8

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This Chapter includes different local and foreign literature and studies that

have direct support to the research study. This particular research study gives

the gist of the relevant readings done by researcher, which related to the present

research study. The foreign and local literature and studies would serve as a

guide and support in the interpretation and analysis of the data gathered.

Foreign Literature

In the course of their evolution, western societies have developed and

employed a diverse array of technologies to facilitate and co-ordinate activities,

to produce and distribute goods, and to organize and administer their affairs.

Modern societies have consequently come to be characterized by considerable

technological complexity. Automated surveillance systems and remote

monitoring devices now constitute an integral part of the prevailing technological

infrastructure, enabling modes of transportation, education, government and

commerce that would otherwise be unthinkable. CCTV systems, in particular,

have increasingly become part of these larger infrastructures and are now

ubiquitous in many urban centers.

Until the mid-eighties, the deployment of CCTV systems had largely been

limited to private spaces (Hempel 2001). The appearance of these systems in

settings typically considered ‘public’ is a more recent phenomenon; and, it is one

which occurred with considerable alacrity in many countries. A diverse array of

aims and objectives has motivated the introduction of CCTV into public spaces
 9

including: public safety, deterrence, enhanced detection and increased response

times. In the contemporary context, the predominant uses of CCTV in public

spaces are in the management of risks, traffic jams, fire, accidents and crime

prevention (Hempel 2001).

When the Government funded the massive growth in CCTV across the UK

there was no body of research to justify and guide the implementation of CCTV

(Ditton and Short, 1999; Farrington and Walsh, 2002). Subsequently the

effectiveness of CCTV across a number of contexts has been explored and

research has started to establish an evidence base for where and how CCTV can

be effective. Many of the studies into CCTV have produced contradictory results

due to variations in the circumstances of the introduction of CCTV leading to

varying effects (Tilley, 1998).

The mechanisms outlined above highlight the potential problems of using

recorded crimes rates to evaluate the impact of CCTV as the different

mechanisms can have conflicting effects on crime rates (Ditton and Short, 1999:

212; Ratcliffe, 2006, Gill et al, 2007: 24). Although CCTV will not increase actual

levels of crime the increased surveillance may result in more offences coming to

the attention of the police, particularly violent offending (Brown, 1995).

Using disaggregated crime data that identifies changes across individual

offence types can help to understand the impact of CCTV across a target area.

The range of additional crime reduction measures that often operate alongside

CCTV system make it difficult to isolate the impact of the cameras and these can

include changes to policing practices (Webb and Laycock, 1992), ad hoc police
 10

operations, improved lighting, community wardens and youth inclusion projects

(Gill et al, 2007). Using crime statistics alone to evaluate CCTV means that many

of the potential benefits of the cameras can be missed including supporting

police activity leading to cost savings in relation to police time, increased

detection rates, court time and the increased level of guilty pleas and guilty

verdicts obtained when CCTV evidence in available (Home Office, 2007).

CCTV can work on a number of different levels across a range of different

contexts and this has resulted in mixed research findings in terms of CCTV

effectiveness. Welsh and Farrington (2002) conducted a meta-analysis on

studies of CCTV effectiveness and collected 46 studies but only considered 22 of

the research papers to be rigorous enough for inclusion in their review. Half

(eleven) of the studies found a desirable effect on crime, five found an

undesirable effect on crime, five found a null effect, and one was classified as an

uncertain effect. The largest impact on CCTV was found across car parks where

there was evidence that crime reduced by 41% in the experimental compared to

control area, which was significant. The research identified that CCTV had little

or no effect on violent crime but the authors advocated the need for more high

quality research that 'established the causal mechanism by which CCTV has any

effect on crime' which should involve methodologically rigorous evaluations and

interviewing offenders. A further meta-analysis of CCTV studies conducted in

2008 by Walsh and Farrington the confirmed earlier findings that CCTV was

effective in car parks and they advocated narrowing the use of CCTV to reflect

research findings related to its effectiveness (Welsh and Farrington, 2002).

 11

The Home Office's National Evaluation of CCTV (Gill and Spriggs, 2005)

attempted to address some of the deficiencies identified in previous CCTV

evaluations by combining a process and impact evaluation that incorporated

control areas and identified other crime control initiatives that were operating in

the target area to evaluate their impact on recorded crime levels. Thirteen CCTV

systems were evaluated across a range of system including town centres, city

centres, car parks, hospital and residential areas. The inclusion of residential

areas reflected the governments push to include these types of areas into the

Phase 2 of the Crime Reduction Programme (Home Office, 2007).

