Design Manual PDF

1
Volume
MAMMUT BUILDING SYSTEMS
MammutDesignManual
MAMMUT BUILDING SYSTEMS
Design Manual
MBS-QMS-P12F03
Revision – 00
Date 20-Jul-2009
 Mammut Building Systems

2009
Hamriyah Free Zone • Sharjah • UAE
Phone 009714-8012222 • Fax 009714-8012223
Table of Contents
CHAPT ER 1 C H A P T ER5
Introduction 1 Wind Loads 1
General Function and Responsibility 1 MBMA 1996 1
Value Engineering 3 MBMA 2002 20
MBMA 2006 85
CHAPT ER 2
Design Codes 1 C H A P T ER6
For Loads 1 Seismic Loads 1
For Built-up or Hot Rolled Steel Design 2 Definition 1
For Cold Formed Steel Design 3 MBMA 1986 9
For Welding 4 MBMA 1996 15
UBC 1997 18
C H A P T ER 3 MBMA 2002 / IBC 2000 / ASCE 7-98 27
Dead Loads 1 MBMA 2006 / IBC 2006 / ASCE 7-05 51
Collateral Loads 5
C H A P T ER7
C H A P T ER4 Snow Loads 1
Live Loads 1 Definition 1
Reduction in Live Loads 5
Reduction in Roof Live Loads 8 C H A P T ER8
Partition Live Loads 12 Crane Loads 1
Loads on Handrails and Guard Rails 14
Loads on grab bar system 15
Loads on fixed ladders 16
Impact Loads 17
Loads as per BS-6399-1-1996 18

C H A P T ER9 C H AP T ER1 4
Load Combinations 1 Guidelines for Design of Metal Buildings 1
MBMA 2006 (Mammut Standard) 3
Mammut Standard Deflection 5 C H AP T ER1 5
MBMA 1996 6 Panels & Fasteners Design 1
UBC 1997 8
ASCE 7-98 10 C H AP T ER1 6
IBC 2000 12 Purlins & Girts Design 1
MBMA 2002 13
ASCE 7-02 15 C H AP T ER1 7
IBC 2003 17 Mezzanine 1
ASCE 7-05 19
IBC 2006 21 C H AP T ER1 8
BS 5950 23 Bracing 1
C H AP T ER1 0 AP P EN D IX A
Serviceability 1 Reference 1
C H AP T ER1 1 AP P EN D IX B
Material Specification 1 Fabrication & Erection Tolerances 1
C H AP T ER1 2 AP P EN D IX C
Bolts and Fasteners 1 Area Job Requirements 1
C H AP T ER1 3
Welds 1
1
Chapter
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Introduction
T
his manual is intended to serve as a guide and reference tool for
Estimation and Design Engineers at Mammut Building Systems
(MBS).
General Function and Responsibility of

Estimation and Design Engineers
1. Reports to his immediate supervisor on all official issues.
2. Reviews all documents received for a given project, project information
form, proposal drawings, estimates, contracts, specifications, customer
drawings etc.
3. Ensures that all documents received are consistent. If there is any
discrepancy, then prepares detailed and specific questionnaire for
clarifications etc.
4. Upon receipt of clarifications, provides a realistic schedule for completion
of this project. Or plans to complete his work according to the schedules
and target dates assigned. If the schedule or target dates cannot be
achieved due to any reasons, informs his supervisor at the earliest.
5. Estimation Design Engineer should consider different options such as
optimum bay spacing, framing directions, roof slope, crane run length etc.
keeping in mind the functional and architectural requirements of the
building and propose the same to area office, consultants or end-user.
6. Performs structural analysis and optimized design in compliance with the
relevant codes, company standards, and customer specifications.
7. The design should satisfy the strength and serviceability criteria of design
code for given design loads and load combinations.
8. On special projects, consults his supervisor for the best design approach,
design philosophy, load transfer, framing directions, section profiles,
bracing types etc.
1
9. During the process of analysis and design, the designer should keep in
mind the use of standard inventory sections, standard connection details,
factory limitations, erection facility with an eye on most optimized design.
10. Upon completion of design conveys his design information in the most
efficient manner using design sketches and notes as required, in order to
transfer all necessary information to the design checker, draftsman,
detailing and checking engineers.
11. Checks his final design against the estimates and if there are any major
variations in the material weights, should inform the supervisor
immediately.
12. If required for special projects the designer may be required to attend
meeting with consultants, local authorities and area office etc. for design
clarifications and explanation.
13. Checks the approval drawings, erection drawings and if required shop
drawings in order to ensure that his design has been translated as it was
conceptualized.
14. Performs design checks on jobs designed by colleagues, if assigned by
supervisor.
15. Leads a design team, coordinates and guides other designers and
colleagues on big projects multi-tasking.
16. Participates in Design review meetings and provides comments, valuable
suggestions on improvements on design engineering process,
standardization and practices.
2
Value Engineering
Designers who regularly practice value engineering consistently create the
best value for the client. There are things which the client can do for himself
such as picking right consultants for his project, clearly stating his goals and
requirements, not changing his mind, and allowing ample time for design and
construction. There are also things which a manufacturer / erector can do to
cut construction costs. But the party with the greatest impact on the economic
success of the project is the designer. Not only are the interests of the client
directly in his hands but he also has a tremendous influence on the caliber of
performance and monetary rewards of the other number of things which a
designer can do to enhance his design posture and assure that all parties
concerned benefit from the construction project.
First, any designer who works in steel industry should take advantage of
steel’s many strong points:
1. Good weight-to-strength ratio.
2. The efficiency of off site assembly.
3. Speed of delivery and assembly.
4. Steel is readily available, can be stock piled and stored.
5. Steel has strength in three directions.
6. Steel is elastic, versatile, and durable.
7. Maintains its strength after heating and yielding.
8. Steel is easily worked.
9. Steel structures can be added to, subtracted from, altered, and re-in
forced to adapt to use changes.
10. Steel is compatible with other building materials.
11. Steel is easily inspected.
12. Steel design is user friendly.
A designer/ estimator should be aware of the current steel and material prices
he prescribes in his project. He should be aware of the where the money is
spent on steel construction, material, design, drawings, fabrication, painting,
shipping and erection.
The designer should take advantage of all allowable increases in stresses

wherever applicable in order to achieve least price for a project.
Consideration should be given to use of partial composite design of floor

beams, something in the range 50% to 75%, fully composite action is in
efficient.
Take advantage of the live load reductions if the governing codes permit.
3
Select proper mix of high strength steels. High strength steels are
advantageous when strength is the major design criteria. High strength steel
(A572 Gr. 50) is about 13% more costly than A36 steel but over 35% stronger.
When deflection, stiffness, or some other serviceability criteria governs, the
nod will often go to A36 steel because the heavier the sections required will
generally have a higher moment of inertia and less cost as compared to high
grade steel.
4
5
Select optimum bay spacing. An exhaustive study by John Ruddy (PE) (AISC
Engineering Journal Vol. 20 # 3 1983) indicated that a rectangular bay with a
length to width ratio of approximately 1.25 to 1.50 was the most efficient.
6
Tailor the surface preparation and painting requirements to the project

conditions. Do not overdo nor under do the coating requirements.
Do not design for minimum weight alone. Such a design may require more
pieces and more connections and will be more labour intensive in both shop
and the field.
Excessively stringent mill fabrication and erection tolerances, beyond the state
of the art construction practices will probably reduce the number of bidders
and raise the cost to the owner. ASTM A6 tolerances and those established by
the AISC, MBMA, AWS have served the industry well and should be adhered
to except under extraordinary circumstances where some special condition
would dictate a more strict treatment.
Designate proper type of high strength bolt value. The correct application for
each type is well document in the current bolt specification.
Where ever possible use fillet welds rather than groove welds. Groove welds
are more costly because of the joint preparation required and the generally
greater volume of weld. Use single pass welds where ever possible.
Favor horizontal and flat welding positions. These welds are easier and
quicker to make generally of a higher quality.
7
Do not call for more weld than is necessary. Over welding creates excessive
heat which may contribute warping and shrinkage of the members resulting in
costly straightening expense.
Avoid locating column or rafter splices at mid span.
For heavy bracing, where ever possible, translate the bracing working points
so that they lie on the intersection of the flange faces rather than the centerline
of members. Generally this will result in more compact and efficient
connection (See article by William Thornton in the AISC Engineering Journal
Vol. 21 3rd Quarter 1984)
Allow the prudent use of oversized holes and slots to facilitate fit up and
erection. They may eliminate or reduce the need for costly site reaming of
holes or re-fabrication.
Avoid odd sections that may not be readily available or which are seldom
produced. These could be costly delays.
Avoid overly restrictive specifications. The more restrictions listed in the steel
specifications the greater the chances that no one will be able to meet them all.
This will eliminate some of the competition and often result in higher bids.
When value engineering is performed by the designer the cost savings benefits
go mainly to the client in the form of lower bids. When the value engineering
is done by the manufacturer/erector the cost savings is shared with the clients,
sometimes!
8
2
Chapter
D E S I G N C O D E S
Design Codes
Following Loading and Design Codes should be used as a standard, unless
specified otherwise in the Project information form or customer specification.
1. Loads,
 MBMA 2006 “Metal Buildings Manufacturers Association “ Metal
Building Systems Manual, 2006 Edition
OR
 MBMA 2002 “Metal Buildings Manufacturers Association” Low
Rise Building Systems Manual, 2002 Edition.
1
2. Built-up or Hot Rolled Steel Design,

 AISC “American Institute of Steel Construction” Manual of Steel
Construction - Allowable Stress Design, 2005-13th Edition.
OR
 AISC “American Institute of Steel Construction” Manual of Steel
Construction - Allowable Stress Design, 1989-9th Edition.
2
3. Cold Formed Steel Design,

 NAS North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Structural Members 2001 Edition.
OR
 AISI “American Iron and Steel Institute” Cold Formed Steel Design
Manual, 1996 Edition.
3
4. Welding,
 AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2004 “American Welding Society” Structural

Welding Code - Steel Manual, 2004 Edition.
As far as possible combination of different codes should be avoided, if

MBMA-2006 or 2002 is used, Seismic Loads, Snow Loads, Load
Combination, etc should also be as per MBMA-2006 or 2002 respectively.
Code combination should be as below,

 MBMA-2006 + AISC-2005 + NAS 2001 + AWS-2004
 MBMA-2002 + AISC-2005 + NAS 2001 + AWS-2004
 MBMA-2002 + AISC-1989 + NAS 2001 + AWS-2004
 MBMA-2002 + AISC-1989 + AISI-1996 + AWS-2004
4
3
Chapter
D E A D L O A D S
Dead Loads
ASCE 7-05
Section 3.1 D efinition
Dead loads - consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated

into the building including, but not limited to, walls, floors, roofs, ceilings,
stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarly incorporated
architectural and structural items, and fixed service equipment including the
weight of cranes.
While determining the dead loads for purpose of design, the actual weights of
materials and construction shall be used.
Weights of fixed service equipments, such as plumbing stacks and risers,

electrical feeders, heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems and fire
sprinklers, shall be included.
It is customary in the metal building industry to refer to the weights of fixed

equipments as “Collateral Loads”.
This distinction is made because this portion of the dead load is not part of the metal
building manufacturer’s scope of supply.
Weight of crane, include the self weight of the crane, including the bridge, end
carriage, trolley, and cab if cab operated, cables, hooks, electrical fittings etc.
Generally these are specified by the crane supplier, as Total crane weight, with a
breakup of bridge weight and trolley weight.
All weights noted in the following tables are for Design Purpose Only
1
D E A D L O A D S
Table 3.1 Weights of Standard Materials
Sr. No. Description kN/m2

Aluzinc (Painted and Mill finish) for all exterior skin profiles
1 0.35 mm thk 0.026
2 0.50 mm thk 0.040
3 0.70 mm thk 0.055
4 1.00 mm thk. 0.079
Aluminium (Painted and Mill finish) for all exterior skin profiles
5 0.50 mm thk 0.016
6 0.70 mm thk 0.022
7 1.00 mm thk. 0.032
Galvanized for all exterior skin profiles
8 0.50 mm thk 0.050
9 0.70 mm thk 0.069
10 1.00 mm thk. 0.098
Insulation (WMSK and FRK)
11 50 mm thk. 0.007
12 100 mm thk. 0.014
Sag Rods
13 12 mm Ø 0.001 / row
14 16 mm Ø 0.002 / row
Purlins
15 200Z15 0.027
16 200Z18 0.032
17 200Z20 0.036
18 200Z25 0.045
19 250Z20 0.045
20 250Z25 0.056
21 360M15 0.035
22 360M18 0.042
23 360M20 0.045
24 360M25 0.057
(Purlin weights are for std. spacing of 1.50 m for shorter spacing (S) = (weight x 1.5 / S)
For. Example:
1) If the purlin spacing = 0.90 m.
Then, the purlin weight for 200Z15 = 0.027 x 1.5 / 0.9 = 0.045 kN/m2
2) If the purlin spacing = 1.80 m
Then, the purlin weight for 200Z20 = 0.036 x 1.5 / 1.80 = 0.030 kN/m2
2
D E A D L O A D S
Table 3.2 Weights of Sandwich Panels (All Profiles)
Weight of Sandwich Panel Combination (kN/m2)

PU Thickness in mm
Sr. No. Ext. Skin Int. Skin
35 50 75 100
1 0.50 AZ 0.065 0.071 0.081 0.091
2 0.70 AZ 0.086 0.092 0.102 0.112
3 1.00 AZ Fleece / Foil 0.122 0.131 0.146 0.160
4 0.70 AL 0.043 0.049 0.059 0.069
5 1.00 AL 0.053 0.059 0.069 0.079
6 0.50 AZ 0.090 0.096 0.106 0.116
7 0.70 AZ 0.111 0.117 0.127 0.137
8 1.00 AZ 0.30 GI 0.159 0.167 0.181 0.196
9 0.70 AL 0.067 0.073 0.083 0.093
10 1.00 AL 0.078 0.084 0.094 0.104
11 0.50 AZ 0.093 0.099 0.109 0.119
12 0.70 AZ 0.114 0.120 0.130 0.140
13 1.00 AZ 0.35 AZ 0.163 0.171 0.185 0.200
14 0.70 AL 0.071 0.077 0.087 0.097
15 1.00 AL 0.081 0.087 0.097 0.107
16 0.50 AZ 0.108 0.114 0.124 0.134
17 0.70 AZ 0.128 0.134 0.144 0.154
18 1.00 AZ 0.5 AZ 0.183 0.191 0.205 0.220
19 0.70 AL 0.085 0.091 0.101 0.111
20 1.00 AL 0.096 0.102 0.112 0.122
21 0.50 AZ 0.081 0.087 0.097 0.107
22 0.70 AZ 0.102 0.108 0.118 0.128
23 1.00 AZ 0.5 AL 0.146 0.154 0.168 0.183
24 0.70 AL 0.058 0.064 0.074 0.084
25 1.00 AL 0.069 0.075 0.085 0.095
26 0.50 AZ 0.087 0.093 0.103 0.113
27 0.70 AZ 0.108 0.114 0.124 0.134
28 1.00 AZ 0.7 AL 0.155 0.163 0.177 0.192
29 0.70 AL 0.064 0.070 0.080 0.090
30 1.00 AL 0.075 0.081 0.091 0.101
AZ – Denotes Aluzinc Material, GI – Denotes Galvanized Iron
AL – Denotes Aluminium Material PU – Denotes Poly-Urethane
3
D E A D L O A D S
Table 3.3 Weights of Materials

Weight Weight
Category Material
(kg/m2) (kN/m2)
Terrazzo tile 25 mm thick 65 0.65
Ceramic or quarry tile 20 mm thick 50 0.50
Linoleum or vinyl 6 mm thick 5 0.05
Floors
Mastic 20 mm thick 45 0.45
Hardwood 20 mm thick 18 0.18
Softwood 20 mm thick 12.5 0.125
75 mm thick 85 0.85
100 mm thick 90 0.90
Clay tile 150 mm thick 140 1.40
200 mm thick 170 1.70
250 mm thick 200 2.00
Partitions
50 mm thick 47.5 0.475
75 mm thick 52.5 0.525
Gypsum board 100 mm thick 62.5 0.625
125 mm thick 70 0.70
150 mm thick 92.5 0.925
3-ply ready roofing 5 0.05
Built-up 3-ply felt and gravel 27.5 0.275
5-ply felt and gravel 30 0.30
Wood 10 0.10
Asphalt 15 0.15
Shingles
Clay tile 45 – 70 0.45 – 0.70
Roofs
Slate(6 mm thick) 50 0.50
Wood(20 mm thick) 15 0.15
Sheathing
Gypsum(25 mm thick) 20 0.20
Loose 2.5 0.025
Insulation
Poured-in-place 10 0.10
(per 25 mm thickness)
Rigid 7.5 0.075
100 mm thick 200 2.00
Bricks 200 mm thick 400 4.00
300 mm thick 600 6.00
100 mm thick 150 1.50
Hollow concrete block 150 mm thick 215 2.15
(heavy aggregate) 200 mm thick 275 2.75
300 mm thick 400 4.00
100 mm thick 105 1.05
Hollow concrete block 150 mm thick 150 1.50
(light aggregate) 200 mm thick 190 1.90
Walls
300 mm thick 275 2.75
100 mm thick 125 1.25
Clay tile 150 mm thick 150 1.50
Load Bearing 200 mm thick 165 1.65
300 mm thick 225 2.25
Plastering Cement 50 0.50
(25 mm thick) Gypsum 25 0.25
Stone (100 mm thick) 275 2.75
Structural glass 25 mm thick 75 0.75
Corrugated asbestos (6 mm thick) 15 0.15
Dead Loads as per BS-6399-1:1996

Unit weights are given in BS 648 or can be actual weights of the materials used.
4
D E A D L O A D S
Collateral Loads
Table 3.4 Weights of Fixed Service Equipments
Material Collateral Loads (kN/m2)

False Ceilings
Suspended Acoustical Fiber Tile 0.05
Suspended Gypsum Board (Up to 12 mm thk.) 0.10
Suspended Gypsum Board (Up to 15 mm thk.) 0.15
Insulation
50 mm thk. Glass Fiber Blanket 0.007
100 mm thk. Glass Fiber Blanket 0.014
Cellular Plastic, per 25 mm thickness of Insulation 0.010
Lighting 0.005 to 0.05
HVAC Ducts, Office & Commercial 0.05
Sprinkler
Dry 0.08
Wet 0.15
HVAC – Denotes Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning
For more details see MBMA-2006, IBC 2006
5
D E A D L O A D S
Examples
Example :- 3.1
Given Data:-
Panel Type = 0.5 mm thk. Aluzinc
Insulation = 50 mm thk. 12 kg/m3 Density
Purlin Spacing = 1.50 m
Calculate the Dead Load on the building components:
1) Dead Load on Panels = Self weight of the panels
Refer table 3.1 weight of 0.5 mm thk. Aluzinc panel

= 0.040 kN/m2
2) Dead Load on Purlins = Weight of the panels

+ Self Weight of purlins
+ Weight of insulation
Refer table 3.1 assuming 200Z20 section for purlins,

= 0.036 kN/m2
Refer table 3.1 weight of 50 mm thk. Insulation,
= 0.007 kN/m2
Therefore,
Total Dead Load on Purlins = 0.040 + 0.036 + 0.007

= 0.083 kN/m2
Therefore,
UDL on purlins = Purlin spacing x Load (kN/m2)
= 1.50 x 0.083
= 0.125 kN/m
(UDL – Denotes Uniformly Distributed Load in kN/m)
3) Dead Load on Frames = Weight of the panels

+ Weight of purlins
+ Weight of insulation
+ Self weight of frames
Since the self weight of frames is calculated and applied by the analysis and
design software, the dead load on frames is taken as the same value of the
purlins = 0.083 kN/m2
6
D E A D L O A D S
Example :- 3.2
Given Data:-
Panel Type = 75 mm thk. Sandwich Panel
Exterior Skin = 0.70 mm thk. Aluminium
Interior Skin = 0.35 mm thk. Aluzinc
Purlin spacing = 1.95 m
Sprinkler System = wet
Calculate the Dead Load on the building components:
Refer table 3.2 weight of Sandwich panel for given combination

= 0.087 kN/m2
2) Dead Load on Purlins = Weight of the panels

+ Self Weight of purlins
+ Weight of sprinkler system
Refer table 3.1 assuming 200Z25 section for purlins

= 0.045 x 1.50 / 1.95
= 0.035 kN/m2
Therefore,
Total Dead Load on Purlins = 0.087 + 0.035 + 0.15

= 0.272 kN/m2
Therefore,
UDL on purlins = Purlin spacing x Load (kN/m2)
= 1.95 x 0.272
= 0.531 kN/m
(UDL – Denotes Uniformly Distributed Load in kN/m)
3) Dead Load on Frames = Weight of the panels

+ Weight of purlins
+ Self weight of frames
Since the self weight of frames is calculated and applied by the analysis and
design software, the dead load on frames is taken as the same value of the
purlins = 0.272 kN/m2
7
4
Chapter
L I V E L O A D S
Live Loads
ASCE 7-05
Section 4.1
D efinition
Live load is defined as a load produced by the occupancy of the building or

structure that does not include construction or environmental loads, such as
wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load, flood load, or dead load.
Floors and other similar surfaces shall be designed to support the minimum uniformly
distributed live loads or concentrated loads, whichever produces the greater load
effects. Unless otherwise specified, the indicated concentrated load shall be assumed to
be uniformly distributed over an area of 0.23 m2.
Roof Live Load is defined as load produced (1) during maintenance by workers,
equipment and materials and (2) during life of the structure by movable objects
that are not occupancy related.
A clear distinction must be made between roof live loads and snow loads because the
probabilities of occurrence for snow loads are different from those for roof live loads
1
L I V E L O A D S
Table 4.1 Floor Live Loads

(Extract from Table 4-1 ASCE 7-05)
Minimum Live Loads

Occupancy OR Use
Uniform (kN/m2) Concentrated (kN)*
Office with computers 4.79 8.90
Assembly areas and theaters with fixed seats 2.87 -
Assembly areas and theaters other areas 4.79 -
Assembly areas and theaters stage floors 6.00 -
Balconies 4.79 -
Catwalks for maintenance floors 1.92 1.33
Dining Rooms and Restaurants 4.79 -
Elevator Machine Room grating
- 1.33
(On a area = 2580 mm2)
Finish light floor plate construction
- 0.89
(On a area = 645 mm2)
Fire Escapes 4.79 -
Garages (Light) 1.92 -
Garages (Heavy) 2.40 -
Gymnasiums 4.79 -
Hospitals 3.84 -
Libraries 3.84 -
Libraries (Stack Rooms) 7.19 -
Manufacturing (Light) 6.00 -
Manufacturing (Heavy) 11.97 -
Residential (Private) 1.92 -
Residential (Public) 4.79 -
Schools 1.92 -
Corridors 4.79 -
Skylights - 0.89
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways 11.97 35.6
Skating rinks 4.79 -
Stadiums and arenas 4.79 -
Stairs and exits 4.79 -
Storage warehouses (Light) 6.00 -
Storage warehouses (Heavy) 11.97 -
Stores (Retails) 4.79 4.50
Stores (Wholesale) 6.00 4.50
Walkways & Elevated Platforms 2.87 -
Yards, terraces, pedestrians 4.79 -
* - Concentrated loads may be assumed to be uniformly distributed on an area of 0.58 m2 unless noted otherwise.
2
L I V E L O A D S
Table 4.2 Live Loads on Industrial Floors

(Live Load Reduction is “NOT” applicable)
Minimum Live Loads

Industrial Application
Uniform (kN/m2)
1. Iron Making Structures
Cast house casting floors 24.0
Floors adjacent to furnaces 48.0
Hoist house – first floor 9.60
Hoist house balcony 7.19
Blast furnace top platform 14.4
Bell level platforms 12.0
All other platforms 7.19
Cupola platforms 9.60
2. Steel Making Structures
Charging floors 24.0
Service or reline floors 28.8
Flux or weigh hopper floors 9.60
Bin floors 9.60
Teeming platforms 14.4
Mold preparation platforms 14.4
3. Continuous Casting Structures
Operating floors 14.4
Spray floors 7.19
Machine floors 9.60
Shear floors 9.60
Mold storage and repair floors 14.4
4. Rolling Mill Structures
Motor rooms floors, oil cellar roofs etc. 48.0
5. Ore Refining and Material Handling Structures
Operating floors 9.60
Machine floors 4.79
Screening floors 3.60
Conveyor equipment floors 3.60
Conveyor bridge walks for walk members 2.40
For bridge design 1.20
6. Miscellaneous
Boiler house 11.97
Miscellaneous walks, access platforms and stairs 4.79
See AISE Technical Report # 13 Page 8 for more details
3
L I V E L O A D S
Table 4.3 Roof Live Loads.
Minimum
Roof Live
Element Remarks
Loads
(kN/m2)
ASCE 7-05
0.96 At < or = 18.58 m2
Section 4.9.1 Roof Purlins or other
Roof members. 0.58 At > or = 55.74 m2
Rafters. 0.58
Reduction for tributary area can
Walkways and Platforms. 2.87 be applied, as per ASCE Section
4.8
Roof Gardens or assembly halls. 4.79 -
Landscaped Roof 0.96 -
Awnings & Canopies 0.25 Non Accessible

Above values may be used up to and including 18° roof slope, for steeper slopes it may be reduced further.
For more details see IBC-2006, section 1607.11.2.1 or ASCE 7-05 Section 4.9
4
L I V E L O A D S
Reduction in Live Loads

This section does not apply to “Roof” uniform live loads, all other minimum
uniformly distributed live loads, Lo may be reduced as below,
ASCE 7-05
Section 4.8 Members for which the value “KLL AT” is 37.16 m2 or more are permitted to be
designed for a reduced live load in accordance with the following formula:
Eqn. 4.1 (ASCE 7-05) L = Lo { 0.25 + [ 4.57 / sqrt (KLL AT) ] }

Notes:-
1. ‘L’ should not be less than 0.5 Lo for members supporting one floor.
2. ‘L’ should not be less than 0.4 Lo for members supporting two or more floors.
3. Live Loads more than 4.79 kN/m2 shall not be reduced. Except for members
supporting 2 or more floors, Live Load may be reduced by 20 %.
4. Live Load shall not be reduced for Passenger car garages. Except for members
supporting 2 or more floors, Live Load may be reduced by 20 %.
5. Live loads of 4.79 kN/m2 or less shall not be reduced in public assembly
occupancies.
Where,
L = reduced design live load per m2 of area supported by the member.
Lo = unreduced design live load per m2 of area supported by the member.
ASCE 7-05 AT = tributary area in m2
Section 4.9.1 KLL = Live load element factor as per table 4.4,
Table 4.4 Live Load Element Factor, KLL

Sr. No. Element KLL
1 Interior Columns 4
2 Exterior Columns with out Cantilever Slabs 4
3 Edge Columns with Cantilever Slabs 3
4 Corner Columns with Cantilever Slabs 2
5 Edge Beams without Cantilever Slabs 2
6 Interior Beams 2
All Other members not identified above including,
a) Edge beams with cantilever slabs
b) Cantilever beams
7 c) One-way slabs 1
d) Two-way slabs
e) Members without provisions for continuous shear transfer
normal to their span
5
L I V E L O A D S
Example
Example :- 4.1
Given Data:-
Floor Live Load = 3.50 kN/m2
Joist Spacing = 1.85 m
Beam Spacing = 7.67 m
Length of Beam = 9.00 m
Calculate the Reduced Live Load on the building components:
Joist Tributary area (AT) = Spacing of Joist x Spacing of Beam

= 1.85 x 7.67 m
= 14.19 m2
Joist may be considered as an interior beam, hence KLL = 2
(See table 4.4 for values of KLL)
Therefore,
(AT x KLL) = 14.19 x 2
= 28.379 m2 < 37.16 m2
Since (AT x KLL) < 37.16 m2, Hence Live Load Reduction is not applicable.
Check for beam,

Beam Tributary area (AT) = Spacing of Beam x Length
= 7.67 x 9.00 m
= 69.03 m2
Beam may be considered as an interior beam or an edge beam with or without
cantilever as the case may be, we consider interior beam where, KLL = 2
Therefore,
(AT x KLL) = 69.03 x 2
= 138.06 m2 > 37.16 m2
Hence Live Load Reduction is applicable.
L = Lo { 0.25 + [ 4.57 / sqrt (KLL AT) ] }

= 3.50 { 0.25 + [ 4.57 / sqrt ( 138.06 )]}
= 2.24 kN/m2
Should not be less than 0.50 Lo , Since the beam is supporting one floor.
0.50 Lo = 1.75 kN/m2 Hence OK.
6
L I V E L O A D S
Example :- 4.2
Given Data:-
Joist Spacing = 1.85 m
Beam Spacing = 7.67 m
Length of Beam = 9.00 m
Calculate the Reduced Live Load on the building components:
Since the Live Load is more than 4.79 kN/m2, Live load reduction is not
applicable, if the member is supporting one floor only.
If the member (say an Interior Column) is supporting 2 floors, the live load may
be reduced by 20%,
Hence the reduced live load = 5.00 x 0.80

= 4.00 kN/m2
7
L I V E L O A D S
Reduction in Roof Live Loads

Eqn. 4.2 (ASCE 7-05) Lr = Lo R1 R2 where 0.58 <= Lr <= 0.96
R1 = 1.00 for At <= 18.58 m2

= 1.2 – 0.11 At for 18.58 m2 < At < 55.74 m2
= 0.60 for At >= 55.74 m2
R2 = 1.00 for F <= 4 m2

= 1.2 – 0.05 F for 4 < F < 12
ASCE 7-05
Section 4.9.1 = 0.60 for F >= 12
F = 12 / x
Where,
Lr = reduced live load (kN/m2)

At = Tributary area in m2 (Span x Tributary width) *
x = Unit rise for every 10 unit
x = ‘0.5’ for ‘0.5:10’, = ‘1.0’ for ‘1:10’ , ‘n’ for n:10
* - The calculation of tributary area for live load is “NOT” similar to the
tributary area calculation for wind co-efficient.
Section C3.1 of MBMA 1986 and 1996 allows use of,

Roof Live Load = 0.58 kN/m2 for Category I Buildings
Category I buildings are buildings that represent low hazard to human life in
the event of failure, including but not limited to,
1. Agricultural Buildings
2. Temporary Facilities
3. Minor Storage Facilities
Section 1.3.3.1 MBMA 2006 states, Where uniform roof live loads are reduced
to less than 0.96 kN/m2, and are involved in design of structural members
arranged so as to create continuity, the minimum applied loads shall be the
full dead loads on all spans in combination with roof live loads on adjacent
spans or on alternate spans whichever produces the greatest effect.
8
L I V E L O A D S
Example
Example :- 4.3
Given Data:-
Roof Live Load = 0.96 kN/m2
Purlin Spacing = 1.50 m
Rafter Spacing = 7.90 m
Rafter Span =24.00 m
Roof Slope = 0.5:10
Calculate the Reduced Roof Live Load on the building components:
Roof Panels
Panel Tributary area (At) = Spacing of Purlin x 1.00 meter width
= 1.50 x 1.00 m
= 1.50 m2
R1 = 1.00 since, At < 18.58 m2
F = 12 / 0.50
= 24
R2 = 0.60 since F > 12
Lr = Lo R1 R2
= 0.96 x 1.00 x 0.60
= 0.576
Reduced Roof Live Load (Lr) should not be less than 0.58 kN/m2
Hence, use live load = 0.58 kN/m2 for design of panels
From example 3.1

Dead Load on Panels = 0.040 kN/m2
Live Load on Panels = 0.580 kN/m2
Total Load on Panels = 0.620 kN/m2
9
L I V E L O A D S
Roof Purlins
Purlin Tributary area (At) = Spacing of Purlin x Spacing of Rafter
= 1.50 x 7.90 m
= 11.85 m2
R1 = 1.00 since, At < 18.58 m2
F = 12 / 0.50
= 24
R2 = 0.60 since F > 12
Lr = Lo R1 R2
= 0.96 x 1.00 x 0.60
= 0.576
Hence, use live load = 0.58 kN/m2 for design of purlins

UDL due to live load = 1.50 x 0.58
= 0.87 kN/m
Referring to example 3.1 ,

UDL due to dead load = 0.125 kN/m
UDL due to live load = 0.870 kN/m
Total UDL = 0.995 kN/m
Note:- Since the Uniform Live Load on Purlin is less than 0.96 kN/m2, pattern
loading on purlins should be applied.
(Example continued on next page)
10
L I V E L O A D S
Frame Rafter
Rafter Tributary area (At) = Spacing of Rafter x Span
= 7.90 x 24 m
= 189.60 m2
R1 = 0.60 for At > 55.74 m2
F = 12 / 0.50
= 24
R2 = 0.60 since F > 12
Lr = Lo R1 R2
= 0.96 x 0.60 x 0.60
= 0.346
Hence, use live load = 0.58 kN/m2 for design of rafters

UDL due to live load = 7.90 x 0.58
= 4.582 kN/m
Referring to example 3.1 ,

Dead Load on Rafter = 0.083 kN/m2
UDL due to dead load = 0.083 x 7.9
= 0.656
Therefore,
UDL due to dead load = 0.656 kN/m
UDL due to live load = 4.582 kN/m
Total UDL = 5.238 kN/m
11
L I V E L O A D S
Partition Live Loads

In office buildings or other buildings where partitions will be erected or
rearranged, provision for partition weight shall be made, whether or not
ASCE 7-05 partitions are shown on the plans. Partition loads shall not be less than (0.73
Section 4.2.2 kN/m2 in MBMA 06) (0.96 kN/m2 in MBMA 02).
This provision is not required if the minimum specified live load exceeds 3.83
kN/m2.
Apply the Live Loads as per PIF, if specified, otherwise as per the code above.
12
L I V E L O A D S
Example
Example :- 4.4
Given Data:-
Since the Live Load is less than 3.83 kN/ m2, Partition loads should be included
in the Live Load.
Therefore Floor Live Load = 3.50 + 0.73 = 4.23 kN/m2
Example :- 4.5
Given Data:-
Since the Live Load is more than 3.83 kN/m2, Partition loads need not be
included in the Live Load.
Therefore use the specified Floor Live Load = 5.00 kN/ m2
13
L I V E L O A D S
Loads on Handrails and

Guard rails
ASCE 7-05 A single concentrated load of 0.89 kN applied in any direction, and all assemblies
Section 4.4.1 shall be designed to resist a load of 0.73 kN/m applied in any direction. The two
loads 0.89 kN and 0.73 kN/m need not be assumed to act concurrently. And the
load of 0.73 kN/m need not be considered for followings occupancies,
a) One and two family dwellings.

b) Factory, industrial and storage occupancies not open to public and serve for
occupants less than 50 numbers.
Example
Example :- 4.6
14
L I V E L O A D S
Loads on Grab Bar System

Grab bar systems (a bent pipe or a rod provided at specific locations to support
body weight in residential or industrial applications, see picture below) shall be
ASCE 7-05 designed to resist a single concentrated load of 1.11 kN, applied in any direction
Section 4.4.2 at any point.
These are often used in residential and industrial buildings for support or access
to low height walkways and platforms.
A typical Grab Bar
Example
Example :- 4.7
15
L I V E L O A D S
Loads on Fixed Ladders

The minimum design live load for fixed ladders with rungs shall be a single
concentrated load of 1.33 kN, and shall be applied at any point to produce
ASCE 7-05 maximum load effect. This load should be applied for a minimum of 1 unit of
Section 4.4.4 1.33 kN for every 3.048 m.
For handrail support of such ladders extending on a roof or a floor, a single

concentrated load of 0.445 kN shall be applied in any direction at any height.
Example
Example :- 4.8
16
L I V E L O A D S
Impact Loads
As applicable, specified live loads shall be assumed to include adequate
allowance for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be made in the
structural design for uses and loads that involve unusual vibration and impact
ASCE 7-05
forces.
Section 4.7
Table 4.5 Impact factor for machinery floors
Sr. No. Description Impact

