Root Crack:
1. Its normal to expect high amplitude, multi faceted reflector probably from both the sides of
weld
2. Vertical height of the crack is substantial; a characteristic running signal on the time base
would be noted in depth scan with angle probe
3. The response would raise & fall on rotational or lateral probe movement due to crack
irregularity
3. Root Undercut:
1. Depends upon how severe undercut will determine the type of amplitude received
2. However, associated with the undercut echo will be as signal from the root bead as well
3. If the undercut is only at one side of the weld the root bead is examined from the opposite
side
4. Excess Root Penetration:
1. Root bead type signal on both the sides of weld are plotting beyond excepted beam path
length to bead & crossing over.
2. Steeper angle probe (38° & 45°) accesses permitting will best results
3. It is also called as over penetration
5. Root Concavity:
1. Low amplitude signal on both the sides of weld are plotting short of plate thickness & no
cross over
2. If in case of slight concavity, it will not observe ultrasonically

6. Defect in weld region:

1. High amplitude signal from “A” on full skip path & “B” on half skip path
2. Low amplitude signal from “C” & “D”
6. Slag Inclusion:
1. Detectable from accessible positions & directions due to volumetric nature
2. Signals contain numerous half cycles & have rounded pick
3. It could be detected with any angle beam probe
7. Cluster Porosity:
1. Detectable from all accessible positions & directions due to volumetric nature
2. Very low amplitude response due to signal attenuation giving multiple signals with a wide
time base
3. It is also called as multiple small inclusions

Accept & Reject Criteria:

1. According to codes & standards, we interpret the results
2. Codes & standards are intended to enhance the safety of workers & public
3. Code: A systematic collection of rules & regulation of producer or conduct
4. The standards are set of “How to” instruct for designer, manufacturer & user of the
equipments covered
5. It can run from few paragraphs to hundreds of pages. Standards are considered as a
voluntary because they serve as guidelines only without force of law
6. Institutes such as ASME which has developed standards & publish them & certify to
manufacturer
Codes:
API 650 : Oil & Storage Tank
API 1104 : Cross Country or Long pipe line
ASME Sec-V : NDT Procedure
ASME Sec-IIIV, Div 1 & 2 : Boiler & Pressure Vessels
ASME Sec-IX : Welder Process Qualification (WPS)
ASME B31.1 : Power Piping
ASME B31.4 : Liquid Transportation system for Hydro carbons
ASME B31.8 : Gas Transmission & piping system
AWS D1.1 : Structural Welding

ASME Section-V (NDT Procedure)

Article-4 For Ultrasonic Examination Method for Weld
Table T-421 For Requirement of Ultrasonic Examination Procedure

Calibration Block Thickness:

Weld Thickness (t) inch (mm) Calibration Block Thickness Hole Diameter inch (mm)
(T) inch (mm)
Up to 1 (25) 3⁄ (19) or t 3⁄ (2.5)
4 32
Over 1 (25) through 2 (50) 1
1 ⁄2 (38) or t 1⁄ (3)
8
Over 2 (50) through 4 (100) 3 (75) or t 3⁄ (5)
16
Over 4 (100) T ± 1 (25) For each increase in weld
thickness of 2 in (50 mm) or
fraction therefore over 4 in
(100 mm) the hole diameter
will increase 1⁄16 in (1.5 mm)

100-150 5 + 1.5 = 6.5

151-200 5+3=8
201-250 5 + 4.5 = 9.5

Notch Dimension
In. (mm)
Notch Depth = 2% T
Notch Width = 1⁄4 (6) Maximum
Notch Length = 1 (25) Minimum

Article-5 For Ultrasonic Examination Method for Material

Table T-522 For Variables of Ultrasonic Examination Procedure

Variables:
Article-23
Ultrasonic Standards
SA-388 Specification for Ultrasonic Examination of Heavy Steel Forgings

SA-435 Standard Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasonic Examination of Steel Plates

SA-577 Standard Specification for Ultrasonic Angle Beam Examination of Steel Plates

SA-578 Standard Specification for Straight Beam Ultrasonic Examination of Plain & Clad
Steel for Special Application

SA-609 Standard Practice for Casting, Carbon, Low Alloy & Martensitic Stainless Steel,
Ultrasonic Examination Thereof

SA-745 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Austentic Steel & Forgings

SE-213 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Metal Pipe & Tubing

SE-273 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Weld Zone of Welded Pipe &
Tubing

ASME Section-8, Div-1

Appendix-12 (UT Acceptance Criteria)
Appendix-12, Ultrasonic Examination of Weld

Acceptance & Rejection Standards:

1. Indication characterized by cracks, lack of fusion or incomplete penetrations are
unacceptable regardless of length
2. Other imperfections are unacceptable if the indications exceed the reference level amplitude
& have length which exceeds
 1⁄4 in. (6 mm) for “t” up to 3⁄4 in. (19 mm)
 1⁄3 t in. for “t” from 3⁄4 in. to 21⁄4 in. (19 mm to 57 mm)
 3⁄4 in. (19 mm) for “t” over 21⁄4 (57 mm)
Where “t” is the thickness of weld including any allowable reinforcement
 Ultrasonic Testing Report
Report No: Page No:
Date of Performance / Completion:
Project: Client name & Address: Location:
Item Description: Material: Size:
Date of Receipt of Item: Procedure Application Code:
Surface Preparation
As Welded Grounded Machined Blasted Rough Other
Acceptance Criteria:
Reporting Level %:
Equipments:
Couplant: Water / Glycerin / Other
Scanning: Axial / Radial / Circumferential / Other
Transducer / Probe: Normal / TR / Angle, MHz, Angle 45°, 60°, 70°
Calibration Range:
Calibration Block:
DAC Details (If any):
Sensitivity:
Inspection Result
Identification Welder Metal Thickness Interpretation Accept / Reject

Remark (If Any):

Tested By: Client / Owner Third Party:
Date: Date: Date:
Signature: Signature: Signature: