B-Tech in Mechanical Engineering Seminar(ME 451)

1.INTRODUCTION

Advancement of societies, and in particular in their ability to sustain larger populations, are
closely related to changes in the amount and type of energy available to satisfy human needs
for nourishment and to perform work [1]. Low access to energy is an aspect of poverty.
Energy, and in particular electricity, is indeed crucial to provide adequate services such as
water, food, healthcare, education, employment and communication. To date, the majority of
energy consumed by our societies has come from fossil and nuclear fuels, which are now
facing severe issues such as security of supply, economic affordability, envir- onmental
sustainability and disaster risks.

To address these problems, major countries are enacting energy policies focused on the
increase in the deployment of renewable energy technologies. In particular;

 Since 1992, to prevent the most severe impacts of climate change, the
United Nations member states are committed to a drastic reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions below the 1990 levels.
 In September 2009, both European Union and G8 leaders agreed that
carbon dioxide emissions should be cut by 80% before 2050.

In the European Union(EU), compulsory implementation of such a commitment i soccurring

via the Kyoto Protocol, which bounded 15EU members to reduce their collective emissions
by 8% in the 2008–2012 period, and the ‘Climate Energy Package (the 20–20–20 targets)’,
which obliges EU to cut its own emissions by atleast 20% by 2020.

In this context, in the last decades there has been a fast growth and spread of renewable
energy plants. Among them, wind generators are the most widespread type of intermittent
renewable energy harvesters with their 369 GW of cumulative installed power at the end of
2014 . Wind capacity, i.e. total installed power, is keeping a positive trend with an increment
of 51.4 GWin 2014. In the future, such a growth could decrease due to saturation of in-land
windy areas that are suitable for installations. For this reason, current research programs are
oriented to the improvement of power capacity per unit of land area. This translates to the
global industrial trend of developing single wind turbines with increased nominal power (up

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to 5 MW) that feature high-length blades (to increase the swept area) and high-height turbine
axis (to reach stronger winds at higher altitudes)

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2.AVAILABILITY OF AIRBORNE WIND ENERGY

In the literature, the acronym AWE(AirborneWindEnergy) is usually employed to designate

the high-altitude wind energy resource as well as the technological sector. High-altitude
winds have been studied since decades by meteorologists, climatologists and by researchers
in the field of environmental science even though many questions are still unsolved. The first
work aimed at evaluating the potential of AWE as a renewable energy resource has been
presented by Archerand Caldeira. Their paper introduces a study that assesses a huge world
wide availability of kinetic energy of wind at altitudes between 0.5 km and 12 km above the
ground, providing clear geographical distribution and persistency maps of windpower density
at different ranges of altitude. This preliminary analysis does not take into account the
consequences on wind and climate of a possible extraction of kinetic energy from winds.
However, the conclusions of these investigations already raised the attention of many
researchers and engineers suggesting reat promises for technologies able to harvest energy
from high altitude winds.

More in depth studies have been conducted employing complex climate models, which
predict consequences

associated with the introduction of wind energy harvesters (near surface and a thigh altitude),
that exerts distributed drag forces agains twind flows. Marvel et al. estimate a maximum of
400 TW and 1800 TW of kinetic power that could be extracted from winds that blow,
respectively, near-surface (harvested with traditional wind turbines)and through the whole
atmospheric layer (harvested with both traditional turbines and high altitude wind energy
converters). Even if severe/undesirable changes could affect the global climate in the case of
such a massive extraction, the authors show that the extraction of ‘only’ 18 TW (i.e.a quantity
comparable with the actual world power demand)does not produce significant effects at
global scale. This means that, from the geophysical point of view, very large quantity of
power can be extracted from wind at different altitudes.

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3.CLASSIFICATION OF AIRBORNE WIND ENERGY SYSTEM

In this paper, the term AWESs (Airborne Wind Energy Systems) is used to identify the whole
electro-mechanical machines that transform the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy.
AWESs are generally made of two main components, ground system and at least one air craft
that are mechanically connected (in some cases also electrically connected) by ropes(often
referred to astethers). Among the different AWES concepts, we can distinguish Ground-Gen
systems in whichthe conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy takes place on
the ground and Fly-Gen systems in which such conversion is done on the aircraft.

In a Ground-Gen AWES (GG-AWES), electrical energy is produced on the ground by

mechanical work done by traction force, transmitted from the aircraft to the ground system
through one or more ropes, which produce the motion of an electrical generator. Among GG-
AWESs we can distinguish between fixed-groundstation devices, where the ground station is
fixed to the ground and moving-ground-station systems, where the ground station is a moving
vehicle.