1 Elevators 100 %
2 Elevator Machinery 100 %
3 Light Machinery, shaft or motor driven 20 %
4 Reciprocating Machinery or power driven units 50 %
5 Hangers for floors or balconies 33 %
All percentage shall be increased where specified by the manufacturer.
For Impact Loads on Cranes refer chapter on Crane Loads
17
L I V E L O A D S
Loads as per BS-6399-1-1996
A) Roof Live Loads
Table 4.6
UDL in Concentrated
Sr. No. Description
( kN/m2 ) Loads ( kN )
1 Minimum imposed loads on roof with access 1.5 1.8*
Minimum imposed loads on roof with no access, except for cleaning and maintenance
2 a) For roof slopes ( a ) upto 30° or less 0.6 0.9*
b) For roof slopes ( a ) from 30° to less than 60° 0.6 [ ( 60 - a ) / 30 ] kN/m2
c) For roof slopes ( a ) equal to or more than 60° 0 0
Note:- It is assumed that spreader boards are used during cleaning and maintenance operation
* - Denotes on a square area of 125 mm
B) Imposed Floor Loads
The floor loads are divided in 6 categories as below,
A - Domestic and Residential activities
B - Office and work areas not covered elsewhere
C - Areas where people may congregate
D - Shopping Areas
E - Areas susceptible to the accumulation of goods
F/G - Vehicle and traffic areas
See table 4.7 below for all values
18
L I V E L O A D S
Table 4.7 - Minimum Imposed Floor Loads

Occupancy UDL Concentrated
Examples of specific use
Type ( kN/m2 ) Loads ( kN )
Single Family Dwelling units 1.5 1.4
Bedrooms and dormitories other than above 1.5 1.8
Hotels, Motels, Hospital wards, toilets 2.0 1.8
Billard Rooms
A Community Kitchens
Balconies Single Family units 1.5 1.4
Guest houses 3.0 1.5 / m*
Hotels & Motels 4.0 1.5 / m*
* - On the outer edge
Operating theaters, X Rooms, Utility Rooms 2.0 4.5
Work rooms without storage 2.5 1.8
Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
Banking halls 3.0 2.7
Kitchens, laundries, laboratories 3.0 4.5
Rooms with mainframe computers or similar equipments 3.5 4.5
Machinery halls, circulation spaces therein 4.0 4.5
B
Projection rooms 5.0 Actual
Factories, workshops and similar buildings 5.0 4.5
Foundries 20.0 Actual
Catwalks - 1 @ 1 m c/c
Balconies 4 min. 1.5 / m*
Fly galleries 4.5 kN/m
Ladders - 1.5 at rung
19
L I V E L O A D S
Public institutional and communal dining rooms, cafes, lounge,

2.0 2.7
rest..
Reading rooms without books 2.5 4.5
Class rooms 3.0 2.7
Assembly areas with fixed seating 4.0 3.6
Places of worship 3.0 2.7
Corridors, hallways, aisles, etc. with foot traffic only 3.0 4.5
Stairs, landings, etc. with foot traffic only 3.0 4.0
Corridors, hallways, aisles, etc. in motels, hotels. with foot traffic
4.0 4.5
only
Corridors, hallways, aisles, etc. with wheeled vehicles, trolleys 5.0 4.5
C Stairs, landings, etc. with wheeled vehicles, trolleys 4.0 4.0
Light duty walkways 3.0 2.0
General duty walkways 5.0 3.6
Heavy duty walkways 7.5 4.5
Museum floors and art galleries 4.0 4.5
Balconies 4.0 1.5 / m*
Fly galleries 4.5 kN/m -
Dance halls, studios, gymnasia, stages 5.0 3.6
Drill halls and rooms 5.0 9.0
Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, places of 5.0 3.6
worship subject to overcrowding 7.5 4.5
Stages in public assembly areas 7.5 4.5
D Shop floors for sale and display of merchandise 4.0 3.6
General areas of static equipment not satisfied elsewhere 2.0 1.8

Reading rooms with book storage, libraries 4.0 4.5
General storage other than specified 2.4 / m# 7.0
# each metre of storage height
File rooms, filing and storage space (offices) 5.0 4.5
Stack rooms (books) 2.4 / m# Min 6.5 7.0
Paper storage for printing plants and stationary stores 4.0 / m# 9.0
E
Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trolleys 4.8 / m# min 9.6 7.0
Dense mobile stacking (books) on mobile trolleys in warehouses 4.8 / m# min 15 7.0
Cold storage 5.0 / m# min 15 9.0
Plant rooms, boiler rooms, fan rooms etc. 7.5 4.5
Ladders - 1.5 rung
Parking for cars, garages light vans etc. not exceeding 2500 kgs. 2.5 9.0
Vehicles exceeding 2500 kgs, driveways, ramps, repair workshops Actual Actual
Concentrated load is assumed to act on an area of 50 mm square
20
L I V E L O A D S
C) Reduction in imposed floor loads
Not applicable to following,
a) Loads specifically determined for proposed use of structures

b) loads due to plant machinery
c) loads due to storage
1) Reduction in loading on Columns
The reductions given in table below may be applied to total imposed floor loads
in the design of columns piers, walls and their supports and foundations.
Table 4.8
No. of Floors Reduction in %
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 to 10 40
Over 10 50 max.
2) Reduction in loading on Beams
The loading on beams may be reduced according to area supported by the

percentage as per table below,
Table 4.9
Area Supported (m2) Reduction in %
0 0
50 5
100 10
150 15
200 20
Above 250 25 max.
21
L I V E L O A D S
D) Partition Loads
1) For permanent partitions the loads should be included in the dead loads
2) For proposed partitions, the uniformly distributed partition load shall not be
less than 1/3 of the load per meter run of the finished partition
3) For floors of offices, the additional uniformly distributed partition load should
not be less than 1.0 kN/m2
E) Ceiling Supports
1) without access: - no imposed loads
2) with access:- 0.25 kN/m2 UDL over the whole area and,
concentrated load of 0.9 kN so placed for maximum effect.
F) Parapets, barriers and balustrades
1) Table 4 below specifies the minimum horizontal imposed loads appropriate to

the design of parapets, barriers, balustrades, and other elements of a structure
intended to retain, stop or guide people.
2) The uniform line load, uniform distributed and concentrated load should be
considered as 3 separate cases
3) The load should be considered to act a height of 1.1 m above the datum level,
irrespective of the actual height of element.
4) For all types of activities, these elements should be designed either for a
concentrated load of 1 kN or a UDL of 0.6 kN/m, which ever gives the worst
design condition.
22
L I V E L O A D S
5) The horizontal force 'F' (kN) normal to and uniformly distributed over any
length of 1.5 m of a barrier for a car park is required to withstand the impact of a
vehicle is given by
F = 0.5 mv2 / ( dc + db ) kN
where,
m = the gross mass of the vehicle in kgs.
may be taken as 1500 kgs for vehicles less than or equal to 2500 kgs.)
If mass is more than 2500 kgs, than use the actual weight.
v = the velocity of the vehicle in ( m/sec ) normal to the barrier

( = 4.5 m/sec )
dc = is the deformation of the vehicle in (mm)

( = 100 mm unless better evidence is available)
db = is the deformation of the barrier in (mm)

( = 0 for a rigid barrier )
a) The force is assumed to act at bumper height or 375 mm above floor level for
cars less than 2500 kgs.
b) Barriers for access ramps of car parks shall be designed for half the force (F) at
a height of 610 mm.
c) If the travel distance for downward travel is more than 20 m, barriers shall be
designed for (2F) at a height of 610 mm.
23
L I V E L O A D S
Table 4.10 Minimum Horizontal Imposed Loads for Parapets, Barriers and balustrades etc.
Horizontal
Occupancy UDL Concentrated
Examples of Specific Use UD Line Load
Type (kN/m2) Load in (kN)
(kN/m)
All areas of single family dwellings including

0.36 0.50 0.25
stairs, landings etc.
A
Other residential areas 0.74 1.00 0.50
Light access stairs, gangways not more than 0.6

0.22 N/A N/A
m wide
Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and
storage 0.36 0.50 0.25
buildings, except designated escape routes.
B and E Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office
and
institutional buildings also industrial and 0.74 1.00 0.50
storage
buildings, except as given above
Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the

1.50 1.50 1.50
barrier, balustrades or parapet.
Restaurants and bars 1.50 1.50 1.50
Stairs landing, corridors, ramps 0.74 1.00 0.50
External balconies and edges of roof, footways,
and pavements within a building curtilage
0.74 1.00 0.50
adjacent
to basement / sunken areas
Footways, pavements less than 3 m wide
C adjacent 1.50 1.50 1.50
to sunken areas
Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria,
shopping malls, assembly areas, studios,
footways
3.00 1.50 1.50
and pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent
to
sunken areas
Grandstands and stadia As per governing authority
All retail areas including public areas of banks,

building 1.50 1.50 1.50
D
societies or betting shops
Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs,

landing
1.50 1.50 1.50
F/G ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges
of roof
Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles See clause 5) above
24
5
Chapter
W I N D L O A D S
Wind Loads
 MBMA 1996
General:- The procedures are prescribed for assessing wind loads to be used in
MBMA 96
Section 5.0 the design of buildings and structural components and cladding thereof. The

procedures are limited to buildings with flat, single sloped roofs up to 30°, and
gable shaped roofs whose mean roof heights do not exceed 18.29 meters and
which have eave heights less than or equal to their least horizontal dimension.
The procedures are intended for completed buildings and may not be
appropriate for structures during erection. (For other structures latest ASCE 7-05
should be referred)
Table 5.1(a) Importance Factor [Table 5.2(a) MBMA 1996]

Importance Factor (I w )
Building Use Category
160 kms Inland Hurricane Coastline
I 0.90 1.00
II 1.00 1.10
III 1.15 1.23
IV 1.15 1.23
Velocity Pressure (q)
Eqn. 5.0 q = 2.45 x 10-5 V2 H2/7
where,
q = the velocity pressure in kN/m2
V = Fastest wind speed in km/hr
H =mean height (m) of roof above ground or 4.57 m, whichever is less.
Eave height may be used in lieu of mean height if the roof slope is less than or
equal to 10°. For single sloped roofs, the lower eave height may be used if the
roof slope is less than or equal to 10°
A single values of ‘q’ is used for the entire building
1
W I N D L O A D S
Design Wind Load or Pressure in kN/m2
Eqn. 5.1 P = I w q (GC p )

where,
Iw = the Importance Factor as per Table 5.1
q = the velocity pressure in kN/m2
GC p = wind coefficient as per Table 5.7(a) or 5.7(b)
Openings: Those areas in the building envelope (wall, roof surfaces) which do
not have a permanently attached means for effective closure. (Such as Doors,
Windows etc.)
Enclosed Building: A structure that encloses a space and does not have openings
that qualify under the definitions of a partially enclosed or open building.
Windows, doors and other buildings accessories, designed to resist the wind
pressures need not be considered as openings.
Partially Enclosed Building: A building in which the total area of openings in a

wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of
openings for the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) and exceeds
5% of the area of that wall; and the density of the openings in the balance of the
building envelope does not exceed 20% as expressed by the following equations:
(In order for a building to qualify as a Partially Enclosed Building all the 3
conditions below should be satisfied, if not the building is either classified as an
Enclosed or Open Building )
1) A o > 0.05 A g
Eqn. 5.2 2) A o > A oi
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
Where,
A o = total area (m2) of opening in a wall that receives positive external pressure.
A g = the gross area (m2) of that wall in which A o is identified.
A oi =the sum of areas (m2) of openings in the building envelope, not including
Ao.
A gi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and
roofs) not including A g (m2).
Open Building: Structures having all walls at least 80% open. This condition is
expressed for each wall by the equation,
Ao >= 0.8 A g
2
W I N D L O A D S
Example
Example :- 5.1
Given Data:-
Building Width = 45000 mm
Building Length = 10500 mm
Building Height = 7550 mm
Open for access = 3200 mm (All walls)
Roof Slope = 0.5:10 ( θ = 2.862 )
Peak Height = 8675 mm
1) Check if the building qualifies as an “Open Building”
Total Area of Near Sidewall,

= Length x Eave Height
= 10500 x 7550 / 10002 = 79.28 m2
Total Area of Openings at Near Sidewall,
= Length x Open Height
= 10500 x 3200 / 10002 = 33.60 m2
Percentage of Opening,
= (33.60 / 79.28) x 100 = 42.38%
Similarly, Total Area of Left OR Right Endwall,

= [(Width x Eave Ht) + (Width2 x Tan θ / 4)]
= [(45000 x 7550) + (450002 x tan 2.862 / 4)] / 10002
= 365.06 m2
Total Area of Openings at Left OR Right Endwall,
= Width x Open Height
= 45000 x 3200 / 10002 = 144.00 m2
Percentage of Opening,
= (144.00 / 365.06) x 100 = 39.44%
Since all walls are open for less than 80%, the building does not classify under
“Open Building”
3
W I N D L O A D S
2) Check if the Building qualifies as “Partially Open Building”,
Considering a near sidewall, the total area (m2) of opening in a wall that receives
positive external pressure A o is, = 33.60 m2
The gross area A g of this near sidewall = 79.28 m2
The sum of all openings in the building envelope A oi not including the near
sidewall opening A o ,
= 33.60 + (2 x 144.00) = 321.60 m2
The sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope A gi (Far Sidewall,
Left & Right Endwall and Roof) not including A g calculated above (m2).
= 79.28 + (2 x 365.06) + 2 x [45 x 10.5/(2 x Cos θ )]

= 1282.49 m2
Checks,
1. A o > 0.05 A g
33.60 > 0.05 x 79.28 = 3.964 True
2. A o > A oi
33.60 > 321.60 False
3. A oi / A gi <= 0.20
321.60 / 1282.49 = 0.25 < 0.20 False
Since Equation 2 & 3 are not satisfied, the building cannot be classified as
“Partially Enclosed Building”
Hence the building is classified as an “Enclosed Building”
FSW REW
HEIGHT
SLOPE 
TH
LEW NG NSW
LE
WIDTH
NSW-NEAR SIDEWALL
FSW-FAR SIDEWALL
LEW-LEFT ENDWALL
REW-RIGHT ENDWALL
3D VIEW SHOWING ALL WALLS
4
W I N D L O A D S
End Zones and Interior Zones
For the purpose of assigning main framing coefficients the exterior wall and roof
surfaces are divided into two zones End and Interior Zones. The end zones are
demarked based on the building profile and dimension ‘Z’. All areas not within
the end zone are considered interior zones.
‘Z’ is the dimension used to define the width of edge strips and end zones. Z
shall be calculated as follows:
1. The lesser of
a. 10% of the least horizontal dimension of the building, or
b. 40% of the eave height,
2. But not less than
a. 4% of the least horizontal dimension of the building, or
b. 914 mm.
These End zones are normally located near the discontinuities in roof & walls
and may vary with the roof slope and shape of building. See MBMA 02 Table
1.4.6(a) to (h)
Example
Example :- 5.2
Given Data:-
Hence the End Zone ‘Z’ is the lesser of,
= 0.10 x 28000 = 2800 mm

= 0.40 x 8450 = 3380 mm
Therefore End Zone ‘Z’ = 2800 mm, but this should not be less than any of the
following,
= 0.04 x 28000 = 1120 mm
= 914 = 914 mm
Hence use ‘Z’ = 2800 mm from Eave and Gable
5
W I N D L O A D S
Effective Wind Load Area
It is either the tributary area or effective area used for determining the
appropriate wind coefficients.
Effective Wind Load Area = L x W
Where,
L = Span of the member
W = Greater of (A + B / 2 ) OR (L / 3)
Notes:
1. Effective Wind Load Area is to be used for determination of pressure
coefficient only and “NOT” for design loads.
2. For Cladding and other Panel type members, without definitive width; use
W=L/3
3. For Fasteners, the effective Wind Load Area is the area of the building
surface contributing to the force being considered.
6
W I N D L O A D S
Example
Example :- 5.3
Given Data:-
Frame Type = Clear Span
Bay Spacing = 7950 mm
Eave Height = 8450 mm
Roof Slope = 1:10 (θ = 5.71°)
Purlin Spacing = 1650 mm
Spacing of Fasteners = 250 mm
Fastest Wind Speed = 160 km/hr
Building Use Category = II (Importance Factor I w = 1.00)
Calculate Velocity Pressure (q)

q = 2.45 x 10-5 V2 H2/7
= 2.45 x 10-5 x 1602 x 8.452/7
(Since the roof slope is less than 10°, eave height is used instead of mean height)
q = 1.15 kN/m2
From Example 5.2, width of End Zone ‘Z’ = 2800 mm, 2Z = 5600 mm
Calculate GC p for main framing, referring Table 5.7(a) and assuming an Enclosed
Building, (Positive sign denotes towards surface and negative sign denotes away
from surface)
Therefore, Wind Pressure in kN/m2
P = I w q (GC p )
= 1.00 x 1.15 x (GC p ) = 1.15 x (GC p )
7
W I N D L O A D S
Effective wind load area for Purlins is greater of,

= Span x Tributary width
= 7950 x 1650 / 10002 = 13.12 m2
= Span x Span / 3
= 7950 x (7950 / 3) / 10002 = 21.07 m2
Hence the Effective wind load area = 21.07 m2

Since the area is greater than 100 ft2 = 9.29 m2
Interior Spans
GC p = -1.15 as per Table 5.5(b)
GC p =- 1.20 as per Table 5.7(a)
Edge Strip
GC p = -1.40 as per Table 5.5(b) and Table 5.7(a)
Purlin spacing in the edge strip should be reduced, if required to use the same
purlin section as interior zones. This edge strip lies near the eave and gable area
of the roof, and also near the ridge for slopes greater than 10°. [See Table 5.7 (a)]
Wind load on purlins is given as,

= P x GC p
Interior Spans = 1.15 x -1.15 = -1.32 kN/m2
End Spans = 1.15 x -1.40 = -1.61 kN/m2
If, the Dead load = 0.10 kN/m2
Then,
Total Wind load on purlins is given as,
= Spacing x ( DL + WL)
= 1.65 x [0.10 + (-1.32)] = -2.01 kN/m
= 1.65 x [0.10 + (-1.61)] = -2.49 kN/m
8
W I N D L O A D S
Similarly, Effective wind load area for Panel is greater of,
= Span x Tributary width (Assuming 1.0 m cover width)

= 1650 x 1000 / 10002 = 1.65 m2
= Span x Span / 3
= 1650 x (1650 / 3) / 10002 = 0.91 m2

= 17.7 ft2
Referring to Table 5.5 (b), the wind coefficients are given as below,
Corners = 1.5 Log A – 4.4 (A is area in ft2)

= 1.5 Log 17.7 – 4.4 = -2.52
Edge = = -1.70
Interior = 0.15 Log A – 1.45
= 0.15 Log 17.7 – 1.45 = -1.26
The wind load = P x GC p
Corners = 1.15 x -2.52 = -2.90 kN/m2

Edge = 1.15 x -1.70 = -1.96 kN/m2
Interior = 1.15 x -1.26 = -1.45 kN/m2
Assuming Single Skin, 0.5 Aluzinc Panel any profile

Dead Load of Panel = 0.04 kN/m2 (See chapter 3, Table 3.1)
Therefore, total load on Panels,
= DL + WL
Corners = 0.04 + (-2.90) = -2.86 kN/m2
Edge = 0.04 + (-1.95) = -1.91 kN/m2
Interior = 0.04 + (-1.45) = -1.41 kN/m2
9
W I N D L O A D S
Similarly, Effective wind load area for Fasteners (Screws) is,
= Purlin Spacing x Spacing of fasteners

= 1650 x 250 / 10002 = 0.41 m2
= 4.41 ft2
Referring to Table 5.5 (b), the wind coefficients are given as below,
Corners = = -2.90
Edge = = -1.70
Interior = = -1.30
The wind load is then = P x GC p
Corners = 1.15 x -2.90 = -3.34 kN/m2

Edge = 1.15 x -1.70 = -1.96 kN/m2
Interior = 1.15 x -1.30 = -1.50 kN/m2
Assuming Single Skin, 0.5 Aluzinc Panel

Dead Load of Panel = 0.04 kN/m2
Therefore, total load on Panels,

= (DL + WL) x Area
Corners = [0.04 +(-3.34)] x 0.41 = -1.35 kN
Edge = [0.04 +(-1.96)] x 0.41 = -0.78 kN
Interior = [0.04 +(-1.50)] x 0.41 = -0.60 kN
Capacity of Sheeting Screws 5.5 (#12) irrespective of the length is as below,
Purlin Thk. (t 2 ) mm 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5

Pull-Out (kN) P not / Ω 0.83 1.04 1.25 1.39 1.74
Panel Thk. (t 1 ) mm 0.5 0.7 1.0 - -
Pull-Over (kN) P nov /Ω 2.12 2.96 4.23 - -
Material Carbon Steel Stainless Steel -
Screw Diameter 4.8 5.5 4.8 5.5 -
Tension (kN) P nt / Ω 1.94 4.52 1.88 3.70 -
P nv /
Shear (kN) 1.64 3.05 1.64 2.52 -
Ω
The values for Pull-Out and Pull-Over needs to be checked, the value for 1.5 and
1.8 mm thk. Purlin is less than required in the corners; hence the spacing of
screws in the corners may be reduced if the purlins are 1.5 or 1.8 mm thk.
Pull over value is generally more than required because of the 19mm washer
bearing on panel.
10
W I N D L O A D S
11
W I N D L O A D S
12
W I N D L O A D S
13
W I N D L O A D S
Example
Example :- 5.4
Using the same Data as in Example 5.3,

Calculating the wind coefficient and loads in the transverse direction
[Refer Table 5.7(a)]
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Column – 1 in End Zone (1E), GCp = 0.50
= Wind Pressure x Coefficient x Tributary Width (Bay Spacing/2)

= 1.15 x 0.50 x 7.95 / 2 = 2.29 kN/m
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Rafter – 1 in End Zone (2E), GCp = -1.40
= 1.15 x -1.40 x 7.95 / 2 = -6.40 kN/m
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Rafter – 2 in End Zone (3E), GC p = -0.80
= 1.15 x -0.80 x 7.95 / 2 = -3.65 kN/m
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Column – 2 in End Zone (4E), GCp = -0.70
= 1.15 x -0.70 x 7.95 / 2 = -3.20 kN/m
Similarly for Interior zone,
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Column – 1 in Interior Zone (1), GC p = 0.25
= Wind Pressure x Tributary Width (Bay Spacing)

= 1.15 x 0.25 x 7.95 = 2.29 kN/m
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Rafter – 1 in Interior Zone (2),, GCp = -1.00
= 1.15 x -1.00 x 7.95 = -9.14 kN/m
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Rafter – 2 in Interior Zone (3),, GCp = -0.65
= 1.15 x -0.65 x 7.95 = -5.94 kN/m
Design Wind Load in kN/m on Column – 2 in Interior Zone (4),, GC p = -0.55
= 1.15 x -0.55 x 7.95 = -5.03 kN/m
14
W I N D L O A D S
Gcp = -1.40 Gcp = -0.80
RAFTER-1 RAFTER-2
GCp =+0.50 COLUMN-1 COLUMN-2 Gcp = -0.70
Wind Coefficients for Main Framing in the End Zone
Gcp = -1.00 Gcp = -0.65
RAFTER-1 RAFTER-2
Gcp = +0.25 COLUMN-1 COLUMN-2 Gcp = -0.55
Wind Coefficients for Main Framing in the Interior Zone
-6.40 -3.66
RAFTER-1 RAFTER-2
+2.29 COLUMN-1 COLUMN-2 -3.20
Wind Loads in kN/m for Main Framing in the End Zone

(For half bay loading)
-9.14 -5.94
RAFTER-1 RAFTER-2
+2.29 COLUMN-1 COLUMN-2 -5.03
Wind Loads in kN/m for Main Framing in the Interior Zone
15
W I N D L O A D S
Calculating the wind coefficient and loads in the longitudinal direction.

These loads are used for design of wind strut members and sidewall bracings.
End zone width ‘Z’ = 2800 mm
Since the building is symmetrical about the ridge, area (5E, 6E) is given as,
Eave Height = 8450 = 8450 mm
Height at distance ‘Z’ = 8450 + 2800/10 = 8730 mm
Area 5E, 6E = (Sum of Parallel sides)/2 x Z
= (8450 + 8730)/2 x 2800 / 10002 = 24.05 m2
Total Area of Endwall = [(Width x Eave Ht) + (Width2 x Tan θ / 4)]

= [(28000 x 8450) + (280002 x tan 5.710 / 4)] / 10002
= 256.19 m2
Hence, Area 5, 6 = Total Area of each Endwall – 2 (Area 5E, 6E)

= 256.19 – 2 x 24.05 = 208.09 m2
-0.30
-0.15
6E -0.30
6
6E
0.90 5E
5
z
0.65
0.90 5E
Taking into consideration only half the end wall for one sidewall bracing.
Design Wind Load in kN on area 5E in End Zone, GC p = 0.90
= Wind Pressure x (Area 5E)

= 1.15 x 0.90 x 24.05 = 24.89 kN
16
W I N D L O A D S
Design Wind Load in kN on area 5 in End Zone, GC p = 0.65
= Wind Pressure x (Area 5) / 2

= 1.15 x 0.65 x 208.09 / 2 = 77.78 kN
Similarly,
Design Wind Load in kN on area 6E in End Zone, GC p = -0.30
= Wind Pressure x (Area 6E)

= 1.15 x (-0.30) x 24.05 = -8.29 kN
Design Wind Load in kN on area 6 in End Zone, GC p = -0.15
= Wind Pressure x (Area 6) / 2

= 1.15 x (-0.15) x 208.09 / 2 = -17.94 kN
Hence total load on half the end wall portion

= 24.89 + 77.78 + 8.29 + 17.94 = 128.90 kN
(Note that in case of unsymmetrical building the load should divided as per the
ridge location and bracing pattern, also note, minus sign only denotes the
direction of force away from the surface and should not be used for calculation,
summation is done on the direction of forces)
Assuming half of the total load on half end wall portion is transferred to the base
of the end wall columns. = 128.90 / 2 = 64.45 kN
Hence, the total load along the eave of one sidewall = 64.45 kN
This force should be divided by the number of braced bays in the building,
assuming 3 braced bays, the force per bay
= 64.45 / 3 = 21.48 kN
FORCE FROM C C C FORCE FROM

AREA 5 & 5E AREA 6 & 6E
T T T
SIDEWALL ELEVATION
17
W I N D L O A D S
Alternatively, the coefficients in the end and interior zone may be averaged as
below,
Average of coefficients of (5 & 5E) = (0.65 + 0.90) / 2 = 0.775

Average of coefficients of (6 & 6E) = (0.15 + 0.30) / 2 = 0.225
Sum of average coefficients = 0.775 + 0.225 = 1.00
Hence the total load,

= Wind pressure x Half end wall area x Avg. coefficients
= 1.15 x 1.00 x 256.19 / 2 = 147.31 kN
Assuming half of the above load transferred to the end wall column base, and
dividing by the number of braced bays
= 147.31 / (2 x 3) = 24.55 kN
The eave strut, bracing members and connections should be designed for this
force.
P1
P2
P3
P1
P2
P3
The roof bracing should be designed for the amount of force, that is transferred
at location where it is broken, (See sketch above) so the first bracing from ridge
will be designed for load P1 and second bracing for P2 and sidewall bracing and
eave strut member for P3.
Detailed bracing section and connection is not within the scope of this chapter.
18
W I N D L O A D S
Assuming, the end wall column spacing as 4 @ 7000 mm, the load distribution to
P1, P2, & P3 is as below,
Tributary area for P1 = Endwall Spacing / 2 x average height

= (7000/2) x 9675 / 10002 = 33.86 m2
Therefore, the load = 1.15 x 1.00 x 33.86 = 38.94 kN
Assuming half the load transferred to the base of end wall column,
The Load P1 = 38.94 / 2 = 19.47 kN
Similarly,
Tributary area for P2 = End wall Spacing x average height
= 7000 x 9150 / 10002 = 64.05 m2
The Load P1 = 73.66 / 2 = 36.83 kN
Tributary area for P3 = End wall Spacing / 2 x eave height

= (7000/2) x 8625 / 10002 = 30.19 m2
The Load P1 = 34.71 / 2 = 17.35 kN
Total force at eave = P1 + P2 + P3

= 19.47 + 36.83 + 17.35 = 73.65 kN
Dividing by the number of braced bays,

= 73.65 / 3 = 24.55 kN
19
W I N D L O A D S
MBMA 2002
 D efinitions
ASCE 7-98 Basic Wind Speed (V):

Section 6.2

The 3 second gust speed at 10 m above ground in Exposure C.
A 3 Second gust wind speed is defined as the maximum average speed of the
wind averaged over 3 seconds passing through a wind speed measuring
instrument at a certain height above a terrain roughness over a specified period
of time. For standardization purposes in codes and standards that height is
usually taken as 10 meters, terrain roughness as exposure C and specified period
of time as 50 years.
V fm = ( V 3s – 16.9 ) / 1.05
Eqn. 16-34 (IBC 06)
OR
V 3s = 1.05 V fm + 16.9
Where,
V fm - is the fastest mile wind speed in km/hr.
V 3s - is the 3 second gust wind speed in km/hr.
V 3s 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
V fm 79 89 98 108 117 127 136 146 155 165 174 184 193 203 212 222
In hurricane prone regions, wind speeds derived from simulation techniques

shall only be used in lieu of the basic wind speeds.
In non-hurricane prone regions, when the basic wind speed is estimated from
regional climatic data, the basic wind speed shall be not less than the wind speed
associated with an annual probability of 0.02 (50 year mean recurrence interval)
and the estimate shall be adjusted for equivalence to a 3 second gust wind speed
at 10 m above ground in exposure category C.
20
W I N D L O A D S
What is “Fastest Mile” wind speed?

Fastest mile is the average speed during the time required for the passage over
an anemometer of a volume of air with a horizontal length of one mile.
For example, Say we have an anemometer (a wind measuring device) fixed at a

height of 10 meters above ground in Exposure ‘C’ as shown in the sketch below,
a volume of wind or air of a length = 1 mile, is passing across the anemometer
left to right from point S to point E. During The speed of wind during this travel
is measured and plotted as a graph.
ANEMOMETER
E S E S
WIND VOLUME WIND VOLUME
LENGTH =1 MILE LENGTH =1 MILE
10 M
EXPOSURE 'C'
Time 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Average
Speed 75 78 80 83 84 83 86 90 86 90 83.5
T im e v /s W in d S p e e d
95
90
Speed in miles / hour
85
80
75
70
65
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
T im e in S e c o n d s
21
W I N D L O A D S
So the time required for this volume of wind 1 mile long to move across the
anemometer is calculated as,
We know, Speed = Distance / Time

Therefore, Time = Distance / Speed
= 1 mile / 83.5 mph
= 0.01197 hour = 0.01197 x 60 x 60 = 43.11 sec.
So the time required to measure the “Fastest Mile” wind speed is 43.11 sec and it
may vary with the wind speed.
Hence we say that the “Fastest Mile” Wind Speed = 83.5 mph = 52.19 kmph
What is “3 Second Gust” wind speed?

instrument at a certain height, above the terrain roughness over a specified
period of time.
The height is usually 10 meters, the terrain is Exposure ‘C’ and specified period
of time is 50 years
The transition was made from fastest mile wind speed to 3-Second gust for the
following reasons.
1. Fastest mile oriented anemometers have been replaced with modern
equipment with graphic strip chart readouts.
2. The peak gust is the easiest and most reliable wind speed to read from the
newer graphs.
3. 3-Second gust speeds are closer to the speeds quoted in news media.
4. Structural members are designed by gust speeds. If another type wind speed
is used, large corrections must be made by use of the gust effect factor.
22
W I N D L O A D S
Low Rise Building:

An Enclosed or a Partially Enclosed building satisfying both the following two
conditions below are classified as Low Rise Building.
1. Mean Roof Height ‘h’ less than or equal to 18.28 m
2. Mean Roof Height ‘h’ does not exceed least horizontal dimension.
( ‘h’ < Minimum of Length ‘L’ or Width ‘W’)
Open Building:
A building having each wall at least 80% open. This condition is expressed for
each wall by the equation
Ao >= 0.8 Ag
Partially Enclosed Building:

A building which complies with all of the following conditions below are
classified as Partially Enclosed Building,
1) A o > 1.10 A oi
2) A o > 0.37 m2 or > 0.01 A g , whichever is smaller.
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
Where,
A oi = the sum of areas (m2) of openings in the building envelope, but not
including A o .
Checking the Example 5.1 for Open or Partially Enclosed Conditions as per
MBMA 2002
The open wall condition is same as in MBMA 1996,

The partially open condition is checked again for the sake of comparison,
The gross area Ag of the near sidewall = 79.28 m2
Considering near sidewall, the total area (m2) of opening in a wall that receives
= 33.60 + (2 x 144.00) = 321.60 m2
23
W I N D L O A D S
The sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope A gi (walls and roofs)
not including A g (m2).
= 79.28 + (2 x 365.06) + 2 x [45 x 10.5/(2 x Cos θ )]
= 1282.49 m2
Checks,
1. A o > 1.10 A oi
33.60 > 1.10 x 321.60 = 353.76 False
2. A o > 0.37 m2 OR 0.01 A g
33.60 > 0.37 m2 OR 0.01 x 79.28 = 0.7928 True
3. A oi / A gi <= 0.20
321.60 / 1282.49 = 0.25 < 0.20 False
Comparing the equation in MBMA 1996 and MBMA 2002 as below
MBMA 1996
1) Ao > 0.05 A g
2) Ao > A oi
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
MBMA 2002
1) Ao > 1.10 A oi
2) Ao > 0.37 m2 or > 0.01 A g , whichever is smaller.
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
1) We find that equation 2 of MBMA 96 is similar to equation 1 of MBMA 02,

except that there is 10% increase in sum of openings in the building envelope.
2) Equation 1 of MBMA 96 is similar to equation 2 of MBMA 02, except that

there is an additional limit of 0.37 m2 and 4% reduction in the gross area.
3) Equation 3 is the same in both MBMA 96 and MBMA 02
24
W I N D L O A D S
Enclosed Building:
A building that does not comply with the requirements for Open or Partially
enclosed buildings are classified as Enclosed Building.
Eave Height (h):

The distance from the ground surface adjacent to the building to the roof eave
line at a particular wall. If the height of the eave varies along the wall, the
average height shall be used.
Mean Roof Height (h):

The average of the eave height and the highest point on the roof surface, except
that for roof angles of less than or equal to 10°, the mean roof height shall be the
roof eave height. For Single slope buildings the lower eave height may be used
for roof slopes less than or equal to 10°., and mean roof height for roof slopes
more than 10°.
Escarpment:
Also known as Scarp, with respect to topographic effects is a cliff or steep slope
generally separating two levels or gently sloping areas.
Minimum Wind Load:

(MWFRS - Main Wind Force Resisting System) - The design wind pressure (p)
on any main wind resisting structure on an enclosed or partially enclosed
building should not be less than 0.48 kN/m2 multiplied by the area of the
building or structure projected on to a vertical plane normal to the assumed
wind direction.
Note: - This minimum load is the sum of wind load on the windward and
leeward wall of a main frame or a building (See following sketch)
25
W I N D L O A D S
26
W I N D L O A D S
C & C – (Components and Claddings) – The design wind pressure for

components and cladding of buildings shall not be less than a net pressure of
0.48 kN/m2 acting in either direction normal to the surface.
Exposure Category:
The characteristics of ground surface irregularities (natural topography and
vegetation as well as constructed features) for the site at which the building is to
be constructed. These are divided into 4 categories as below,
Exposure
Description
Category
Large city centers with at least 50% of the buildings having a
Exposure A
height in excess of 21.3 meters.
Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
Exposure B with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of
single-family dwellings or larger.
Exposure C Open terrain with scattered obstructions.
Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over open
Exposure D water (excluding shorelines in hurricane prone regions for a
distance of at least 1 mile)
MBMA 2002 states "Note that IBC 2000 specifies that Exposure B shall be
assumed unless the site meets the definition of another exposure."
Unless specified in PIF Exposure “B” should be considered, but if we know

for sure by location of building, appropriate Exposure Category should be
considered and the same should be conveyed to all concerned for the project.
27
W I N D L O A D S
Effective Wind Load Area:

It is the area used to determine GC p . For component and cladding elements, the
effective width that need not be less than 1/3 the span length. For cladding
fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be greater than the area that is
tributary to an individual fastener.
If, L = Span
W = Spacing of element (A+B)/2.
Effective wind load area = [greater of (W or L / 3)] x L
Note: - This area should be used ONLY for determination of GC p and ‘NOT’
for design loads.
28
W I N D L O A D S
Example
Example :- 5.5
Given Data:-
1. Effective wind load area for Purlins is greater of,

= 7950 x 1650 / 10002 = 13.12 m2
= Span x Span / 3
= 7950 x (7950 / 3) / 10002 = 21.07 m2
2. Similarly, Effective wind load area for Panel is greater of,

= 1650 x 1000 / 10002 = 1.65 m2
= Span x Span / 3
= 1650 x (1650 / 3) / 10002 = 0.91 m2
3. And, Effective wind load area for Fasteners (Screws) is the actual tributary
area,

= 1650 x 250 / 10002 = 0.41 m2
Further load calculation is similar to as shown in Example 5.3
29
W I N D L O A D S
End zone Dimension ‘a’:

This dimension ‘a’ is used to define width of pressure coefficient zones. It is the
smaller of,
1) 10 % of least horizontal dimension (0.10 B or L) OR
2) 0.4 h (Mean roof or eave height)
But not less than either
3) 4 % of least horizontal dimension (0.04 B or L) OR 915 mm
Example :- 5.6
Given Data:-
Hence the End Zone ‘a’ is the lesser of,
= 0.10 x 28000 = 2800 mm

= 0.40 x 8450 = 3380 mm
Therefore End Zone ‘a’ = 2800 mm, but this should not be less than any of the
following,
= 0.04 x 28000 = 1120 mm
= 915 = 915 mm
Hence use ‘a’ = 2800 mm from Eave and Gable (See sketch below for location of
dimension ‘a’ on roof plan, side walls and end walls. The roof panels, purlins,
wall panels, girts and sheeting screws, trims etc. at these locations should be
designed for coefficients given for Edge and corners, other areas are designed for
interior zone coefficients)
Note: - The sketch below applies only for slopes less than 10° for other slopes
see MBMA 2002.
30
W I N D L O A D S
End zone Dimension ( a ) for C& C
4
a
4
a
5 5
a
a
1-31
3 2
3 2 2 3 2
2
1 3
3
1
a 2
2
2
2 1 1 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 2 3
1-32
31
W I N D L O A D S
Velocity Pressure
 Data Required
1) Basic Wind Speed (V) (3 Second gust) in (m/sec)

(km/hr = mph x 1.61 = 3.6 x m/sec)
MBMA 02
Section 1.4.1

2) Select Importance Factor (I w )
(Default 1.00 for Standard Buildings, unless specified)
3) Select Exposure Category (A,B,C or D)

(Default ‘B’ unless specified, see MBMA 2002)
4) Compute the Velocity Pressure (q h ) based on the mean height or eave height
if θ <= 10°
Table 5.1(b) Importance Factor [Table 1.1(a) MBMA 2002]

Occupancy
Nature of Occupancy Wind Factor (I w )
Category
Low Hazard I 0.87* 0.77$
Standard Buildings II 1.00
Substantial Hazard III 1.15
Essential Facilities IV 1.15
* - Non hurricane prone regions. $ - Hurricane prone regions.
Velocity Pressure q z = q h = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2

Eqn. 7.2.1-2
Where,
Kz = 2.01 (h/365.76) 2/7 for Exposure B and with h >= 9.14 m
Eqn. 7.2.1-3 Use h = 9.14, if eave or mean height is less than 9.14 m
Kz = 2.01 (h/274.32) 2/9.5 for Exposure C and with h >= 4.57 m

Use h = 4.57, if eave or mean height is less than 4.57 m
K zt = 1.00 Topographic factor
Kd = 0.85 Directionality factor
Iw = 1.00 Importance factor
h = Height mean roof or eave height in meters.
32
W I N D L O A D S
Table 5.2 Velocity Pressure (q h ) in kN/m2
Basic Wind Speed (3 Second Gust in km/hr )

Mean roof
or eave
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
height. (h)
(meters)
Exposure B
0-9 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.91 1.01 1.12 1.24 1.36 1.48
10 0.49 0.57 0.65 0.74 0.84 0.94 1.04 1.16 1.27 1.40 1.53
12 0.51 0.60 0.68 0.78 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.34 1.47 1.61
14 0.54 0.62 0.72 0.81 0.92 1.03 1.15 1.27 1.40 1.54 1.68
16 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.85 0.96 1.07 1.19 1.32 1.46 1.60 1.75
18 0.58 0.67 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.11 1.23 1.37 1.51 1.65 1.81
Exposure C
4.57 0.58 0.67 0.77 0.87 0.99 1.11 1.23 1.37 1.50 1.65 1.81
6 0.61 0.71 0.81 0.93 1.04 1.17 1.30 1.45 1.59 1.75 1.91
7.62 0.64 0.74 0.86 0.97 1.10 1.23 1.37 1.52 1.68 1.84 2.01
9 0.67 0.77 0.89 1.01 1.14 1.28 1.42 1.57 1.74 1.90 2.08
10 0.68 0.79 0.91 1.03 1.16 1.30 1.45 1.61 1.77 1.95 2.13
12 0.71 0.82 0.94 1.07 1.21 1.35 1.51 1.67 1.84 2.02 2.21
14 0.73 0.85 0.97 1.11 1.25 1.40 1.56 1.73 1.90 2.09 2.29
16 0.75 0.87 1.00 1.14 1.28 1.44 1.60 1.78 1.96 2.15 2.35
18 0.77 0.89 1.02 1.17 1.32 1.48 1.64 1.82 2.01 2.20 2.41
33
W I N D L O A D S
Design Pressure – Main Wind Force Resisting System

(MWFRS)
For Low Rise Buildings (h <= 18.28 m)
Eqn. 1.4.2 p = q h [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] kN/m2
For other buildings (h > 18.28 m)
p = q G C p – q i (GC pi ) kN/m2
Eqn. 6-15, ASCE 7-98
where,
q h = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height (h) for a given exposure.
GC pf = external pressure coefficients from Figure 6-4 ASCE 7-98
GC pi = internal pressure coefficients from Table. 6-7 ASCE 7-98
q = q z for windward walls evaluated at height z above the ground for a given
exposure.
q = q h for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs evaluated at height (h).
q i = q h for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of enclosed
buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings.
q i = q z for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
where height (z) is defined as the level of the highest opening in the building that
could effect the positive internal pressure. For positive internal pressure
evaluation, (q i ) may conservatively be evaluated at height (h) (q i = q h )
G = Gust effect factor (G = 0.85 for rigid structures) Sect. 6.5.8 ASCE 7-98
C p = external pressure coefficients from Fig. 6-3 or Table 6-8 ASCE 7-98.
The external co-efficient and internal coefficients are combined and tabulated in
MBMA 2002 [Table 1.4.5(a) and 1.45(b)] for use in Equation 1.4.2 above (Low Rise
Buildings, for other buildings refer ASCE 7-98). Coefficients depend on the
location relative to the geometric discontinuities in the surfaces of the building.
The building surfaces are zoned and the pressure coefficients are assumed to be
constant within each zone. When a member lies within two or more zones, the
design loads for that member can be determined using several approaches (step
functions, weighted averages, or another rational approach). For lateral loads on
framed buildings in which the end bays are not less than the width (2a) of the
end zone, common industry practice is to apply the entire extra load in the end
bay to the end bay purlins and end frames.
34
W I N D L O A D S
Table 1.4.5(a) Refer Figure 1.4.5(a) or (b) with this table

Main Framing Coefficients [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] for Transverse Direction
End
End Zone Interior Zone
Building Type Roof Angle θ Load Case walls
1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
A(+i) 0.43 -1.25 -0.71 -0.61 0.22 -0.87 -0.55 -0.47 -0.63
0° ≤ θ ≤ 5°
A(-i) 0.79 -0.89 -0.35 -0.25 0.58 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.27
A(+i) 0.44 -1.25 -0.72 -0.62 0.23 -0.87 -0.55 -0.48 -0.63
θ = 5.71°
A(-i) 0.80 -0.89 -0.36 -0.26 0.59 -0.51 -0.19 -0.12 -0.27
A(+i) 0.49 -1.25 -0.76 -0.67 0.26 -0.87 -0.58 -0.51 -0.63
2:12
A(-i) 0.85 -0.89 -0.40 -0.31 0.62 -0.51 -0.22 -0.15 -0.27
A(+i) 0.54 -1.25 -0.81 -0.74 0.30 -0.87 -0.62 -0.55 -0.63
Enclosed 3:12
A(-i) 0.90 -0.89 -0.45 -0.38 0.66 -0.51 -0.26 -0.19 -0.27
A(+i) 0.62 -1.25 -0.87 -0.82 0.35 -0.87 -0.66 -0.61 -0.63
θ = 20°
A(-i) 0.98 -0.89 -0.51 -0.46 0.71 -0.51 -0.30 -0.25 -0.27
A(+i) 0.51 0.09 -0.71 -0.66 0.38 0.03 -0.61 -0.55 -0.63
30° ≤ θ ≤ 45°
A(-i) 0.87 0.45 -0.35 -0.30 0.74 0.39 -0.25 -0.19 -0.27
A(+i) 0.51 0.51 -0.66 -0.66 0.38 0.38 -0.55 -0.55 -0.63
θ = 90°
A(-i) 0.87 0.87 -0.30 -0.30 0.74 0.74 -0.19 -0.19 -0.27
A(+i) 0.06 -1.62 -1.08 -0.98 -0.15 -1.24 -0.92 -0.84 -1.00
0° ≤ θ ≤ 5°
A(-i) 1.16 -0.52 0.02 0.12 0.95 -0.14 0.18 0.26 0.10
A(+i) 0.07 -1.62 -1.09 -0.99 -0.14 -1.24 -0.92 -0.85 -1.00
θ = 5.71°
A(-i) 1.17 -0.52 0.01 0.11 0.96 -0.14 0.18 0.25 0.10
A(+i) 0.12 -1.62 -1.13 -1.04 -0.11 -1.24 -0.95 -0.88 -1.00
2:12
A(-i) 1.22 -0.52 -0.03 0.06 0.99 -0.14 0.15 0.22 0.10
Partially A(+i) 0.17 -1.62 -1.20 -1.11 0.07 -1.24 -0.99 -0.92 -1.00
3:12
Enclosed A(-i) 1.27 -0.52 -0.10 -0.01 1.03 -0.14 0.11 0.18 0.10
A(+i) 0.25 -1.62 -1.24 -1.19 -0.02 -1.24 -1.03 -0.98 -1.00
θ = 20°
A(-i) 1.35 -0.52 -0.14 -0.09 1.08 -0.14 0.07 0.12 0.10
A(+i) 0.14 -0.28 -1.08 -1.03 0.01 -0.34 -0.98 -0.92 -1.00
30° ≤ θ ≤ 45°
A(-i) 1.24 0.82 0.02 0.07 1.11 0.76 0.12 0.18 0.10
A(+i) 0.14 0.14 -1.03 -1.03 0.01 0.01 -0.92 -0.92 -1.00
θ = 90°
A(-i) 1.24 1.24 0.07 0.07 1.11 1.11 0.18 0.18 0.10
Abal 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
0° ≤ θ ≤ 10°
Aunbal 0.75* -0.20 -0.60 -0.75* 0.75* -0.20 -0.60 -0.75* -0.75*
Abal 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
Open 10° < θ ≤ 25° Aunbal 0.75* 0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* 0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
Aunbal 0.75* 0.15 -0.65 -0.75* 0.75* 0.15 -0.65 -0.75* -0.75*
Abal 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
25° < θ ≤ 45°
Aunbal 0.75* 1.40 0.20 -0.75* 0.75* 1.40 0.20 -0.75* -0.75*
Notes:
1. Load case subscripts refer to negative internal pressure (-i) and positive internal pressure (+i).
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted. Note that this interpolation must be done on the external
pressure coefficient and then combined with the appropriate internal pressure coefficient. This has been done for standard slopes
of 2:12 and 3:12.
4. When the roof pressure coefficient in zone 2 is negative, it shall be applied in zone 2 for a distance from the edge of the roof equal
to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of the remainder of zone 2 extending to the ridge line shall use the pressure coefficient from
zone 3.
5. * - Denotes coefficient for sheeted portion of the wall only. [See figure 1.4.5 (e)]
35
W I N D L O A D S
6
4
4E 3
3E
h 2
2E
 1
1E
B 5
a 2a
Figure 1.4.5(a)
Load Case A-MWFRS Coefficients in Transverse Direction (Gable Roof)
4
6
4E 3
3E
2
 2E
1
h
B/2
1E
B
B/2 5
2a
Figure 1.4.5(b)
Load Case A-MWFRS Coefficients in Transverse Direction (Single Slope)
36
W I N D L O A D S
Table 1.4.5(b) Refer figure 1.4.5(c) or (d) with this table

Main Framing Coefficients [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] for Longitudinal Direction (All roof angles)
Building Load End Zone Interior Zone Sidewalls
Type Case 1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
Enclosed B(+i) 0.43 -1.25 -0.71 -0.61 0.22 -0.87 -0.55 -0.47 -0.63
B(-i) 0.79 -0.89 -0.35 -0.25 0.58 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.27
Partially B(+i) 0.06 -1.62 -1.08 -0.98 -0.15 -1.24 -0.92 -0.84 -1.00
Open B(-i) 1.16 -0.52 0.02 0.02 0.95 -0.14 0.18 0.26 0.10
Open See Figure 1.4.5(e) for MBMA Recommendation
4
6
3
6 4E
3
2 3E
h  2
5
2E
1
L/2
5
1E
B L/2
FIGURE 1.4.5 (c)

Load Case B-MWFRS Coefficients in Longitudinal Direction (Gable Roof)
5
6 4
6
3 4E
2 3E
5
 2E
1
h L/2
5
B/2
1E
B L/2
FIGURE 1.4.5 (d)(c)

Load Case B-MWFRS Coefficients in Longitudinal Direction (Single Roof)
37
W I N D L O A D S
Example
Example :- 5.7
Given Data:-
Bay Spacing = 9 @ 8550 mm
Length = 76950 mm
Roof Slope = 1:10 (θ = 5.71°)
Wind Speed = 150 kmph (3 Second Gust) = 41.67 m/sec
Importance Factor = 1.00
Exposure Category =B
All walls are fully sheeted.
Solution:-
1. Check if the building classifies under “Low Rise Building”,
The 2 conditions are,
a) Mean Roof Height ‘h’ less than or equal to 18.28 m
b) Mean Roof Height ‘h’ does not exceed least horizontal dimension
(Minimum of Width or Length)
h = 7500 mm
Hence the building can be classified as a “Low Rise Building”
2. Check if the building is classifies as “Enclosed”, “Partially Enclosed” or

“Open Building” based on the given information about openings. Since all
walls are fully sheeted, the building is classified as an “Enclosed Building”.
3. Since the roof slope is less than 10°, eave height may be used in lieu of mean
roof height. Therefore, h = 7500 mm for all further calculations.
4. Find the end zone dimensions for walls and roofs, the end zone dimension ‘a’
is given as the least of
10 % (0.10 B or L) of least horizontal dimension
= 0.10 x 35000 = 3500 mm
0.4 h (Mean roof or eave height)
= 0.40 x 7500 = 3000 mm
4 % (0.04 B or L) of least horizontal dimension OR 915 mm
= 0.04 x 35000 = 1400 mm
Hence the End Zone dimension ‘a’ = 3000 mm
38
W I N D L O A D S
5. Calculate the Velocity pressure
Velocity Pressure qh = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2
Kz = 2.01 (h/365.76) 2/7

Since the eave height is less than 9.14 m (30 ft) use ‘h’ = 9.14 m
= 2.01 (9.14/365.76) 2/7 = 0.70
K zt = = 1.00
Kd = = 0.85
Therefore,
qh = 0.613 x 10-3 x 0.70 x 1.00 x 0.85 x 41.672 x 1.00
= 0.63 kN/m2
Alternatively, the same value can be directly referred from table 5.2, see under
column Exposure ‘B’, value corresponding to column 150 basic wind speed and
eave height row, 0-9 meters, = 0.63 kN/m2
6. Calculate the Design Wind Pressure (p) for MWFRS
= q h [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] kN/m2
Note that [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] may either be calculated individual or may be referred
from Table 1.4.5 (a) of MBMA 2002 for low rise buildings only. Referring to Table
1.4.5 (a) for θ = 5.71° for enclosed building.
There are 2 case A(+i) and A(-i) for positive and negative internal pressures
respectively.
End
1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
A(+i) 0.44 -1.25 -0.72 -0.62 0.23 -0.87 -0.55 -0.48 -0.63
Enclosed θ = 5.71°
A(-i) 0.80 -0.89 -0.36 -0.26 0.59 -0.51 -0.19 -0.12 -0.27
The above values are represented below in sketch for better understanding.
39
W I N D L O A D S
Applicable Transverse Direction wind co-efficient [(GCpf ) - (GC pi )]
6 = -0.63
4 = -0.48
4E = -0.62 3 = -0.55
3E = -0.72
h 2 = -0.87
2E = -1.25
 1 = 0.23
1E = 0.44 WI
B 5 = -0.63 ND
DI
RE
a 2a CT
IO
N
Case - 1 Positive Internal Pressure A(+i)
6 = -0.27
4 = -0.12
4E = -0.26 3 = -0.19
3E = -0.36
h 2 = -0.51
2E = -0.89
 1 = 0.59
1E = 0.80 WI
5 = -0.27 ND
B DI
RE
a 2a CT
IO
N
Case - 2 Negative Internal Pressure A(-i)
40
W I N D L O A D S
Therefore, the applicable Design Wind Pressure on various zones are calculated
as below,
Note that the sign is only for direction indication, +ve sign denotes towards
surface and –ve sign denotes away from surface.
Case -1 A(+i)
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.44 = +0.277
2E = 0.63 x -1.25 = -0.787
3E = 0.63 x -0.72 = -0.454
4E = 0.63 x -0.62 = -0.397
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.23 = +0.145
2 = 0.63 x -0.87 = -0.550
3 = 0.63 x -0.55 = -0.347
4 = 0.63 x -0.48 = -0.303
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.63 = -0.397
Case -2 A(-i)
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.80 = +0.504
2E = 0.63 x -0.89 = -0.561
3E = 0.63 x -0.36 = -0.227
4E = 0.63 x -0.26 = -0.164
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.59 = +0.372
2 = 0.63 x -0.51 = -0.321
3 = 0.63 x -0.19 = -0.120
4 = 0.63 x -0.12 = -0.076
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.27 = -0.170
41
W I N D L O A D S
Hence the Design wind loads kN/m on the main framing members may be
calculated by multiplying the Design Wind Pressure and Tributary width of the
member as below,
End Zone Pressure will apply to end frame, the tributary width of the end frame
is half the bay spacing, = 8550 / 2 = 4275 mm
Case -1 A(+i)
End zones
1E = 0.277 x 4.275 = 1.184 kN/m
2E = 0.787 x 4.275 = 3.364 kN/m
3E = 0.454 x 4.275 = 1.941 kN/m
4E = 0.397 x 4.275 = 1.680 kN/m
Interior zones
1 = 0.145 x 4.275 = 0.619 kN/m
2 = 0.550 x 4.275 = 2.351 kN/m
3 = 0.347 x 4.275 = 1.483 kN/m
4 = 0.303 x4.275 = 1.295 kN/m
5&6 = 0.397 x 4.275 = 1.697 kN/m
Case -2 A(-i)
End zones
1E = 0.504 x 4.275 = 2.155 kN/m
2E = 0.561 x 4.275 = 2.399 kN/m
3E = 0.227 x 4.275 = 0.971 kN/m
4E = 0.164 x 4.275 = 0.701 kN/m
Interior zones
1 = 0.372 x 4.275 = 1.591 kN/m
2 = 0.321 x 4.275 = 1.372 kN/m
3 = 0.120 x 4.275 = 0.513 kN/m
4 = 0.076 x 4.275 = 0.325 kN/m
5&6 = 0.170x 4.275 = 0.727 kN/m
42
W I N D L O A D S
w = -3.364 w = -1.941
w = -2.399 w = -0.971
w =1.184 w = -1.680
w =2.155 w = -0.701
Wind Loads for Main Framing in the End Zone (kN/m)
w = -2.351 w = -1.483
w = -1.372 w = -0.513
w =0.619 w = -1.295
w =1.591 w = -0.325
Wind Loads for Main Framing in the Interior Zone (kN/m)

case-1
case-2
Similarly the [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] for Longitudinal Direction is can be referred from
Table 1.4.5 (b) of MBMA 2002 for low rise buildings only. Hence referring to
Table 1.4.5 (b) for enclosed building.

Type Case 1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
Enclosed B(+i) 0.43 -1.25 -0.71 -0.61 0.22 -0.87 -0.55 -0.47 -0.63
B(-i) 0.79 -0.89 -0.35 -0.25 0.58 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.27
43
W I N D L O A D S
Applicable Longitudinal Direction Coefficients [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )]
4 = -0.47
6 = -0.63
4E = -0.61
3 = -0.55
6 = -0.63
3 = -0.55
2 = -0.87 3E = -0.71
h  2 = -0.87
5 = -0.63
2E = -1.25
1 = 0.22
L/2
5 = -0.63
1E =0.43
B L/2
a
IO N
E CT
D D IR
WI N
Case - 1 Positive Internal Pressure B(+i)
4 = -0.11
6 = -0.27
4E = -0.25
3 = -0.19
6 = -0.27
3 = -0.19
2 = -0.51 3E = -0.35
h  2 = -0.51
5 = -0.27
2E = -0.89
1 = 0.58
L/2
5 = -0.27
1E =0.79
B L/2
a
IO N
E CT
D D IR
WI N
Case - 2 Negative Internal Pressure B(-i)
44
W I N D L O A D S
Therefore, the applicable Design Wind Pressure on various zones are,
Case -1 B(+i)
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.43 = +0.271
2E = 0.63 x -1.25 = -0.787
3E = 0.63 x -0.71 = -0.447
4E = 0.63 x -0.61 = -0.384
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.22 = +0.139
2 = 0.63 x -0.87 = -0.550
3 = 0.63 x -0.55 = -0.347
4 = 0.63 x -0.47 = -0.296
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.63 = -0.397
Case -2 B(-i)
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.79 = +0.498
2E = 0.63 x -0.89 = -0.561
3E = 0.63 x -0.35 = -0.221
4E = 0.63 x -0.25 = -0.158
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.58 = +0.365
2 = 0.63 x -0.51 = -0.321
3 = 0.63 x -0.19 = -0.120
4 = 0.63 x -0.11 = -0.069
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.27 = -0.170
45
W I N D L O A D S
member as below,
Calculate tributary areas for various zones,
1E = 4E = (7.8 + 7.5) / 2 x 3 = 22.95 m2

1=4 = (7.5 + 9.25) / 2 x 35 /2 x 2 -2 x (22.95) = 247.22 m2
Therefore total load on these areas is calculated as,
Case -1 B(+i)
End zones
1E = 0.271 x 22.95 = 6.219 kN
4E = 0.384 x 22.95 = 8.813 kN
Interior zones
1 = 0.139 x 247.22 /2 = 17.181 kN
4 = 0.296 x 247.22 / 2 = 36.589 kN
Therefore total load on the sidewall wind force resisting system (Bracings) is
given as,
= (1E + 4E + 1 + 4) / 2
= (6.219 + 8.813 + 17.181 + 36.589) / 2
= 34.401 kN
If the number of braced bay =3

Force to be resisted per bay = 11.467 kN
46
W I N D L O A D S
Case -2 B(-i)
End zones
1E = 0.498 x 22.95 = 11.429 kN
4E = 0.158 x 22.95 = 3.626 kN
Interior zones
1 = 0.365 x 247.22 / 2 = 45.117 kN
4 = 0.069 x 247.22 / 2 = 8.529 kN
given as,
= (1E + 4E + 1 + 4) / 2
= (11.429 + 3.626 + 45.117 + 8.529) / 2
= 34.35 kN

47
W I N D L O A D S
MBMA Recommendation for Single Slope Buildings – MWFRS

Figure 1.4.5 (b) and 1.4.5 (d) provide the recommendation for applying the
pressure coefficients to single slope buildings for transverse and longitudinal
directions, respectively.
In the transverse direction, for a roof slope up to 20°, the roof pressure zones are
separated by a “pseudo” ridge line. However, where 20° < θ <= 30°, the building
shall be assumed to act as each half of a gable building with all cases
investigated. (Two case using pressure zone 2 and 2E over the entire roof and
two cases using pressure zone 3 and 3E over the entire roof)
Considering the Example 5.7 as monoslope building, only the coefficients are
shown as below, other steps remain the same.
4 = -0.48
PSEUDO RIDGE LINE
6 = -0.63
4E = -0.62 3 = -0.55
3E = -0.72 2 = -0.87
 2E = -1.25
1 = 0.23
h
B/2
1E = 0.44
WI
B ND
5 = -0.63 DI
B/2
2a
RE
CT
IO
N
4 = -0.12
PSEUDO RIDGE LINE
6 = -0.27
4E = -0.26
3 = -0.19
3E = -0.36
2 = -0.51
 2E = -0.89
1 = 0.59
h
B/2
1E = 0.80
WI
B ND
5 = -0.27 DI
B/2
2a
RE
CT
IO
N
Case - 2 Positive Internal Pressure A(-i)
48
W I N D L O A D S
MBMA Recommendation for Open Buildings – MWFRS

ASCE 7-98, does not cover the main wind force resisting system for open
buildings. The pressure coefficients provided in Table 1.4.5 (a) and figure 1.4.5 (e)
are consistent with previous editions of the MBMA Low-Rise Building Systems
Manual. Since the values given in these references are based on mean pressure
coefficients (C p’ ) referenced to mean hourly wind speeds, the peak coefficients
given in Table 1.4.5(a) and figure 1.4.5(e) were obtained by amplifying the values
as GC p =1.25 x 2.0 x (1 / 1.53)2 C p’ see equation 1.4.5.2 in MBMA 2002.
Where the gust factor is assumed to be 2.0, the 3 second gust speeds are taken as
1.53 times mean hourly speeds, and the 1.25 factor accounts for uncertainty in the
database as the coefficients were generated from experiments in a uniform flow
wind tunnel (turbulence not properly modeled).
The coefficient GC p = 1.3N where, N = the number of frames, to be used in the

design of main framing in the longitudinal direction for open buildings is based
on some research work in the US, and is a bit on conservative side.
-0.50
-0.75
-0.50 -0.75
-0.75
+1.3N
+0.75 S
B
Figure 1.4.5(e)
MBMA Recommendation for Open Building in Longitudianl Direction
Notes for Open Buildings:

1. The 0.75 pressure coefficients apply to any covered areas of the building surfaces.
2. The 1.3N pressure coefficients shall be applied to the solid area of the largest frame projected onto a plane normal to the ridge; this
coefficient is based on the following limits:
a. 0.1 <= ϕ <= 0.3
b. 1/6 <= h/B <= 6
c. S/B <= 0.5
Where ϕ is the ratio of solid area of to frame to gross area of the end wall and N is the number of transverse frames. See MBMA 2002 Design
example 1.4.9(b)-3 for parameters outside this limits.
49
W I N D L O A D S
Consider the building in example 5.7 as an “Open Building”, the opening is walls
is as shown in Figure 1.4.5 (e) above, the coefficients on the sheeted area will be
as shown in Figure 1.4.5 (e).
The coefficients on the main frame are as shown in the sketch below,
Gcp = -0.50 Gcp = -0.50
GCp =+0.75 GCp =+0.75
Wind Coefficients for Main Framing for all zones in an Open Building
The total force on the wind bracing system at the side walls will depend on the
value of 1.3N.
Assuming the solid area of the end frame = 45.00 m2
(Solid area is the area of main frame steel profile including the purlin depth and
sheeting depth at sidewalls and roof)
Gross area of Endwall = 293.12 m2
Therefore,
ϕ = Solid Area / Gross Area
= 45 / 293.12 = 0.154
h / B = 7.5 / 35 = 0.214
S / B = 8.55 / 35 = 0.244
N = number of frames = 10
Check if all are within the limits below,

a) 0.1 <= ϕ <= 0.3 ϕ = 0.154 OK
b) 1/6 <= h/B <= 6 h/b = 0.214 OK
c) S/B <= 0.5 s/b = 0.244 OK
Hence force per sidewall is given as,

= 1.3 x N x Solid Area / (2 x 2)
= 1.3 x 10 x 45 / 4 = 146.25 kN
If the number of braced bays are 4,
Force per braced bay = 146.25 / 4 = 36.563 kN
50
W I N D L O A D S
Alternatively, the equation below can be used as a more precise method of

selecting wind loads in the design of the longitudinal framing for open buildings
as a guideline for assessing wind loads for open, bare frames during erection.
The load on a single frame reaches its maximum value when the wind vector is
normal to the frame. As additional frames are added, the first frame affects some
shielding for the second, the first and second tends to shield the third, and so on.
The researchers developed a methodology by which the total “peak” drag load
on the assemblage of N frames as follows:
Eqn. 7.3.3-1 F D N (α) = GC P(0) q A s [ 1 + (N-1) n N(α) ] kN
Where,
F D N (α) = normal ‘peak’ drag force on open frame assemblage for an angle of
attack of the wind, (α) is measured from the normal to the frame outline
GC P(0) = peak drag coefficient on a single frame at (α = 0°)
As = effective solid area of a single frame,
q = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height (h) for a given
exposure.
n N(α) = directional shielding coefficients, the maximum values of which are
given in figure 7.3.3(c) as a function of n 2 , the shielding coefficient for two
frames which is given in figure 7.3.3(b).
The design force F D N (α) represents the net force to be resisted by the longitudinal
framing system, including that portion transmitted directly to foundation
(ground).
51
W I N D L O A D S
Figure 7.3.3 (b)

Maximum Value of Shielding Coefficient for 2 Frames
(Approximate values from the graphs above are tabulated below)
Φ 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
GC P(0) 1.71 1.30 1.28 1.25 1.22 1.19 1.15 1.12 1.09 1.06 0.00
Φ 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 S/B
1.00 0.92 0.78 0.62 0.52 0.42 0.32 0.23 0.16 0.08 0.00 0.25
1.00 0.96 0.80 0.69 0.58 0.46 0.36 0.27 0.21 0.20 0.22 0.50
1.00 0.93 0.82 0.71 0.62 0.54 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.75
n2
1.00 0.93 0.85 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.44 0.42 1.00
1.00 0.98 0.90 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.62 1.50
1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.84 0.79 0.71 2.00
52
W I N D L O A D S
Figure 7.3.3 (c)

Maximum Value of Shielding Coefficient for N Frames
53
W I N D L O A D S
N Φ 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
S / B = 0.25
3.00 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.67 0.72 12.00
4.00 1.00 0.91 0.80 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.71 1.10 18.90
5.00 nn / n2 1.00 0.85 0.75 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.63 0.68 0.80 1.30 19.40
7.00 1.00 0.80 0.69 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.59 0.68 0.90 1.35 17.90
10.00 1.00 0.71 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.58 0.68 1.00 1.55 21.00
S / B = 0.50
3.00 1.00 0.98 0.92 0.85 0.80 0.82 1.00 1.32 1.36 1.31 1.27
4.00 1.00 0.91 0.81 0.76 0.75 0.82 1.10 1.36 1.39 1.35 1.30
5.00 nn / n2 1.00 0.88 0.78 0.75 0.76 0.82 1.15 1.45 1.47 1.42 1.38
7.00 1.00 0.85 0.77 0.73 0.75 0.82 1.20 1.55 1.59 1.50 1.40
10.00 1.00 0.82 0.73 0.70 0.70 0.82 1.25 1.60 1.70 1.60 1.48
S / B = 0.75
3.00 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.90 0.90 0.92 0.97 1.01 1.07 1.10 1.12
4.00 1.00 0.93 0.88 0.86 0.90 0.95 1.01 1.10 1.17 1.25 1.31
5.00 nn / n2 1.00 0.91 0.86 0.85 0.87 0.92 1.02 1.10 1.17 1.28 1.39
7.00 1.00 0.86 0.80 0.81 0.87 0.92 1.03 1.12 1.22 1.34 1.48
10.00 1.00 0.82 0.77 0.77 0.84 0.92 1.04 1.14 1.28 1.40 1.53
S / B = 1.00
3.00 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.93 0.97 1.03 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.10 1.22
4.00 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.92 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.20 1.38
nn / n2
5.00 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.91 0.97 1.03 1.07 1.11 1.16 1.28 1.45
7.00 1.00 0.86 0.83 0.89 0.96 1.03 1.08 1.13 1.20 1.35 1.60
Where,
Φ - Solidity ratio = As / Ae
As - Solid area of the frame profile
Ae - total projected area outlined by frame
(for a typical low-rise building this would be (width x eave height) + gable
area
H - mean height of frames
B - width of frame
S - spacing of frames
N - number of frames
n2 - two frames
nn - ‘n’ number of frames
54
W I N D L O A D S
Solving the same problem of Example 5.7, we know from previous example on
open building,
Φ = Solid Area / Gross Area
= 45 / 293.12 = 0.154
h / B = 7.5 / 35 = 0.214
S / B = 8.55 / 35 = 0.244
Referring to Figure 7.3.3 (b) or the table below the figure, for computing the
value of GCp (0) and n 2 ,
GCp (0) = 1.29 for, Φ = 0.154
n2 = 0.85 for, Φ = 0.154 & S/B = 0.25
Referring to Figure 7.3.3 (c) or the table below the figure, we can tabulate the
value of (n n / n 2 ) for corresponding value of (S/B), (ϕ) and N value ,
n n / n 2 = 0.68, but n 2 = 0.85, therefore,

nn = 0.68 x 0.85 = 0.578
Substituting the values in the equation below,
F D N (α) = GC P(0) q A s [ 1 + (N-1) n N(α) ]

= 1.29 x 0.63 x 45 x [ 1 +(10-1) x 0.578 ] = 226.81 kN
Half of this value is distributed to either sidewall and half to the base of the
column, hence = 226.81 / (2 x 2) = 56.702 kN
If there are 4 braced bays per sidewall, then

= 56.702 / 4 = 14.176 kN
55
W I N D L O A D S
Design wind loads on Open buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed

Roofs.
 ASCE 7-98 does address the wind loads on “Open Buildings”, if required to
apply the latest codes, the following equation from ASCE 7-05 may be used in
lieu of equations recommended in MBMA 2002.
ASCE 7-05
Section 6.5.13

Eqn. 6-25 ASCE 7-05
Where,
P = qh G CN kN/m2
q h = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height.