Ditton and Short (1999) found that recorded crime fell and detections rose

after CCTV was implemented in Airdrie but in Glasgow recorded crime increased

and detection increased. The research found a differential effect of the cameras

across crime type with drug offences, low-level public order and minor traffic

violations increasing whilst various forms of acquisitive crime fell. Airdrie is a little

town where awareness and a sense of ownership of the cameras were high

compared to Glasgow where the cameras merged into the structure of the city,

and these situational differences may have impacted on the effect of the

cameras.

Most evaluations of CCTV in town/city centres have used recorded crime

and found that cameras had very little impact on violent crime (Gill and Spriggs,

2005) but through the use of accident and emergency data Sivarajasingam et al

(2003) found that the 'effectiveness of CCTV lies less in preventing assaults and

their precursor, but more in preventing injury through increased police detection
 12

and intervention' (ibid: 315). CCTV was found to increase police detection but

was associated with reductions in the seriousness of violent incidents. There was

no evidence of the deterrent effect of CCTV in relation to violent crime but the

effectiveness of CCTV within this context is related to surveillance facilitating a

faster police response that limits the length of violent incidents and therefore the

severity of injuries.

CCTV systems rarely work in isolation and often form part of a crime

prevention strategy. Webb and Laycock (1992) found evidence that CCTV can

reduce robberies on the London Underground but the cameras were part of a

package of measures to reduce crime in the area that made it difficult to identify

the impact of the cameras alone. The research concluded that 'CCTV does not

seem to be very useful in large complex and crowded environments to deal with

surreptitious behaviour such as pick pocketing or shoplifting' (Webb and Laycock,

1992: 23) as the quick nature of the offences made it unlikely that they would be

picked up by operators. Given that it was unlikely offenders would be detected by

the cameras their effectiveness was mainly linked to whether offenders

associated the cameras with an increased risk of getting caught on the London

Underground.

In the Article IP CCTV - The Next Generation's Surveillance Technology

by Emily Robinson published on July 06, 2011 that came from the website

www.ezinearticles.comstated, stated that CCTV cameras are used only in high

profile events. Indeed this may be the fact in the days to come. They are made

compulsory by government as to avoid any miscreant's problems and untowardly

 13

incidents. These modern day tools if properly put into use can do wonders in the

area of security.

This article is related to the present study because the researchers believe

that CCTV is a very useful tool to solve problems in the society because it serves

as credible evidence.

In May 22, 2009, Mr. Andy J. Thompson wrote an article entitled “CCTV

Security Cameras – do they help fight crime” where stated that “The UK has

more CCTV camera coverage than any other country. A recent study examined

the effectiveness of UK security cameras as it pertains to crime prevention.

CCTV is clearly an effective deterrence to criminal activity.” It was also stated

that CCTV video is often used in police investigations and the writer believes that

most people are convinced of the effectiveness of video surveillance and may

even feel a certain amount of comfort in knowing that it adds to their sense of

personal safety and they understand that their chances of being a victim of crime

are reduced when they find themselves in an area monitored with CCTV

cameras.

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that CCTV is a

very effective tool to distinguish criminals and secure public places.

Lester J. Hester’s article “CCTV System- The Advantages and

Disadvantages” published in Ezine Articles stated that CCTV is highly useful for

crime prevention as it increases the chance of the perpetrator being caught,

aiding police investigations, preventing theft from the till, proving innocence by

sense of protecting and defending the people in any accusations, but CCTV does
 14

not always works in proper system. It could not display every single square of

your office, banks, stores, and other areas. Although you set the location of the

system in a very careful way, you still cannot get total guarantee of security level.

This article is related to the present study because it gives the people the

information that CCTV doesn’t only have its advantages because at some point it

also has its disadvantages.

In the article “CCTV Surveillance for Your Safety” by Emily Robinson on

March 28, 2011, it was stated that CCTV surveillance is not only a great way to

catch perpetrators after your property has been broken into, but also a perfect

way to prevent them from breaking. This therefore means that if some criminals

might actually be put off of the thought of trying to break into your property and

this in turn would mean that your belongings were kept.