In a Fly-Gen AWES (FG-AWES), electrical energy is produced on the aircraft and it is

transmitted to the ground via a special rope which carries electrical cables. In this case,
electrical energy conversion is generally achieved using wind turbines. FG-AWESs produce
electric power continuously while in operation except during take-off and landing maneuvers
in which energy is consumed. Among FG-AWESs it is possible to find crosswind systems
and non-crosswind systems depending on how they generate energy.

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4. GROUND-GEN AIRBORNE SYSTEM

In Ground-Generator Airborne Wind Energy Systems (GG- AWES) electrical energy is

produced exploiting aerodynamic forces that are transmitted from the aircraft to the ground
through ropes. As previously anticipated, GG-AWES can be distinguished in devices with
fixed or moving-ground-station.

4.1. GROUND-GEN SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURES AND AIRCRAFT

In GG systems the aircraft transmits mechanical power to the ground by converting wind
aerodynamic forces into rope tensile forces. The different concepts that were prototyped are
listed in Fig. 1; examples of aircraft of GG systems that are currently under development are
presented in Fig. 2. They exploit aerodynamic lift forces generated by the wind on their
surfaces/wings.
The aircraft is connected to the ground by at least one power rope that is responsible for
transmitting the lift force (and theharvested power) to the ground station. The flight trajectory
can be controlled by means of on-board actuators (Fig. 1a), or with a control pod (Fig. 1b), or
by regulating the tension of the same power-ropes (Fig. 1c), or with thinner control-ropes
(Fig. 1d).

Fig. 1; Control layout of crosswind GG-AWESs. (a) With on-board control actuators; (b) with flying control pod; (c)
control through power ropes; (d) with additional control rope.

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Fig. 2; Different types of aircraft in Ground-Gen systems. (a) LEI SLE (Leading Edge Inflatable, Supported Leading Edge)
Kite; (b) LEI C-kite; (c) Foil Kite, design from Skysails; (d) Glider, design from Ampyx Power; (e) Swept rigid wing, design
from Enerkite; (f) Semi-rigid wing, design from Kitegen.

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Fig. 3; Control of bridles tension. (a) Control bridles are attached to the leading and trailing edges of a LEI SLE kite. (b) A
control pod can be used to control the flighttrajectory and angle of attack.

There are also two GG concepts that are worth mentioning: one uses parachutes which
exploit aerodynamics drag forces, the other uses rotating aerostats which exploit the Magnus
effect.
The most important aircraft used for GG systems are here listed:
1. Leading Edge Inflatable (LEI) kites are single layer kites whose flexural stiffness is
enhanced by inflatable structures on the leading edge (Fig. 2a and b). Mainly two
kinds of LEI kites are used in AWESs:
(a) Supported Leading Edge (SLE) kites are LEI kites with at least one bridle which
supports the leading edge close to its central part (Fig. 2a). In comparison with C-kites
(that are described in the following), the traction force of the central bridles makes the
wing flat in its central region and this is claimed to increase the wing aerodynamic
efficiency.

(b) C-kites, which are generally controlled by four main bridlesdirectly attached to
extreme lateral points of the kite edges (Fig. 2b). In pumping generators, the C-kite is
held with either one, two or three ropes. In generators with one rope, the rope is
connected to both the leading edge bridles, while trailing edge bridles are controlled
by a ‘control pod’ (i.e. a flying box with one or more actuators) attached to the rope a
few meters below the kite. The micro-winches inside the control pod are used to steer