C N = net pressure coefficient determined from Figures 6-18A through 6-18D of
ASCE 7-05, For roof slope <= 7.5° use C N as below,
Case A CN = +1.20
Case B CN = -1.10
Checking the same example 5.7, by applying the above equation, we know
qh = 0.63 kN/m2
G = 0.85
Since the slope is less than 7.5°
CN = +1.20 or -1.10
P = 0.63 x 0.85 x 1.20 = 0.643 kN/m2
Therefore total load = As x P x N

= 45 x 0.643 x 10 = 289.35 kN
Half the load to each sidewall and column base,

= 289.35 / ( 2 x 2 ) = 72.337 kN
If there are 4 braced bays, then load per braced bay is given as,
= 72.337 / 4 = 18.084 kN
56
W I N D L O A D S
MBMA Recommendations for buildings with Parapets (MWFRS)

(See also ASCE 7-05 Section 6.5.12.2.4)
ASCE 7-98 has no provisions for wind loads on parapets, but ASCE 7-05 has
referred to the same equation as recommended by MBMA 2002 which is given
below. The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on MWFRSs of rigid,
low –rise, or flexible buildings with flat, gable, or hip roof shall be determined by
the following equations:
Eqn. 1.4.5.3 MBMA 02

Eqn. 6-20 ASCE 7-05 Pp = q p G C pn kN/m2
Where,
P p = combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combination of the net
pressures from the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus (and minus) signs
 signify net pressure acting toward (and away from) the front exterior side of the
parapet.
qp = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet

MBMA 02
GC pn = combined net pressure coefficient.
Section 1.4.5.3

= + 1.50 for windward parapet. (+1.80 as per MBMA 2002)
= - 1.00 for leeward parapet. (-1.10 as per MBMA 2002)
Again, taking the same example 5.7, and assuming other details as below,
Top of Parapet = 9500 mm

Re-calculate the Velocity pressure at the top of parapet
Velocity Pressure q p = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2
Kz = 2.01 (9.5/365.76) 2/7 = 0.71

K zt = = 1.00
Kd = = 0.85
Therefore,
qp = 0.613 x 10-3 x 0.71 x 1.00 x 0.85 x 41.672 x 1.00
= 0.642 kN/m2
57
W I N D L O A D S
Then the combined net pressure on the parapet is calculated as,
As per ASCE 7-05

= 0.642 x 1.50 (Windward face) = 0.963 kN/m2
= 0.642 x 1.00 (Leeward face) = 0.642 kN/m2
As per MBMA 2002

The UDL on the parapet framing is given as,
= Sum of pressure x Bay Spacing

As per ASCE 7-05
= (0.963 + 0.642) x 8.55 = 13.723 kN/m
As per MBMA 2002

= (1.156 + 0.706) x 8.55 = 15.920 kN/m
58
W I N D L O A D S
Design Wind loads on Solid Free Standing walls and Solid Signs
The design wind force for a solid free standing walls and solid signs shall be
determined by the following formula,
Pp = qz G Cf As kN
Eqn. 6-27 ASCE 7-05
Where,
q z = the velocity pressure evaluated at height ‘h’ for a given exposure. Where ‘h’

is the top of sign above ground.
A s = the gross area of the solid free standing wall or sign in m2
C f = net force coefficient from figure 6-20 ASCE 7-05, C f depend on the shape
ASCE 7-05 aspect ratio and clearance ratio above ground, may be conservatively assumed =
Section 6.5.14

1.80 for more precise value see figure 6-20 of ASCE 7-05.
Say we have a Solid Sign with following details as below,
Width (B) = 4000 mm

Height (s) = 2000 mm
Top of Sign (h) = 8000 mm
Wind Speed = 150 kmph = 41.67 m/sec
Calculate the Velocity pressure at the top of Solid Sign
Velocity Pressure qz = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2
Kz = 2.01 (h/365.76) 2/7

= 2.01 (9.14/365.76) 2/7 = 0.70
K zt = = 1.00
Kd = = 0.85
Therefore,
qz = 0.613 x 10-3 x 0.70 x 1.00 x 0.85 x 41.672 x 1.00
= 0.63 kN/m2
Pp = 0.63 x 0.85 x 1.80 x 4 x 2 = 7.71 kN
59
W I N D L O A D S
Checking the above value with more precise calculation as per Figure 6-20 of
ASCE 7-05,
B/s =4/2 = 2.00
s/h =2/8 = 0.25
Referring to Figure 6-20 on page 73 we find, Cf = 1.80
60
W I N D L O A D S
Other MBMA Recommendation for MWFRS

It is important to note that coefficients 1 and 4 (and 1E and 4E) of figure 1.4.5(c)
or 1.4.5(d) are to be used in combination in designing the longitudinal wind-
resisting system. Additionally, note that the strut purlin spanning in the
longitudinal direction should be designed for the appropriate axial load based on
Figure 1.4.5(c) or 1.4.5(d) in combination with a transverse bending load assessed
from the appropriate coefficients in tables 1.4.6(b) through 1.4.6(h). For a more
detailed method, a strut purlin may be designed for the more severe of the two
following separate wind load cases in combination with other appropriate loads:
1) A regular purlin design for bending using the coefficients from figures and
tables 1.4.6(b) through 1.4.6(h).
2) A purlin designed for combined bending and axial loads using all of the
loads required for the main wind force resisting system.
AXIAL LOAD WIND LOAD DUE TO COEFFICIENTS FROM MBMA 02 TABLE 1.4.6(b) TO (h)
DUE TO
LONGITUDINAL
LOADING
AS PER MBMA 02 STRUT PURLIN
FIGURE 1.4.5(c) OR
1.4.5(d) SUPPORTS
LOADING FOR DESIGN OF STRUT PURLIN
61
W I N D L O A D S
Components and Cladding Pressure Coefficients

Design Pressure – Components and Cladding (C & C)
p = q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] kN/m2

Eqn. 1.4.3
The external and internal coefficients have been combined and tabulated in
MBMA 2002 Table 1.4.6(a) through 1.4.6(h). Coefficients depend on the effective
wind load area of the component or cladding and its location relative to the
 geometric discontinuities in the surfaces of the building. The building surfaces

are zoned and the pressure coefficients are assumed to be constant within each
zone. When a member lies within two or more zones, the design loads for that
member can be determined using several rational approaches. Coefficients for
MBMA 02
wall may be reduced by 10% when the roof angle (θ) is less than or equal to 10°.
Section 1.4.2

The reduced values for roof angle less than 10° is tabulated in Table 1.4.6(a) of
MBMA 2002.
Components and Claddings include all members other than the main framing
members, for example, Eave struts, purlins, girts, clips, sheeting, trims &
fasteners.
where,
GC p = external pressure coefficients from Figures 6-5 to 6-7 ASCE 7-98
GC pi = internal pressure coefficients from Table 6-7 ASCE 7-98
62
W I N D L O A D S
4
a
4
a
5 5
a
a
1-31
Table 1.4.6(a)
Wall Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Outward pressure for C & C
Eff. Wind Load Partially Enclosed
Zone Enclosed Buildings
Area=A (m ) 2 Buildings
A <= 0.93 -1.58 -1.95
Corner (5) 0.93 < A < 46.5 0.353 Log A - 1.57 0.353 Log A – 1.94
A >= 46.5 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 -1.28 -1.65
Interior (4) 0.93 < A < 46.5 0.176 Log A - 1.27 0.176 Log A - 1.64
A >= 46.5 -0.98 -1.35
Inward pressure for C & C
A <= 0.93 1.18 1.55
All Zones 0.93 < A < 46.5 -0.176 Log A + 1.17 -0.176 Log A + 1.54
A >= 46.5 0.88 1.25
Values tabulated below are above values reduced by 10% for θ<=10°
A <= 0.93 -1.44 -1.81
A >= 46.5 -0.90 -1.27
A <= 0.93 -1.17 -1.54
A >= 46.5 -0.90 -1.27
A <= 0.93 1.08 1.45
A >= 46.5 0.81 1.18
63
W I N D L O A D S
Example
Using the same Example 5.7, we know the following,
Velocity Pressure qh = 0.63 kN/m2

End Zone ‘a’ = 3000 mm
First, we need to check the wall panel in all zones, how much can the selected
panel span in order to decide the spacing of girts and then design the girt.
Let us assume the following wall panel details,

Profile = M45-250
Thickness = 0.50 mm
Material = Aluzinc
The effective covering width of these panel = 1000 mm, let us try using 1800 mm
girt spacing, then the effective width clause as per MBMA 2002 page I-18 applies,
which states that the width should be greater of,
Tributary width = 1000 mm

Span / 3 = 1800 / 3 = 600 mm
Hence effective width = 1000 mm
The tributary area for coefficient calculation is given as,
= 1000 x 1800 / 10002 = 1.800 m2
Referring Table 1.4.6(a) above, considering an enclosed building, since the slope
is less than 10 use the 10% reduced values from the lower portion of the table
1.4.6 (a)
Outward Pressure (Suction)

Corners = 0.318 Log A - 1.43
= 0.318 (Log 1.8) – 1.43 = -1.349~ - 1.35
Interiors = 0.159 Log A - 1.16
= 0.159 (Log 1.8) – 1.16 = -1.119~ -1.12
Inward Pressure (Pressure)
All Zones = -0.159 Log A + 1.08
= -0.159 (Log 1.8) + 1.08 = 1.039 ~1.04
Therefore,
The loads at various zones are given by,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )]
64
W I N D L O A D S

Corners = 0.63 x 1.35 = 0.85 kN/m2
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.12 = 0.71 kN/m2

All Zones = 0.63 x 1.04 = 0.66 kN/m2
Refer the Panel Chart below to check the allowable load kN/m2 for above profile
and thickness, referring for span = 2.0 meters,
1- Span Pressure = 1.48 kN/m2

1-Span Suction = 1.76 kN/m2
Since all loads calculated are less than the allowable loads for any number of
spans, no further checks are required. It is important to note that at locations
adjacent to wall lights and other wall openings etc. the panel spans should be
checked for the number of spans the panel is spanning and accordingly check
the appropriate allowable loads.
Since the loads are very less than the allowable let us use girt spacing of 2000
mm, it will be required to re-calculate the coefficients as above for revised
tributary area of 2.0 m2.

Corners = 0.318 Log A - 1.43
= 0.318 (Log 2.0) – 1.43 = -1.334 ~ - 1.33
= 0.63 x 1.33 = 0.84 kN/m2

= 0.159 (Log 2.0) – 1.16 = -1.112~ -1.12
= 0.63 x 1.12 = 0.71 kN/m2

All Zones = -0.159 Log A + 1.08
= -0.159 (Log 2.0) + 1.08 = 1.032~ 1.03
= 0.63 x 1.03 = 0.65 kN/m2
Since the loads less than the allowable, we use girt spacing of 2000 mm.
65
W I N D L O A D S
Panel Structural Properties :

We b
P a ne l
N o m in Ix T o p in C o m pre s s io n B o t t o m in C o m pre s s io n S he a
P a ne l N o m ina l C o v e rin N o m in
al ( F ull E r
B ase T hic k ne s g Widt h a l A re a S x- S x- S x- S x-
We ight S e c t io It x Ma Ibx Ma Va
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
(cm 4 ) (cm 3 ) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (cm 4 ) (cm 3 ) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (kN )
0.50 1000.00 4.315 5.18 15.60 20000.00 11.49 3.58 8.53 0.74 10.99 4.84 4.81 0.99 4.02
A luzinc
C o ated 0.70 1000.00 6.228 7.62 22.92 20000.00 20.28 6.80 12.72 1.40 17.71 7.34 8.19 1.52 12.80
Steel
1.00 1000.00 9.095 11.27 33.87 20000.00 33.53 11.75 19.13 2.43 28.54 11.16 13.93 2.30 33.33
A ll of t h e a bov e v a lu es a r e for on e m et er of pa n el w idt h .
Allowable Uniform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Panel
Nom inal No. of Load S p a n I n M e t e r s
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56 0.48
1 WP 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.94 0.71 0.54 0.43 0.34
WS 7.94 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.76 1.24 0.90 0.68 0.52 0.41 0.33
D+L 6.43 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.99 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65
0.50 2 WP 6.43 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.99 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65
WS 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56 0.48
D+L 7.31 5.85 4.11 3.02 2.31 1.83 1.48 1.22 1.03 0.88 0.76
3 WP 7.31 5.85 4.11 3.02 2.31 1.83 1.48 1.22 1.03 0.81 0.65
Aluzinc Coated Steel
WS 7.31 4.74 3.29 2.42 1.85 1.46 1.18 0.98 0.82 0.70 0.60
D+L 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.06 0.92
1 WP 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.66 1.25 0.96 0.76 0.61
WS 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 2.83 1.99 1.45 1.09 0.84 0.66 0.53
D+L 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.35 1.15 0.99
0.70 2 WP 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.35 1.15 0.99
WS 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.06 0.92
D+L 15.15 9.70 6.73 4.95 3.79 2.99 2.42 2.00 1.68 1.43 1.24
3 WP 15.15 9.70 6.73 4.95 3.79 2.99 2.42 2.00 1.68 1.43 1.14
WS 14.04 8.99 6.24 4.58 3.51 2.77 2.25 1.86 1.56 1.25 1.00
D+L 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.83 3.10 2.57 2.16 1.84 1.58
1 WP 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.77 2.75 2.06 1.59 1.25 1.00
WS 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.57 3.21 2.34 1.76 1.35 1.06 0.85
D+L 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.74 1.50
1.00 2 WP 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.74 1.50
WS 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.83 3.10 2.57 2.16 1.84 1.58
D+L 23.03 14.74 10.24 7.52 5.76 4.55 3.68 3.05 2.56 2.18 1.88
3 WP 23.03 14.74 10.24 7.52 5.76 4.55 3.68 3.05 2.56 2.18 1.88
WS 24.25 15.52 10.78 7.92 6.06 4.79 3.88 3.21 2.55 2.01 1.61
T h e A llow a ble loa ds for w in d a r e w it h ou t t h e 3 3 % in cr ea se
D+L = Dea d + Liv e Loa d WP = W in d Pr essu r e Loa d WS = W in d Su ct ion Loa d

A llow a ble Deflect ion = Spa n / 6 0
66
W I N D L O A D S
Check wall panel fasteners, for 45-250 panel profile, the fasteners are usually
spaced 250 mm c/c, hence the tributary area for fasteners is,
= Spacing of girts x spacing of fasteners

= 2.00 x 0.25 = 0.50 m2
is less than 10° use the 10% reduced values from the lower portion of the table
1.4.6 (a)

Corners = -1.44
Interiors = -1.17
All Zones = +1.08
Therefore,
The total load in kN in various zones are given by,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] x Tributary area

Corners = 0.63 x 1.44 x 0.50 = 0.45 kN
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.17 x 0.50 = 0.37 kN
All Zones = 0.63 x 1.08 x 0.50 = 0.34 kN
Purlin / Girt Thk. (t 2 ) mm 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5

Pull-Out (kN) P not / Ω 0.83 1.04 1.25 1.39 1.74
Panel Thk. (t 1 ) mm 0.5 0.7 1.0 - -
Tension (kN) P nt / Ω 1.94 4.52 1.88 3.70 -
P nv /
Shear (kN) 1.64 3.05 1.64 2.52 -
Ω
The values for Pull-Out and Pull-Over needs to be checked, Pull over value is
generally more than required because of the 19mm washer bearing on panel.
67
W I N D L O A D S
Now to we need to calculate the load in kN/m on girts. Similar to panels we

need to calculate the tributary area for determining the applicable coefficients.
Span of girts = Bay spacing of building

= 8550 mm
Tributary width = Span of panels = spacing of girts

= 2000 mm
Applying the effective width clause of MBMA 02, effective width is greater of,
Span / 3 = 8550 / 3 = 2850 mm
Therefore, tributary area
= 8550 x 2850 / 10002 = 24.37 m2
1.4.6 (a)

Corners = 0.318 Log A - 1.43
= 0.318 (Log 24.37) – 1.43 = -0.988 ~ - 0.99
= 0.159 (Log 24.37) – 1.16 = -0.939 ~ -0.94
All Zones = -0.159 Log A + 1.08
= -0.159 (Log 24.37) + 1.08 = 0.859 ~ 0.86
Therefore,
The loads in kN/m at various zones are given by,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] x spacing of girts

Corners = 0.63 x 0.99 x 2 = 1.25 kN/m
Interiors = 0.63 x 0.94 x 2 = 1.18 kN/m

All Zones = 0.63 x 0.86 x 2 = 1.08 kN/m
Hence the girts should be designed for all the above loads.
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W I N D L O A D S
3 2
3 2 2 3 2
2
1 3
3
1
a 2
2
2
2 1 1 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 2 3
Table 1.4.6(b) (0° <= θ < 10° )

Roof and Overhang Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Uplift for C & C
Area A (m2) Buildings
A <= 0.93 -2.98 -3.35
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 1.70 Log A – 2.93 1.70 Log A – 3.30
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 -1.98 -2.35
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.70 Log A – 1.96 0.70 Log A – 2.33
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 -1.18 -1.55
A >= 9.30 -1.08 -1.45
Downward pressure for C & C
A <= 0.93 0.48 0.85
A >= 9.30 0.38 0.75
Overhang Coefficients, Uplift for C & C
A <= 0.93 -2.80
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 2.00 Log A – 2.74
A >= 9.30 -0.8
A <= 0.93 -1.70
Edge (2)
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.10 Log A – 1.70
and
Interior (1) 9.30 < A < 46.5 0.715 Log A – 2.29
A >= 46.5 -1.10
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W I N D L O A D S
Example

First, we need to check the Roof panel in all zones, how much can the selected
panel span in order to decide the spacing of purlins and then design the purlins.
Let us assume the following Roof panel details,

Profile = M45-250
Thickness = 0.50 mm
Material = Aluzinc
purlin spacing, then the effective width clause as per MBMA 2002 page I-18
applies, which states that the width should be greater of,

Span / 3 = 2000 / 3 = 666.67 mm
= 1000 x 2000 / 10002 = 2.00 m2
Referring Table 1.4.6(b) above, considering an enclosed building. [If the roof
slope is more than 10° use Table 1.4.6(c), if the roof slope is more than 30° use
Table 1.4.6(d)]
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = 1.70 Log A – 2.93
= 1.70 (Log 2.0) – 2.93 = -2.418~ - 2.42
Edge = 0.70 Log A – 1.96
= 0.70 (Log 2.0) – 1.96 = -1.749~ - 1.75
= 0.10 (Log 2.0) – 1.18 = -1.149~ -1.15
Downward Pressure (Pressure)
All Zones = -0.10 Log A + 0.48
= -0.10 (Log 2.0) + 0.48 = 0.449 ~ 0.45
Therefore,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )]
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W I N D L O A D S
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = 0.63 x 2.42 = 1.53 kN/m2
Edge = 0.63 x 1.75 = 1.10 kN/m2
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.15 = 0.73 kN/m2
All Zones = 0.63 x 0.45 = 0.28 kN/m2
Refer the Panel Chart to check the allowable load kN/m2 for above profile and
thickness, referring for span = 2.0 meters,

So we see that the allowable load for 2-Span (Suction) is less than the
calculated load at the corners, apart from this all loads calculated are less than
the allowable loads for any number of spans, no further checks are required. It
is important to note that at locations adjacent to skylights and other roof
openings etc. the panel spans should be checked for the number of spans the
panel is spanning and accordingly check the appropriate allowable loads.
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W I N D L O A D S
Check roof panel fasteners, for 45-250 panel profile, the fasteners are usually
= Spacing of purlins x spacing of fasteners

= 2.00 x 0.25 = 0.50 m2
Referring Table 1.4.6(b) above, considering an enclosed building,
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = -2.98
Edge = -1.98
Interiors = -1.18
All Zones = +0.48
Therefore,
The total load in kN at various zones are given by,

Corners = 0.63 x 2.98 x 0.50 = 0.94 kN
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.98 x 0.50 = 0.62 kN
All Zones = 0.63 x 1.18 x 0.50 = 0.37 kN

Pull-Out (kN) P not / Ω 0.83 1.04 1.25 1.39 1.74
Panel Thk. (t 1 ) mm 0.5 0.7 1.0 - -
Tension (kN) P nt / Ω 1.94 4.52 1.88 3.70 -
P nv /
Shear (kN) 1.64 3.05 1.64 2.52 -
Ω
The values for Pull-Out and Pull-Over needs to be checked, the calculated load at
the corners is more than the allowable for 1.2 mm thk. But generally the end bay
purlins are thicker sections, otherwise spacing of screws should be reduced. Pull
over value is generally more than required because of the 19mm washer bearing
on panel.
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W I N D L O A D S
Now to we need to calculate the load in kN/m on purlins. Similar to panels we

Span of purlins = Bay spacing of building

= 8550 mm
Tributary width = Span of panels = spacing of purlins

= 2000 mm
Span / 3 = 8550 / 3 = 2850 mm
= 8550 x 2850 / 10002 = 24.37 m2
Table 1.4.6(d)]
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = -1.28
Edge = -1.28
Interiors = -1.08
All Zones = 0.38
Therefore,
= {DL - q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )]] x spacing of purlins
If the panel and purlin self weight from Table 3.1 chapter 3 = (0.04+0.056)
= 0.096 kN/m2
Uplift (Suction)
Corners & Edge = (0.096 - 0.63 x 1.28) x 2 = -1.42 kN/m
Interiors = (0.096 - 0.63 x 1.08) x 2 = -1.17 kN/m

All Zones = (0.096 + 0.63 x 0.38) x 2 = 0.67 kN/m
Hence the purlins should be designed for all the above loads. The pressure
load of 0.67 kN/m may be ignored, since the combined dead and live load will
usually exceed the above value.
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W I N D L O A D S
3 2 3 3 2 3 3
3 2
2
2
1 2
2 3
3
3 1
a
2
a
2 1 2 2 1 2 a 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 3 2 3
a a a
Table 1.4.6(c) (10° <= θ < 30° )

Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load
Zone Enclosed Buildings Partially Enclosed Buildings
Area A (m2)
Corner (3) A <= 0.93 -2.28 -2.65
and 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.70 Log A - 2.26 0.70 Log A - 2.63
Edge (2) A >= 9.30 -1.58 -1.95
A <= 0.93 -1.08 -1.45
A >= 9.30 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 0.68 1.05
A >= 9.30 0.48 0.85
A <= 0.93 -3.70
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 1.20 Log A - 3.66
A >= 9.30 -2.50
Edge (2)
and All Tributary Areas -2.20
Interior (1)
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W I N D L O A D S
3 2 3 3 2 3 3
3 2
2
2
1 2
3
3
3 1 a
a 2 2
a
2 1 2 2 1 2 a 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 3 3 2 3
a a a
Table 1.4.6(d) (30° <= θ < 45° )

Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load
Area A (m2)
A <= 0.93 -1.38 -1.75
Corner (3) and
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.20 Log A – 1.37 0.20 Log A - 1.74
Edge (2)
A >= 9.30 -1.18 -1.55
A <= 0.93 -1.18 -1.55
Interior (1) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.20 Log A – 1.17 0.20 Log A - 1.54
A >= 9.30 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 1.08 1.45
A >= 9.30 0.98 1.35
Corner (3) A <= 0.93 -2.00
and 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.20 Log A - 1.99
Edge (2) A >= 9.30 -1.80
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W I N D L O A D S
See Table 1.4.6(d) for zones

on each gable roof
Table 1.4.6(e) (10° <= θ < 30° ) Multi Span Gable

Roof Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load
Area A (m2)
A <= 0.93 -2.88 -3.25
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -2.38 -2.75
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.50 Log A - 2.36 0.50 Log A – 2.73
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -1.78 -2.15
A >= 9.30 -1.58 -1.95
A <= 0.93 0.78 1.15
A >= 9.30 0.58 0.95
(30° <= θ < 45° )
Uplift for C & C
A <= 0.93 -2.78 -3.15
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.9 Log A - 2.75 0.90 Log A - 3.12
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -2.68 -3.05
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.80 Log A - 2.65 0.80 Log A - 3.03
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -2.18 -2.25
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 1.18 1.55
A >= 9.30 0.98 1.35
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W I N D L O A D S
2 3 2a
4a 3
h
2 1 2
4a
3
2 3 2a
2a 2a
A
Table 1.4.6(f) (3° <= θ < 10° ) for less than 3° refer 1.4.6(b)
Single Slope Roof Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load Area A Partially Enclosed
(m2) Buildings
A <= 0.93 -2.78 -3.15
High Side Corner
0.93 < A < 9.30 1.00 Log A - 2.75 1.00 Log A - 3.12
(3')
A >= 9.30 -1.78 -2.15
A <= 0.93 -1.98 -2.35
Low Side Corner
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.60 Log A - 1.96 0.60 Log A - 2.33
(3)
A >= 9.30 -1.38 -1.75
A <= 0.93 -1.78 -2.15
High Side Edge
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.10 Log A - 1.78 0.10 Log A - 2.15
(2')
A >= 9.30 -1.68 -2.05
A <= 0.93 -1.48 -1.85
Low Side Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.10 Log A - 1.48 0.10 Log A - 1.85
A >= 9.30 -1.38 -1.75
Interior (1) All -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 0.48 0.85
A >= 9.30 0.38 0.75
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W I N D L O A D S
2 a
4a 3
2 1 2 h
A
4a
3
2 a
2a
A
Table 1.4.6(g) (10° <= θ < 30° )

Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load Area Partially Enclosed
A (m )
2 Buildings
A <= 0.93 -3.08 -3.45
High Side
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.90 Log A - 3.05 0.90 Log A - 3.42
Corner (3)
A >= 9.30 -2.18 -2.55
A <= 0.93 -1.78 -2.15
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.40 Log A - 1.77 0.40 Log A - 2.14
A >= 9.30 -1.38 -1.75
A <= 0.93 -1.48 -1.85
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 0.58 0.95
A >= 9.30 0.48 0.85
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W I N D L O A D S
2 3 a
2a 3
h
a a
2 1 2
A
2a 3
2 3 a
2a
A
Table 1.4.6(h)
Saw Tooth Roof Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Uplift for C & C
(m )
2 Buildings
A <= 0.93 -4.28 -4.65
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.40 Log A - 4.26 0.40 Log A - 4.63
Span A Corner (3)
9.30 < A < 46.5 2.289 Log A - 6.10 2.289 Log A - 6.47
A >= 46.5 -2.28 -2.65
A <= 0.93 -2.78 -3.15
Spans
9.30 < A < 46.5 1.001 Log A - 3.75 1.001 Log A - 4.12
B,C & D Corner(3)
A >= 46.5 -2.08 -2.45
A <= 0.93 -3.38 -3.75
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 46.5 0.942 Log A - 3.35 0.942 Log A - 3.72
A >= 46.5 -1.78 -2.15
A <= 0.93 -2.38 -2.75
A >= 46.5 -1.28 -1.65
Downward C & C
A <= 0.93 0.98 1.35
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 -0.10 Log A - 0.98 -0.10 Log A - 1.35
A >= 9.30 0.88 1.25
A <= 0.93 1.28 1.65
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 -0.30 Log A - 1.27 -0.30 Log A - 1.64
A >= 9.30 0.98 1.35
A <= 0.93 0.88 1.25
Interior (1) 0.93 < A < 46.5 -0.177 Log A - 0.88 -0.177 Log A - 1.25
A >= 46.5 0.58 0.95
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W I N D L O A D S
Frequently Used Coefficients for Gabled Metal Buildings θ <= 10°

Partially
Location Members Zone Load Type Enclosed
Enclosed
Pressure 0.38 0.75
Interior
Roof Suction -1.08 -1.45
Purlins Pressure 0.38 0.75
Edge
A >= 9.3 Suction -1.28 -1.65
m2 Pressure 0.38 0.75
Corner
Members Pressure 0.48 0.85
Roof Interior
Suction -1.18 -1.55
Panels &
Pressure 0.48 0.85
Fasteners Edge
A >= 0.93 Suction -1.98 -2.35
Corner
Suction -2.98 -3.35
Pressure 0.93 1.30
Interior
Wall Girts Suction -1.10 -1.40
A = 9.3 m2 Pressure 0.93 1.30
Corner
Wall Suction -1.12 -1.40
Members Wall Pressure 1.08 1.45
Interior
Panels & Suction -1.17 -1.54
Fasteners Pressure 1.08 1.45
A <= 0.93 Corner
m2 Suction -1.44 -1.81
Purlins & Interior -1.60 -1.60
Beams Edge -1.60 -1.60
A = 9.3 m2 Corner -0.80 -0.80
Roof
Panels & Interior Uplift -1.70 -1.70
Overhang
Fasteners Edge -1.70 -1.70
A <= 0.93
Corner -2.80 -2.80
m2
Pressure 0.88 1.25
Columns Interior
Suction -0.96 -1.34
A = 18.75
Corner
Suction -1.03 -1.40
End Pressure 0.38 0.75
Interior
Frames Suction -1.08 -1.45
Rafters
Pressure 0.38 0.75
A >= 9.3 Edge
m2 Suction -1.28 -1.65
Pressure 0.38 0.75
Corner
Suction -1.28 -1.65
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W I N D L O A D S
MBMA Recommendation for Open Buildings – (C & C)

According to ASCE 7-98 section 6.5.13 the components and cladding for open
buildings shall be determined by the following formula:
Eqn. 6-20 ASCE 7-98 F = qz G Cf Af kN
where,
q z = velocity pressure evaluated at height z of the centroid of the area Af for the
appropriate exposure.
 G = gust effect factor which shall be taken as 0.85 for rigid structures.
C f = net force coefficient from tables 6-9 to 6-12.
A f = projected area normal to the wind, except where C f is specified for the actual
surface area. (m2)
MBMA 02
Section 1.4.6.1

The information provided in ASCE 7-98 for determining C f for roofs only
specifically applies to single sloped roofs. Therefore MBMA recommendations
for determining the pressure coefficients for components and cladding of open
buildings are as follows;
Walls: Use the pressure from Table 1.4.5(a)

Roofs: Use the greater of,
1) Pressure coefficient from Table 1.4.5(a) multiplied 1.25 times, or
2) The appropriate overhang coefficient from Tables 1.4.6(b) through 1.4.6(d).
Example
Using the Example 5.7 values,
The wall coefficients are referred from Table 1.4.5(a), for slope 0° <=θ<=10°
= 0.75 for all walls
Therefore, the coefficients for wall panel is given as,
Loads
All Zones = 0.63 x -0.75 = -0.47 kN/m2
Similarly, for Fasteners,

Tributary area = 0.50 m2
Loads
All Zones = 0.63 x -0.75 x 0.50 = -0.24 kN
Similarly, for girts,

Loads
All Zones = 0.63 x -0.75 x 2.00 = -0.94 kN/m
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W I N D L O A D S
The roof coefficients are greater of,

Referring Table 1.4.5(b) building type “Open” and multiplied by 1.25,
= 0.50 x 1.25 = 0.625
OR
The appropriate overhang coefficients from Tables 1.4.6(b) through 1.4.6(d).
Referring Table 1.4.6(b) for roof panels
Coefficients
= 2.00 Log (2.0) – 2.74 = -2.14
Edge & Interior = 0.10 Log A – 1.70
= 0.10 Log (2.0) – 1.70 = -1.67
Loads
Corners = 0.63 x -2.14 = -1.35 kN/m2
Edge & Interior = 0.63 x -1.67 = -1.05 kN/m2
Similarly, for fasteners of open buildings, Tributary area as calculated above,

Coefficients
Corners = -2.80
Edge & Interior = -1.70
Load
Corners = 0.63 x -2.80 x 0.50 = -0.88 kN
Edge & Interior = 0.63 x -1.70 x 0.50 = -0.54 kN
Similarly, for purlins of open buildings, tributary area as calculated above,

Coefficients
Corners = -0.80
= 0.715 Log (24.37) – 2.29 = -1.30
Load
Corners = 0.63 x -0.80 x 2.00 = -1.01
Edge & Interior = 0.63 x -1.30 x 2.00 = -1.64
As we can see most of the time, the roof overhang coefficient will apply for
components and cladding of an open building.
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W I N D L O A D S
MBMA Recommendation for Parapets – (C & C)

ASCE 7-98 has no provision for wind loads on parapets. MBMA recommends
that the components and cladding elements of parapets shall be designed by the
following equation:
Eqn. 1.4.6.2 MBMA 02 p = q p (GC p - GC pi ) kN/m2
where,
 GC p =
GC pi =
external pressure coefficients from Figures 6-5 to 6-7 ASCE 7-98
internal pressure coefficients from Table 6-7 ASCE 7-98
MBMA 02
MBMA 2002 (Table 1.4.6(a) through 1.4.6(h).
Section 1.4.6.2

Internal pressure only needs to be considered if the construction detail permits
the building’s internal pressure to propagate into the parapet cavity. If the
internal pressure is present, both load cases should be evaluated under positive
and negative internal pressure.
Example

The calculated the Velocity pressure at the top of parapet
Velocity Pressure q p = 0.642 kN/m2
Referring to Table 1.4.6(a), since the roof slope is less than 10°, 10% reduced
coefficients will apply, generally the girts in the parapet framing are simply
supported hence the spacing is considerably reduced. Let us assume a girt
spacing of 900 mm, and then the tributary area of panels is given as,

Coefficients
Corners = -1.44
Interior = -1.17
Loads
Corners = 0.642 x -1.44 = -0.93 kN/m2
Interior = 0.642 x -1.17 = -0.75 kN/m2
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W I N D L O A D S
Similarly, for fasteners of parapet wall panels, tributary area as calculated

above,
Coefficients
Corners = -1.44
Interior = -1.17
Load
Corners = 0.642 x -1.44 x 0.50 = -0.46 kN
Interior = 0.642 x -1.17 x 0.50 = -0.38 kN
Similarly, for girts supporting parapet wall panels, tributary area is,
Tributary area = 0.9 x 8.55 = 7.70 m2
OR
= 8.55 x 8.55 / 3 = 24.37 m2
Hence Tributary area = 24.37 m 2
Coefficients
Corners = 0.318 Log A – 1.43
= 0.318 Log (24.37) – 1.43 = -0.99
Edge & Interior = 0.159 Log A - 1.16
= 0.159 Log (24.37) – 1.16 = -0.94
Load
Corners = 0.642 x -0.99 x 0.90 = -0.57 kN/m
Edge & Interior = 0.642 x -0.94 x 0.90 = -0.54 kN/m
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W I N D L O A D S
Internal Pressure Reduction Factor (R i ) for large volume buildings.

A reduction factor for internal pressure in large volume buildings is specified in
ASCE 7-98 section 6.5.11.1.1.
Lateral Drift of Frames

Many metal building systems are designed with moment resisting frames
aligned in the transverse direction to resist lateral loading. Experience has shown
that the lateral drift of the frames under wind loading is far “LESS” than
predicted by the usual static analytical procedures. The calculation of the lateral
drift of a building frame (side sway) is normally based on a bare frame with no
walls and roof. The wind load is applied as a static force and the calculated drift
is often unexpectedly large. It is recognized by most international codes that the
actual drift is considerably less. For more information see MBMA 2002 section
1.4.8.
Finally it should be noted that deflection is a serviceability criterion rather than a

strength consideration and as such poses less hazard and risk to life and
property. A number of international codes have recognized this fact and specify
different return periods, or probability factors, to be used for serviceability
requirements. In fact IBC 2000 recognizes this as specified by the 0.70 reduction
factor of Note (f) in Table 1604.3. Thus MBMA 02 suggests an approx. conversion
from 50 year design wind to the 10 year return period is 0.70.
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W I N D L O A D S
MBMA 2006
 D efinitions
ASCE 7-05 Basic Wind Speed (V):

Section 6.2

The 3 second gust speed at 10 m above ground in Exposure C.
instrument at a certain height above a terrain roughness over a specified period
of time. For standardization purposes in codes and standards that height is
usually taken as 10 meters, terrain roughness as exposure C and specified period
of time as 50 years.
V fm = ( V 3s – 16.9 ) / 1.05
Eqn. 16-34 (IBC 06)
OR
V 3s = 1.05 V fm + 16.9
Where,
V fm - is the fastest mile wind speed in km/hr.
V 3s - is the 3 second gust wind speed in km/hr.
V 3s 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
V fm 79 89 98 108 117 127 136 146 155 165 174 184 193 203 212 222
In hurricane prone regions, wind speeds derived from simulation techniques

shall only be used in lieu of the basic wind speeds.
In non-hurricane prone regions, when the basic wind speed is estimated from
regional climatic data, the basic wind speed shall be not less than the wind speed
associated with an annual probability of 0.02 (50 year mean recurrence interval)
and the estimate shall be adjusted for equivalence to a 3 second gust wind speed
at 10 m above ground in exposure category C.
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W I N D L O A D S
What is “Fastest Mile” wind speed?