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that the use of

CCTV camera is a very effective way to gain safety and security from criminal

actions.

In the article “CCTV actually plays a very important role” written by Dave

Wilkinson Technical Manager of British Security Industry Association (BSIA)

published on September 3, 2009 from the website www.Public

Service.Co.UK.com stated that CCTV plays an important role in the security of

public, in using CCTV it can identify offenders and use it as an evidence in the

criminal justice system. Dave Wilkinson stated that CCTV is playing a supportive

role as part of jigsaw of evidence which may then culminate in convictions.

 15

This article is related to the present study because it can give assurance

that using a CCTV that we are safe and it can be use this as evidence to the

victims.

Local Literature

In the article, “CCTV in public vehicles proposed” by Rio Rose Ribaya

published on January 29, 2011 issue of Manila Bulletin stated that Cavite

representative proposed the installation of closed-circuit television (CCTV)

camera on public vehicles, terminals and stops offer public safety and prevent

another repeat of the terrorist attack.

In the relation to the present study, the researchers believe that the used

of CCTV camera is helpful in monitoring and solving crimes.

In the article, “Subdivisions, Establishments Required to Install Cameras”

published on July 17, 2011 issue of Philippine Daily Inquirer stated that Cebu

City ordinance proposed that no business establishment, especially those that

handle money like banks, lending firms and pawnshops, should not be allowed to

operate without CCTVs.

In the relation to the present study, the researchers believe that CCTV

cameras would be a useful way to record evidence against crimes.

In the article “CCTV camera installed around Lamitan City by Julie Alipala

published on May 19, 2011 issue of Philippine Daily Inquirer stated that the city

government installed closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras in the seaport,

market areas and in the main business areas where banks and other commercial

establishments and government offices worth 2.5 million pesos.

 16

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that CCTV

cameras are effective tools in securing certain areas.

In the article “Security Camera now within reach of many” by Theresa S.

Samaniego published on August 7, 2011 issue Philippine Daily Inquirer stated

that the Compro IP70 enables users to identify people and objects clearly, at

least three times better than the conventional CCTV camera with a 10x digital

zoom.

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that as days

passed by technology get bigger and better. CCTV cameras improve its qualities

in order to solve crimes faster than before.

In the article “QC bank heist captured on CCTV police” by Karen

Boncocan published on July 16, 2011 issued in Philippine Daily Inquirer stated

that CCTV cameras of a bank in Quezon City was robbed Friday recorded the

crime carried out by 15 heavily armed men.

In relation to the present study, CCTV can easily determine the person

who commits crimes that serves as evidence against them.

Foreign Studies

Surveillance, as a concept and management tool, is described by several

sociologists and criminologists like Clive Norris and Gary Armstrong (1999), as

the “elementary building block of all human societies, a form of power” (p.85),

representative of the development of technology. Surveillance can be both public

and private. One of the most common forms is video surveillance, otherwise

known as Closed Circuit Television or CCTV. Video surveillance is a technology

 17

system of surveillance by cameras, which can be set up and used by public

authorities on public places for crime prevention and/or crime prosecution. It is a

multifunctional technology, initially used to manage risk in cases of traffic jams,

fire, accidents and crime (Hempel & Töpfer 2002). The system consists of video

cameras connected in a closed circuit television. Images are sent to a central

television monitor or recorded in a control room (European Commission for

Democracy through Law 2007).

There are several ways to discuss CCTV systems, in terms of its use and

effectiveness. Such a discussion requires a complex analysis of the types of

surveillance as well as the agendas that lie behind implementation and operation.

For example, video surveillance can be ‘overt’ or ‘covert’ and used for alternative

means: to discourage potential offenders, for the police to gather images to build

files or for evidence at court (Leman-Langlois 2003). Video surveillance is not an

isolated concept, but encompasses several facets. Francisco Klauser (2004)

considers ‘preservative’ and ‘protective’ video surveillance, whereby preservative

suggests that preservation of public order and prevention of anti-social

behaviour, while protective refers to protection of risk in specific areas or the

creation of ‘risk-free’ public spaces. Klauser claims that video surveillance is

about socio-spatial relationships. Therefore, preservative and protective video

surveillance are two separate methods with differing agendas under the same

socio-spatial framework.

Video surveillance systems can be used in either public or private spaces.