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the kite and control the angle of attack. In case of two ropes, left bridles converge in
one rope and right bridles converge in the second rope. The angle of incidence is fixed
and the kitesteers due to the difference in the ropes tension. In case of three ropes,
there is one rope for each trailing edge bridle and one rope connected to the leading
edge bridles. In this case, kite steering and angle of attack can be controlled from the
ground.
The stiffened tube-like structure of LEI kites is especially useful for take-off and
landing maneuvers when the wing is not yetsupported by wind pressure. The ease of
handling is very appreciated also during small-scale prototyping and subsystem
testing. However LEI kites have severe scalability issues as the tube diameter needs to
be oversized in case of large wings
2. Foil kites (also called ram-air kites) are derived from parafoils. These double-layer
kites are made of canopy cells which run from the leading edge to the trailing edge
(Figs. 2c and 3b). Cells (some or all) are open on the leading edge in a way that the air
inflates all cells during the flight and gives the kite the necessary stiffness. Bridles are
grouped in different lines, frequently three: one central and two laterals. With respect
to LEI kites, foil wings have a better aerodynamic efficiency despite the higher
number of bridles and can be one order ofmagnitude larger in size.
3. Delta kites are similar to hang glider wings. They are made by asingle layer of fabric
material reinforced by a rigid frame.Compared with LEI or foil kites, this kind of
aircraft has abetter aerodynamic efficiency which in turn results in a higher efficiency
of wind power extraction. On the other hand, their rigid frame has to resist to
mechanicalbending stresses which, in case of high aerodynamic forces,make it
necessary to use thick and strong spars which increasethe aircraft weight, cost and
minimum take-off wind speed.Durability for fabric wings such as LEI, foil and delta
kites, is anissue. Performance is compromised soon and lifetime is usually around
several hundred hours.
4. Gliders (Fig. 2d) can also be used as GG aircraft. Like delta kites, their wings are
subject to bending moment during the tethered flight. Gliders, and more generally
rigid wings, have excellen taerodynamic performance, although they are heavier and
more expensive. Lifetime with regular maintenance is several decades.
5. Swept rigid wings are gliders without fuselage and tail control surfaces (Fig. 2e).
Flight stability is most likely achieved thanks to the bridle system and the sweep
angle.

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6. Semi-rigid wings are also under investigation by the Italian company Kitegen
Research. They are composed of multiple short rigid modules that are hinged to each
other (Fig. 2f). The resulting structure is lighter than straight rigid wings and more
aerodynamically efficient and durable than fabric kites.
7. Special design kites: Kiteplanes and Tensairity Kites are projects developed by
TUDelft (The Netherlands) and EMPA (Research Center for Synergetic Structures,
ETH Zurich), that aim at increasing the aerodynamic efficiency of arch kites without
using rigid spars

4.2 FIXED-GROUND-STATION SYSTEM UNDER DEVELOPMENT

This subsection provides a list of fixed-ground-station GG AWES which are summarized in
Figs. 4 and 7.

4.2.1. KITEGEN RESEARCH

The Italian KiteGen Research (KGR) was one of the first companies to test a prototype of
Ground-Gen AWES. KGR technology is based on a C-Kite integrating on board electronics
with sensor and is controlled by two power-ropes from a control station on the ground . The
first prototype, named KSU1 (acronym for Kite Steering Unit) , was successfully
demonstrated in 2006. After a few years of tests, the company focused on the development
of a new generator, named ‘KiteGen Stem’, with a nominal power of 3 MW. In this system,
the ropes are wound on special winches and are driven by a pulley system through a 20 m
flexible rod, called ‘stem’, to an arch-kite or a semi-rigid wing. The stem is linked to the top
of the control station through a pivot joint with horizontal axis. The most important functions
of the stem are: (1) supporting and holding the kite and (2) damping peak forces in the rope
that arise during wind-gusts. The entire control station can make azimuthal rotations so the
stem has two degrees of freedom relative to the ground. The ‘Stem’ concept was first
patented in 2008 and is now used by more and more companies and universities.
At the beginning of the take-off maneuvers, the kite is hanged upside down at the end of the
stem. Once the kite has taken off, the production phase starts: the automatic control drives the
kite acting on the two ropes, the kite makes a crosswind flight with ‘eight shape’ paths; at the
same time ropes are unwound causing the winches to rotate; the motor-generators transform
mechanical power into electric power. The company aims at retracting the cables with

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minimum energy consumption thanks to a special maneuver called ‘side-slip’ or ‘flagging’.

Side-slip is a different flight mode where the kite aerodynamic lift force is cleared by
rewinding at first one rope before the other, which makes the kite lose lift and ‘stall’ and
then, once fully stalled, both ropes are rewound at the same speed and the kite precipitates
flying
sideways. This maneuver can be done with flexible foil kites or semi-rigid wings. In this
phase, the power absorbed by motorgenerators is given by rope rewind speed multiplied by
the resulting aerodynamic drag force of the side-slip flying mode. This power consumption
would be a small percentage of the power produced in the production phase. After rewinding
a certain length of the ropes (less than the total rope length in order to exploit only the highest
winds) another special maneuver restores the gliding flight and the aerodynamic lift force on
the kite. At this point one pumping cycle ends and a new production phase starts.
KGR patented and is developing special aerodynamic ropes in order to increase their
endurance and to increase system performances. KGR also plans to use the Kitegen Stem
technology to produce an offshore AWES since offshore AWESs are very promising.