Fastest mile is the average speed during the time required for the passage over
an anemometer of a volume of air with a horizontal length of one mile.
For example, Say we have an anemometer (a wind measuring device) fixed at a

height of 10 meters above ground in Exposure ‘C’ as shown in the sketch below,
a volume of wind or air of a length = 1 mile, is passing across the anemometer
left to right from point S to point E. During The speed of wind during this travel
is measured and plotted as a graph.
ANEMOMETER
E S E S
WIND VOLUME WIND VOLUME
LENGTH =1 MILE LENGTH =1 MILE
10 M
EXPOSURE 'C'
Time 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Average
Speed 75 78 80 83 84 83 86 90 86 90 83.5
T im e v /s W in d S p e e d
95
90
Speed in miles / hour
85
80
75
70
65
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
T im e in S e c o n d s
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So the time required for this volume of wind 1 mile long to move across the
anemometer is calculated as,
We know, Speed = Distance / Time

Therefore, Time = Distance / Speed
= 1 mile / 83.5 mph
= 0.01197 hour = 0.01197 x 60 x 60 = 43.11 sec.
So the time required to measure the “Fastest Mile” wind speed is 43.11 sec and it
may vary with the wind speed.
Hence we say that the “Fastest Mile” Wind Speed = 83.5 mph = 52.19 kmph
What is “3 Second Gust” wind speed?

instrument at a certain height, above the terrain roughness over a specified
period of time.
The height is usually 10 meters, the terrain is Exposure ‘C’ and specified period
of time is 50 years
The transition was made from fastest mile wind speed to 3-Second gust for the
following reasons.
1. Fastest mile oriented anemometers have been replaced with modern
equipment with graphic strip chart readouts.
2. The peak gust is the easiest and most reliable wind speed to read from the
newer graphs.
3. 3-Second gust speeds are closer to the speeds quoted in news media.
4. Structural members are designed by gust speeds. If another type wind speed
is used, large corrections must be made by use of the gust effect factor.
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W I N D L O A D S
Low Rise Building: (Same as in MBMA 2002)

An Enclosed or a Partially Enclosed building satisfying both the following two
conditions below are classified as Low Rise Building.
1. Mean Roof Height ‘h’ less than or equal to 18.28 m
2. Mean Roof Height ‘h’ does not exceed least horizontal dimension.
( ‘h’ < Minimum of Length ‘L’ or Width ‘W’)
Open Building: (Same as in MBMA 2002)

A building having each wall at least 80% open. This condition is expressed for
each wall by the equation
Ao >= 0.8 Ag
Partially Enclosed Building: (Same as in MBMA 2002)

A building which complies with all of the following conditions below are
classified as Partially Enclosed Building,
1) A o > 1.10 A oi
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
Where,
A oi = the sum of areas (m2) of openings in the building envelope, but not
including A o .
Checking the Example 5.1 for Open or Partially Enclosed Conditions as per
MBMA 2006
The open wall condition is same as in MBMA 1996,

The partially open condition is checked again for the sake of comparison,
The gross area Ag of the near sidewall = 79.28 m2
Considering near sidewall, the total area (m2) of opening in a wall that receives
= 33.60 + (2 x 144.00) = 321.60 m2
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W I N D L O A D S
The sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope A gi (walls and roofs)
not including A g (m2).
= 79.28 + (2 x 365.06) + 2 x [45 x 10.5/(2 x Cos θ )]
= 1282.49 m2
Checks,
1. A o > 1.10 A oi
33.60 > 1.10 x 321.60 = 353.76 False
2. A o > 0.37 m2 OR 0.01 A g
33.60 > 0.37 m2 OR 0.01 x 79.28 = 0.7928 True
3. A oi / A gi <= 0.20
321.60 / 1282.49 = 0.25 < 0.20 False
Comparing the equation in MBMA 1996 and MBMA 2002 & 2006 as below
MBMA 1996
1) A o > 0.05 A g
2) A o > A oi
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
MBMA 2002 & 2006

1) A o > 1.10 A oi
3) A oi / A gi <= 0.20
1) We find that equation 2 of MBMA 96 is similar to equation 1 of MBMA 02 &

06, except that there is 10% increase in sum of openings in the building
envelope.
2) Equation 1 of MBMA 96 is similar to equation 2 of MBMA 02 & 06, except

that there is an additional limit of 0.37 m2 and 4% reduction in the gross area.
3) Equation 3 is the same in both MBMA 96 and MBMA 02 & 06
89
W I N D L O A D S
Enclosed Building:
A building that does not comply with the requirements for Open or Partially
enclosed buildings are classified as Enclosed Building.
Eave Height (h):

The distance from the ground surface adjacent to the building to the roof eave
line at a particular wall. If the height of the eave varies along the wall, the
average height shall be used.
Mean Roof Height (h):

The average of the eave height and the highest point on the roof surface, except
that for roof angles of less than or equal to 10°, the mean roof height shall be the
roof eave height. For Single slope buildings the lower eave height may be used
for roof slopes less than or equal to 10°., and mean roof height for roof slopes
more than 10°.
Escarpment:
Also known as Scarp, with respect to topographic effects is a cliff or steep slope
generally separating two levels or gently sloping areas.
Minimum Wind Load: (Same as in MBMA 2002)

(MWFRS - Main Wind Force Resisting System) - The design wind pressure (p)
on any main wind resisting structure on an enclosed or partially enclosed
building should not be less than 0.48 kN/m2 multiplied by the area of the
building or structure projected on to a vertical plane normal to the assumed
wind direction.
Note: - This minimum load is the sum of wind load on the windward and
leeward wall of a main frame or a building (See following sketch)
90
W I N D L O A D S
91
W I N D L O A D S
C & C – (Components and Claddings) – The design wind pressure for

components and cladding of buildings shall not be less than a net pressure of
0.48 kN/m2 acting in either direction normal to the surface.
Exposure Category:
The characteristics of ground surface irregularities (natural topography and
vegetation as well as constructed features) for the site at which the building is to
be constructed. These are divided into 4 categories as below,
Exposure
Description
Category
Exposure A Not Applicable ( Removed in MBMA 2006)
Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
Exposure B with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of
single-family dwellings or larger.
Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
Exposure C
generally less than 9144 mm.
Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside hurricane-
Exposure D
prone regions.
Refer following pages for aerial view of various exposure examples
MBMA 2002 states "Note that IBC 2000 specifies that Exposure B shall be
assumed unless the site meets the definition of another exposure."
The above note is removed from MBMA 2006
Unless specified in PIF, Exposure “B” should be considered, but if we know

for sure by location of building, appropriate Exposure Category should be
considered and the same should be conveyed to all concerned for the project.
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93
W I N D L O A D S
94
W I N D L O A D S
95
W I N D L O A D S
Effective Wind Load Area: (Same as in MBMA 2002)

It is the area used to determine GC p . For component and cladding elements, the
effective width that need not be less than 1/3 the span length. For cladding
fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be greater than the area that is
tributary to an individual fastener.
If, L = Span
W = Spacing of element (A+B)/2.
Effective wind load area = [greater of (W or L / 3)] x L
Note: - This area should be used ONLY for determination of GC p and ‘NOT’
for calculating design loads.
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W I N D L O A D S
Example
Example :- 5.5
Given Data:-
1. Effective wind load area for Purlins is greater of,

= 7950 x 1650 / 10002 = 13.12 m2
= Span x Span / 3
= 7950 x (7950 / 3) / 10002 = 21.07 m2
2. Similarly, Effective wind load area for Panel is greater of,

= 1650 x 1000 / 10002 = 1.65 m2
= Span x Span / 3
= 1650 x (1650 / 3) / 10002 = 0.91 m2
3. And, Effective wind load area for Fasteners (Screws) is the actual tributary
area,

= 1650 x 250 / 10002 = 0.41 m2
Further load calculation is similar to as shown in Example 5.3
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W I N D L O A D S
End zone Dimension ‘a’: (Same as in MBMA 2002)

This dimension ‘a’ is used to define width of pressure coefficient zones. It is the
smaller of,
1) 10 % of least horizontal dimension (0.10 B or L) OR
2) 0.4 h (Mean roof or eave height)
3) 4 % of least horizontal dimension (0.04 B or L) OR 915 mm
Example :- 5.6
Given Data:-
Hence the End Zone ‘a’ is the lesser of,
= 0.10 x 28000 = 2800 mm

= 0.40 x 8450 = 3380 mm
Therefore End Zone ‘a’ = 2800 mm, but this should not be less than any of the
following,
= 0.04 x 28000 = 1120 mm
= 915 = 915 mm
Hence use ‘a’ = 2800 mm from Eave and Gable (See sketch below for location of
dimension ‘a’ on roof plan, side walls and end walls. The roof panels, purlins,
wall panels, girts and sheeting screws, trims etc. at these locations should be
designed for coefficients given for Edge and corners, other areas are designed for
interior zone coefficients)
Note: - The sketch below applies only for slopes less than 10° for other slopes
see MBMA 2006.
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W I N D L O A D S
End zone Dimension ( a ) for C & C (Same as in MBMA 2002)
4
a
4
a
5 5
a
a
1-31
3 2
3 2 2 3 2
2
1 3
3
1
a 2
2
2
2 1 1 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 2 3
1-32
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W I N D L O A D S
Velocity Pressure
 Data Required
1) Basic Wind Speed (V) (3 Second gust) in (m/sec)

(km/hr = mph x 1.61 = 3.6 x m/sec)
MBMA 06
Section 1.3.4.1

2) Select Importance Factor (I w )
(Default 1.00 for Standard Buildings, unless specified)
3) Select Exposure Category (B,C or D)

(Default ‘B’ unless specified in PIF)
4) Compute the Velocity Pressure (q h ) based on the mean height or eave height
if θ <= 10°
Table 5.1(b) Importance Factor [Table 1.3.1(a) MBMA 2006]

(Same as in MBMA 2002)
Occupancy
Nature of Occupancy Wind Factor (I w )
Category
Low Hazard I 0.87* 0.77$
* - Non hurricane prone regions. $ - Hurricane prone regions (V > 161 kmph).
Velocity Pressure q z = q h = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2

Eqn. 6-15 ASCE 7-05
Where,
Kz = 2.01 (h/365.76) 2/7 for Exposure B and with h >= 9.144 m
MBMA 06 Page 16
OR Use h = 9.144, If eave or mean height is less than 9.144 m
Table 6-3 ASCE 7-05
Kz = 2.01 (h/274.32) 2/9.5 for Exposure C and with h >= 4.572 m
Use h = 4.572, If eave or mean height is less than 4.572 m
K zt = 1.00 Topographic factor

Kd = 0.85 Directionality factor
Iw = 1.00 Importance factor
h = Height mean roof or eave height in meters.
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W I N D L O A D S
Table 5.2 Velocity Pressure (q h ) in kN/m2
Basic Wind Speed (3 Second Gust in km/hr )

Mean roof
or eave
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
height. (h)
(meters)
Exposure B
0-9 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.91 1.01 1.12 1.24 1.36 1.48
10 0.49 0.57 0.65 0.74 0.84 0.94 1.04 1.16 1.27 1.40 1.53
12 0.51 0.60 0.68 0.78 0.88 0.99 1.10 1.22 1.34 1.47 1.61
14 0.54 0.62 0.72 0.81 0.92 1.03 1.15 1.27 1.40 1.54 1.68
16 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.85 0.96 1.07 1.19 1.32 1.46 1.60 1.75
18 0.58 0.67 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.11 1.23 1.37 1.51 1.65 1.81
Exposure C
4.57 0.58 0.67 0.77 0.87 0.99 1.11 1.23 1.37 1.50 1.65 1.81
6 0.61 0.71 0.81 0.93 1.04 1.17 1.30 1.45 1.59 1.75 1.91
7.62 0.64 0.74 0.86 0.97 1.10 1.23 1.37 1.52 1.68 1.84 2.01
9 0.67 0.77 0.89 1.01 1.14 1.28 1.42 1.57 1.74 1.90 2.08
10 0.68 0.79 0.91 1.03 1.16 1.30 1.45 1.61 1.77 1.95 2.13
12 0.71 0.82 0.94 1.07 1.21 1.35 1.51 1.67 1.84 2.02 2.21
14 0.73 0.85 0.97 1.11 1.25 1.40 1.56 1.73 1.90 2.09 2.29
16 0.75 0.87 1.00 1.14 1.28 1.44 1.60 1.78 1.96 2.15 2.35
18 0.77 0.89 1.02 1.17 1.32 1.48 1.64 1.82 2.01 2.20 2.41
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Design Pressure – Main Wind Force Resisting System

(MWFRS)
For Low Rise Buildings (h <= 18.28 m)
p = q h [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] kN/m2

Eqn. 6-18, ASCE 7-05
For other buildings (h > 18.28 m)
p = q G C p – q i (GC pi ) kN/m2
Eqn. 6-17, ASCE 7-05
where,
GC pf = external pressure coefficients from Figure 6-10 ASCE 7-05
GC pi = internal pressure coefficients from Table. 6-5 ASCE 7-05
q = q z for windward walls evaluated at height z above the ground for a given
exposure.
q = q h for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs evaluated at height (h).
q i = q h for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of enclosed
buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed
buildings.
q i = q z for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
where height (z) is defined as the level of the highest opening in the building that
could effect the positive internal pressure. For positive internal pressure
evaluation, (q i ) may conservatively be evaluated at height (h) (q i = q h )
C p = external pressure coefficients from Fig. 6-6 or Table 6-8 ASCE 7-05
The external co-efficient and internal coefficients are combined and tabulated in
MBMA 2006 [Table 1.3.4.5(a) and 1.3.4.5(b)] for use in Equation 6-18 above (Low
Rise Buildings, for other buildings refer ASCE 7-05). Coefficients depend on the
location relative to the geometric discontinuities in the surfaces of the building.
The building surfaces are zoned and the pressure coefficients are assumed to be
constant within each zone. When a member lies within two or more zones, the
design loads for that member can be determined using several approaches (step
functions, weighted averages, or another rational approach). For lateral loads on
framed buildings in which the end bays are not less than the width (2a) of the
end zone, common industry practice is to apply the entire extra load in the end
bay to the end bay purlins and end frames.
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Table 1.3.4.5(a) Refer Figure 1.3.4.5(a) or (b) with this table (Same as MBMA 2002)
Main Framing Coefficients [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] for Transverse Direction
End
1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
+i 0.43 -1.25 -0.71 -0.61 0.22 -0.87 -0.55 -0.47 -0.63
0° ≤ θ ≤ 5°
-i 0.79 -0.89 -0.35 -0.25 0.58 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.27
+i 0.44 -1.25 -0.72 -0.62 0.23 -0.87 -0.55 -0.48 -0.63
θ = 5.71°
-i 0.80 -0.89 -0.36 -0.26 0.59 -0.51 -0.19 -0.12 -0.27
+i 0.49 -1.25 -0.76 -0.67 0.26 -0.87 -0.58 -0.51 -0.63
2:12
-i 0.85 -0.89 -0.40 -0.31 0.62 -0.51 -0.22 -0.15 -0.27
+i 0.54 -1.25 -0.81 -0.74 0.30 -0.87 -0.62 -0.55 -0.63
Enclosed 3:12
-i 0.90 -0.89 -0.45 -0.38 0.66 -0.51 -0.26 -0.19 -0.27
+i 0.62 -1.25 -0.87 -0.82 0.35 -0.87 -0.66 -0.61 -0.63
θ = 20°
-i 0.98 -0.89 -0.51 -0.46 0.71 -0.51 -0.30 -0.25 -0.27
+i 0.51 0.09 -0.71 -0.66 0.38 0.03 -0.61 -0.55 -0.63
30° ≤ θ ≤ 45°
-i 0.87 0.45 -0.35 -0.30 0.74 0.39 -0.25 -0.19 -0.27
+i 0.51 0.51 -0.66 -0.66 0.38 0.38 -0.55 -0.55 -0.63
θ = 90°
-i 0.87 0.87 -0.30 -0.30 0.74 0.74 -0.19 -0.19 -0.27
+i 0.06 -1.62 -1.08 -0.98 -0.15 -1.24 -0.92 -0.84 -1.00
0° ≤ θ ≤ 5°
-i 1.16 -0.52 0.02 0.12 0.95 -0.14 0.18 0.26 0.10
+i 0.07 -1.62 -1.09 -0.99 -0.14 -1.24 -0.92 -0.85 -1.00
θ = 5.71°
-i 1.17 -0.52 0.01 0.11 0.96 -0.14 0.18 0.25 0.10
+i 0.12 -1.62 -1.13 -1.04 -0.11 -1.24 -0.95 -0.88 -1.00
2:12
-i 1.22 -0.52 -0.03 0.06 0.99 -0.14 0.15 0.22 0.10
Partially +i 0.17 -1.62 -1.20 -1.11 0.07 -1.24 -0.99 -0.92 -1.00
3:12
Enclosed -i 1.27 -0.52 -0.10 -0.01 1.03 -0.14 0.11 0.18 0.10
+i 0.25 -1.62 -1.24 -1.19 -0.02 -1.24 -1.03 -0.98 -1.00
θ = 20°
-i 1.35 -0.52 -0.14 -0.09 1.08 -0.14 0.07 0.12 0.10
+i 0.14 -0.28 -1.08 -1.03 0.01 -0.34 -0.98 -0.92 -1.00
30° ≤ θ ≤ 45°
-i 1.24 0.82 0.02 0.07 1.11 0.76 0.12 0.18 0.10
+i 0.14 0.14 -1.03 -1.03 0.01 0.01 -0.92 -0.92 -1.00
θ = 90°
-i 1.24 1.24 0.07 0.07 1.11 1.11 0.18 0.18 0.10
1 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
0° ≤ θ ≤ 10°
2 0.75* -0.20 -0.60 -0.75* 0.75* -0.20 -0.60 -0.75* -0.75*
1 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
Open 10° < θ ≤ 25° 2 0.75* 0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* 0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
3 0.75* 0.15 -0.65 -0.75* 0.75* 0.15 -0.65 -0.75* -0.75*
1 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* 0.75* -0.50 -0.50 -0.75* -0.75*
25° < θ ≤ 45°
2 0.75* 1.40 0.20 -0.75* 0.75* 1.40 0.20 -0.75* -0.75*
Notes:
1. Load case subscripts refer to negative internal pressure (-i) and positive internal pressure (+i).
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted. Note that this interpolation must be done on the external
pressure coefficient and then combined with the appropriate internal pressure coefficient. This has been done for standard slopes
of 2:12 and 3:12.
4. When the roof pressure coefficient in zone 2 or 2E is negative, it shall be applied in zone 2 or 2E for a distance from the edge of the
roof equal to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of the remainder of zone 2 or 2E extending to the ridge line shall use the pressure
coefficient from zone 3 or 3E.
5. * - Denotes coefficient for sheeted portion of the wall only. [See figure 1.4.5 (e)]
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6
4
4E 3
3E
h 2
2E
 1
1E
B 5
2a 2a
Figure 1.3.4.5 (a)

Load Case A-MWFRS Coefficients in Transverse Direction (Gable Roof)
4
6
4E 3
3E
2
 2E
1
h
B/2
1E
B
B/2 5
2a
Figure 1.3.4.5 (b)

Load Case A-MWFRS Coefficients in Transverse Direction (Single Slope)
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Table 1.3.4.5(b) Refer figure 1.3.4.5(c) or (d) with this table (Same as MBMA 2002)
Main Framing Coefficients [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] for Longitudinal Direction (All roof angles)
Type Case 1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
Enclosed +i 0.43 -1.25 -0.71 -0.61 0.22 -0.87 -0.55 -0.47 -0.63
-i 0.79 -0.89 -0.35 -0.25 0.58 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.27
Partially +i 0.06 -1.62 -1.08 -0.98 -0.15 -1.24 -0.92 -0.84 -1.00
Open -i 1.16 -0.52 0.02 0.02 0.95 -0.14 0.18 0.26 0.10
Open See Figure 1.4.5(e) for MBMA Recommendation
4
6
3
6 4E
3
2 3E
h  2
5
2E
1
L/2
5
1E
B L/2
2a
Figure 1.3.4.5 (c)

Load Case B-MWFRS Coefficients in Longitudinal Direction (Gable Roof)
6 4
6
3 4E
2 3E
5
 2E
1
h L/2
5
B/2
1E
B L/2
2a
Figure 1.3.4.5 (d)

Load Case B-MWFRS Coefficients in Longitudinal Direction (Single Slope)
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Example
Example :- 5.7
Given Data:-
Length = 76950 mm
Roof Slope = 1:10 (θ = 5.71°)
Wind Speed = 150 kmph (3 Second Gust) = 41.67 m/sec
Exposure Category =B
All walls are fully sheeted.
Solution:-
1. Check if the building classifies under “Low Rise Building”,
The 2 conditions are,
a) Mean Roof Height ‘h’ less than or equal to 18.28 m
b) Mean Roof Height ‘h’ does not exceed least horizontal dimension
(Minimum of Width or Length)
h = 7500 mm
Hence the building can be classified as a “Low Rise Building”
2. Check if the building is classifies as “Enclosed”, “Partially Enclosed” or

“Open Building” based on the given information about openings. Since all
walls are fully sheeted, the building is classified as an “Enclosed Building”.
3. Since the roof slope is less than 10°, eave height may be used in lieu of mean
roof height. Therefore, h = 7500 mm for all further calculations.
4. Find the end zone dimensions for walls and roofs, the end zone dimension ‘a’
is given as the least of
10 % (0.10 B or L) of least horizontal dimension
= 0.10 x 35000 = 3500 mm
0.4 h (Mean roof or eave height)
= 0.40 x 7500 = 3000 mm
4 % (0.04 B or L) of least horizontal dimension OR 915 mm
= 0.04 x 35000 = 1400 mm
Hence the End Zone dimension ‘a’ = 3000 mm
Therefore, ( 2a ) = 6000 mm
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5. Calculate the Velocity pressure
Velocity Pressure qh = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2
Kz = 2.01 (h/365.76) 2/7

= 2.01 (9.14/365.76) 2/7 = 0.70
K zt = = 1.00
Kd = = 0.85
Therefore,
qh = 0.613 x 10-3 x 0.70 x 1.00 x 0.85 x 41.672 x 1.00
= 0.63 kN/m2
Alternatively, the same value can be directly referred from table 5.2, see under
column Exposure ‘B’, value corresponding to column 150 basic wind speed and
eave height row, 0-9 meters, = 0.63 kN/m2
6. Calculate the Design Wind Pressure (p) for MWFRS
= q h [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] kN/m2
Note that [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] may either be calculated individual or may be referred
from Table 1.3.4.5 (a) of MBMA 2006 for low rise buildings only. Referring to
Table 1.3.4.5 (a) for θ = 5.71° for enclosed building.
There are 2 case + i and - i for positive and negative internal pressures
respectively.
End
1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
+i 0.44 -1.25 -0.72 -0.62 0.23 -0.87 -0.55 -0.48 -0.63
Enclosed θ = 5.71°
-i 0.80 -0.89 -0.36 -0.26 0.59 -0.51 -0.19 -0.12 -0.27
The above values are represented below in sketch for better understanding.
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Applicable Transverse Direction wind co-efficient [(GCpf ) - (GC pi )]
6 = -0.63
4 = -0.48
4E = -0.62 3 = -0.55
3E = -0.72
h 2 = -0.87
2E = -1.25
 1 = 0.23
1E = 0.44
B 5 = -0.63
2a
6 = -0.27
4 = -0.12
4E = -0.26 3 = -0.19
3E = -0.36
h 2 = -0.51
2E = -0.89
 1 = 0.59
1E = 0.80
B 5 = -0.27
2a
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Therefore, the applicable Design Wind Pressure on various zones are calculated
as below,
Case -1 ( + i )
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.44 = +0.277
2E = 0.63 x -1.25 = -0.787
3E = 0.63 x -0.72 = -0.454
4E = 0.63 x -0.62 = -0.397
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.23 = +0.145
2 = 0.63 x -0.87 = -0.550
3 = 0.63 x -0.55 = -0.347
4 = 0.63 x -0.48 = -0.303
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.63 = -0.397
Case -2 ( - i )
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.80 = +0.504
2E = 0.63 x -0.89 = -0.561
3E = 0.63 x -0.36 = -0.227
4E = 0.63 x -0.26 = -0.164
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.59 = +0.372
2 = 0.63 x -0.51 = -0.321
3 = 0.63 x -0.19 = -0.120
4 = 0.63 x -0.12 = -0.076
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.27 = -0.170
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W I N D L O A D S
member as below,
End Zone Pressure will apply to end frame, the tributary width of the end frame
is half the bay spacing, = 8550 / 2 = 4275 mm
Case -1 ( + i )
End zones
1E = 0.277 x 4.275 = 1.184 kN/m
2E = 0.787 x 4.275 = 3.364 kN/m
3E = 0.454 x 4.275 = 1.941 kN/m
4E = 0.397 x 4.275 = 1.680 kN/m
Interior zones
1 = 0.145 x 4.275 = 0.619 kN/m
2 = 0.550 x 4.275 = 2.351 kN/m
3 = 0.347 x 4.275 = 1.483 kN/m
4 = 0.303 x4.275 = 1.295 kN/m
5&6 = 0.397 x 4.275 = 1.697 kN/m
Case -2 - i
End zones
1E = 0.504 x 4.275 = 2.155 kN/m
2E = 0.561 x 4.275 = 2.399 kN/m
3E = 0.227 x 4.275 = 0.971 kN/m
4E = 0.164 x 4.275 = 0.701 kN/m
Interior zones
1 = 0.372 x 4.275 = 1.591 kN/m
2 = 0.321 x 4.275 = 1.372 kN/m
3 = 0.120 x 4.275 = 0.513 kN/m
4 = 0.076 x 4.275 = 0.325 kN/m
5&6 = 0.170 x 4.275 = 0.727 kN/m
110
W I N D L O A D S
w = -3.364 w = -1.941
w = -2.399 w = -0.971
w =1.184 w = -1.680
w =2.155 w = -0.701
Wind Loads for Main Framing in the End Zone (kN/m)
w = -2.351 w = -1.483
w = -1.372 w = -0.513
w =0.619 w = -1.295
w =1.591 w = -0.325
Wind Loads for Main Framing in the Interior Zone (kN/m)

case-1
case-2
Similarly the [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )] for Longitudinal Direction is can be referred from
Table 1.3.4.5 (b) of MBMA 2006 for low rise buildings only. Hence referring to
Table 1.3.4.5 (b) for enclosed building.

Type Case 1E 2E 3E 4E 1 2 3 4 5&6
Enclosed +i 0.43 -1.25 -0.71 -0.61 0.22 -0.87 -0.55 -0.47 -0.63
-i 0.79 -0.89 -0.35 -0.25 0.58 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.27
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Applicable Longitudinal Direction Coefficients [(GC pf ) - (GC pi )]
4 = -0.47
6 = -0.63
4E = -0.61
3 = -0.55
6 = -0.63
3 = -0.55
2 = -0.87 3E = -0.71
h  2 = -0.87
5 = -0.63
2E = -1.25
1 = 0.22
L/2
5 = -0.63
1E =0.43
B L/2
N 2a
TIO
EC
D DIR
WIN
Case - 1 Positive Internal Pressure B(+i)
4 = -0.11
6 = -0.27
4E = -0.25
3 = -0.19
6 = -0.27
3 = -0.19
2 = -0.51 3E = -0.35
h  2 = -0.51
5 = -0.27
2E = -0.89
1 = 0.58
L/2
5 = -0.27
1E =0.79
B L/2
2a
N
TIO
EC
D DIR
WIN
Case - 2 Positive Internal Pressure B(-i)
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Therefore, the applicable Design Wind Pressure on various zones are,
Case -1 ( + i )
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.43 = +0.271
2E = 0.63 x -1.25 = -0.787
3E = 0.63 x -0.71 = -0.447
4E = 0.63 x -0.61 = -0.384
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.22 = +0.139
2 = 0.63 x -0.87 = -0.550
3 = 0.63 x -0.55 = -0.347
4 = 0.63 x -0.47 = -0.296
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.63 = -0.397
Case -2 B(-i)
End zones
1E = 0.63 x +0.79 = +0.498
2E = 0.63 x -0.89 = -0.561
3E = 0.63 x -0.35 = -0.221
4E = 0.63 x -0.25 = -0.158
Interior zones
1 = 0.63 x +0.58 = +0.365
2 = 0.63 x -0.51 = -0.321
3 = 0.63 x -0.19 = -0.120
4 = 0.63 x -0.11 = -0.069
5&6 = 0.63 x -0.27 = -0.170
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member as below,
9250
8100
8100
7500
7500
1E 1 1E
6000
35000
Calculate tributary areas for various zones,
1E = 4E = (8.1 + 7.5) / 2 x 6 = 46.8 m2

1=4 = (7.5 + 9.25) / 2 x 35 /2 x 2 -2 x (46.8) = 199.5 m2
Therefore total load on these areas is calculated as,
Case -1 ( + i )
End zones
1E = 0.271 x 46.8 = 12.68 kN
4E = 0.384 x 46.8 = 17.97 kN
Interior zones
1 = 0.139 x 199.5 /2 = 13.86 kN
4 = 0.296 x 199.5 / 2 = 29.53 kN
given as,
= (1E + 4E + 1 + 4) / 2
= (12.68 + 17.97 + 13.86 + 29.53) / 2
= 37.02 kN

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Case -2 ( - i )
End zones
1E = 0.498 x 46.8 = 23.31 kN
4E = 0.158 x 46.8 = 7.394 kN
Interior zones
1 = 0.365 x 199.5 / 2 = 36.41 kN
4 = 0.069 x 199.5 / 2 = 6.883 kN
given as,
= (1E + 4E + 1 + 4) / 2
= (23.31 + 7.394 + 36.41 + 6.883) / 2
= 36.99 kN

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MBMA Recommendation for Single Slope Buildings – MWFRS

Figure 1.3.4.5 (b) and 1.3.4.5 (d) provide the recommendation for applying the
pressure coefficients to single slope buildings for transverse and longitudinal
directions, respectively.
In the transverse direction, for a roof slope up to 20°, the roof pressure zones are
separated by a “pseudo” ridge line. However, where 20° < θ <= 30°, the building
shall be assumed to act as each half of a gable building with all cases
investigated. (Two case using pressure zone 2 and 2E over the entire roof and
two cases using pressure zone 3 and 3E over the entire roof)
Considering the Example 5.7 as monoslope building, only the coefficients are
shown as below, other steps remain the same.
4 = -0.48
PSEUDO RIDGE LINE
6 = -0.63
4E = -0.62 3 = -0.55
3E = -0.72 2 = -0.87
 2E = -1.25
1 = 0.23
h
B/2
1E = 0.44
WI
B ND
5 = -0.63 DI
B/2
2a
RE
CT
IO
N
4 = -0.12
PSEUDO RIDGE LINE
6 = -0.27
4E = -0.26
3 = -0.19
3E = -0.36
2 = -0.51
 2E = -0.89
1 = 0.59
h
B/2
1E = 0.80
WI
B ND
5 = -0.27 DI
B/2
2a
RE
CT
IO
N
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MBMA Recommendation for Open Buildings – MWFRS

New provisions were introduced into ASCE 7-05 (Section 6.5.13.2) for the main
wind force resisting systems of open buildings. The net design pressure for the
MWFRS is determined from the following equation:
Eqn. 6-25, ASCE 7-05 p = qh G CN
Where,
qh = velocity pressure (kN/m2)

G = gust effect factor from ASCE 7-05, Section 6.5.8
CN = net pressure coefficient from ASCE 7-05 Figures 6-18A through 6-18D
For winds perpendicular to the ridge, ASCE 7-05 Figures 6-18A, 6-18B, 6- 18C are
for monosloped roofs, gable roofs, and troughed roofs, respectively. Net pressure
coefficients are given for two cases: (1) where there is clear wind flow through
the building, and (2) where there is obstructed wind flow. Obstructed wind flow
occurs when objects below the roof produce greater than a 50% blockage of the
wind flow through the building. Also, note that for gable roofs with a slope less
than 7.5° , the coefficients for a monoslope roof (Figure 6-18A) with θ = 0 are to
be used.
It is important to note that the ASCE 7-05 provisions in Figure 6-18 have lower
and upper limits on the ratio (h/L) i.e. the mean roof height to the horizontal
dimension of roof measured in the along wind direction. Therefore the MBMA
recommendation for building aspect ratios that fall outside the h/L limits, are to
use the pressure coefficients provided in Table 1.3.4.5(a). This is consistent with
previous editions of MBMA Low-Rise Building Systems Manual.
Also, the ASCE 7-05 provisions only apply to the roof surfaces. Therefore the
MBMA recommendation for wall surfaces that might be clad, is to use the wall
pressure coefficients provided in Table 1.3.4.5(a) and Figure 1.3.4.5(e). This is
consistent with previous editions of MBMA Low-Rise Building Systems Manual.
For winds parallel to the ridge, net pressure coefficients are given in ASCE 7- 05
Figure 6-18D. However, this only covers pressures and suctions on the roof
surfaces, which do not contribute to the longitudinal wind brace requirements.
For wind pressures on the bare frames, or on clad surfaces on the endwalls,
MBMA has its own recommendation. Since the values given in these references
are based on mean pressure coefficients (C p ) referenced to mean-hourly wind
speeds, the peak coefficients shown on Figure 1.3.4.5(e) were obtained by
amplifying the values as follows:
Eqn. 1.3.4.5 GC p = 1.25 x 2.0 x ( 1 / 1.53 )2 C p (Same as in MBMA 2002)

MBMA 2006
117
W I N D L O A D S
Where the gust factor is assumed to be 2.0, the 3 second gust speeds are taken as
1.53 times mean hourly speeds, and the 1.25 factor accounts for uncertainty in the
database as the coefficients were generated from experiments in a uniform flow
wind tunnel (turbulence not properly modeled).
The coefficient GC p = 1.3N where, N = the number of frames, to be used in the

design of main framing in the longitudinal direction for open buildings is based
on some research work in the US, and is a bit on conservative.
****
-0.75
**** -0.75
-0.75
+1.3N
+0.75 S
B
Figure 1.3.4.5 (e)

MBMA Recommendation for Open Building in Longitudianl Direction
**** - FOR ROOF SURFACES SEE ASCE 7-05 SECTION 6.5.13.3
Notes for Open Buildings:
1. The 0.75 pressure coefficients apply to any covered areas of the building surfaces.
2. The 1.3N pressure coefficients shall be applied to the solid area of the largest frame projected onto a plane normal to the ridge; this
coefficient is based on the following limits:
a. 0.1 <= ϕ <= 0.3
b. 1/6 <= h/B <= 6
c. S/B <= 0.5
Where ϕ is the ratio of solid area of to frame to gross area of the end wall and N is the number of transverse frames. See MBMA 2006 Design
example 1.3.4.9(b)-3a for parameters outside this limits.
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W I N D L O A D S
119
W I N D L O A D S
120
W I N D L O A D S
121
W I N D L O A D S
Consider the building in example 5.7 as an “Open Building”, the opening is walls
is as shown in Figure 1.3.4.5 (e) above, the coefficients on the sheeted area will be
as shown in Figure 1.3.4.5 (e).
1) Wind Left and Wind Right Case

For all Frames, Interior and End frames
The Wall Pressure tabulated below are as per Figure 1.3.4.5(e) MBMA 2006
Load (kN/m)
Net Pressure Coefficient
Walls q h [(GC pf ) – (Gc pi )]x Bay
[(GC pf ) – (Gc pi )]
Spacing
Windward Wall -0.75 0.63 x -0.75 x 8.55 = -4.03
Leeward Wall -0.75 0.63 x -0.75 x 8.55 = -4.03
Refer to Figure 1.3.4.5(e) in MBMA 2006
The Roof Pressure is calculated using equation 6-25
p = qh G CN
where,
G = 0.85
Referring to Figure 16-18B pitched roof
Roof Slope θ = 5.71° < 7.50°
Referring to note 3 in above Figure 16-18B, states that for slope less than 7.50°,
Monoslope coefficients given in Figure 16-18A should be referred.
g = 0° and g = 180° Case A

Net Pressure Coefficient C N Load (kN/m)
Roof
(Figure 16-18A ASCE 7-05) q h x G x C N x Bay Spacing
Windward Roof -0.50 0.63 x 0.85 x -0.50 x 8.55 = -2.29
Leeward Roof -1.20 0.63 x 0.85 x -1.20 x 8.55 = -5.49
Assuming ‘Obstructed Wind Flow’ Case
g = 0° and g = 180° Case B

Roof
(Figure 16-18A ASCE 7-05) q h x G x C N x Bay Spacing
Windward Roof -1.10 0.63 x 0.85 x -1.10 x 8.55 = -5.04
Leeward Roof -0.60 0.63 x 0.85 x -0.60 x 8.55 = -2.75
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W I N D L O A D S
-0.50 -1.20
-1.10 -0.60
GCp =+0.75 GCp =+0.75
Wind Coefficients for All Frames in an Open Building

Wind Left Case (Wind Right Case is Mirror Image)
2) Wind End Case

For First Interior Frame
The Wall Pressure tabulated below are as per Figure 1.3.4.5(e) MBMA 2006
Load (kN/m)
Net Pressure Coefficient
Walls q h [(GC pf ) – (Gc pi )]x Bay
[(GC pf ) – (Gc pi )]
Spacing
Windward Wall -0.75 0.63 x -0.75 x 8.55 = -4.03
Leeward Wall -0.75 0.63 x -0.75 x 8.55 = -4.03
Refer to Figure 1.3.4.5(e) in MBMA 2006
The Roof Pressure is calculated using equation 6-25

Referring to Figure 16-18D pitched roof
x = the distance of the first frame from the windward edge
x = 8550 mm
h = 7500 mm
Hence x > h <= 2h
g = 0° and g = 180° Case A

All Areas of Roof
(Figure 16-18D ASCE 7-05) q h x G x C N x Bay Spacing
Case A -0.90 0.63 x 0.85 x -0.90 x 8.55 = -4.12
Case B +0.50 0.63 x 0.85 x 0.50 x 8.55 = 2.29
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For End Frame
Using x <= h
g = 0° and g = 180° Case A

All Areas of Roof
(Figure 16-18D ASCE 7-05) q h x G x C N x Bay Spacing
Case A -1.20 0.63 x 0.85 x -1.20 x 8.55 = -5.49
Case B +0.50 0.63 x 0.85 x 0.50 x 8.55 = 2.29
-0.90 -0.90
0.50 0.50
GCp =+0.75 GCp =+0.75
Wind Coefficients for First Interior Frame in an Open Building

Wind End Case
-1.20 -1.20
0.50 0.50
GCp =+0.75 GCp =+0.75
Wind Coefficients for End Frame in an Open Building

Wind End Case
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For Sidewall Bracing (Same as in MBMA 2002)
The total force on the wind bracing system at the side walls will depend on the
value of 1.3N.
Assuming the solid area of the end frame = 45.00 m2
(Solid area is the area of main frame steel profile including the purlin depth and
sheeting depth at sidewalls and roof)
Gross area of Endwall = 293.12 m2
Therefore,
ϕ = Solid Area / Gross Area
= 45 / 293.12 = 0.154
h / B = 7.5 / 35 = 0.214
S / B = 8.55 / 35 = 0.244
Check if all are within the limits below,

a) 0.1 <= ϕ <= 0.3 ϕ = 0.154 OK
b) 1/6 <= h/B <= 6 h/b = 0.214 OK
c) S/B <= 0.5 s/b = 0.244 OK
Hence force per sidewall is given as,

= 1.3 x N x Solid Area / (2 x 2)
= 1.3 x 10 x 45 / 4 = 146.25 kN
If the number of braced bays are 4,
Force per braced bay = 146.25 / 4 = 36.563 kN
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W I N D L O A D S