However, surveillance in public spaces greatly differentiates from that in private

 18

spaces. The European Commission for Democracy through Law (2007) explains

the difference: “in the public space, individuals expect a lesser degree of privacy,

yet they should not expect to be deprived of their rights and freedoms in their

own private sphere and image” (p.101). The private sphere is considered

‘untouchable’ and cannot be subject to unwarranted intrusion. In this case, the

location of CCTV systems requires public consultation and an understanding of

notions of individual freedoms and rights.

The inevitable and continuous changing face of CCTV technology

suggests that surveillance is in a constant state of flux, in terms of technical

features, the public’s reaction, its use and management by authorities, and the

nature of security. CCTV systems are increasingly used for varied purposes and

places, which Jean Ruegg, Valérie November and Francisco Klauser (2004)

suggest is due to the rise in the number of possible applications of video

surveillance. CCTV systems have expanded to facial recognition systems,

infrared devices, computerised databases to track people, recording of sounds

and voices (microphones), automated license plate identification, cellular alarm

communication, roving video surveillance, unmanned aerial vehicles and wireless

high-speed computer networks that transfer images at faster rates and improved

quality.

A major setback of CCTV technology is the lack of a standard and clear

outline on the uses of CCTV and the targeted population. Muller and Boos (2004)

are one of the few who attempt to clarify its uses. Based on their study, they

found that CCTV is generally used for information on access control, conduct
 19

control, registering evidence, flow control and the planning of deployment. In

terms of selection of targeted individuals or groups, Norris and Armstrong (1999)

created eight categories of suspicion targeted by video surveillance operators.

These include behaviour suspicion, which is based on recognizing abnormal

behaviour; category, which is a suspicion based on personal characteristics;

location that is based on a person’s location; personalized, which suggests prior

knowledge of the person; protection, which infers monitoring a vulnerable person

(single women, children); routine, which is based on a set surveillance path;

transmitted that refers to a suspicion based on an outside source and finally; and

voyeuristic or for entertainment purposes.

CCTV systems can provide warning signs of potential criminal offences

and act as a reactive tool. CCTV monitors crowds and individuals, responds to

threats and thus notifies the operator(s) of harmful behaviour and actions before,

during and after the occurrence of an event (McCahill & Norris 2002a). For

example, video surveillance cameras have been extremely useful in identifying

the offenders of the 1994 Bishopsgate bombing and the July 7, 2005 London

bombings (Switzerland Federal Department of Police and Justice, 2007). In

Barcelona, video surveillance cameras allowed authorities to find a young

Spanish man who aggressively attacked a Latino- American man in the metro

(Cambon 2007). Such events have spread awareness on the effectiveness of the

system as a safety tool, which has enticed countries, like Germany, to install

CCTV systems in public transit systems in the case of preventing and

recognizing similar events.

 20

CCTV systems offer constant surveillance in places where humans cannot

see, i.e. tunnel of a train. In the case of an incident (fire), this technology can

inform and conduct both helpers and others on the situation and possible exits

for escape (Muller and Boos 2004). Furthermore, they can be an effective tool for

surveying ‘sensitive’ areas when other security forces are not available

(Switzerland Federal Department of Police and Justice, 2007).

For certain institutions, government agencies and social science

researchers, CCTV technology is deemed as an efficient and successful tool for

reducing crime rates within targeted areas. There have been, and continue to be,

countless studies devoted to proving this stance and asserting the claim that

CCTV systems are useful and at times the best solution. Such studies suggest

that CCTV systems have preventative and reactive measures, revive business in

desolate or poor areas, increase the efficiency of the police force, build social

cohesion, protect the private environment of citizens and assure confidence and

ensure feelings of safety and security, thus leading to a more ordered and stable

society. However, opponents of CCTV technology claim that there is too much

focus on the ability of CCTV to reduce crime. John Honovich (2008) states that

such a focus produces misleading studies and draws away from a proper

assessment and evaluation of the impact of CCTV on solving crime. Instead, he

calls for a shift of the focus towards a structural approach; exploring the roots

causes of crime.

In the event of reduced crime, increased feelings of security and safety

can have positive impacts on the social cohesion of a community, region or even
 21

a state. Ann Rudinow Sætnan et al. (2004) claim that CCTV systems have been

instrumental in reducing crime and thus building relations in a once volatile and

unsafe area. Increased citizen safety encourages broad participation and

interaction in public spaces, which is effective in improving a community’s profile

and attracting investment (Sætnan et al. 2004). Moreover, increased stability in a

specific area can have advantages for economically revitalization, in which the

area will attract more investment internally and externally, leading to an

improvement in the social status and quality of life of its residents and a reduction

in crime.