4.2.2. KITENERGY

Another Italian company, Kitenergy, was founded by a former KiteGen partner and is also
developing a similar concept by controlling a foil kite with two ropes . The prototype of the
company features 60 kW of rated power. Kitenergy submitted also a different GG-AWES
patent that consists in a system based on a single motor-generator which controls winding and
unwinding of two (or more) cables and another actuator that introduces a differential control
action of the employed cables. Another prototype developed by its co-founder, Lorenzo
Fagiano, achieved 4 h of consecutive autonomous flight with no power production at
University of California at Santa Barbara in 2012.

4.2.3. SKYSAILS POWER

The German company SkySails GmbH is developing a windpropulsion system for cargo
vessels based on kites . A fewyears ago a new division of the company ‘SkySails Power’ has
beencreated to develop Ground-Gen AWES based on the technologyused in SkySails vessel
propulsion system. Two products areunder development: a mobile AWES having a capacity
between 250 kW and 1 MW, and an offshore AWES with a capacity from 1 to 3.5 MW.

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SkySails' AWES is based on a foil kite controlled with one rope and a control pod which
controls the lengths of kite bridles for steering the kite and changing its angle of attack.
Control pod power and communication with the ground station is provided via electric cables
embedded in the rope. SkySails also has a patented launch and recovery system designed for
packing the kite in a storage compartment. It is composed by a telescopic mast with a special
device on its top that is able to grab, keep and release the central point of the kite leading
edge. When the system is off, the mast is compacted in the storage compartment with the kite
deflated. At the beginning of the launching operation, the mast extends out vertically bringing
the deflated kite some meters above the ground (or the sea level). The kite is then inflated to
have appropriate shape and stiffness for the production phase. Kite take-off exploits only the
natural wind lift force on the kite: the system at the top of the mast releases the kite leading
edge, the pod starts to control the flight and the winch releases the rope letting the kite reach
the operating altitude. While the energy production phase is similar to that of the KGR
generator, SkySails has a different recovery phase. Specifically, SkySails uses high speed
winching during reel-in while the kite is kept at the edge of the wind window. The kite is then
winched directly against the wind without changing the kite angle of attack. Though it might
seem counter-intuitive at first, this kind of recovery phase has proven to be competitive.

4.2.4. TWINGTEC

The Swiss company Twingtec is developing a 100 kW GGAWES. After having tried several
concepts including soft wings and rigid wings, the team is now tackling the problem of
automating take-off and landing with an innovative concept: a glider with embedded rotors
having rotational axis perpendicular to the wing plane. The rotors are used during take-off
and landing. The company plans to have the generator and power conversion hardware inside
a standard 20-foot shipping container in order to easily target off-grid and remote markets.
The AWES will supply continuous and reliable electrical power thanks to the integration with
conventional diesel generators.

4.2.5. AMPYX POWER

The first company that developed a pumping glider generator is the Dutch Ampyx Power .
After several prototypes, they are currently developing and testing two 5.5 m ‘PowerPlanes’
the AP- 2A1 and the AP-2A2 . They are two officially registered aircraft that are

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automatically controlled with state of the art avionics. They are constructed with a carbon
fiber body and a carbon backbone truss which houses onboard electronics with sensors and
actuators. Onboard actuators can drive a rudder, an elevator and four flaperons. One rope
connects the glider to a single winch in the ground station . Ampyx Power is actually one of
the few companies which has already developed an AWES that is able to automatically
perform the sequence of glider take-off, pumping cycles and landing. Take-off maneuver sees
the glider lying on the ground facing the ground station at some meters of distance. As the
winch starts exerting traction force on the rope, the glider moves on the ground and, as soon
as the lift forces exceed the weight forces, the glider takes off. They also installed a catapult
for take-off and they have a propulsion system to climb up. The glider flight is fully
autonomous during normal operations even though, for safety reasons, it can be occasionally
controlled wirelessly from the ground thanks to a backup autopilot. The pumping cycles are
similar to those of a kite. Glider landing is similar to that of an airplane and is being equipped
with an arresting line so as to stop the glider in a right position for a new take-off. During a
test campaign in November 2012, the system demonstrated an average power production of 6
kW with peaks ofover 15 kW (earlier tests showed peak in power production of30 kW).
Ampyx has started the design of its first commercial product: a 35 m wingspan AP-4
PowerPlane with a ‘wind turbineequivalent’ power of 2 MW.