Alternatively, the equation below can be used as a more precise method of
selecting wind loads in the design of the longitudinal framing for open buildings
as a guideline for assessing wind loads for open, bare frames during erection.
The load on a single frame reaches its maximum value when the wind vector is
normal to the frame. As additional frames are added, the first frame affects some
shielding for the second, the first and second tends to shield the third, and so on.
The researchers developed a methodology by which the total “peak” drag load
on the assemblage of N frames as follows:
Eqn. 7.3.3-1 F D N (α) = GC P(0) q A s [ 1 + (N-1) n N(α) ] kN
Where,
F D N (α) = normal ‘peak’ drag force on open frame assemblage for an angle of
attack of the wind, (α) is measured from the normal to the frame outline
GC P(0) = peak drag coefficient on a single frame at (α = 0°)
As = effective solid area of a single frame,
q = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height (h) for a given
exposure.
n N(α) = directional shielding coefficients, the maximum values of which are
given in figure 7.3.3(c) as a function of n 2 , the shielding coefficient for two
frames which is given in figure 7.3.3(b).
The design force F D N (α) represents the net force to be resisted by the longitudinal
framing system, including that portion transmitted directly to foundation
(ground).
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Figure 7.3.3 (b)

Maximum Value of Shielding Coefficient for 2 Frames
Φ 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
GC P(0) 1.71 1.30 1.28 1.25 1.22 1.19 1.15 1.12 1.09 1.06 0.00
Φ 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 S/B
1.00 0.92 0.78 0.62 0.52 0.42 0.32 0.23 0.16 0.08 0.00 0.25
1.00 0.96 0.80 0.69 0.58 0.46 0.36 0.27 0.21 0.20 0.22 0.50
1.00 0.93 0.82 0.71 0.62 0.54 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.75
n2
1.00 0.93 0.85 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.44 0.42 1.00
1.00 0.98 0.90 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.62 1.50
1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.84 0.79 0.71 2.00
127
W I N D L O A D S
Figure 7.3.3 (c)

Maximum Value of Shielding Coefficient for N Frames
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W I N D L O A D S
N Φ 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
S / B = 0.25
3.00 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.67 0.72 12.00
4.00 1.00 0.91 0.80 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.71 1.10 18.90
5.00 nn / n2 1.00 0.85 0.75 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.63 0.68 0.80 1.30 19.40
7.00 1.00 0.80 0.69 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.59 0.68 0.90 1.35 17.90
10.00 1.00 0.71 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.58 0.68 1.00 1.55 21.00
S / B = 0.50
3.00 1.00 0.98 0.92 0.85 0.80 0.82 1.00 1.32 1.36 1.31 1.27
4.00 1.00 0.91 0.81 0.76 0.75 0.82 1.10 1.36 1.39 1.35 1.30
5.00 nn / n2 1.00 0.88 0.78 0.75 0.76 0.82 1.15 1.45 1.47 1.42 1.38
7.00 1.00 0.85 0.77 0.73 0.75 0.82 1.20 1.55 1.59 1.50 1.40
10.00 1.00 0.82 0.73 0.70 0.70 0.82 1.25 1.60 1.70 1.60 1.48
S / B = 0.75
3.00 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.90 0.90 0.92 0.97 1.01 1.07 1.10 1.12
4.00 1.00 0.93 0.88 0.86 0.90 0.95 1.01 1.10 1.17 1.25 1.31
5.00 nn / n2 1.00 0.91 0.86 0.85 0.87 0.92 1.02 1.10 1.17 1.28 1.39
7.00 1.00 0.86 0.80 0.81 0.87 0.92 1.03 1.12 1.22 1.34 1.48
10.00 1.00 0.82 0.77 0.77 0.84 0.92 1.04 1.14 1.28 1.40 1.53
S / B = 1.00
3.00 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.93 0.97 1.03 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.10 1.22
4.00 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.92 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.20 1.38
nn / n2
5.00 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.91 0.97 1.03 1.07 1.11 1.16 1.28 1.45
7.00 1.00 0.86 0.83 0.89 0.96 1.03 1.08 1.13 1.20 1.35 1.60
Where,
Φ - Solidity ratio = As / Ae
As - Solid area of the frame profile
Ae - total projected area outlined by frame
(for a typical low-rise building this would be (width x eave height) + gable
area
H - mean height of frames
B - width of frame
S - spacing of frames
N - number of frames
n2 - two frames
nn - ‘n’ number of frames
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Solving the same problem of Example 5.7, we know from previous example on
open building,
Φ = Solid Area / Gross Area
= 45 / 293.12 = 0.154
h / B = 7.5 / 35 = 0.214
S / B = 8.55 / 35 = 0.244
Referring to Figure 7.3.3 (b) or the table below the figure, for computing the
value of GCp (0) and n 2 ,
GCp (0) = 1.29 for, Φ = 0.154
n2 = 0.85 for, Φ = 0.154 & S/B = 0.25
Referring to Figure 7.3.3 (c) or the table below the figure, we can tabulate the
value of (n n / n 2 ) for corresponding value of (S/B), (ϕ) and N value ,
n n / n 2 = 0.68, but n 2 = 0.85, therefore,

nn = 0.68 x 0.85 = 0.578
Substituting the values in the equation below,
F D N (α) = GC P(0) q A s [ 1 + (N-1) n N(α) ]

= 1.29 x 0.63 x 45 x [ 1 +(10-1) x 0.578 ] = 226.81 kN
Half of this value is distributed to either sidewall and half to the base of the
column, hence = 226.81 / (2 x 2) = 56.702 kN
If there are 4 braced bays per sidewall, then

= 56.702 / 4 = 14.176 kN
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MBMA Recommendations for buildings with Parapets (MWFRS)

The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on MWFRSs of rigid, low –
rise, or flexible buildings with flat, gable, or hip roof shall be determined by the
following equations:
Eqn. 6-20 ASCE 7-05

Pp = q p G C pn kN/m2
Where,
P p = combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combination of the net
pressures from the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus (and minus) signs
 signify net pressure acting toward (and away from) the front exterior side of the
parapet.

MBMA 06
GC pn = combined net pressure coefficient.
Section
= + 1.50 for windward parapet. (+1.80 as per MBMA 2002)
1.3.4.5.1

= - 1.00 for leeward parapet. (-1.10 as per MBMA 2002)

Re-calculate the Velocity pressure at the top of parapet
Velocity Pressure q p = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2
Kz = 2.01 (9.5/365.76) 2/7 = 0.71

K zt = = 1.00
Kd = = 0.85
Therefore,
qp = 0.613 x 10-3 x 0.71 x 1.00 x 0.85 x 41.672 x 1.00
= 0.642 kN/m2
Then the combined net pressure on the parapet is calculated as,

The UDL on the parapet framing is given as,
= Sum of pressure x Bay Spacing

= (0.963 + 0.642) x 8.55 = 13.723 kN/m
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Design Wind loads on Solid Free Standing walls and Solid Signs
The design wind force for a solid free standing walls and solid signs shall be
determined by the following formula,
Pp = qz G Cf As kN
Eqn. 6-27 ASCE 7-05
Where,
q z = the velocity pressure evaluated at height ‘h’ for a given exposure. Where ‘h’

is the top of sign above ground.
A s = the gross area of the solid free standing wall or sign in m2
C f = net force coefficient from figure 6-20 ASCE 7-05, C f depend on the shape
ASCE 7-05 aspect ratio and clearance ratio above ground, may be conservatively assumed =
Section 6.5.14

1.80 for more precise value see figure 6-20 of ASCE 7-05.
Say we have a Solid Sign with following details as below,
Width (B) = 4000 mm

Height (s) = 2000 mm
Top of Sign (h) = 8000 mm
Wind Speed = 150 kmph = 41.67 m/sec
Calculate the Velocity pressure at the top of Solid Sign
Velocity Pressure qz = 0.613 x 10-3 K z K zt K d V2 I w kN/m2
Kz = 2.01 (h/365.76) 2/7

= 2.01 (9.14/365.76) 2/7 = 0.70
K zt = = 1.00
Kd = = 0.85
Therefore,
qz = 0.613 x 10-3 x 0.70 x 1.00 x 0.85 x 41.672 x 1.00
= 0.63 kN/m2
Pp = 0.63 x 0.85 x 1.80 x 4 x 2 = 7.71 kN
133
W I N D L O A D S
Checking the above value with more precise calculation as per Figure 6-20 of
ASCE 7-05,
B/s =4/2 = 2.00
s/h =2/8 = 0.25
Referring to Figure 6-20 on page 73 we find, Cf = 1.80
134
W I N D L O A D S
Other MBMA Recommendation for MWFRS (Same as in MBMA 2002)

It is important to note that coefficients 1 and 4 (and 1E and 4E) of figure 1.3.4.5(c)
or 1.3.4.5(d) are to be used in combination in designing the longitudinal wind-
resisting system. Additionally, note that the strut purlin spanning in the
longitudinal direction should be designed for the appropriate axial load based on
Figure 1.3.4.5(c) or 1.3.4.5(d) in combination with a transverse bending load
assessed from the appropriate coefficients in tables 1.3.4.6(b) through 1.3.4.6(h).
For a more detailed method, a strut purlin may be designed for the more severe
of the two following separate wind load cases in combination with other
appropriate loads:
1) A regular purlin design for bending using the coefficients from figures and
tables 1.3.4.6(b) through 1.3.4.6(h).
2) A purlin designed for combined bending and axial loads using all of the
loads required for the main wind force resisting system.
AXIAL LOAD WIND LOAD DUE TO COEFFICIENTS FROM MBMA 02 TABLE 1.4.6(b) TO (h)
DUE TO
LONGITUDINAL
LOADING
AS PER MBMA 02 STRUT PURLIN
FIGURE 1.4.5(c) OR
1.4.5(d) SUPPORTS
LOADING FOR DESIGN OF STRUT PURLIN
Columns and rafters, which are designed with simple connections, may be
considered as main wind force resisting members when they participate in frame
action to resist wind loads or are designed for wind loads from two building
surfaces.
This would include endwall columns and rafters acting as members in a braced
frame to resist transverse wind loads, simply framed sidewall and endwall
columns designed for wind loads perpendicular to the wall in which they occur
combined with wind loads from the roof surface, and rafters designed for wind
loads from wall and roof surfaces combined
135
W I N D L O A D S
Components and Cladding Pressure Coefficients

Design Pressure – Components and Cladding (C & C)
p = q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] kN/m2

Eqn. 6-27 ASCE 7-05
MBMA 2006 Table 1.3.4.6(a) through 1.3.4.6(h). Coefficients depend on the
effective wind load area of the component or cladding and its location relative to
 the geometric discontinuities in the surfaces of the building. The building

surfaces are zoned and the pressure coefficients are assumed to be constant
within each zone. When a member lies within two or more zones, the design
loads for that member can be determined using several rational approaches.
MBMA 06
Coefficients for wall may be reduced by 10% when the roof angle (θ) is less than
Section 1.3.4.6

or equal to 10°. The reduced values for roof angle less than 10° is tabulated in
Table 1.3.4.6(a) of MBMA 2006.
Components and Claddings include all members other than the main framing
members, for example, Eave struts, purlins, girts, clips, sheeting, trims &
fasteners.
where,
GC p = external pressure coefficients from Figures 6-11 to 6-17 ASCE 7-05
GC pi = internal pressure coefficients from Table 6-5 ASCE 7-05
136
W I N D L O A D S
4
a
4
a
5 5
a
a
1-31
Table 1.4.6(a) (Same as in MBMA 2002)

Wall Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Area=A (m ) 2 Buildings
A <= 0.93 -1.58 -1.95
A >= 46.5 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 -1.28 -1.65
A >= 46.5 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 1.18 1.55
A >= 46.5 0.88 1.25
Values tabulated below are above values reduced by 10% for θ<=10°
A <= 0.93 -1.44 -1.81
A >= 46.5 -0.90 -1.27
A <= 0.93 -1.17 -1.54
A >= 46.5 -0.90 -1.27
A <= 0.93 1.08 1.45
A >= 46.5 0.81 1.18
137
W I N D L O A D S
Example

First, we need to check the wall panel in all zones, how much can the selected
panel span in order to decide the spacing of girts and then design the girt.
Let us assume the following wall panel details,

Profile = M45-250
Thickness = 0.50 mm
Material = Aluzinc
girt spacing, then the effective width clause as per MBMA 2006 page 19 applies,
which states that the width should be greater of,

Span / 3 = 1800 / 3 = 600 mm
= 1000 x 1800 / 10002 = 1.800 m2
1.4.6 (a)

Corners = 0.318 Log A - 1.43
= 0.318 (Log 1.8) – 1.43 = -1.349~ - 1.35
= 0.159 (Log 1.8) – 1.16 = -1.119~ -1.12
All Zones = -0.159 Log A + 1.08
= -0.159 (Log 1.8) + 1.08 = 1.039 ~1.04
Therefore,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )]
138
W I N D L O A D S

Corners = 0.63 x 1.35 = 0.85 kN/m2
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.12 = 0.71 kN/m2

All Zones = 0.63 x 1.04 = 0.66 kN/m2
Refer the Panel Chart below to check the allowable load kN/m2 for above profile
and thickness, referring for span = 2.0 meters,

Since all loads calculated are less than the allowable loads for any number of
spans, no further checks are required. It is important to note that at locations
adjacent to wall lights and other wall openings etc. the panel spans should be
checked for the number of spans the panel is spanning and accordingly check
the appropriate allowable loads.
Since the loads are very less than the allowable let us use girt spacing of 2000
mm, it will be required to re-calculate the coefficients as above for revised
tributary area of 2.0 m2.

Corners = 0.318 Log A - 1.43
= 0.318 (Log 2.0) – 1.43 = -1.334 ~ - 1.33
= 0.63 x 1.33 = 0.84 kN/m2

= 0.159 (Log 2.0) – 1.16 = -1.112~ -1.12
= 0.63 x 1.12 = 0.71 kN/m2

All Zones = -0.159 Log A + 1.08
= -0.159 (Log 2.0) + 1.08 = 1.032~ 1.03
= 0.63 x 1.03 = 0.65 kN/m2
Since the loads less than the allowable, we use girt spacing of 2000 mm.
139
W I N D L O A D S

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
0.50 1000.00 4.315 5.18 15.60 20000.00 11.49 3.58 8.53 0.74 10.99 4.84 4.81 0.99 4.02
A luzinc
C o ated 0.70 1000.00 6.228 7.62 22.92 20000.00 20.28 6.80 12.72 1.40 17.71 7.34 8.19 1.52 12.80
Steel
1.00 1000.00 9.095 11.27 33.87 20000.00 33.53 11.75 19.13 2.43 28.54 11.16 13.93 2.30 33.33
Allowable Un iform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56 0.48
1 WP 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.94 0.71 0.54 0.43 0.34
WS 7.94 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.76 1.24 0.90 0.68 0.52 0.41 0.33
D+L 6.43 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.99 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65
0.50 2 WP 6.43 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.99 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65
WS 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56 0.48
D+L 7.31 5.85 4.11 3.02 2.31 1.83 1.48 1.22 1.03 0.88 0.76
3 WP 7.31 5.85 4.11 3.02 2.31 1.83 1.48 1.22 1.03 0.81 0.65
WS 7.31 4.74 3.29 2.42 1.85 1.46 1.18 0.98 0.82 0.70 0.60
D+L 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.06 0.92
1 WP 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.66 1.25 0.96 0.76 0.61
WS 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 2.83 1.99 1.45 1.09 0.84 0.66 0.53
D+L 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.35 1.15 0.99
0.70 2 WP 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.35 1.15 0.99
WS 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.06 0.92
D+L 15.15 9.70 6.73 4.95 3.79 2.99 2.42 2.00 1.68 1.43 1.24
3 WP 15.15 9.70 6.73 4.95 3.79 2.99 2.42 2.00 1.68 1.43 1.14
WS 14.04 8.99 6.24 4.58 3.51 2.77 2.25 1.86 1.56 1.25 1.00
D+L 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.83 3.10 2.57 2.16 1.84 1.58
1 WP 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.77 2.75 2.06 1.59 1.25 1.00
WS 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.57 3.21 2.34 1.76 1.35 1.06 0.85
D+L 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.74 1.50
1.00 2 WP 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.74 1.50
WS 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.83 3.10 2.57 2.16 1.84 1.58
D+L 23.03 14.74 10.24 7.52 5.76 4.55 3.68 3.05 2.56 2.18 1.88
3 WP 23.03 14.74 10.24 7.52 5.76 4.55 3.68 3.05 2.56 2.18 1.88
WS 24.25 15.52 10.78 7.92 6.06 4.79 3.88 3.21 2.55 2.01 1.61

140
W I N D L O A D S
Check wall panel fasteners, for 45-250 panel profile, the fasteners are usually
= Spacing of girts x spacing of fasteners

= 2.00 x 0.25 = 0.50 m2
is less than 10° use the 10% reduced values from the lower portion of the table
1.4.6 (a)

Corners = -1.44
Interiors = -1.17
All Zones = +1.08
Therefore,
The total load in kN in various zones are given by,

Corners = 0.63 x 1.44 x 0.50 = 0.45 kN
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.17 x 0.50 = 0.37 kN
All Zones = 0.63 x 1.08 x 0.50 = 0.34 kN

Pull-Out (kN) P not / Ω 0.83 1.04 1.25 1.39 1.74
Panel Thk. (t 1 ) mm 0.5 0.7 1.0 - -
Tension (kN) P nt / Ω 1.94 4.52 1.88 3.70 -
P nv /
Shear (kN) 1.64 3.05 1.64 2.52 -
Ω
The values for Pull-Out and Pull-Over needs to be checked, Pull over value is
generally more than required because of the 19mm washer bearing on panel.
141
W I N D L O A D S
Now to we need to calculate the load in kN/m on girts. Similar to panels we

Span of girts = Bay spacing of building

= 8550 mm
Tributary width = Span of panels = spacing of girts

= 2000 mm
Span / 3 = 8550 / 3 = 2850 mm
= 8550 x 2850 / 10002 = 24.37 m2
1.4.6 (a)

Corners = 0.318 Log A - 1.43
= 0.318 (Log 24.37) – 1.43 = -0.988 ~ - 0.99
= 0.159 (Log 24.37) – 1.16 = -0.939 ~ -0.94
All Zones = -0.159 Log A + 1.08
= -0.159 (Log 24.37) + 1.08 = 0.859 ~ 0.86
Therefore,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] x spacing of girts

Corners = 0.63 x 0.99 x 2 = 1.25 kN/m
Interiors = 0.63 x 0.94 x 2 = 1.18 kN/m

All Zones = 0.63 x 0.86 x 2 = 1.08 kN/m
Hence the girts should be designed for all the above loads.
142
W I N D L O A D S
3 2
3 2 2 3 2
2
1 3
3
1
a 2
2
2
2 1 1 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 2 3
Table 1.4.6(b) (0° <= θ < 7° ) (Same as in MBMA 2002, except angle limit from 10 to 7)
Uplift for C & C
Area A (m2) Buildings
A <= 0.93 -2.98 -3.35
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 -1.98 -2.35
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.70 Log A – 1.96 0.70 Log A – 2.33
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 -1.18 -1.55
A >= 9.30 -1.08 -1.45
A <= 0.93 0.48 0.85
A >= 9.30 0.38 0.75
A <= 0.93 -2.80
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 2.00 Log A – 2.74
A >= 9.30 -0.8
A <= 0.93 -1.70
Edge (2)
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.10 Log A – 1.70
and
Interior (1) 9.30 < A < 46.5 0.715 Log A – 2.29
A >= 46.5 -1.10
143
W I N D L O A D S
Example

First, we need to check the Roof panel in all zones, how much can the selected
panel span in order to decide the spacing of purlins and then design the purlins.
Let us assume the following Roof panel details,

Profile = M45-250
Thickness = 0.50 mm
Material = Aluzinc
purlin spacing, then the effective width clause as per MBMA 2006 page 19
applies, which states that the width should be greater of,

Span / 3 = 2000 / 3 = 666.67 mm
= 1000 x 2000 / 10002 = 2.00 m2
Table 1.4.6(d)]
Uplift (Suction)
= 1.70 (Log 2.0) – 2.93 = -2.418~ - 2.42
Edge = 0.70 Log A – 1.96
= 0.70 (Log 2.0) – 1.96 = -1.749~ - 1.75
= 0.10 (Log 2.0) – 1.18 = -1.149~ -1.15
All Zones = -0.10 Log A + 0.48
= -0.10 (Log 2.0) + 0.48 = 0.449 ~ 0.45
Therefore,
= q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )]
144
W I N D L O A D S
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = 0.63 x 2.42 = 1.53 kN/m2
Edge = 0.63 x 1.75 = 1.10 kN/m2
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.15 = 0.73 kN/m2
All Zones = 0.63 x 0.45 = 0.28 kN/m2
Refer the Panel Chart to check the allowable load kN/m2 for above profile and
thickness, referring for span = 2.0 meters,

So we see that the allowable load for 2-Span (Suction) is less than the
calculated load at the corners, apart from this all loads calculated are less than
the allowable loads for any number of spans, no further checks are required. It
is important to note that at locations adjacent to skylights and other roof
openings etc. the panel spans should be checked for the number of spans the
panel is spanning and accordingly check the appropriate allowable loads.
145
W I N D L O A D S
Check roof panel fasteners, for 45-250 panel profile, the fasteners are usually
= Spacing of purlins x spacing of fasteners

= 2.00 x 0.25 = 0.50 m2
Referring Table 1.4.6(b) above, considering an enclosed building,
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = -2.98
Edge = -1.98
Interiors = -1.18
All Zones = +0.48
Therefore,
The total load in kN at various zones are given by,

Corners = 0.63 x 2.98 x 0.50 = 0.94 kN
Interiors = 0.63 x 1.98 x 0.50 = 0.62 kN
All Zones = 0.63 x 1.18 x 0.50 = 0.37 kN

Pull-Out (kN) P not / Ω 0.83 1.04 1.25 1.39 1.74
Panel Thk. (t 1 ) mm 0.5 0.7 1.0 - -
Tension (kN) P nt / Ω 1.94 4.52 1.88 3.70 -
P nv /
Shear (kN) 1.64 3.05 1.64 2.52 -
Ω
The values for Pull-Out and Pull-Over needs to be checked, the calculated load at
the corners is more than the allowable for 1.2 mm thk. But generally the end bay
purlins are thicker sections, otherwise spacing of screws should be reduced. Pull
over value is generally more than required because of the 19mm washer bearing
on panel.
146
W I N D L O A D S
Now to we need to calculate the load in kN/m on purlins. Similar to panels we

Span of purlins = Bay spacing of building

= 8550 mm
Tributary width = Span of panels = spacing of purlins

= 2000 mm
Span / 3 = 8550 / 3 = 2850 mm
= 8550 x 2850 / 10002 = 24.37 m2
Table 1.4.6(d)]
Uplift (Suction)
Corners = -1.28
Edge = -1.28
Interiors = -1.08
All Zones = 0.38
Therefore,
= {DL - q h [(GC p ) - (GC pi )]] x spacing of purlins
If the panel and purlin self weight from Table 3.1 chapter 3 = (0.04+0.056)
= 0.096 kN/m2
Uplift (Suction)
Corners & Edge = (0.096 - 0.63 x 1.28) x 2 = -1.42 kN/m
Interiors = (0.096 - 0.63 x 1.08) x 2 = -1.17 kN/m

All Zones = (0.096 + 0.63 x 0.38) x 2 = 0.67 kN/m
Hence the purlins should be designed for all the above loads. The pressure
load of 0.67 kN/m may be ignored, since the combined dead and live load will
usually exceed the above value.
147
W I N D L O A D S
3 2 3 3 2 3 3
3 2
2
2
1 2
2 3
3
3 1
a
2
a
2 1 2 2 1 2 a 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 3 2 3
a a a
Table 1.4.6(c) (7° <= θ < 27° ) (Same as in MBMA 2002, except angle limit from 10 to 7 & 30 to 27)
Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load
Area A (m2)
Corner (3) A <= 0.93 -2.28 -2.65
and 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.70 Log A - 2.26 0.70 Log A - 2.63
Edge (2) A >= 9.30 -1.58 -1.95
A <= 0.93 -1.08 -1.45
A >= 9.30 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 0.68 1.05
A >= 9.30 0.48 0.85
A <= 0.93 -3.70
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 1.20 Log A - 3.66
A >= 9.30 -2.50
Edge (2)
and All Tributary Areas -2.20
Interior (1)
148
W I N D L O A D S
3 2 3 3 2 3 3
3 2
2
2
1 2
3
3
3 1 a
a 2 2
a
2 1 2 2 1 2 a 2
3
a
a
a 3 2 3 3 2 3
a a a
Table 1.4.6(d) (27° <= θ < 45° ) (Same as in MBMA 2002, except angle limit from 30 to 27)
Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load
Area A (m2)
A <= 0.93 -1.38 -1.75
Corner (3) and
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.20 Log A – 1.37 0.20 Log A - 1.74
Edge (2)
A >= 9.30 -1.18 -1.55
A <= 0.93 -1.18 -1.55
Interior (1) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.20 Log A – 1.17 0.20 Log A - 1.54
A >= 9.30 -0.98 -1.35
A <= 0.93 1.08 1.45
A >= 9.30 0.98 1.35
Corner (3) A <= 0.93 -2.00
and 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.20 Log A - 1.99
Edge (2) A >= 9.30 -1.80
149
W I N D L O A D S
See Table 1.4.6(d) for zones

on each gable roof
Table 1.4.6(e) (10° <= θ < 30° ) Multi Span Gable (Same as in MBMA 2002)
Roof Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load
Area A (m2)
A <= 0.93 -2.88 -3.25
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -2.38 -2.75
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.50 Log A - 2.36 0.50 Log A – 2.73
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -1.78 -2.15
A >= 9.30 -1.58 -1.95
A <= 0.93 0.78 1.15
A >= 9.30 0.58 0.95
(30° <= θ < 45° )
Uplift for C & C
A <= 0.93 -2.78 -3.15
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.9 Log A - 2.75 0.90 Log A - 3.12
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -2.68 -3.05
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.80 Log A - 2.65 0.80 Log A - 3.03
A >= 9.30 -1.88 -2.25
A <= 0.93 -2.18 -2.25
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 1.18 1.55
A >= 9.30 0.98 1.35
150
W I N D L O A D S
2 3 2a
4a 3
h
2 1 2
4a
3
2 3 2a
2a 2a
A
Table 1.4.6(f) (3° <= θ < 10° ) for less than 3° refer 1.4.6(b) (Same as in MBMA 2002)
Uplift for C & C
(m2) Buildings
A <= 0.93 -2.78 -3.15
High Side Corner
0.93 < A < 9.30 1.00 Log A - 2.75 1.00 Log A - 3.12
(3')
A >= 9.30 -1.78 -2.15
A <= 0.93 -1.98 -2.35
Low Side Corner
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.60 Log A - 1.96 0.60 Log A - 2.33
(3)
A >= 9.30 -1.38 -1.75
A <= 0.93 -1.78 -2.15
High Side Edge
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.10 Log A - 1.78 0.10 Log A - 2.15
(2')
A >= 9.30 -1.68 -2.05
A <= 0.93 -1.48 -1.85
Low Side Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.10 Log A - 1.48 0.10 Log A - 1.85
A >= 9.30 -1.38 -1.75
Interior (1) All -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 0.48 0.85
A >= 9.30 0.38 0.75
151
W I N D L O A D S
2 a
4a 3
2 1 2 h
A
4a
3
2 a
2a
A
Table 1.4.6(g) (10° <= θ < 30° ) (Same as in MBMA 2002)

Uplift for C & C
Eff. Wind Load Area Partially Enclosed
A (m )
2 Buildings
A <= 0.93 -3.08 -3.45
High Side
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.90 Log A - 3.05 0.90 Log A - 3.42
Corner (3)
A >= 9.30 -2.18 -2.55
A <= 0.93 -1.78 -2.15
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 0.40 Log A - 1.77 0.40 Log A - 2.14
A >= 9.30 -1.38 -1.75
A <= 0.93 -1.48 -1.85
A >= 9.30 -1.28 -1.65
A <= 0.93 0.58 0.95
A >= 9.30 0.48 0.85
152
W I N D L O A D S
2 3 a
2a 3
h
a a
2 1 2
A
2a 3
2 3 a
2a
A
Table 1.4.6(h) (Same as in MBMA 2002)

Saw Tooth Roof Coefficients Equations [(GC p ) - (GC pi )] w / internal pressure included
Uplift for C & C
(m )
2 Buildings
A <= 0.93 -4.28 -4.65
0.93 < A < 9.30 0.40 Log A - 4.26 0.40 Log A - 4.63
Span A Corner (3)
9.30 < A < 46.5 2.289 Log A - 6.10 2.289 Log A - 6.47
A >= 46.5 -2.28 -2.65
A <= 0.93 -2.78 -3.15
Spans
9.30 < A < 46.5 1.001 Log A - 3.75 1.001 Log A - 4.12
B,C & D Corner(3)
A >= 46.5 -2.08 -2.45
A <= 0.93 -3.38 -3.75
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 46.5 0.942 Log A - 3.35 0.942 Log A - 3.72
A >= 46.5 -1.78 -2.15
A <= 0.93 -2.38 -2.75
A >= 46.5 -1.28 -1.65
Downward C & C
A <= 0.93 0.98 1.35
Corner (3) 0.93 < A < 9.30 -0.10 Log A - 0.98 -0.10 Log A - 1.35
A >= 9.30 0.88 1.25
A <= 0.93 1.28 1.65
Edge (2) 0.93 < A < 9.30 -0.30 Log A - 1.27 -0.30 Log A - 1.64
A >= 9.30 0.98 1.35
A <= 0.93 0.88 1.25
Interior (1) 0.93 < A < 46.5 -0.177 Log A - 0.88 -0.177 Log A - 1.25
A >= 46.5 0.58 0.95
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Frequently Used Coefficients for Gabled Metal Buildings θ <= 10°

Partially
Location Members Zone Load Type Enclosed
Enclosed
Pressure 0.38 0.75
Interior
Purlins Pressure 0.38 0.75
Edge
A >= 9.3 Suction -1.28 -1.65
Corner
Members Pressure 0.48 0.85
Roof Interior
Suction -1.18 -1.55
Panels &
Pressure 0.48 0.85
Fasteners Edge
A >= 0.93 Suction -1.98 -2.35
Corner
Suction -2.98 -3.35
Pressure 0.93 1.30
Interior
Wall Girts Suction -1.10 -1.40
A = 9.3 m2 Pressure 0.93 1.30
Corner
Wall Suction -1.12 -1.40
Members Wall Pressure 1.08 1.45
Interior
Panels & Suction -1.17 -1.54
Fasteners Pressure 1.08 1.45
A <= 0.93 Corner
m2 Suction -1.44 -1.81
Purlins & Interior -1.60 -1.60
Beams Edge -1.60 -1.60
A = 9.3 m2 Corner -0.80 -0.80
Roof
Panels & Interior Uplift -1.70 -1.70
Overhang
Fasteners Edge -1.70 -1.70
A <= 0.93
Corner -2.80 -2.80
m2
Pressure 0.88 1.25
Columns Interior
Suction -0.96 -1.34
A = 18.75
Corner
Suction -1.03 -1.40
End Pressure 0.38 0.75
Interior
Frames Suction -1.08 -1.45
Rafters
Pressure 0.38 0.75
A >= 9.3 Edge
m2 Suction -1.28 -1.65
Pressure 0.38 0.75
Corner
Suction -1.28 -1.65
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MBMA Recommendation for Open Buildings – (C & C)

New provisions were introduced into ASCE 7-05 (Section 6.5.13.3) for the
components and cladding elements on open buildings. The net design pressure
is determined from the following equation
Eqn. 6-26 ASCE 7-05 p = qh G CN kN/m2
where,
q h = velocity pressure.
G = gust effect factor which shall be taken as 0.85 for rigid structures.
 C N = Net pressure coefficient from ASCE 7-05 Figures 6-19A to 6-19C.
The above figures in ASCE 7-05 are for monosloped roofs, gable, roofs, and
troughed roofs. Net pressure coefficients are given for two cases,
MBMA 06
Section
1) Where there is clear wind flow through the building.
1.3.4.6.1

2) Where there is obstructed wind flow.
Obstructed wind flow occurs when objects below the roof produce greater than
50% blockage of the wind flow through the building.
However, the ASCE 7-05 provisions only apply to the roof surfaces. Some open
buildings might have partially clad walls which should be factored into the total
wind loads. Figure 1.3.4.5(e) has the MBMA recommendations for wall surfaces
for open metal buildings.
It is important to note that the ASCE 7-05 provisions in Figure 6-19 have lower
and upper limits on the ratio (h/L) i.e. the mean roof height to the horizontal
dimension of roof measured in the along wind direction. Therefore the MBMA
recommendation for determinng pressure coefficients for components and
cladding for building aspect ratios that fall outside the (h/L) limits are as follows:
Walls: Use the pressure from Tables 1.3.4.5(a)

Roofs: Use the greater of,
1) Pressure coefficient from Tables 1.3.4.5(a) multiplied 1.25 times, or
2) The appropriate overhang coefficient from Tables 1.3.4.6(b) through
1.3.4.6(d).
This is consistent with previous editions of MBMA Low-Rise Building Systems

Manual.
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Example
Using the Example 5.7 values,
h/L = 7500 / 76950 = 0.0975 < 0.25
Hence ASCE 7-05 coefficients cannot be applied.
Using MBMA Recommendations
The wall coefficients are referred from Table 1.3.4.5(a), for slope 0° <=θ<=10°
= 0.75 for all walls
Therefore, the coefficients for wall panel is given as,

Loads
All Zones = 0.63 x -0.75 = -0.47 kN/m2
Similarly, for Fasteners,

Loads
All Zones = 0.63 x -0.75 x 0.50 = -0.24 kN
Similarly, for girts,

Loads
All Zones = 0.63 x -0.75 x 2.00 = -0.94 kN/m
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The roof coefficients are greater of,

Referring Table 1.4.5(b) building type “Open” and multiplied by 1.25,
= 0.50 x 1.25 = 0.625
OR
The appropriate overhang coefficients from Tables 1.4.6(b) through 1.4.6(d).
Referring Table 1.4.6(b) for roof panels
Coefficients
= 2.00 Log (2.0) – 2.74 = -2.14
= 0.10 Log (2.0) – 1.70 = -1.67
Loads
Corners = 0.63 x -2.14 = -1.35 kN/m2
Edge & Interior = 0.63 x -1.67 = -1.05 kN/m2
Similarly, for fasteners of open buildings, Tributary area as calculated above,

Coefficients
Corners = -2.80
Edge & Interior = -1.70
Load
Corners = 0.63 x -2.80 x 0.50 = -0.88 kN
Edge & Interior = 0.63 x -1.70 x 0.50 = -0.54 kN
Similarly, for purlins of open buildings, tributary area as calculated above,

Coefficients
Corners = -0.80
= 0.715 Log (24.37) – 2.29 = -1.30
Load
Corners = 0.63 x -0.80 x 2.00 = -1.01
Edge & Interior = 0.63 x -1.30 x 2.00 = -1.64
As we can see most of the time, the roof overhang coefficient will apply for
components and cladding of an open building.
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MBMA Recommendation for Parapets – (C & C)

The components and cladding elements of parapets shall be designed as given in
ASCE 7-05 Section 6.5.12.4.4 by the following equation
Eqn. 6-24 ASCE 7-05 p = q p (GC p - GC pi ) kN/m2
where,
 GC p =
GC pi =
external pressure coefficients from Figures 6-11 to 6-15 ASCE 7-05
internal pressure coefficients from Figure 6-5 ASCE 7-05
MBMA 02
MBMA 2006 [Table 1.3.4.6(a) through 1.3.4.6(h) ].
Section 1.4.6.2

Internal pressure only needs to be considered if the construction detail permits
the building’s internal pressure to propagate into the parapet cavity. If the
internal pressure is present, both load cases should be evaluated under positive
and negative internal pressure.
Example

The calculated the Velocity pressure at the top of parapet
Velocity Pressure q p = 0.642 kN/m2
Referring to Table 1.3.4.6(a), since the roof slope is less than 10°, 10% reduced
coefficients will apply, generally the girts in the parapet framing are simply
supported hence the spacing is considerably reduced. Let us assume a girt
spacing of 900 mm, and then the tributary area of panels is given as,

Coefficients
Corners = -1.44
Interior = -1.17
Loads
Corners = 0.642 x -1.44 = -0.93 kN/m2
Interior = 0.642 x -1.17 = -0.75 kN/m2
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Similarly, for fasteners of parapet wall panels, tributary area as calculated

above,
Coefficients
Corners = -1.44
Interior = -1.17
Load
Corners = 0.642 x -1.44 x 0.50 = -0.46 kN
Interior = 0.642 x -1.17 x 0.50 = -0.38 kN
Similarly, for girts supporting parapet wall panels, tributary area is,
OR
= 8.55 x 8.55 / 3 = 24.37 m2
Hence Tributary area = 24.37 m 2
Coefficients
Corners = 0.318 Log A – 1.43
= 0.318 Log (24.37) – 1.43 = -0.99
Edge & Interior = 0.159 Log A - 1.16
= 0.159 Log (24.37) – 1.16 = -0.94
Load
Corners = 0.642 x -0.99 x 0.90 = -0.57 kN/m
Edge & Interior = 0.642 x -0.94 x 0.90 = -0.54 kN/m
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Internal Pressure Reduction Factor (R i ) for large volume buildings.