According to several researchers, CCTV does not reduce feelings of

insecurity or safety, proving its ineffectiveness as a crime preventing, reducing

and solving tool. Jason Ditton (2000) claims that CCTV cameras do not make

people feel safer, but create a false fear, which is enhanced by intense media

activity. Further, the camera targets the (innocent) citizen rather than the

criminal, imposing a constant fear in public spaces. Terry Honess and Elizabeth

Charman’s study (1992) found that whether it was in car parks, shopping centers

or on the street, the presence of video surveillance did not make the public feel

safer. Their results reveal that feelings of discomfort and increased fear in the

presence of video surveillance was significantly higher among women, who are

commonly labelled as the most vulnerable group to criminal events. In Sætnan et

al.’s study, the operation of CCTV systems was found to be discriminatory,

suggesting a ghettoization of spaces, which in fact hampers social interactions

 22

and economic investment and growth, breaks social cohesion and leads to more

crime.

According to the study of Aundreia Cameron, Elke Kolodinski, Heather

May and Nicholas Williams on May 5 , 2008 entitled “Measuring the Effects of

Video Surveillance on Crime in Los Angeles” stated that local program

characteristics likely affect the overall success of CCTV programs — which are

often very different from one other — in reducing and preventing crime.

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that CCTV will be

effective in conducting crime investigations if real-time monitoring will be follow.

In the study “Assessing the Impact of CCTV: Home Office Research Study

292” by Martin Gill and Angela Spriggs, University of Leicester (United Kingdom)

on 2005. It was conferred that CCTV images are being used for evidential

purposes. All schemes passed on some images to the police, which could be

used to identify offenders or eliminate them from enquiries and to help in the

investigation of incidents. Such images could be used either as evidence in court

or to help extract a guilty plea, or to identify witnesses and victims at a scene of

crime.

In relation to the present study, CCTV cameras are big help to solve

crimes because the investigative team can easily distinguish the people who are

involved in the said crime.

In the study of Mark McComb “Library Security” published in San

Francisco on 2004 stated that Video surveillance and closed-circuit television

 23

(CCTV) systems serve as a way to monitor and record security, deter crime, and

ensure safety.

CCTV is a type of situational crime prevention and is often used to

facilitate a change in the behaviour of offenders. Mayhew (1984) suggested that

formal surveillance would deter potential offenders and this follows the rational

choice theory perspective (Clarke and Felson, 1993) that proposes offenders act

in a rational manner and by calculating whether the perceived benefits outweigh

the cost in a given situation. The application of the deterrent effect of CCTV to

routine activity theory means that the presence of CCTV can be perceived to act

as the capable guardian and therefore demotivate offenders. The majority of

CCTV systems rely on the deterrent effect of the cameras but the deterrent is

often symbolic and 'more or less incompetent deterrence because cameras are

highly visible but those under surveillance are hardly visible for an observer due

to irregular monitoring, informational overkill or even deployment of dummy

cameras' (Hempel and Topfer, 2004: 33).

Research has examined the effect of CCTV on offenders' behaviour

across a range of contexts and identified that CCTV tends to be an effective

deterrent against planned offences. Allard, Wortley and Steward (2008)

examined whether the presence of CCTV in prisons reduced the number of

incidents that were defined as 'breaches of law or rules that may result in criminal

prosecution or breach hearings and emergencies'. The research found that

CCTV had a greater impact on non-violent than violent prisoner misbehaviour

and affected planned behaviour to a greater extent than unplanned behaviour.

 24

The spontaneous nature of violence means that the deterrent effect of CCTV can

be removed and it tends to be more 'effective when behaviour is motivated'

(Allard et al, 2008: 416).

