Greenhouse effect

Diagram showing light energy (white arrows)

emitted by the sun, warming the earth's surface
which then emits the energy as heat (orange
arrows), which warms the atmosphere and is then
re-emitted as heat by three of the greenhouse gas
molecules (water, carbon dioxide, and methane)

The greenhouse effect is the process

by which radiation from a planet's
atmosphere warms the planet's surface
to a temperature above what it would
be without this atmosphere.[1][2]

Radiatively active gases (i.e.,

greenhouse gases) in a planet's
atmosphere radiate energy in all
directions. Part of this radiation is
directed towards the surface, warming
it.[3] The intensity of the downward
radiation – that is, the strength of the
greenhouse effect – will depend on the
atmosphere's temperature and on the
amount of greenhouse gases that the
atmosphere contains.

Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is

critical to supporting life, and initially
was a precursor to life moving out of
the ocean onto land. Human activities,
however, mainly the burning of fossil
fuels and clearcutting of forests, have
accelerated the greenhouse effect and
caused global warming.[4]

The planet Venus experienced runaway

greenhouse effect, resulting in an
atmosphere which is 96% carbon
dioxide, with surface atmospheric
pressure roughly the same as found
900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth.
Venus may have had water oceans, but
they would have boiled off as the mean
surface temperature rose to 735 K
(462 °C; 863 °F).[5][6][7]

The term "greenhouse effect" continues

to see use in scientific circles and the
media despite being a slight misnomer,
as an atmosphere reduces radiative
heat loss[8] while a greenhouse blocks
convective heat loss.[2] The result,
however, is an increase in temperature
in both cases.[9][10]

History
The existence of the greenhouse effect
was argued for by Joseph Fourier in
1824. The argument and the evidence
were further strengthened by Claude
Pouillet in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned
from experimental observations by
Eunice Newton Foote in 1856.[11] John
Tyndall expanded her work in 1859 by
measuring radiative properties of a
wider spectrum of greenhouse
gases.[12] The effect was more fully
quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896,
who made the first quantitative
prediction of global warming due to a
hypothetical doubling of atmospheric
carbon dioxide.[13] However, the term
"greenhouse" was not used to refer to
this effect by any of these scientists;
the term was first used in this way by
Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.[14][15]

Description
The solar radiation spectrum for direct light at
both the top of Earth's atmosphere and at sea
level

Earth receives energy from the Sun in

the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-
infrared radiation. About 26% of the
incoming solar energy is reflected to
space by the atmosphere and clouds,
and 19% is absorbed by the
atmosphere and clouds. Most of the
remaining energy is absorbed at the
surface of Earth. Because the Earth's
surface is colder than the Sun, it
radiates at wavelengths that are much
longer than the wavelengths that were
absorbed. Most of this thermal
radiation is absorbed by the
atmosphere and warms it. The
atmosphere also gains heat by sensible
and latent heat fluxes from the surface.
The atmosphere radiates energy both
upwards and downwards; the part
radiated downwards is absorbed by the
surface of Earth. This leads to a higher
equilibrium temperature than if the
atmosphere did not radiate.
An ideal thermally conductive
blackbody at the same distance from
the Sun as Earth would have a
temperature of about 5.3 °C (41.5 °F).
However, because Earth reflects about
30%[16][17] of the incoming sunlight, this
idealized planet's effective temperature
(the temperature of a blackbody that
would emit the same amount of
radiation) would be about −18 °C
(0 °F).[18][19] The surface temperature of
this hypothetical planet is 33 °C (59 °F)
below Earth's actual surface
temperature of approximately 14 °C
(57 °F).[20] The greenhouse effect is the
contribution of greenhouse gases to
this difference.

Mechanism
The basic mechanism can be qualified
in a number of ways, none of which
affect the fundamental process. The
atmosphere near the surface is largely
opaque to thermal radiation (with
important exceptions for "window"
bands), and most heat loss from the
surface is by sensible heat and latent
heat transport. Radiative energy losses
become increasingly important higher
in the atmosphere, largely because of
the decreasing concentration of water
vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It
is more realistic to think of the
greenhouse effect as applying to a
layer in the mid-troposphere, which is
effectively coupled to the surface by a
lapse rate. The simple picture also
assumes a steady state, but in the real
world, the diurnal cycle as well as the
seasonal cycle and weather
disturbances complicate matters. Solar
heating applies only during daytime.
During the night, the atmosphere cools
somewhat, but not greatly, because its
emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature
changes decrease with height in the
atmosphere.