A reduction factor for internal pressure in large volume buildings is specified in
ASCE 7-05 section 6.5.11.1.1. If this reduction is utilized, it is applied to the
internal pressure coefficient and not the combined coefficients as provided.
Lateral Drift of Frames

Many metal building systems are designed with moment resisting frames
aligned in the transverse direction to resist lateral loading. Experience has shown
that the lateral drift of the frames under wind loading is far “LESS” than
predicted by the usual static analytical procedures. The calculation of the lateral
drift of a building frame (side sway) is normally based on a bare frame with no
walls and roof. The wind load is applied as a static force and the calculated drift
is often unexpectedly large. It is recognized by most international codes that the
actual drift is considerably less. For more information see MBMA 2006 section
1.4.8.
Finally it should be noted that deflection is a serviceability criterion rather than a

strength consideration and as such poses less hazard and risk to life and
property. A number of international codes have recognized this fact and specify
different return periods, or probability factors, to be used for serviceability
requirements. In fact IBC 2006 recognizes this as specified by the 0.70 reduction
factor of Note (f) in Table 1604.3. Thus MBMA 06 suggests an approx. conversion
from 50 year design wind to the 10 year return period is 0.70.
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BS 6399 - 2: 1997
Definition
Section 1.8 1) Design Method
‘Standard method’ which uses a simplified procedure to obtain a standard

effective wind speed which is used with standard pressure co-efficient to
determined the wind loads for orthogonal design cases.
(This procedure is virtually the same as in CP3 : Chapter V: part 2)
Section 1.6.1 2) Dynamic Augmentation Factor ( Cr )
The methods of this standard employ equivalent static loads to represent the
effect of fluctuating loads which is applicable only to buildings which are not
susceptible to dynamic excitation.
The standard permits equivalent static loads to be used for the design of mildly
dynamic structures by the introduction of a dynamic augmentation factor. The
value of this factor depends upon the actual height H of the building above
ground and on a building-type factor (Kb) obtained from table below, for the form
of construction of the building.
Table 1 Building Type Factor Kb Kb

Welded Steel Unclad Frames 8
Bolted Steel and Reinforced Concrete Unclad Structures 4
Portal Sheds and Similar Light Structures 2
Framed Buildings with Structural Walls around lifts and stairs only
1
(e.g. Office Buildings)
Framed buildings with structural walls around lifts and stairs with
0.5
additional masonry subdivision walls (e.g. Apartments etc.)
This Part of BS 6399 does not apply when the value of dynamic augmentation
factor exceeds the limits shown in figure 3 below. Buildings falling outside these
limits should be assessed using established dynamic methods.
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The dynamic augmentation factor (Cr) is given for typical buildings in figure
below,
Section 1.7 3) Site exposure
The site wind speed (Vs) refers to a standard open country exposure at a height of
10 m above ground. To obtain the effective wind speed the effects of varying
ground roughness, the height and distance of obstructions upwind of the site and
the effects of topography should be taken into account.
Section 1.7.2 4) Ground Roughness Categories
Three categories of terrain are considered,
a) Sea:- The sea, and inland areas of water extending more than 1 km in
the wind direction when closer than 1 km upwind of the site.
b) Country: - All terrain which is not defined as sea or town.
c) Town:- Built up areas not less than 0.1 km upwind of the site with an
average level of roof tops at least Ho = 5 m above ground level.
Permanent forest and woodlands may be treated as town category.
For more information see Annex E of the code.
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Section 1.7.3 5) Reference height ( Hr )
The reference height (Hr) ( m ) is defined for the building form in the appropriate
pressure coefficient tables and definition figures, but can conservatively be taken
as the maximum height of the building above ground level.
Section 1.7.3 6) Effective height ( He )
The effective height (He) ( m ) may be conservatively taken as the reference height
( Hr )
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Section 1.7.3 7) Average height ( Ho )
The average height ( Ho ) ( m ) is the average level of roof tops of the buildings or
height of other permanent obstructions upwind of the site.
Section 1.7.3 8) Upwind Spacing ( Xo )
This is the distance ( Xo ) ( m ) of the structure from the nearest obstructing

building.
Section 1.7.3 9) Displacement height (Hd )
Displacement height (Hd ) ( m ) is the height of buildings or other permanent

obstructions upwind of the site displace the wind upwards, providing shelter
near the ground.
a) Hd = 0.8 Ho for Xo <= 2 Ho
b) Hd = 1.2 Ho – 0.2 Xo for 2 Ho < Xo < 6 Ho
c) Hd = 0 for Xo >= 6 Ho
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Section 2.2.1 10) Basic wind speed ( Vb )
The Hourly Mean Wind Speed (m/sec) with an annual risk Q of being exceeded
of 0.02, irrespective of wind direction, at a height of 10 m over completely flat
terrain at sea level that would occur if the roughness of the terrain was uniform
everywhere (including urban areas, inland lakes and the sea) and equivalent to
typical open country in the United Kingdom.
The hourly mean wind speed will be usually specified by the customer /
consultant.
It is important to know is the wind speed being specified by the customer /

consultant.
If 3 second gust wind speed is specified and wind loads are to applied as per BS
6399, then to get the mean hourly wind speed it should be multiplied by 0.65.
Say the wind speed is given as 3 second gust = 160 kmph.
Mean Hourly Wind Speed = 160 x 0.65
= 104 kmph.
= 28.89 m/sec
Similarly,
If the wind speed is given as fastest mile = 160 kmph.
Mean Hourly Wind Speed = 160 x 0.77
= 123 kmph.
= 34.17 m/sec
And so on for other measuring systems.
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Section 2.2.2.2 11) Altitude Factor ( Sa )
The altitude factor Sa ( m ) should be used to adjust the basic wind speed Vb for
the altitude of the site above sea level.
When topography is not considered significant, should be calculated from
Eqn. 9 Sa = 1 + 0.001Ds
When topography is considered significant, Sa taken as the greater of,
Eqn. 10 Sa = 1 + 0.001Ds,
Eqn. 11 Sa = 1 + 0.001DT + 1.2 ye s
where,
Ds - is the site altitude above sea level in meters;
DT - is the altitude of the upwind base of significant topography;
ye - is the effective slope of the topographic feature;
s - is the topographic location factor;
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Section 2.2.2.3 12) Direction factor ( Sd )
The direction factor Sd may be used to adjust the basic wind speed to produce
wind speeds with the same risk of being exceeded in any wind direction.
If the orientation of the building is unknown or ignored, the value of the direction
factor should be taken as Sd = 1.00 for all directions.
Section 2.2.2.4 13) Seasonal factor ( Ss )
The seasonal factor Ss may be used to reduce the basic wind speed for buildings
which are expected to be exposed to the wind for specific sub-annual periods, in
particular for temporary works and buildings during construction.
For permanent buildings and buildings exposed to the wind for a continuous
period of more than 6 months, use Ss = 1.00.
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Section 2.2.2.5 14) Probability factor ( Sp )
A probability factor Sp may be used to change the risk of the basic wind speed
being exceeded from the standard value of Q = 0.02 annually, or in the stated sub-
annual period if Ss is also used. Equation D.1 gives Sp together with a number of
values for other levels of risk.
For all normal design applications, where adjustments for risk are made through
the partial factors, the standard value of risk; Q = 0.02, is used and Sp = 1.00
Section 2.2.2 15) Site wind speed ( Vs )
The basic wind speed modified to account for the altitude of the site and the
direction of the wind being considered (and the season of exposure, if required).
NOTE. In the standard method only effects of topographic features are included
in the site wind speed Ve ( m/sec ).
Eqn. 8 Vs = Vb Sa Sd Ss Sp
Table 4 Terrain Factor Sb for standard method

Site in country or upto 2 km into Site in town, extending >= 2
Effective town km upwind from the site
Height
Closest distance to sea upwind in kms
He
<= 0.1 2 10 >= 100 2 10 >= 100
<= 2 1.48 1.40 1.35 1.26 1.18 1.15 1.07
5 1.65 1.62 1.57 1.45 1.50 1.45 1.36
10 1.78 1.78 1.73 1.62 1.73 1.69 1.58
15 1.85 1.85 1.82 1.71 1.85 1.82 1.71
20 1.90 1.90 1.89 1.77 1.90 1.89 1.77
30 1.96 1.96 1.96 1.85 1.96 1.96 1.85
50 2.04 2.04 2.04 1.95 2.04 2.04 1.95
100 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.07 2.12 2.12 2.07
Interpolation may be used within each table
Value assume a diagonal dimension ‘a’ = 5 m
If He > 100 m use the directional method of section 3
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Section 2.2.3 16) Effective wind speed ( Ve )
The effective wind speed Ve (m/sec) should be calculated from:
Eqn. 12 Ve = Vb Sa Sd Ss Sp Sb = Vs Sb
17) Dynamic Wind Pressure ( qs )

Section 2.1.2
The value of the dynamic pressure (qs) (N/m2 or Pa) of the standard method is
given by,
Eqn. 1 qs = 0.613 Ve 2
Section 2.1.3.4 18) Size effect factor ( Ca )
The size effect factor (Ca) of the standard method accounts for the non-
simultaneous action of gusts across an external surface and for the response of
internal pressures. Values of size effect factor are given in figure 4 below,
dependent on the site exposure (see site exposure category) and the diagonal
dimension ‘a’.
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Figure 4 of the code is approximately converted into a table form as below,

intermediate values may be interpolated.
Diagonal
A B C
Dimension 'a'
1 1.000 1.000 1.000
2 1.000 1.000 1.000
3 1.000 1.000 1.000
4 1.000 1.000 1.000
5 1.000 1.000 1.000
6 0.988 0.985 0.985
7 0.980 0.975 0.970
8 0.970 0.965 0.960
9 0.965 0.958 0.948
10 0.958 0.950 0.940
20 0.915 0.895 0.875
30 0.888 0.865 0.838
40 0.870 0.845 0.813
50 0.855 0.825 0.790
60 0.845 0.815 0.775
70 0.835 0.803 0.760
80 0.828 0.793 0.750
90 0.820 0.785 0.740
100 0.815 0.775 0.730
200 0.770 0.725 0.668
300 0.745 0.695 0.630
400 0.728 0.670 0.605
500 0.713 0.655 0.585
600 0.703 0.640 0.568
700 0.693 0.630 0.555
800 0.685 0.620 0.540
900 0.678 0.610 0.530
1000 0.673 0.605 0.525
For external pressures the diagonal dimension (a) is the largest diagonal of the
area over which load sharing takes place, as illustrated in figure 5.
This manual is using (Cae) and (Cai) for External and Internal Size Effect Factor
respectively.
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For external pressures an effective diagonal dimension ‘a’ is defined in section on

internal pressure which is dependent on the internal volume. For all individual
structural components, cladding units. and their fixings, the diagonal dimension
should be taken as ( a =5 m ), unless there is adequate load sharing capacity to
justify the use of a diagonal length greater than 5 m.
Section 2.1.3.1 19) External surface pressure ( pe )

The pressure acting on the external surface of a building is given by,
Eqn. 2 pe = qs Cpe Ca
Section 2.1.3.2 20) Internal surface pressure ( pi )

Eqn. 3 pi = qs Cpi Ca
Section 2.1.3.3 21) Net surface pressure ( p )

Eqn. 4 p = pe - pi
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Section 2.4.1.3 22) Scaling Length ( b ) (Width of End Zone)

The scaling length ( b ) along a wall (Side face) parallel to the wind direction is
taken as the smaller of (B) or (2H). The loaded zones on the side face should be
divided into vertical strips from the upwind edge of the face with the dimensions
shown in figure 12.
Example
Given:-
Metal Building (Portal Sheds and Similar Light Structures)
Eave Height = 8500 mm = 8.5 m
Building location = Country
Site Altitude Ds = 20 meters above sea level.
3 Second gust wind = 160 kmph = 44.44 m/sec
Calculate the dynamic wind pressure (qs)
Referring to table 1, building type factor (Kb) = 2 and referring figure 3 the
Dynamic augmentation factor (Cr) = 0.055 approximately.
Assuming, topography is not significant, hence altitude factor

(Sa) = 1 + 0.001Ds = 1 + 0.001 x 20 = 1.02
Direction Factor (Sd) = 1.00, since the wind direction is unknown

Seasonal Factor (Ss) = 1.00
Probability Factor (Sp) = 1.00
Basic wind speed (Vb) (Mean hourly wind speed)

= 44.44 x 0.65 = 28.89 m/sec
Site wind speed (Vs) = Vb Sa Sd Ss Sp

= 28.89 x 1.02 x 1.00 x 1.00 x 1.00
= 29.47
Terrain and building factor (Sb) from Table 4 above,

= 1.632
Effective wind speed = Vs Sb

Ve = 29.47 x 1.632 = 48.09 m/sec
Dynamic wind pressure (qs)

= 0.613 Ve 2 = 0.613 x 48.092 = 1417 N/m2
= 1.418 kN/m2
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Section 2.4 External Pressure Coefficients (Cpe) for Walls
External pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings or

elements are given in table 5.
Table 5, External pressure coefficients Cpe for vertical walls

Span ratio of building Exposure Case
Vertical Wall Face Vertical Wall Face
D/H <= 1 D/H >= 4 Isolated Funnelling
Windward (front) 0.85 0.60 Side Zone A -1.30 -1.60
Leeward (rear) -0.50 -0.50 Zone B -0.80 -0.90
Zone C -0.50 -0.90
Interpolation may be used in the range 1<D/H<4, for funnelling interpolation, see funnelling section
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Section 2.4.1.4 Funnelling
Where walls of two adjacent buildings face each other and the gap between them
is less than the scaling length ( b ) , funnelling will occur and accelerate the flow
and make the pressure coefficient more negative. The values for Isolated and
Funnelling are given in Table 5 above and are to be applied as follows,
a) Where the gap between the buildings is less than (b/4) or greater than scaling
length ‘b’, the isolated values should be used.
b) Where the gap between buildings is greater than (b/4) and less than (b)
1) either use the funnelling values, conservatively
Or
2) take the funnelling values to apply at a gap width of (b/2) and the
isolated values to apply at gap widths of (b/4) and at (b), and interpolate
linearly between these values for the actual gap width in the range from
(b/4) to (b/2) or the range from (b/2) to (b).
c) Where the two buildings are sheltered by upwind buildings such that the
effective height for the lower of the two buildings is (0.4Hr) funnelling may be
disregarded.
d) The values of table 5 are valid for non-vertical walls within ±15° of the vertical.
For buildings with re-entrant corners, recessed bays or internal walls, see BS-6399
section 2.4.3.
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Section 2.5 External Pressure Coefficients for Roof
Section 2.5.1 a) Flat Roofs:-
The data in this section should be used for all roofs of slope (a) less than 5°.
Pressure coefficients are given for the orthogonal load cases and are upper bound
values to cater for all wind directions θ±45° from normal to the eaves being
considered.
Loaded Zones for flat roof (End Zones):- The roof should be subdivided into
zones behind each upwind eave/verge (gable) as shown in figure 16 for a
rectangular roof. The loaded zones, shown in figure 16, are defined in terms of the
scaling length (b) given by (b =B) or (b = 2H), whichever is the smaller, where (B)
is the crosswind breadth of the building, which is equal to (W) or (L), depending
on the wind direction being considered, as defined in figure 16a, and (H) is the
height of the wall, including any parapet.
Zones in a Flat Roof for Wind Left, Right and End
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Table 8 External pressure coefficients Cpe for Flat Roof

Flat Roof Type A B C D
Sharp Eaves -2.00 -1.40 -0.70 ±0.20
0.05 -1.90 -1.30 -0.70 ±0.20
Parapet h/b 0.10 -1.85 -1.30 -0.70 ±0.20
>= 0.2 -1.40 -1.00 -0.70 ±0.20
0.05 -1.05 -1.20 -0.40 ±0.20
Curved Eaves r/b 0.10 -0.75 -0.80 -0.30 ±0.20
0.20 -0.55 -0.55 -0.30 ±0.20
30 -0.95 -1.00 -0.30 ±0.20
Mansard Eaves a 45 -1.20 -1.30 -0.40 ±0.20
60 -1.35 -1.25 -0.60 ±0.20
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Section 2.5.2 b) Mono-pitch and Duo-pitch roofs:-
These are roofs of buildings with gable ends.

Loaded zones for Mono-pitch and Duo-pitch :- Zones over which the external
pressure coefficient is assumed to be constant for both mono-pitch and duo-pitch
roofs are shown in figures 19 and 20. These zones are strips parallel to the eaves
and verge (gable) and are defined in terms of the scaling lengths ‘bL’ and ‘bw’
Where,
(bw) = L OR (bw) = 2H whichever is the smaller, and
(bw) = W OR (bw) = 2H whichever is the smaller.
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Table 9 External Pressure Coefficients Cpe for Monoslope

wind angle θ = 0 wind angle θ = 90 wind angle θ = 180
Roof Angle a
A B C AU AL B C D A B C
-1.80 -1.20 -0.60 -2.20 -2.10 -1.10 -0.70 -0.70 -2.40 -1.10 -0.80
5°
- - - - - - - - - - -
-1.10 -0.80 -0.40 -2.60 -1.60 -1.10 -0.80 -0.80 -2.60 -1.00 -0.90
15°
0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 - - -
-0.50 -0.50 -0.20 -1.70 -1.30 -1.20 -1.00 -0.80 -1.70 -1.00 -0.90
30°
0.80 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 - - -
- - - -1.50 -1.30 -1.20 -1.00 -0.90 -0.90 -0.80 -0.90
45°
0.80 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 - - -
- - - -1.20 -1.20 -1.20 -0.40 -0.20 -1.00 -0.70 -0.70
60°
0.80 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.50 0.50 - - -
- - - -1.20 -1.20 -1.20 -0.40 -0.20 -1.10 -0.70 -0.70
75°
0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.60 - - -
Interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used between values with the same sign
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Section 2.5.2.4 c) Duo-pitch roofs
Loaded zones for Wind Left and Wind Right
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Table 10 External Pressure coefficients Cpe for Duo-Pitch

wind angle θ = 0 wind angle θ = 90
Roof Angle a
A B C E F G A B C D
-0.90 -0.80 -0.90 -1.10 -0.70 -0.70 -1.50 -1.30 -1.00 -0.90
-45°
- - - - - - - - - -
-1.70 -1.00 -0.90 -0.80 -0.70 -0.70 -1.70 -1.30 -1.00 -0.80
-30°
- - - - - - - - - -
-2.60 -1.00 -0.90 -0.70 -0.50 -0.50 -2.60 -1.40 -0.80 -0.80
-15°
- - - - - - - - - -
-2.40 -1.20 -0.80 -0.50 -0.30 -0.50 -2.20 -1.50 -0.70 -0.70
-5°
- - - - - - - - - -
-1.80 -1.20 -0.60 -0.90 -0.30 -0.40 -2.00 -1.10 -0.60 -0.50
5°
- - - -0.90 -0.30 -0.40 - - - -
-1.10 -0.80 -0.40 -1.30 -0.90 -0.50 -1.60 -1.50 -0.60 -0.40
15°
0.20 0.20 0.20 -1.30 -0.90 -0.50 - - - -
-0.50 -0.50 -0.20 -0.90 -0.50 -0.50 -1.20 -1.10 -0.60 -0.50
30°
0.80 0.50 0.40 -0.90 -0.50 -0.50 - - - -
- - - -0.40 -0.30 -0.30 -1.20 -1.20 -0.60 -0.40
45°
0.80 0.60 0.70 -0.40 -0.30 -0.30 - - - -
0.80 0.80 0.80 -0.80 -0.70 -0.60 -1.20 -1.20 -0.70 -0.60
60°
- - - - - - - - - -
0.80 0.80 0.80 -0.90 -0.60 -0.80 -1.20 -1.20 -1.15 -0.60
75°
- - - - - - - - - -
Interpolation is not permitted between angles +5° and -5°, data for flat roof should be used
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Section 2.5.3 d) Hipped roofs
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Table 11 External Pressure for Hipped Roof

wind angle θ = 0 and θ = 90
Roof Angle a
A B C E F G H I J
-1.40 -1.00 -1.00 -0.70 -0.40 -0.70 -1.10 -1.00 -0.90
45°
- - - - - - - - -
-2.30 -1.20 -1.00 -1.30 -0.80 -0.70 -1.00 -1.00 -0.80
60°
- - - - - - - - -
-2.60 -1.00 -0.90 -1.40 -1.30 -0.60 -0.90 -0.90 -0.80
75°
- - - - - - - - -
-2.30 -1.10 -0.80 -0.80 -0.60 -0.60 -1.10 -0.80 -0.80
85°
- - - - - - - - -
-1.80 -1.20 -0.60 -0.80 -0.60 -0.60 -1.10 -0.60 -0.60
95°
- - - - - - - - -
-1.30 -0.80 -0.50 -1.40 -1.30 -0.60 -0.90 -0.60 -0.40
105°
0.20 0.20 0.20 -1.40 -1.30 -0.60 - - -
-0.50 -0.50 -0.20 -1.30 -0.80 -0.60 -1.00 -0.60 -0.50
120°
0.80 0.50 0.40 -1.30 -0.80 -0.60 - - -
- - - -0.70 -0.40 -0.40 -1.10 -1.15 -0.40
135°
0.80 0.60 0.70 -0.70 -0.40 -0.40 - - -
- - - -0.60 -0.30 -0.70 -1.20 -0.70 -0.60
150°
0.80 0.80 0.80 - - - - - -
- - - -0.60 -0.30 -1.20 -1.20 -0.50 -0.60
165°
0.80 0.80 0.80 - - - - - -
Interpolation is not permitted between angles +5° and -5°, data for flat roof should be used
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Section 2.5.4 e) Mansard roofs
Mansard roofs
External pressure coefficients for mansard roofs and other multi-pitch roofs
should be derived for each plane face by the procedure similar to mono-pitch or
duo-pitch given in table 9 and 10 or the procedure for hipped roof given in table
11 using the pitch angle for each plane face. The key in figure 22 indicates where
edge zones should be omitted.
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Section 2.5.5 f) Multi-bay roofs

External pressure coefficients on downwind bays of mono-pitch and duo-pitch
multi-bay roofs as defined in figure 23 may conservatively be taken to be the same
as for a single-bay roof.
However, reduced values of external pressure coefficients may be derived from

table 9 or table 10, as appropriate, as follows:
a) For mono-pitch roofs as shown in figure 23a), any positive pressure coefficient
obtained from table 9 should be replaced on the second and any subsequent
downwind bays by Cpe = -0.4.
b) For unequal-pitch duo-pitch roofs, all roof slopes downwind of the first ridge
should be treated as being troughed (negative pitch angle), even when the upwind
slope is ridged as shown in figure 23(b), so that the local coefficients behind each
ridge are given by the more onerous A and B eave zones for negative pitch angles.
c) For equal-pitch duo-pitch roofs, all roof slopes downwind of the upward slope
should be treated as alternatively downwind ridged (positive pitch angle) and
troughed (negative pitch angle) as shown in figures 23(c) and (d), so that the local
coefficients behind each ridge are given by the less onerous E and F ridge zones for
positive pitch angles.
NOTE. The provisions of c) above may be applied to unequal-pitch duo-pitch roofs

when the pitch angles differ by less than 10°.
For winds from θ =0° and θ =180°, in all the above cases, a further reduction in
external pressure may be obtained by applying the reduction factors of table 12 to
the second and subsequent downwind bays.
Table 12 - Reduction factor for multi-bay roofs

All remaining
Bay Upwind bay Second bay
bays
Reduction factor 1.00 0.80 0.60
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Section 2.7 g) Pressure coefficients for elements (For Open framing stuctures)
(This is not applicable for Secondaries such as purlins, girts, panels etc.)
General:- This section deals with the pressure coefficients of elements of small
crosswind breadth, typically 200 mm attached to buildings. For sharp-edged
shapes the pressure coefficients remain approximately constant over the whole
range of wind speeds likely to be encountered. However, for circular sections the.
pressure coefficients vary with wind speed and diameter. For circular elements
whose diameter is greater than about 200 mm the values in this section are
conservative.
Individual sections:- Net pressure coefficients (Cp) for long circular and sharp-
edged sections, such as rolled steel sections, plate girders, box sections, beams
and circular tubes with the long axis normal to the wind are given in table 20.
These net pressure coefficients should be taken to act on the projected area
normal to the wind.
Table 20 - Net pressure coefficients Cp for long elements

Element Type Cp
Circular Sections 1.20
Sharp edged sections 0.20
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Lattices structure or framing:- Conservative estimates of the loading on open

lattices or structure can be determined by summing the loads on individual
members using ‘Pressure coefficients for elements’. The length (L) between free
ends should be taken as the length of each element, i.e. the length between nodes
of the lattice. When the lattice is dense or shielded, as with multiple lattices
frames, the degree of conservatism can be large.
Loads on unclad building frames:- The loads cannot exceed the loads on the
fully clad building, except when the building is very long and the wind is skewed
about θ=30° to the long axis. A simplified method of calculating the wind loads on
unclad building frames which accounts properly for the shielding effects is given
in reference [7] and a full method given in reference [6] of BS-6399.
Roof overhangs
Small overhangs:- If the width or projection of overhang is less than ‘b/10’ it is
considered as small overhangs. Where ‘b’ is the scaling length.
The net pressure (Cp) across a small roof overhang should be calculated taking the
pressure coefficient on the upper surface from table 9 to 11 as appropriate, and the
pressure coefficient on the lower surface as that on the adjacent wall from table 5.
Large overhangs:- If the width or projection of overhangs is equal to or more than

(b/10) then it is considered as large overhang. Large overhangs should be treated
as open-sided buildings, with internal pressure coefficients determined using the
table 18.
Canopies
Free-standing canopies:- Net pressure coefficients (Cp) for free-standing canopy

roofs are given in tables 13, 14 and 15, which take account of the combined effect
of the wind on both upper and lower surfaces of the canopy for all wind
directions.
Canopies attached to buildings:- Pressures on canopies attached to buildings

depend on the shape and size of the building, the location of the canopy and on
the surrounding buildings.
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Fascia and parapet walls
Fascia:- Fascia loads should be calculated on the area of the surface facing the wind
using a net pressure coefficient of
Cp =1.30 on the windward fascia/gable and
Cp = 0.60 on the leeward fascia/gable
Free-standing walls and parapets:- Values of net pressure coefficients (Cp) for free-
standing walls and parapets, with or without return corners, are given in table 21
appropriate to the zones shown in figure 26 for two values of solidity (z = 1) refers
to solid walls, while (z = 0.8) refers to walls which are 80% solid and 20% open.
Where (h) is the height of the wall or parapets.
Table 21 – Net pressure coefficients Cp for free standing walls and parapets
Zones
Solidity Walls
A B C D
z = 1.00 With return corners 3.4 2.1 1.7 1.2
With return corners >= 1h 2.1 1.8 1.4 1.2
z = 0.80 All 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Note:- Interpolation may be used for return corner lengths between zero and h
The high values near the free end or return corners of solid walls (zones A and B)
occur when the wind is blowing at θ =45° onto that end. Moderate porosity in this
region, i.e. solidity (z = 0.8) reduces these high loads to the values in zone D.
Interpolation for solidity may be used in the range (0.8 < z < 1). For porous walls
and fences with solidity less than 0.8, coefficients should be derived as for plane
lattice frames (unclad framing).
The net pressure coefficients (Cp) in zones A,B and C can be reduced when the wall
or parapet length (L) is less than (15h). A reduction factor (k) given in Table 21a
may be applied to these zones. The value of (Cpk) should not be taken as less than
1.2. Where free standing wall abut other structures such that there is no free end, a
value of (Cp) = 1.2
L/h Reduction Factor (k)

<= 3 0.60
5 0.70
10 0.90
>= 15 1.00
Effect of parapets on pitched roofs:- Parapets reduce the high suction in the edge
zones around the periphery of the roof and neglecting these effects will give a
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conservative result for roof pitches less than (a = 30°). For steeper roofs, the effects
of parapets should be taken into account by using the procedure given in section
3.3.3.7 of the code.
Frictional drag force
Walls:- Friction forces should be calculated for long walls with ‘D>b’ when the
wind is parallel to the wall. The frictional drag coefficient should be assumed to act
over all zone ‘C’ of such walls, with values as given in table 6. The resulting
frictional forces should be added to the normal forces.
Roofs:- Frictional forces should be considered on long roofs away from the upwind
edges. The resulting frictional drag coefficient should be assumed to act over zone
‘D’ on flat roofs (see figure 16) for all wind directions; and over zone ‘D ‘for mono-
pitch or duo-pitch roofs (see figures 19 and 20 and zone ‘J’ for hipped roofs in figure
21) only when the wind is parallel to the ridge. Values of frictional drag coefficient
should be obtained from table 6 and the resulting frictional forces shall be
combined with the normal pressure forces.
Table 6 Frictional Drag Coefficients

Frictional Drag
Type of Surface
Coefficient ( Cf )
Smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind
0.01
direction
Surfaces with corrugations across the wind direction 0.02
Surfaces with ribs across the wind direction 0.04
Therefore the total frictional drag force Pf is calculated as below,
Pf = qs Cf As Ca
Where,
qs - is the dynamic pressure

Cf - is the Frictional drag coefficients as per Table 6
As - is the area swept by the wind in zone C,D or J as described above.
Ca - is the size factor for the wall perpendicular to wind direction
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Internal Pressure Coefficient ( Cpi )
a) Enclosed Buildings:- In enclosed buildings, containing external doors and

windows which may be kept closed, and where any internal doors are generally
open or are at least 3 times more permeable than the external doors and windows,
the internal pressure can be taken as uniform; appropriate internal pressure
coefficients are given in table 16 below,
Table 16 – Internal pressure coefficients for enclosed buildings
Type of walls Cpi
Two opposite walls equally permeable
-Wind normal to permeable face 0.20
- Wind normal to impermeable face -0.30
Four walls equally permeable, roof impermeable -0.30
The relevant diagonal dimension ‘a’ for size effect factor Ca can be taken as,
a = 10 x (internal volume of storey)1/3
b) Buildings with dominant openings:- An opening will be dominant, and

control the internal pressure coefficients, when its area is equal to, or greater than;
twice the sum of the openings in other faces which contribute porosity to the
internal volume containing the opening.
Two or more openings in the same face will contribute to one effective dominant
opening equal to the combined area and a diagonal dimension ‘a’ equal to that of
the largest opening.
Table 17 - Internal Pressure coefficients for buildings with dominant openings

Ration of dominant opening area to sum of
remaining openings and distributed Cpi
porosities
2 0.75 Cpe
3 0.90 Cpe
a = diagonal dimension of dominant opening,
OR
a = 0.2 x (internal volume)1/3
where the internal volume is the volume of the storey or room containing the
dominant opening.
Say if,
Ado is the area of dominant opening, and
Aso is the sum of openings in other walls,
the opening will be considered dominant if, Ado => 2Aso
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c) Open-sided Buildings:- Internal pressure coefficients for open sided buildings

are given in Table 18 according to form of the building.
The relevant diagonal dimension ‘a’ for use with these coefficients is the diagonal
dimension of the open face.
In Table 18 a wind direction of θ = 0° corresponds to wind normal and blowing

into the open face, or the longer face in the case of two open faces, and normal to
the wall in the case of three open faces.
Table 18 - Internal Pressure coefficients for open-sided buildings
One open face Two adjacent Three open
Wind direction θ
Shorter Longer open faces facesa
0° 0.85 0.80 0.77 0.60
-0.60 -0.46 -0.57 -0.63
90°b
0.52 0.67 0.77 0.40
180° -0.39 -0.43 -0.60 -0.56
a - values given should be applied to underside of roof only.
For single wall, use pressure coefficients for walls given in table 5
b - where two sets of values are given they should be treated as separate load cases
d) Partition Walls:- The maximum net pressure coefficient Cp = (Cpe - Cpi) across
internal walls should be taken as 0.5.
a = 10 x (internal volume of the room)1/3
Example 1
Given:-
Frame Profile = Symmetric Clear Span – Duo-pitch
Building width = 35500 mm = 35.5 m
Building Length = 78200 mm = 78.2 m
Endwall col. Spacing = 5.071 mm
Roof slope = 0.5:10 = 2.862°
Sliding doors = 6 x 6 = 2 numbers at each side and end wall
Job site = 50 kms from sea
Wind pressure qs = 1.418 kN/m2 (As calculated in previous example)
Calculate the External wind pressure on all faces, walls and roofs.
Solution:-
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Step 1:- Check building open condition.