4.2.6. ENERKITE

The German company EnerKite developed a portable pumping kite generator with rated
continuous power of 30 kW. The ground station is installed on a truck through a pivotal joint
which allows azimuthal rotations. EnerKite demonstrator uses mainly a foil kite, but a delta
kite and a swept rigid wing are also under investigation and testing.. EnerKite is now
developing an autonomous launch and landing system for semi-rigid wings . The company
plans to produce a 100 kW and a 500 kW system

4.2.7. SWISSKITE POWER

SwissKitePower was a collaborative research and development project started in Switzerland

in 2009. It involved four laboratories of different Swiss universities: FHNW, EMPA (Swiss
Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology), ETH (Federal Politechnique of
Zurich) and EPFL (École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne). The first prototypes, tested

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between 2009 and 2011, were based on a C-kite controlled by one rope and a control pod,
similarly to KitePower and SkySails prototypes. In 2012, SwissKite- Power developed a new
ground station with three winches that can be used to test kites with 1, 2 or 3 lines. They also
tested SLE kites and tensairity kites. The project ended in 2013 and since then FHNW is
working in collaboration with the company TwingTec.

4.2.8. WINDLIFT

The US Company Windlift has a concept similar to that of Enerkite. Their 12 kW prototype
uses SLE kites. They aim to sell their product to the military and to off-grid locations.

4.3. MOVING-GROUND-STATION UNDER DEVOLOPEMENT

In addition to pumping systems, a number of AWES concepts with moving-ground-station

have been proposed. Their main advantage is the ability to produce energy continuously or
nearlycontinuously. However, only a few companies are working on AWESs with moving-
ground-station and there are more patents and studies than prototypes under development.
This subsectionprovides a list of moving-ground-station GG-AWES.

4.3.1. KITEGEN RESEARCH

The first moving-ground-station architecture which is based on a vertical axis generator has
been proposed back in 2004 by Sequoia Automation and acquired by KGR. During
operations, lift forces are transmitted to a rotating frame inducing a torque around the main
vertical axis. Torque and rotation are converted into electricity by the electric generator. This
system can be seen as a vertical axis wind turbine driven by forces which come from tethered
aircraft. There is no prototype under development, but the concept has been studied in a
simulation showing that 100 kites with 500 m2 area could generate 1000 MW of average
power in a wind with speed of 12 m/s. The considered generator would have a 1500 m radius,
occupying a territory about 50 times smaller and costing about 30 times less than a farm of
wind turbines with the same nominal power

4.3.2. NTS ENERGIE

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An alternative system based on ground stations that moves on closed track circuits is
proposed by KGR and by the German company NTS Energie und Transportsysteme. Starting
from September 2011, NTS tested a prototype where 4-rope kites are controlled by a vehicle
which moves on a 400 m flat-bed straight railway track. They are able to produce up to 1 kW
per m2 of wing area and they tested kites up to 40 m2 . The final product should have a
closed loop railway where more vehicles run independently.

4.3.3. KITENERGY

Another rail concept is proposed by Kitenergy and it is based on ideas published in 2004 in
Drachen Foundation journal. The concept is based on a straight linear rail fixed on the ground
with a pivotal joint. The rail direction is then adjustedperpendicular to the main direction of
the wind. The groundstation of the system is mounted on a wheeled vehicle which moves
along the straight rail, under the kite traction forces, back and forth from one side to the other.
The power is extracted from electromagnetic rotational generators on the wheels of the
vehicle or from linear electromagnetic generators on the rail. The power production is not
fully continuous because during the inversion of vehicle direction the power production will
not only decrease to zero, but it could also be slightly negative. Nevertheless the kite
inversion maneuver could be theoretically performed without the need of power
consumption.

4.3.4. LADDERMILL

Although it cannot be considered a moving-ground-station device, it is important to mention

that the first concept of continuous energy production AWES was the Laddermill concept
envisaged by the former astronaut, Professor Ockels in 1996.

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Fig. 4. Different types of aircraft in Fly-Gen systems. (a) Plane with four turbines, design by Makani Power. (b) Aircraft
composed by a frame of wings and turbines, design by Joby Energy. (c) Toroidal lifting aerostat with a wind turbine in the
center, design by Altaeros Energies. (d) Static suspension quadrotor in autorotation, design by Sky WindPower.