Within the region where radiative

effects are important, the description
given by the idealized greenhouse
model becomes realistic. Earth's
surface, warmed to a temperature
around 255 K, radiates long-
wavelength, infrared heat in the range
of 4–100 μm.[21] At these wavelengths,
greenhouse gases that were largely
transparent to incoming solar radiation
are more absorbent.[21] Each layer of
atmosphere with greenhouses gases
absorbs some of the heat being
radiated upwards from lower layers. It
reradiates in all directions, both
upwards and downwards; in equilibrium
(by definition) the same amount as it
has absorbed. This results in more
warmth below. Increasing the
concentration of the gases increases
the amount of absorption and
reradiation, and thereby further warms
the layers and ultimately the surface
below.[19]

Greenhouse gases—including most

diatomic gases with two different
atoms (such as carbon monoxide, CO)
and all gases with three or more atoms
—are able to absorb and emit infrared
radiation. Though more than 99% of the
dry atmosphere is IR transparent
(because the main constituents—N2,
O2, and Ar—are not able to directly
absorb or emit infrared radiation),
intermolecular collisions cause the
energy absorbed and emitted by the
greenhouse gases to be shared with
the other, non-IR-active, gases.

Greenhouse gases
By their percentage contribution to the
greenhouse effect on Earth the four
major gases are:[22][23]

Atmospheric gases only absorb some

wavelengths of energy but are transparent to
others. The absorption patterns of water vapor
(blue peaks) and carbon dioxide (pink peaks)
overlap in some wavelengths. Carbon dioxide is
not as strong a greenhouse gas as water vapor,
but it absorbs energy in longer wavelengths (12–
15 micrometers) that water vapor does not,
partially closing the "window" through which heat
radiated by the surface would normally escape to
space. (Illustration NASA, Robert Rohde)[24]
 water vapor, 36–70%
carbon dioxide, 9–26%
methane, 4–9%
ozone, 3–7%

It is not possible to assign a specific

percentage to each gas because the
absorption and emission bands of the
gases overlap (hence the ranges given
above). Clouds also absorb and emit
infrared radiation and thus affect the
radiative properties of the
atmosphere.[23]

Role in climate change

Role in climate change

The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2

concentrations measured at Mauna Loa
Observatory.

Strengthening of the greenhouse effect

through human activities is known as
the enhanced (or anthropogenic)
greenhouse effect.[25] This increase in
radiative forcing from human activity is
attributable mainly to increased
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.[26]
According to the latest Assessment
Report from the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, "atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide are
unprecedented in at least the last
800,000 years. Their effects, together
with those of other anthropogenic
drivers, have been detected throughout
the climate system and are extremely
likely to have been the dominant cause
of the observed warming since the mid-
20th century".[27]

CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning

and other activities such as cement
production and tropical
deforestation.[28] Measurements of CO2
from the Mauna Loa observatory show
that concentrations have increased
from about 313 parts per million
(ppm)[29] in 1960 to about 389 ppm in
2010. It reached the 400 ppm
milestone on May 9, 2013.[30] The
current observed amount of CO2
exceeds the geological record maxima
(~300 ppm) from ice core data.[31] The
effect of combustion-produced carbon
dioxide on the global climate, a special
case of the greenhouse effect first
described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius,
has also been called the Callendar
effect.