Research into public space CCTV has identified similar patterns and

indicated that CCTV impacts more on premeditated crimes (Brown, 1995; Welsh

and Farrington, 2002; Gill et al, 2005). Analysing the impact of CCTV on public

behaviour, Mazerolle (2002) found that the cameras created an initial deterrence

in the two-month period after installation but to prolong the effect recommended

increasing the deterrence of using signs and short sporadic cameras

deployment. Tilley (1993: 24) suggested that 'when the real potential of CCTV to

lead to apprehension loses credibility amongst criminals, the effect will begin to

fade, though by (over)-statement of successes periodic effectiveness can be re-

established'. The positive impact of CCTV on levels of robbery in the London

Underground was found to fade over time and this may have been due to

offenders discovering that the CCTV did not increase the risk of being caught

(Webb and Laycock, 1992: 15). High camera density and quality lighting may

increase the perceived risk for offenders (Gill et al, 2007). Research indicates

that only by combining the different mechanism by which CCTV works (Armitage,

et al, 1999, Tilley 1993, Gill and Spriggs, 2005) and integrating other crime

prevention measures can the optimal use of CCTV occur and research is

currently building the evidence base to fully understand where and how the

mechanisms work.
 25

CCTV does not create a physical barrier to crime and therefore can rely to

a large extent on changing offenders' behaviour. Therefore key to the success of

CCTV is offenders' views regarding its effectiveness. Evaluations that use crime

levels to investigate the impact of CCTV on offenders need to be supplemented

with offender interview based research to develop a full picture of how CCTV can

be utilised fully to address criminal behaviour (Farrington and Walsh, 2002; Gill

and Loveday, 2003).

CCTV has a modest, but significant, desirable effect on crime, is most

effective in reducing crime in car parks, is most effective when targeted at vehicle

crimes (largely a function of the successful car park schemes) and is more

effective in reducing crime in the United Kingdom than in other countries. These

results lend support for the continued use of CCTV to prevent crime in public

space, but suggest that it be more narrowly targeted than its present use would

indicate. Future CCTV schemes should employ high-quality evaluation designs

with long follow-up periods (Welsh & Farrington 2008).

One of the most comprehensive Australian studies of public space CCTV

systems was undertaken by Wells, Allard and Wilson (2006) at Surfers Paradise

and Broad beach in Queensland. During the research, the authors undertook

observational analysis (100 hours in control rooms), interviewed key personnel,

reviewed relevant documentation, surveyed the public and analysed crime

statistics.

From the impact studies, it appears that CCTV is effective at detecting

violent offending but does not prevent any type of offending. The introduction of
 26

CCTV in Surfers Paradise resulted in significant increases in the extent of total

offences against the person (including assault, robbery, other offences against

the person and sexual assault) and Weapons Act 1990 (Qld) offences. CCTV

was found to have no significant impact on total offences, total offences against

property (including other theft, unlawful entry, other property damage, unlawful

use of a motor vehicle and handling stolen goods) and total other offences

(including drug offences and liquor but excluding drunkenness) occurring in

Surfers Paradise. Findings from Broad beach indicated that CCTV had no impact

on total offences, or total offences against property (Wells, Allard & Wilson 2006:

iii).

Evidence suggests that the benefits of CCTV surveillance fade after a

period of time, and that displacement may occur, or there may be a shift to

different sorts of crime which are less susceptible to CCTV surveillance. For

these reasons, CCTV on its own can do little to address long term crime

prevention. (Lawlink 2000). The evidence that the benefits of CCTV will fade after

a period of time are backed up by a number of studies. "Innovative work creates

uncertainty for a while for the offender, often fed by lashings of publicity that

crime is going to be more difficult or risky for the offender. As uncertainty fades,

new crime skills are developed and confidence that crimes can be committed

successfully returns" (Tilley 1999 & and more discussion on the lifecycle of crime

prevention initiatives can be obtained from Berry, G and Carter M 1992).

We considered the effects of CCTV cameras on crime from the

perspective of (potential) criminals and whether they could see cameras or

 27

should be concerned about cameras from the places where they are going to

commit the crime. This contextual approach to considering places that are least

conducive to crime occurrence is consistent with ideas that were popular among

ecologists, repeated by environmental criminologists when Brantingham and

Brantingham (1995) talked about “environmental backcloths”, and are now

studied by crime and place scholars (e.g., Weisburd et al. 2008, 2009b;

Weisburd and Eck 2004) and are appearing in terms of risk terrains (Caplan et al.

2010; Kennedy et al. 2010) or opportunity structures (Groff and La Vigne 2001).