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5. FLY-GEN AIRBORNE WIND ENERGY SYSTEM

In Fly-Gen AWESs, electric energy is produced onboard of the aircraft during its flight and it
is transmitted to the ground trough one special rope which integrates electric cables.
Electrical energyconversion in FG-AWESs is achieved using one or more specially designed
wind turbines.

Fig.5 . Classification of AWESs.

A general classification of these systems is provided in this section.

5.1. AIRCRAFT IN FLY- GEN SYSTEM

Besides the general classification between crosswind and noncrosswind mode proposed in
Fig. 5, FG-AWESs can also be distinguished basing on their flying principles that are:
 Wings lift: Achieved with a tethered flight of special gliders(Fig. 4a) or frames
with multiple wings (Fig. 4b).
 Buoyancy and static lift: Achieved with aerodynamically shaped aerostats
filled with lighter-than-air gas (Fig. 4c).
 Rotor thrust: Achieved with the same turbines used for electrical power
generation (Fig. 4d).
Aircraft in Fig. 4a and 4b fly crosswind and harvest the relative wind, while those in Fig. 4c
and 4d fly non-crosswind and harvest the absolute wind.
There is also one FG concept that aims at exploiting high altitude wind energy not by using
aerodynamic lift. It uses instead a rotating aerostat which exploits the Magnus effect.

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Fig.6. Fly-Gen AWESs. Summary of FG-AWESs.

5.2. FLY-GEN SYSTEM UNDER DEVELOPMENT

This subsection provides a list of FG AWES which are summarized in Figs 5. and 6.

5.2.1. LOYD’S FIRST MECHANICAL CONCEPT

One of the most famous and old idea of exploiting wind energy using turbines on a kite
belongs to Loyd who calculated that wind turbines installed on a crosswind flying kite could
be able to generate up to 5 times the power produced by equivalent turbines installed on the
ground. He also patented his idea in 1978. Loyd's concept foresees a reciprocating wind
driven apparatus, similar to a multi propeller plane, with a plurality of ropes linkingthe
aircraft to a ground station.

5.2.2. MAKANI POWER

After about twenty-five years from Loyd's work, Makani Power Inc. has started the
development of its Airborne Wind Turbine (AWT) prototypes (as in Fig. 4a). In nine years,

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Makani tested several AWESs concepts including Ground-Gen, single rope, multiple rope,
movable ground station on rails, soft wings and rigid wings. During these years, the company
filed several patents where an electric and modern version of Loyd's idea has been enriched
with a tether tension sensor, an aerodynamic cable, and with a new idea of a bimodal flight
that has been invented to solve take-off and landing issues. In the bimodal flight the AWT
takes off with the wing plane in a vertical position, driven by propellers thrust. This flight
mode is similar to a quadcopter flight and rotors on AWT are used as engines. Once all the
rope length has been unwound, the AWT changes flight mode becoming a tethered flight
airplane. In this second flight mode a circular flight path is powered by the wind itself and
rotors on AWT are used as generators to convert power from the wind. During this phase the
cable length is fixed. In order to land, a new change of flight mode is performed, and the
AWT lands as a quadcopter. Makani has developed and tested its 8 m, 20 kW
demonstrator,called ‘Wing 7’ that showed the capability of fully automatic operations and
power production. After these results, in early 2013 Makani was acquired by Google. Makani
is currently developing a 600 kW prototype, ‘the M600’. The M600 AWT has eight turbines,
each with five propeller blades, and has a wingspan of 28 m. The prototype is now
undergoing testing. After M600, Makani plans to produce an offshore commercial version of
AWTwith a nominal power of 5 MW featuring 6 turbines and awingspan of 65 m.

5.2.3. JOBY ENERGY

Founded in 2008, Joby Energy Inc. is another US company which is developing a FG-
AWES. The main difference between Joby and Makani is that the tethered airborne vehicle is
a multiframe structure with embedded airfoils. Turbines are installed in the joints of the
frame (as in Fig. 4b). In Joby's concept, the system could be adapted to be assembled with
modular components, constructed from multiple similar frames with turbines. The power
generation method and the take-off and landing maneuvers are similar to those of Makani
concept. Joby also patented an aerodynamic rope for its system. In 2009 and 2010, Joby
tested different small scale prototypes.