Over the past 800,000 years,[32] ice core

data shows that carbon dioxide has
varied from values as low as 180 ppm
to the pre-industrial level of 270
ppm.[33] Paleoclimatologists consider
variations in carbon dioxide
concentration to be a fundamental
factor influencing climate variations
over this time scale.[34][35]

Real greenhouses

A modern Greenhouse in RHS Wisley

The "greenhouse effect" of the

atmosphere is named by analogy to
greenhouses which become warmer in
sunlight. However, a greenhouse is not
primarily warmed by the "greenhouse
effect".[36] "Greenhouse effect" is
actually a misnomer since heating in
the usual greenhouse is due to the
reduction of convection,[10] while the
"greenhouse effect" works by
preventing absorbed heat from leaving
the structure through radiative transfer.

A greenhouse is built of any material

that passes sunlight: usually glass or
plastic. The sun warms the ground and
contents inside just like the outside,
and these then warm the air. Outside,
the warm air near the surface rises and
mixes with cooler air aloft, keeping the
temperature lower than inside, where
the air continues to heat up because it
is confined within the greenhouse. This
can be demonstrated by opening a
small window near the roof of a
greenhouse: the temperature will drop
considerably. It was demonstrated
experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that
a (not heated) "greenhouse" with a
cover of rock salt (which is transparent
to infrared) heats up an enclosure
similarly to one with a glass cover.[9]
Thus greenhouses work primarily by
preventing convective cooling.[8]
Heated greenhouses are yet another
matter: as they have an internal source
of heating, it is desirable to minimise
the amount of heat leaking out by
radiative cooling. This can be done
through the use of adequate glazing.[37]

Related effects
Anti-greenhouse effect

The anti-greenhouse effect is a

mechanism similar and symmetrical to
the greenhouse effect: in the
greenhouse effect, the atmosphere lets
radiation in while not letting thermal
radiation out, thus warming the body
surface; in the anti-greenhouse effect,
the atmosphere keeps radiation out
while letting thermal radiation out,
which lowers the equilibrium surface
temperature. Such an effect has been
proposed for Saturn's moon Titan.[38]

Runaway greenhouse effect

A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if

positive feedbacks lead to the
evaporation of all greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere.[39] A runaway
greenhouse effect involving carbon
dioxide and water vapor has long ago
been hypothesized to have occurred on
Venus,[40] this idea is still largely
accepted .

Bodies other than Earth

The 'greenhouse effect' on Venus is
particularly large for several reasons:

1. It is nearer to the Sun than Earth

by about 30%.
2. It has a much weaker magnetic
field meaning less protection from
solar radiation and heating
 effects.[41]
3. Its very dense atmosphere
consists mainly of carbon
dioxide.[42]

"Venus experienced a runaway

greenhouse in the past, and we expect
that Earth will in about 2 billion years as
solar luminosity increases".[43]

In complete contrast, the mean

temperature on Mars is very cold at -63
deg C [-82 deg F].[44] This is despite
having over 95% atmospheric CO2,
almost the same as Venus’s
atmosphere, but at a much lower
pressure than the atmospheres on
Earth and Venus. Mars is further from
the Sun than Earth but still receives
about 44% of the Sun’s heat [approx
500 W/m2] when compared to Earth.
Also any atmospheric or surface
heating from solar flares and cosmic
radiation affects Mars as it has no
magnetic field.[45]

Titan is a body with both a greenhouse

effect and an anti-greenhouse effect.
The presence of N2, CH4, and H2 in the
atmosphere contribute to a greenhouse
effect, increasing the surface
temperature by 21K over the expected
temperature of the body with no
atmosphere. The existence of a high-
altitude haze, which absorbs
wavelengths of solar radiation but is
transparent to infrared, contribute to an
anti-greenhouse effect of
approximately 9K. The net effect of
these two phenomena result is a net
warming of 21K- 9K= 12K, so Titan is
12 K warmer than it would be if there
were no atmosphere.[46][47]

Pluto is also colder than would be

expected because it is cooled by
evaporation of nitrogen.[48]

See also
Earth's energy budget
Top contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions
Climate tipping point

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Further reading
Businger, Joost Alois; Fleagle, Robert
Guthrie (1980). An introduction to
atmospheric physics . International
Geophysics (2nd ed.). Academic.
 ISBN 978-0-12-260355-6.
Henderson-Sellers, Ann; McGuffie,
Kendal (2005). A climate modelling
primer (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-
470-85750-2.

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