Environmental context is also a theme in situational prevention with regard to

opportunity reduction, particularly with regard to CCTV as a measure of formal

surveillance (Clarke 1997; Cornish and Clarke 1986; Clarke and Eck 2003a). In a

way, the concept of cognitive mapping (Zurawski 2007), as introduced by

psychologists and behavioral geographers, was reformulated here to consider

CCTV camera viewsheds as “risky places” to commit crime due to the greater

potential of being seen and recorded by police.

The researchers believe that this is related to the present study because

CCTV is one of the most economical security and safety tools to be used in

monitoring public areas.

Joseph Akpokodje, Roger Bowles and Emmanuel Tigere conducted a

study entitled “Evidence-based approaches to crime prevention in developing

countries - A scoping review of the literature” published on November 29, 2002

stated that installing CCTV, for example, entails up-front capital costs but also

continuing expenditure on monitoring and maintenance.

 28

A systematic review and meta-analysis byWelsh and Farrington (2009)

supports the idea that CCTV can be most effective at preventing certain types of

crime at certain types of places. Crimes that occur in public on the street should

be subject to any deterrent effects of CCTV cameras. Most evaluations of CCTV

cameras use administrative police data of previously reported crimes that do not

discriminate between crimes that could have occurred on the street—within a

camera’s view shed—and crimes that could not have been seen by cameras. For

example, theft or assault may occur within a dwelling where walls block visibility

to a camera. These incident locations would nonetheless be recorded as the

dwelling’s street address in police administrative datasets. This nuance, though

common practice for most police departments, poses issues of construct validity

and could produce misleading results if not addressed.

This is related to the present study because the researchers believe that

CCTV is an important tool in gathering evidences.

“SOCY 304 Surveillance and Visibility” by David Murakami Wood is the

study by David Mukarami Wood in Queen’s University Department of Sociology

stated that the technologies of surveillance, using particular case studies of

photography (including film, video and CCTV), face recognition biometrics, and

RFID tagging and they argue that these technological systems in themselves

have important social effects, but that it is their place in political economies, and

their social construction, that makes them powerful.

 29

This is related to the present study because researchers believe that

CCTV is intimately involved in prevention and maintenance of global economic

order.

Local Studies

The study entitled “The Effectiveness of Hidden Camera in Conducting

Investigative Report” by Ramon Asam Epino published on March 2007 stated

that investigative program used hidden camera as an effective tool to gather

accurate report.

In relation to the present study, CCTV cameras are used by Current

Affairs program to offer credible evidence pertaining in different crimes

nowadays.

In the study “Real-Time Event Detection System for Intelligent Video

Surveillance”, by Timothy John A. Chua, Andrew Jonathan W. Co and

PaoloJavier S. Ilustre published on September 2007 stated that CCTV will not be

that effective without the operators. This study suggests automating the

monitoring process using a computer to analyze the live feed via digital signal

processing techniques.

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that as go on with

flow of new technology CCTV will be needed innovation.

In the study “Proposed Class Monitoring System using Surveillance

Camera for CAS, ESC” by Raymart A. Aborque, Rodolfo B. Delorino, Joemary A.

Olanka, Mark Bryan F. Ramirez and Ron Nikko T. Socorro stated that due to

increased terrors and crimes, the use of the video surveillance camera system is
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increasing and it has been operated for public interest such as prevention of

crimes and fly-tipping by the police and local government, but private information

such as faces or behavior patterns can be recorded in CCTV. When the recorded

video data is exposed, it may cause an invasion to privacy and crimes.

In relation to the present study, the researchers believe that CCTV has its

negative impact in regards of privacy exposure.

In the research study entitled “Impact of ABS-CBN’s Investigative Program

Exklusibong, Esplosinbong, Espose (XXX) to the Society” by Neil Andrew Nantes

Borines published on October 2006 states that the importance of the use of

cameras in exposing the stories being covered in a certain crime and event. The

study also stated that Media is undoubtedly an extremely powerful and influential

tool to reach wide audience.

The study is relevant to the present study for it has given helpful

information about the effects of cameras in Media and how media is important in

the lives of the people.

“The Current Situation of Crime Associated with Urbanization: Problems

Experienced and Countermeasures Initiated in The Philippines” is the title of the

study by Celia V. Sanidad-Leones which stated that developing and maintaining

safe communities, be they urban or rural, is central to the issue of good

governance. An indicator of success of crime prevention programmes are their

perceived effects on peace and order.

This study is related because one of the functions of CCTV is to prevent

crimes in order to maintain the security of a certain area.