5.2.4. ALTAEROS ENERGIES

Another project based on flying wind turbines in a stationary position has been developed by
Altaeros Energies, a Massachusetts-based business led by MIT and Harvard alumni. In this

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case, instead of using wings lift to fly, they use a ring shaped aerostat with a wind turbine
installed in its interior (as in Fig. 4c). The whole generator is lighter than the air, so the take-
off and landing maneuvers are simplified, and the only remaining issue is the stabilization of
the generator in the right position relative to the wind. The aerostat is aerodynamically
shaped so that the absolute wind generates lift that helps keeping a high angle of altitude
together with the buoyancy force. After their energy production tests in 2012, Altaeros is
additionally working on multiple rotor generators with different lighter-than air craft
configurations.

5.2.5. SKY WINDPOWER

Sky Windpower Inc. proposed a different kind of tethered craft called ‘Flying Electric
Generator’ (FEG) (as in Fig. 4d) which is similar to a large quadrotor with at least three
identical rotors mounted on an airframe that is linked to a ground station with a rope having
inner electrical cables. Their concept was the first AWES to be tested in 1986 at University of
Sidney. Take-off and landing maneuvers are similar to those of Makani's and Joby's
generators, but FEG operation as generator is different. Once it reaches the operational
altitude, the frame is inclined at an adjustable controllable angle relative to the wind (up to 50
deg) and the rotors switch the functioning mode from motor to generator. At this inclined
position, the rotors receive from their lower side a projection of the natural wind parallel to
their axes.
This projection of wind allows autorotation, thus generating both electricity and thrust.
Electricity flows to and from the FEGthrough the cable. Sky Windpower tested two FEG
prototypes. They claimed that a typical minimum wind speed for autorotation and energy
generation is around 10 m/s at an operational altitude of 4600 m. Unfortunately the company
went recently out of business.

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6. FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL LIMITS OF AIRBORNE WIND

ENERGY

Let us in this section look in more detail at the physical foundations of airborne wind energy.
We will derive a refined variant of Loyd’s formula and prove that it is in fact an upper limit
of the power that any flying wing can extract from the atmosphere. Let us start with a simple,
but very fundamental observation that holds for any wind power extracting device. For this
aim we do not look at the generated power, but instead at the power that the wind power
system extracts from the atmosphere, i.e. the power that is removed from the wind field due
to the presence of the device.

Lemma 1 (Power Extraction Formula). Regard a constant wind with speed vw.
The total power Pwind that a flying wing extracts from this wind field is given by the
product of vw with the total aerodynamic force Fa that the wing experiences and the
cosine of the angle g between the direction of this force and the wind:

Pwind = vwFa cos g

An intuitive proof of this simple fact can be based on a thought experiment, as visualized in
Fig. 7: we imagine that the airmass is at rest while the ground anchor point of the airborne
wind energy device is mounted on a tractor that moves with a constant speed vw against this
airmass. The resistance of the airborne system causes a total aerodynamic force Fa that has a
horizontal force component parallel to the tractor motion of size Fa cos g. This force is
directed against the motion of the tractor, and the mechanical power that the tractor needs to
maintain its speed is given by vwFa cos g. Extending the thought experiment such that not
only the tractor, but the whole ground is moving against the air mass and pushed by a magic
force, it is clear that the same power formula still holds for the work done by this magic
force.The validity of the same formula for a fixed ground and a moving airmass is due to the
equivalence of inertial frames; in reality, the magic force moves the airmass relatively to the
ground, and is caused by the presence of high and low air pressure regions.
A simple conclusion from the lemma, that gives an upper bound on the usable power, is that
no device can extract power from a constant wind field if it does not exert a horizontal force
component against this wind. Most AWE devices have some losses, and most exert a force on

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the ground anchor point that is not parallel to the wind direction. In analogy to a similar
expression in solar power, we might call the loss that is due to the fact that the total
aerodynamic force is not perfectly in line with the wind direction the cosine loss.
In fact, all tethered systems need some elevation angle that the tether forms with the
horizontal in order to reach some altitude. Fortunately, for moderate angles, the cosine is still
close to one, for example the cosine loss is less than 30% even if the tether goes upwards
with an angle of 45 degrees. Optimized AWE systems typically fly at even lower elevation
angles, and for e.g. 20 degrees we have nearly negligible cosine losses, of only 6%.

Fig. 7. Thought experiment from the proof of Lemma 1. A tractor moving at speed vw and pulling
a wing through air at rest performs a mechanical power of vwFa cos g. Conversely, if the air moves
and the tractor is at rest, the same amount of power is extracted from the relative motion of the air
with respect to the ground. It constitutes the power Pwind lost by the wind field due to the presence
of the wing.

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7. INCREASED POWER PRODUCTION

The power output of a conventional wind turbine varies with the swept area of the blades and
the cube of the air velocity. Thus, doubling the blade length would quadruple the power
output, and doubling the wind speed increases power by a factor of eight. Airborne wind
provides the potential to vastly increase the swept area covered by flying in larger
trajectories. The device would replace the outer 1/3 of a wind turbine blade, where the
majority of the lift and power is imparted to the generator. The effective wind speeds
experienced by devices at higher altitudes and over these large swept areas also increases,
increasing power output significantly. The wind speeds are also expected to be steadier at
operating levels, which increases the capacity factor of airborne wind turbines.

Fig 8: Airborne and conventional wind power curves.

Therefore, the power curve of a conventional turbine, compared to a similarly-rated airborne

turbine would look like the graph in Figure 8. Here, the optimum increase in power comes
below 10.5m/s, where airborne wind outperforms conventional wind turbines. Below 2m/s,
airborne wind consumes power to remain in the air.

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8. REDUCTION IN MATERIALS

Given the increase in the price of steel in recent years, generating electricity without a large
dependence on steel can bring significant cost benefits. Typical offshore wind turbines have a
tower head mass of about 60,000kg/MW (from Siemens’ 6MW turbine brochure).
Airborne wind, on the other hand, uses less mass and is inherently lightweight. An equivalent
ground-based generator would have an airborne weight of 100kg/MW. This represents a 60x
mass reduction, with added benefit of not needing a tower and blades made of steel. Also, the
heavy generator is on the platform, reducing loads on the tower and overall system, and
lowering the costs of foundations and subsea structures.

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9. INSTALLATION AND MAINTANENCE COST REDUCTION

The installation phase of an offshore wind farm can represent around 15-20% of the project’s
total capital costs. This is largely due to the specialist nature of the vessels required for
installation, and the restricted weather windows these vessels are able to operate in. Airborne
wind, on the other hand, can be installed using much smaller vessels that are more readily
available at a lower cost. Installation can be managed from the nearest port in most cases,
rather than relying on large ports that may be further away – as is the case in offshore wind
installations. Finally, much of the construction work can be carried out onshore, allowing the
installation to happen quickly and at a fraction of the cost. Airborne wind therefore benefits
from installation costs that are 30% lower than existing offshore wind (assuming equivalent
wind farm sizes).
Maintenance of a future offshore airborne wind farm can be difficult to quantify, as reliability
and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) values are currently unknown. Current models
assume that for a 20-year lifetime, the airborne wing and tether would need to be replaced
completely two or three times in that period. This is possible because of the lightweight and
cheap nature of the devices. Allowing three replacements in a lifetime (at five, 10 and 15
years), still keeps the LCoE to below £30/MWh: considerably lower than even the most
optimistic targets for offshore wind by 2030.

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10. BENIFITS FOR FLOATING OR DEEP WATER

The benefits of using airborne wind are further increased when deployed on a floating
platform. The devices work in tension rather than in bending, allowing the platforms to
require much less ballasting to restrict movement. In addition, for on-board generation
devices, any movement of the platform relative to the generator doesn’t inhibit generation, as
all production happens in the air. Changes in tension can be controlled by the device in real
time and can compensate for movements of the platform. This could allow more freedom of
movement, and thus lighter platforms. Ground-based generators may need a slightly more
stable platform, as all the generation happens on the ground and can be affected by the
change in tension of the device. However there can still be much greater freedom of
movement than in current floating wind designs.

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11. CONCLUSION

High altitude wind energy is currently a very promising resource for the sustainable
production of electrical energy. The amount of power and the large availability of winds that
blow between 300 and 10000 meters from the ground suggest that Airborne Wind Energy
Systems (AWESs) represent an important emerging renewable energy technology. In the last
decade, several companies entered in the business of AWESs, patenting diverse principles
and technical solutions for their implementation. In this extremely various scenario, this
paper attempts to give a picture of the current status of the developed technologies in terms of
different concepts, systems and trends. In particular, all existing AWESs have been briefly
presented and classified. The basicgeneration principles have been explained, together with
very basic theoretical estimations of power production that could provide the reader with a
perception on which and how crucial parameters influence the performance of an AWES.
In the next years, a rapid acceleration of research and development is expected in the airborne
wind energy sector. Several prototypes that are currently under investigation will be
completed and tested.

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 Bastigkeit, Study on wind resources at mid-altitude. Abstract submitted to the
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