We know that none of the walls are open, hence, it cannot be considered as
“Open Sided Buildings”
Check if the building is classified under “Buildings with dominant wall

openings” the condition is that area of any one opening is greater than the twice
sum of area of openings in other walls Ado => 2Aso
Ado = 6 x 6 = 36 m2
Aso = 2 x 3 x 6 x 6 = 216 m2
We see that Ado < 2Aso , hence the building does not classify under “Buildings
with dominant wall openings”Hence the building is an “Enclosed Building”
Step 2:- Refer the internal pressure coefficient
The internal pressure for enclosed building is as per Table 16 and can be taken as
Cpi = -0.30 for case ‘Four walls equally permeable and roof impermeable’
Calculate the internal volume of the building
= cross section area x length
= 317.512 x 78.2 = 24828.75 m3
Hence diagonal dimension ‘a’ = 10 x (24828.75)1/3 = 291.73 m
Referring to Figure 4 the building can be classified in category ‘B’ and hence the
Size effect factor Cai for internal pressure = 0.697 (after interpolation)
Step 3:- Refer the external pressure coefficient
a) Wind left and wind right case
D = Width = 35.5 m B = Length = 78.2 m H = 8.5 m
i) Walls coefficients
Scaling length ‘b’ = minimum of B = W = 78.2 m or 2H = 2 x 8.5 = 17.0 m
Therefore the zones along the end wall of the building for wind left and right case
are,
A= 0.2 b= 3.4 m, B = b-A =13.6 m, C = W–A–B=35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m
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C
WALL
ARD B
LEEW
A
H
C θ
LL
WA
WARD
D
B WIN
A L=B
W=D WIND DIRECTION
LOADED ZONES ALONG END WALL FOR WIND LEFT OR RIGHT CASE
Since, D / H = 35.5 / 8.5 = 4.176 > 4.00 and assuming isolated case, the external
pressure coefficients (Cpe ) are as below, (Refer Table 5)
Windward wall = 0.60

Leeward wall = -0.50
Zone A (Walls) = -1.30
Zone B (Walls) = -0.80
Zone C (Walls) = -0.50
Diagonal dimension ‘a’ for sidewalls

= sqrt ( H2 + L2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 78.22)
= 78.66 m
Therefore the size effect factor Cae = 0.794 (Refer figure 4)
Therefore the external pressure ( pe ) on walls are given as below, using equation,
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.794 = 0.675

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.794 = -1.464
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.794 = -0.900
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
Similarly, the internal pressure ( pi ) on all walls is given as below, using equation,
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.30
Now, the Net pressure ( p ) on the walls are,
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p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.675 – (–0.30) = 0.97

Leeward wall = -0.563 – (–0.30) = -0.27
Zone A (Walls) = -1.464 – (–0.30) = -1.17
Zone B (Walls) = -0.900 – (–0.30) = -0.60
Zone C (Walls) = -0.563 – (–0.30) = -0.27
Note that the Zones A,B,C are along the end walls, hence the end wall columns
shall be designed for the maximum of above and the values that will be obtained
for wind end case.
ii) Roof coefficients
Since the roof slope is less than 5°, roof is considered as flat roof and external
pressure coefficients are referred from (Table 8)
a) If the building is with eave trim / eave gutter detail then the coefficients are as
below,
Zone A (Roof) = -2.00
Zone B (Roof) = -1.40
Zone C (Roof) = -0.70
Zone D (Roof) = ±0.20
b) If the building is with parapet detail, assuming height of parapet = 1.25 m,

therefore, h / b = 1.25/17 = 0.074, then by interpolation the coefficients are as
below,
c) If the building is with curved eave detail, assuming radius of curved eave = 0.5
m, therefore r/b = 0.029 then by interpolation the coefficients are as below,

d) If the building is with mansard eave detail, assuming angle = 35°, therefore by
interpolation the coefficients are as below,

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In further calculations we will assume the building with eave trim / eave gutter
detail and hence use the coefficients for sharp eave detail.
Width of loaded zone A & B = b / 10 = 17 / 10 = 1.70 m
Length of loaded zone A & B = b / 4 = 17 / 4 = 4.25 m

Width of loaded zone C =b/2 = 17 / 2 = 8.00 m
Diagonal dimension ‘a’ for windward and leeward roof
Note:
If the slope is less than 5°, “a” scaling length can be computed as:
a = sqrt [ ( W) 2 + L2 ] = sqrt ( 35.52 + 78.22)

= 85.89 m
Therefore the size effect factor Ca = 0.788 (Refer figure 4)
Therefore the external pressure ( pe ) on roof are given as below, using equation,
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -2.00 x 0.788 = -2.234

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.40 x 0.788 = -1.576
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.70 x 0.788 = -0.788
Zone D (Roof) = 1.418 x ±0.20 x 0.788 = ±0.225
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pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.30
Now, the Net pressure ( p ) on the roof are,
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -2.234 – ( -0.30) = -1.94

Zone B (Roof) = -1.576 – ( -0.30) = -1.28
Zone C (Roof) = -0.788 – ( -0.30) = -0.49
Zone D +ve (Roof) = 0.225 – (– 0.30) = 0.52
Zone D –ve (Roof) = -0.225 – (– 0.30) = -0.07
Multiplying the wall and roof net pressures with the tributary area (bay spacing)
to get the load UDL in kN/m
Calculating the loads on the interior frames, for wind left case,
Windward wall = 0.97 x 7.82 = 7.59

Leeward wall = -0.27 x 7.82 = -2.11
Zone B (Roof) = -1.28 x 7.82 = -10.0
Zone C (Roof) = -0.49 x 7.82 = -3.85
Zone D +ve (Roof) = 0.52 x 7.82 = 4.07 case 1
Zone D –ve (Roof) = -0.07 x 7.82 = -0.55 case 2
10.0 3.85 3.85 10.0

4.07 4.07
7.59 2.11 2.11 7.59
WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT CASE-1 WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT CASE-1
10.0 3.85 3.85 10.0

0.55 0.55
7.59 2.11 2.11 7.59
WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT CASE-2 WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT CASE-2
(Note that wind right case will be mirror image of wind left case)
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Calculating the loads on the end wall rafter or end frame if end is a main frame,
for wind left case and considering half bay loads.
Zone A (Roof) = -1.94 x 7.82/2 = 7.58

Zone C (Roof) = -0.49 x 7.82/2 = -1.86
Zone D +ve (Roof) = 0.52 x 7.82/2 = 2.03 case 1
Zone D –ve (Roof) = -0.07 x 7.82/2 = -0.27 case 2
7.58 1.86 1.86 7.58

2.03 2.03
3.96 4.26 3.96 3.96 4.26 3.96
WIND LOADS ON END FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT CASE-1 WIND LOADS ON END FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT CASE-1
7.58 1.86 1.86 7.58

0.27 0.27
3.96 4.26 3.96 3.96 4.26 3.96
WIND LOADS ON END FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT CASE-2 WIND LOADS ON END FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT CASE-2
Loads on the end wall columns for wind left case, note that the size effect factor
Ca may be conservatively taken = 1.00 since the diagonal dimension for end wall
column is small, that is = sqrt (5.0712 + 8.52) = 9.898, referring figure 4, Ca = 0.96
Therefore, the net pressure for end wall columns needs to be recalculated with Cae
= 1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.000 = -1.843

Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.000 = -1.134
Zone C need not be evaluated, since it will be under Zone B for wind right case.
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (–0.30) = -1.55
201
W I N D LO A D S
Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (–0.30) = -0.84

The UDL on end wall columns are obtained by multiplying with tributary area,
Corner columns
Zone A (Walls) = -1.55 x 5.071/2 = 3.93 kN/m
Interior columns
Zone B (Walls) = -0.84 x 5.071 = 4.26 kN/m
Loads on end wall diaphragm or braced bays
DRAG FORCE DRAG FORCE

1.76 1.76
3.79 1.06
WIND LOADS ON ENDWALL BRACING IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT CASE
Windward wall = 0.97 x 7.82/2 = 3.79

Leeward wall = -0.27 x 7.82/2 = -1.06
Additional loads due to horizontal drag force should be added to the total
bracing or diaphragm design force. The horizontal drag force for wind left
or wind right case is calculated as below,
Width D = 35.5 m
Width of Zone C = D – b = 35.5 – 17.0 = 18.5 m
Area of drag force = (D – b) H = 18.5 x 8.5 = 157.25 m2
Frictional Drag coefficient Cf for corrugated sheets as per (Table 6)
= 0.02
Hence total frictional drag force is given as
= qs Cf As Cae
= 1.418 x 0.02 x 157.25 x 0.792 = 3.53 kN
Dividing the force on both sides we get,
= 3.52 / 2 = 1.76 kN
b) Wind end case
Scaling length ‘b’ = minimum of B=W=35.5 m or 2H = 2 x 8.5 = 17.0 m
202
W I N D LO A D S
are,
A = 0.2 b = 3.4 m, B = b = 17 m, C = W–A–B = 78.2–3.4–17 = 57.8 m
pressure coefficients are as below,

C LEEW
ARD W
ALL
B
H A
C
WI θ
ND
WA
RD
IO N WA
ECT LL B
D DIR A L=D
WIN
W= B
LOADED ZONES ALONG SIDE WALL FOR WIND END CASE
Diagonal dimension ‘a’ for end walls

= sqrt ( H2 + W2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 35.5 2)
= 36.50 m
pe = qs Cpe Ca
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.852 = 0.725

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.852 = -1.570
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.852 = -0.966
Zone C (Walls = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
203
W I N D LO A D S
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.725 – (–0.30) = 1.02

Leeward wall = -0.604 – (–0.30) = -0.31
Zone A (Walls) = -1.570 – (–0.30) = -1.27
Zone B (Walls) = -0.966 – (–0.30) = -0.67
Zone C (Walls) = -0.604 – (–0.30) = -0.31
Note that the Zones A,B,C are along the side walls, hence the side wall columns
for wind left / right case.
Load on the bracing system

Windward wall = 1.02 kN/m2
Leeward wall = -0.31 kN/m2
Total coefficient for bracing design = 1.02 + 0.31 = 1.33 kN/m2
Total end wall area = 317.512 m2
Therefore, total load = 317.512 x 1.33 = 422.29 kN

Dividing the force top and bottom = 422.29 / 2 = 211.45 kN
Dividing the force along the 2 sidewalls = 211.45 / 2 = 105.57 kN
Dividing the force by the nos. of braced bays = 105.57 /3 = 35.19 kN
TOTAL LOAD = 105.57

TOTAL DRAG FORCE = 72.35
35.19 35.19 35.19

80.96+36.125 24.61+36.125
WIND DIRECTION
SIDEWALL ELEVATION SHOWING BRACING LOADS
In addition to above we need to add the frictional drag force on the roof and
sidewalls for Zone D, it is calculated as below,
Roof,
Length of Zone D = L – bw / 2 = 78.2 – 17 / 2 = 69.7 m
Area of Zone D (As) = (L – bw / 2) x W = 69.7 x 35.5 = 2474.35 m2
Drag coefficients (Cf) = 0.02
204
W I N D LO A D S
Total drag force = qs Cf As Cae = 1.418 x 0.02 x 2474.35 x 0.852

= 59.78 kN
Wall,
Length of Zone C =L–b = 78.2 – 17.0 = 61.2 m
Area of Zone C (As) = (L – b) x H = 61.2 x 8.5 = 520.2 m2
Total drag force = qs Cf As Cae = 1.418 x 0.02 x 520.02x 0.852
= 12.56 kN
Therefore total drag force Roof + Wall = 59.78 + 12.56 = 72.34 kN
Dividing at both sidewalls = 36.17 kN
Therefore, total force per bracing = 35.19 + 36.17 /3

= 47.25 kN
The end wall columns will be governed by the wind ward coefficient, but as
before the size effect factor may be conservatively taken as 1.00, hence we need to
recalculate the net pressure using Cae = 1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.000 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.000 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (–0.30) = 1.15

Leeward wall = -0.709 – (–0.30) = -0.41 (Will not control)
Corner columns = 1.15 x 5.071/2 = 2.92 kN/m (Not governing)

All interior columns = 1.15 x 5.071 = 5.83 kN/m (Governs)
We see that the load on the end wall corner columns is more in wind left or wind
right where as it more on interior columns in wind end case.
Since the roof slope is less than 5° , roof is considered as flat roof and external
pressure coefficients are referred from (Table 8)
205
W I N D LO A D S
The roof coefficients for a flat roof will remain the same for all directions, namely,
wind left, wind right and wind end, only the location of loaded zone is as shown
in each cases.
D LEEW
ARD W
ALL
C D
A
B
H
C
B
W θ
IN
DW A
AR
I ON D
W
ECT AL
D DIR L L=D
WIN
W=B
LOADED ZONES AT ROOF FOR WIND END CASE

Now we need to calculate the loads on the interior frames for wind end case,
Zone B (Walls) = -0.67 x 7.82 = -5.24
Zone D +ve (Roof) = 0.52 x 7.82 = 4.07 case 1
Zone D –ve (Roof) = -0.07 x 7.82 = -0.55 case 2
Wind load on end wall rafter or end frame in case main frame end for wind end
case.
Taking average of the pressure in zones as below,
(Zone A +Zone C)/2 = (1.94 + 0.49)/2 = -1.215
(Zone B + Zone C)/2 = (1.28 + 0.49)/2 = -0.885
Therefore, UDL on rafter in kN/m is given by multiplying with tributary area,

= -1.215 x 7.82/2 = -4.75 kN/m
= -0.885 x 7.82/2 = -3.46 kN/m
206
W I N D LO A D S
4.07 4.07
5.24 5.24 4.97 4.97
WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND END CASE-1 WIND LOADS ON END BRACING IN kN/M FOR WIND END CASE
4.75 3.46 3.46 4.75

0.55 0.55
5.24 5.24 2.92 5.83 2.92
WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND END CASE-2 WIND LOADS ON BEARING FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND END
The end wall diaphragm or braced bays shall be designed for the side wall force
in Zone A,
Zone A (Walls) = -1.27 x 7.82/2 = 4.97 kN/m (governs)
Using the same example above except that the roof slope is 1:10.
Solution:-

The building condition remains the same as above that is “Enclosed Building”
The internal pressure for enclosed building is as per Table 16 and can be taken as
Cpi = -0.30 for case ‘Four walls equally permeable and roof impermeable’
= 333.25 x 78.2 = 26060.15 m3
Hence diagonal dimension ‘a’ = 10 x (26060.15)1/3 = 296.48 m
207
W I N D LO A D S
c) Wind left and wind right case
are,
A = 0.2 b = 3.4 m, B = b-A=13.6 m, C = W–A–B = 35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m
L C
W AL
ARD B
LEE W
A
H
C θ
A LL
DW
W AR
B W IN D
A L=B
W=D WIND DIRECTION
LOADED ZONES ALONG END WALL FOR WIND LEFT OR RIGHT CASE


= sqrt ( H2 + L2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 78.22)
= 78.66 m
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.794 = 0.675
208
W I N D LO A D S
Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563

Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.794 = -1.464
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.794 = -0.900
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.675 – (–0.30) = 0.97

Leeward wall = -0.563 – (–0.30) = -0.27
Zone A (Walls) = -1.464 – (–0.30) = -1.17
Zone B (Walls) = -0.900 – (–0.30) = -0.60
Zone C (Walls) = -0.563 – (–0.30) = -0.27
Note that the Zones A,B,C are along the end walls, hence the end wall columns
for wind end case.
Referring table 10 since roof slope = 5.71° and considering the building with sharp
eaves.

Zone E (Roof) = -0.93
Zone F (Roof) = -0.34
Zone G (Roof) = -0.41
209
W I N D LO A D S
Width of loaded zone A, B & E, F = b / 10 = 17 / 10 = 1.70 m

Length of loaded zone A,B & E,F =b/2 = 17 / 4 = 8.50 m
Note:
If the slope is greater than 5°, “a” scaling length can be computed as:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.792 = -1.966

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.792 = -1.316
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.58 x 0.792 = -0.650
Zone E (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.93 x 0.792 = -1.043
Zone F (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.34 x 0.792 = -0.385
Zone G (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.41 x 0.792 = -0.457
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.30
210
W I N D LO A D S
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -1.966 – ( -0.30) = -1.67

Zone B (Roof) = -1.316 – ( -0.30) = -1.02
Zone C (Roof) = -0.650 – ( -0.30) = -0.35
Zone E (Roof) = 1.043 – (– 0.30) = -0.75
Zone F (Roof) = -0.385 – (– 0.30) = -0.09
Zone G (Roof) = -0.457 – (– 0.30) = -0.16
Windward wall = 0.97 x 7.82 = 7.59

Leeward wall = -0.27 x 7.82 = -2.11
Zone B (Roof) = -1.02 x 7.82 = -7.96
Zone C (Roof) = -0.35 x 7.82 = -2.74
Zone F (Roof) = -0.09 x 7.82 = -0.70 (Using higher of F and G)
Zone G (Roof) = -0.16 x 7.82 = -1.25
7.98 2.74 2.74 7.98

1.25 1.25
7.59 2.11 2.11 7.59
WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT
(Note that wind right case will be mirror image of wind left case)
Similarly, loads on the penultimate frame will be calculated as below,
Windward wall = 0.97 x 7.82 = 7.59

Leeward wall = -0.27 x 7.82 = -2.11
Zone A (Roof) = -1.67 x 7.82 = -13.1
Zone C (Roof) = -0.35 x 7.82 = -2.74
Zone E (Roof) = -0.75 x 7.82 = -5.87
Zone G (Roof) = -0.16 x 7.82 = -1.25
211
W I N D LO A D S
5.87 5.87
13.1 2.74 2.74 13.1
1.25 1.25
7.59 2.11 2.11 7.59
WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT WIND LOADS ON INTERIOR FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT
Zone A (Roof) = -1.67 x 7.82/2 = -6.53

Zone C (Roof) = -0.35 x 7.82/2 = -1.37
Zone E (Roof) = -0.75 x 7.82/2 = -2.94
Zone G (Roof) = -0.16 x 7.82/2 = -0.62
2.94 2.94
6.53 1.37 1.37 6.53
0.62 0.62
3.96 4.26 3.96 3.96 4.26 3.96
WIND LOADS ON END FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND LEFT WIND LOADS ON END FRAME IN kN/M FOR WIND RIGHT
column is small, that is = sqrt (5.0712 + 8.52) = 9.898, referring Figure 4, Ca = 0.96
Therefore, the net pressure for end wall columns needs to be recalculated with Cae
= 1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.000 = -1.843

Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.000 = -1.134
Zone C need not be evaluated, since it will be under Zone B for wind right case.
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
212
W I N D LO A D S
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (–0.30) = -1.55

Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (–0.30) = -0.84
Corner columns
Zone A (Walls) = -1.55 x 5.071/2 = 3.96 kN/m
Interior columns
Zone B (Walls) = -0.84 x 5.071 = 4.26 kN/m

Windward wall = 0.97 x 7.82/2 = 3.79
Leeward wall = -0.27 x 7.82/2 = -1.06
Additional loads due to horizontal drag force should be added to the total
bracing or diaphragm design force. The horizontal drag force for wind left
or wind right case is calculated as below,
Width D = 35.5 m
Frictional Drag coefficient Cf for corrugated sheets as per Table 6
= 0.02
= qs Cf As Cae
= 1.418 x 0.02 x 157.25 x 0.792 = 3.53 kN
= 3.52 / 2 = 1.76 kN
d) Wind end case
213
W I N D LO A D S
are,
A = 0.2 b = 3.4 m, B = b-A = 13.6 m, C = W–A–B = 35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m

C LEEW
ARD W
ALL
B
H A
C
W θ
IN
DW
AR
ION D
CT W
AL B
IRE L L=D
INDD A
W
W=B
LOADED ZONES ALONG SIDE WALL FOR WIND END CASE

= sqrt ( H2 + W2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 35.5 2)
= 36.50 m
Therefore the size effect factor Cae = 0.852 (Refer Figure 4)
pe = qs Cpe Ca
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.852 = 0.725

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.852 = -1.570
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.852 = -0.966
Zone C (Walls = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
214
W I N D LO A D S
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.725 – (–0.30) = 1.02

Leeward wall = -0.604 – (–0.30) = -0.31
Zone A (Walls) = -1.570 – (–0.30) = -1.27
Zone B (Walls) = -0.966 – (–0.30) = -0.67
Zone C (Walls) = -0.604 – (–0.30) = -0.31
Note that the Zones A,B,C are along the side walls, hence the side wall columns


Roof,
= 59.78 kN
Wall,
215
W I N D LO A D S

= 12.56 kN
Therefore, total force per bracing = 36.94 + 36.17/3

= 49.00 kN
before the size effect factor may be conservatively taken as 1.00, hence we need to
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.000 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.000 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (–0.30) = 1.15


216
W I N D LO A D S
Since the roof slope is greater than 5° external pressure coefficients are referred
from table 10
D LEEW
ARD W
ALL
C D
A
B
H
C
B
W θ
IN
DW A
AR
CTION D
W
AL
IRE L L=D
INDD
W
W=B
LOADED ZONES AT ROOF FOR WIND END CASE

Length of loaded zone A & B = W / 4 = 35.5 / 4 = 8.88 m
Coefficients for zones in roof,

Zone D (Roof) = -0.49

Note:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m

pe = qs Cpe Cae
217
W I N D LO A D S
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.97 x 0.792 = -2.212

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.13 x 0.792 = -1.268
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.60 x 0.792 = -0.674
Zone D (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.49 x 0.792 = -0.554
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.30
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -2.212 – ( -0.30) = -1.92

Zone B (Roof) = -1.268 – ( -0.30) = -0.97
Zone C (Roof) = -0.674 – ( -0.30) = -0.38
Zone D (Roof) = -0.554 – (– 0.30) = -0.26
Zone B (Walls) = -0.67 x 7.82 = -5.24
Zone D (Roof) = -0.26 x 7.82 = -2.03
case. Taking average of end zones and zone C
Zone A + C (Roof) = (-1.97 - 0.38)/2 = -1.18
Zone B + C (Roof) = (-0.97 – 0.38)/2 = -0.68

= -1.18 x 7.82/2 = -4.61 kN/m
= -0.68 x 7.82/2 = -2.66 kN/m
Now we need to calculate wind loads for the Secondaries Panels, Purlins and
Girts.
Wall Panels
The sidewall and endwall panels should be designed for the maximum load that
they may be subjected to in their zone. The zone A, B , C on sidewall and endwall
will have the same loading.
Assuming 1.75 meter spacing of girts, the diagonal dimension is less than 5
meters, hence a = 5 m.
218
W I N D LO A D S
Therefore, Cae = 1.00
The interior size effect factor, is the same as calculated earlier,

Cai = 0.697
External Wall coefficients (pe) are all the same as calculated in earlier,

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.00 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.00 = -1.843
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.00 = -1.134
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709
Similarly, the internal pressure ( pi ) is given as below, using equation,
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
Now, the Net pressure ( p ) are,

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (–0.30) = 1.15

Leeward wall = -0.709 – (–0.30) = -0.41
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (–0.30) = -1.55
Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (–0.30) = -0.83
Zone C (Walls) = -0.709 – (–0.30) = -0.41
Wall Girts
Assuming 1.75 meter spacing of girts, the diagonal dimension (a)

= sqrt ( Girt Spacing2 + Bay Spacing2 )
= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.

Cai = 0.697
219
W I N D LO A D S

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.965 = 0.821

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.965 = -1.779
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.965 = -1.095
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.821 – (–0.30) = 1.12

Leeward wall = -0.684 – (–0.30) = -0.38
Zone A (Walls) = -1.779 – (–0.30) = -1.48
Zone B (Walls) = -1.095 – (–0.30) = -0.80
Zone C (Walls) = -0.684 – (–0.30) = -0.38
Roof Panels

Cai = 0.697
External Wall coefficients (pe) are all the same as calculated in earlier for Slope
1:10.
For Wind Left / Right Case

Zone A (Roof) = -1.75 Corner
Zone B (Roof) = -1.17 Eave
Zone C (Roof) = -0.58 Interior
Zone E (Roof) = -0.93 Ridge
220
W I N D LO A D S
Zone F (Roof) = -0.34 Interior Ridge (Not Governing)

Zone G (Roof) = -0.41 Interior (Not Governing)
For Wind End Case

Zone B (Roof) = -1.13 Gable
Zone C (Roof) = -0.60 End Bay
Zone D (Roof) = -0.49 Interior (Not Governing)
End Bay may be taken as maximum of average of either A+C or B+C

(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Summarize above results,
Corner = -1.75
Eave = -1.17
Interior = -0.58
End Bay = -1.29
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 1.00 = -2.48

Eave = 1.418 x -1.17 x 1.00 = -1.66
Interior = 1.418 x -0.58 x 1.00 = -0.82
End Bay = 1.418 x -1.29 x 1.00 = -1.83
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.48 – (–0.30) = -2.18

Eave = -1.66 – (–0.30) = -1.36
Interior = -0.82 – (–0.30) = -0.52
End Bay = -1.83 – (–0.30) = -1.53
Roof Purlins
Assuming 1.75 meter spacing of purlins, the diagonal dimension (a)

= sqrt ( Purlin Spacing2 + Bay Spacing2 )
= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.
221
W I N D LO A D S

Cai = 0.697
1:10.

Zone B (Roof) = -1.17 Eave Purlins
Zone C (Roof) = -0.58 Interior Purlins
Zone E (Roof) = -0.93 Ridge Purlins
Zone F (Roof) = -0.34 Interior Ridge Purlins (Not Governing)
Zone G (Roof) = -0.41 Interior Purlins (Not Governing)
For Wind End Case
Zone A (Roof) = -1.97 End Bay Purlins

Zone B (Roof) = -1.13 End Bay Purlins
Zone C (Roof) = -0.60 End Bay Purlins
Zone D (Roof) = -0.49 Interior Purlins (Not Governing)
End Bay Purlins may be taken as maximum of average of either A+C or B+C
(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
Eave Purlins = -1.17
Interior Purlins = -0.58
End Bay Purlins = -1.29
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.965 = -2.395

Eave Purlins = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.965 = -1.601
Interior Purlins = 1.418 x -0.58 x 0.965 = -0.794
End Bay Purlins = 1.418 x -1.29 x 0.965 = -1.765
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.697 = -0.300
222
W I N D LO A D S

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.395 – (–0.30) = -2.09

Eave Purlins = -1.601 – (–0.30) = -1.30
Interior Purlins = -0.794 – (–0.30) = -0.49
End Bay Purlins = -1.765 – (–0.30) = -1.47
Example 2
Given:-
Roof slope = 1:10 = 5.71°
Sliding doors = 3 x 3 = 2 numbers at end wall
Sliding doors = 3 x 3 = 2 numbers at one side wall
Wall Opening = 20 x 5 = 1 number at one side wall
223
W I N D LO A D S
Solution:-

Ado = 20 x 5 = 100.00 m2
Aso = 2 x [ 4 ( 3 x 3 ) ] = 72.00 m2
We see that Ado > 2Aso , hence the building classify under “Buildings with
dominant wall openings”
= 333.25 x 78.2 = 26060.15 m3
Area of Opening in one Wall = 100.00 m2

Sum of Area of Opening in other walls = 72.00 m2
Ratio of Opening = 100.00/72.00 = 1.39
Hence diagonal dimension ‘a’ = 0.20 x (26060.15)1/3 = 5.93 m
The internal pressure for building with dominant opening is as per Table 17 and
Since the value of Ratio of Opening (1.39 < 2) it can be taken as Cpi = -0.30.
a) Wind left and wind right case
Scaling length ‘b’ = minimum of B = W = 78.2 m or 2H = 2 x 8.5 = 17.0 m
224
W I N D LO A D S
Therefore the zones along the end wall of the building for wind left and right
cases are,
A= 0.2 b= 3.4 m, B = b-A = 17.0 -3.4= 13.6 m,C = W–A–B=35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5m
pressure coefficients are as below, (Refer Table 5)


= sqrt ( H2 + L2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 78.22)
= 78.66 m

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.794 = 0.675

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.794 = -1.464
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.794 = -0.901
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
225
W I N D LO A D S
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419
Windward wall = 0.675 - (-0.419) = 1.09

Leeward wall = -0.563 - (-0.419) = -0.14
Zone A (Walls) = -1.464 - (-0.419) = -1.05
Zone B (Walls) = -0.901 - (-0.419) = -0.48
Zone C (Walls) = -0.563 - (-0.419) = -0.14
Note that the Zones A, B, C are along the end walls; hence the end wall columns
for wind end case.
ii.) Roof coefficients
Referring ( Table 10) since roof slope = 5.71° and considering the building with
sharp eaves.

226
W I N D LO A D S

Length of loaded zone A, B & E, F =b/2 = 17 / 4 = 8.50 m
Note:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m
Therefore the size effect factor Ca = 0.792 (Refer Figure 4)
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.792 = -1.966

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.792 = -1.316
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.59 x 0.792 = -0.663
Zone E (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.93 x 0.792 = -1.042
Zone F (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.34 x 0.792 = -0.382
Zone G (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.41 x 0.792 = -0.460
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -1.966 – ( -0.419) = -1.55

Zone B (Roof) = -1.314 – ( -0.419) = -0.89
Zone C (Roof) = -0.663 – ( -0.419) = -0.24
Zone E (Roof) = -1.043 – (-0.419) = -0.62
Zone F (Roof) = -0.385 – (-0.419) = 0.034
Zone G (Roof) = -0.457 – (-0.419) = -0.038
Windward wall = 1.09 x 7.82 = 8.52
Leeward wall = -0.14 x 7.82 = -1.09
Zone B (Roof) = -0.89 x 7.82 = -6.95
Zone C (Roof) = -0.24 x 7.82 = -1.88
227
W I N D LO A D S
Zone F (Roof) = 0.038 x 7.82 = 0.27 (Using higher of F and G)

Zone G (Roof) = -0.040 x 7.82 = -0.30
Note: that wind right case will be mirror image of wind left case
Windward wall = 1.09 x 7.82 = 8.52

Leeward wall = -0.14 x 7.82 = -1.09
Zone A (Roof) = - 0.89x7.82 = -6.95
Zone C (Roof) = -0.24 x 7.82 = -1.88
Zone E (Roof) = -0.62x 7.82 = -4.84
Zone G (Roof) = -0.034 x 7.82 = -0.30
228
W I N D LO A D S
Zone A (Roof) = -1.55 x 7.82/2 = -6.04

Zone C (Roof) = -0.24 x 7.82/2 = -0.95
Zone E (Roof) = -0.62 x 7.82/2 = -2.43
Zone G (Roof) = -0.038 x 7.82/2 = -0.17
Therefore, the net pressure for end wall columns needs to be recalculated with
Cae = 1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.000 = -1.843

Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.000 = -1.134
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419

p = pe - pi
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (–0.419) = -1.423

Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (–0.419) = -0.714
Corner columns
Zone A (Walls) = -1.423 x 5.071/2 = 3.61 kN/m
Interior columns
Zone B (Walls) = -0.714 x 5.071 = 3.62 kN/m
229
W I N D LO A D S

Windward wall = 1.095 x 7.82/2 = 4.28
Leeward wall = -0.143 x 7.82/2 = -0.56
Additional loads due to horizontal drag force should be added to the total bracing
or diaphragm design force. The horizontal drag force for wind left or wind right
case is calculated as below,
Width D = 35.5 m
= 0.02
= qs Cf As Cae
= 1.418 x 0.02 x 157.25 x 0.792 = 3.53 kN
230
W I N D LO A D S

= 3.53 / 2 = 1.77 kN
d.) Wind end case
ii.) Walls coefficients
are,
A = 0.2 b = 3.4 m, B = b-A = 13.6 m, C = W–A–B = 35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m

231
W I N D LO A D S

= sqrt ( H2 + W2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 35.5 2)
= 36.50 m
pe = qs Cpe Ca
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.852 = 0.725

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.852 = -1.571
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.852 = -0.967
Zone C (Walls = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.725 – (–0.419) = 1.415

Leeward wall = -0.604 – (–0.419) = -0.184
Zone A (Walls) = -1.571 – (–0.419) = -1.151
Zone B (Walls) = -0.967 – (–0.419) = -0.547
Zone C (Walls) = -0.604 – (–0.419) = -0.184
Note: that the Zones A, B, C are along the side walls, hence the side wall columns

Windward wall = 1.415kN/m2

232
W I N D LO A D S
Roof,
= 59.78 kN
Wall,
= 12.56 kN

T O T A L L O A D = 1 3 3 .3
T O T A L D R A G F O R C E = 7 2 .3 4
4 4 .4 4 4 .4 4 4 .4
1 1 7 .8 9 + 1 8 .0 9 1 5 .3 3 + 1 8 .0 9
W IN D D IR E C T IO N
S ID E W A L L E L E V A T IO N S H O W IN G B R A C IN G L O A D S

= 56.45 kN
The end wall columns will be governed by the wind ward coefficient, but as before
the size effect factor may be conservatively taken as 1.00, hence we need to
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.000 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.000 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
233
W I N D LO A D S
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (–0.420) = 1.27


iii) Roof coefficients
from (Table 10)


234
W I N D LO A D S


= sqrt [ ( 0.5W) 2 + L2 ] = sqrt ( 17.72 + 78.22)
= 80.19 m
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.97 x 0.792 = -2.212

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.13 x 0.792 = -1.268
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.60 x 0.792 = -0.674
Zone D (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.49 x 0.792 = -0.554
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -2.212 – ( -0.419 ) = -1.792

Zone B (Roof) = -1.268 – ( -0.419) = -0.848
Zone C (Roof) = -0.674 – ( -0.419) = -0.254
Zone D (Roof) = -0.554 – (–0.419) = -0.134
Zone B (Walls) = -0.547 x 7.82 = -4.28
Zone D (Roof) = -0. 134 x 7.82 = -1.05
case. Taking average of end zones A and zone C
Zone A + C (Roof) = (-1.792 - 0.254)/2 = -1.023
Zone B + C (Roof) = (-0.848 -0.254)/2 = -0.551

= -1.023 x 7.82/2 = -4.00 kN/m
= -0.551 x 7.82/2 = -2.15 kN/m
235
W I N D LO A D S
Now we need to calculate wind loads for the Secondary Panels, Purlins and Girts.
Wall Panels
they may be subjected to in their zone. The zone A, B, C on sidewall and endwall

Cai = 0.986

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.00 = 0.850
236
W I N D LO A D S
Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709

Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.00 = -1.843
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.00 = -1.134
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (–0.419) = 1.271

Leeward wall = -0.709 – (–0.419) = -0.289
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (–0.419) = -1.42
Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (–0.419) = -0.92
Zone C (Walls) = -0.709 – (–0.419) = -0.289
Wall Girts

= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.

Cai = 0.986

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.965 = 0.821

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.965 = -1.779
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.965 = -1.095
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
237
W I N D LO A D S
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.821 – (–0.419) = 1.241

Leeward wall = -0.684 – (–0.419) = -0.264
Zone A (Walls) = -1.779 – (–0.419) = -1.359
Zone B (Walls) = -1.095 – (–0.419) = -0.675
Zone C (Walls) = -0.684 – (–0.419) = -0.264
Roof Panels

Cai = 0.986
1:10.

For Wind End Case


(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
Eave = -1.17
238
W I N D LO A D S
Interior = -0.59
End Bay = -1.29
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 1.00 = -2.48

Eave = 1.418 x -1.17 x 1.00 = -1.66
Interior = 1.418 x -0.59 x 1.00 = -0.84
End Bay = 1.418 x -1.29 x 1.00 = -1.83
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.48 – (-0.419) = -0.172

Eave = -1.66 – (-0.419) = -1.24
Interior = -0.82 – (-0.419) = -0.42
End Bay = -1.83 – (-0.419) = -1.41
Roof Purlins

= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.

Cai = 0.986
1:10.

239
W I N D LO A D S
For Wind End Case

(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.965 = -2.395

Eave Purlins = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.965 = -1.601
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.30 x 0.986 = -0.419

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.395 – (–0.419) = -1.975

Eave Purlins = -1.601 – (–0.419) = -1.181
Interior Purlins = -0.794 – (–0.419) = -0.374
End Bay Purlins = -1.765 – (–0.419) = -1.375
240
W I N D LO A D S
Example 3
Given:-
Roof slope = 1:10 = 5.71°
Sliding doors = 2 x 2 = 1 numbers at end wall
Sliding doors = 3 x 3 = 2 numbers at one side wall
Wall Opening = 20 x 6 = 1 number at one side wall
Solution:-

241
W I N D LO A D S
Ado = 20 x 5 = 100.00 m2
Aso = 2 x [ 2 ( 3 x 3 ) + (2 x 2 ) ] = 44.00 m2
We see that Ado > 2Aso , hence the building classify under “Buildings with
dominant wall openings”
= 333.25 x 78.2 = 26060.15 m3
Area of Opening in one Wall = 100.00 m2

Sum of Area of Opening in other walls = 44.00 m2
Ratio of Opening = 100.00/44.00 = 2.27
Hence diagonal dimension ‘a’ = 0.20 x (26060.15)1/3 = 5.93 m
The internal pressure for building with dominant opening is as per Table 17 and
Since the value of Ratio of Opening (2.27 > 2 and < 3 ). It can be taken as:
Let’s assume opening on windward and Cpe = 0.60 as per Table 5.
Cpi = Cpe [ ( Ratio of Opening – 2) x 0.15 + 0.75 ] ( after interpolation )
Cpi = 0.60 [ ( 2.27 – 2.0 ) x 0.15 + 0.75 ] = 0.47
b) Wind left and wind right case
j) Walls coefficients
cases are,
A= 0.2 b= 3.4 m, B = b-A = 17.0 -3.4= 13.6 m, C = W–A–B=35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m
242
W I N D LO A D S

= sqrt ( H2 + L2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 78.22)
= 78.66 m
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.794 = 0.675

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.794 = -1.464
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.794 = -0.901
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657
243
W I N D LO A D S
Windward wall = 0.675 -0.657 = 0.018

Leeward wall = -0.563 -0.657 = -1.13
Zone A (Walls) = -1.464 - 0.657 = -2.031
Zone B (Walls) = -0.901 - 0.657 = -1.468
Zone C (Walls) = -0.563 -0.657 = -1.13
for wind end case.
ii.) Roof coefficients
sharp eaves.

244
W I N D LO A D S

Note:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.792 = -1.966

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.792 = -1.316
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.59 x 0.792 = -0.663
Zone E (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.93 x 0.792 = -1.043
Zone F (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.34 x 0.792 = -0.382
Zone G (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.41 x 0.792 = -0.460
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657

p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -1.966 – 0.657 = -2.623

Zone B (Roof) = -1.314 – 0.657 = -1.971
Zone C (Roof) = -0.663 – 0.657) = -1.32
Zone E (Roof) = -1.043 – 0.657 = -1.77
Zone F (Roof) = -0.385 – 0.657 = -1.042
Zone G (Roof) = -0.457 – 0.657 = -1.11
Windward wall = 0.018 x 7.82 = 0.63
Leeward wall = -1.13 x 7.82 = -8.84
Zone B (Roof) = -1.971 x 7.82 = -15.41
Zone C (Roof) = -1.32 x 7.82 = -10.32
Zone F (Roof) = -1.042 x 7.82 = -8.15 (Using higher of F and G)
Zone G (Roof) = -1.11 x 7.82 = -8.68
245
W I N D LO A D S
Windward wall = 0.18 x 7.82 = 1.4

Leeward wall = -1.13 x 7.82 = -8.84
Zone A (Roof) = -2.623x 7.82 = -20.51
Zone C (Roof) = -1.32 x 7.82 = -10.32
Zone E (Roof) = -1.77x 7.82 = -13.29
Zone G (Roof) = -1.11 x 7.82 = -8.68
246
W I N D LO A D S
Zone A (Roof) = -2.623 x 7.82/2 = -10.26

Zone C (Roof) = -1.32 x 7.82/2 = -5.16
Zone E (Roof) = -1.17 x 7.82/2 = -4.57
Zone G (Roof) = -1.11 x 7.82/2 = -4.34
Therefore, the net pressure for end wall columns needs to be recalculated with
Cae = 1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.000 = -1.843

Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.000 = -1.134
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657

p = pe - pi
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – 0.657 = -2.5

Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – 0.657 = -1.791
Corner columns
Zone A (Walls) = -2.5 x 5.071/2 = 6.34 kN/m
Interior columns
Zone B (Walls) = -1.791 x 5.071 = 9.08 kN/m
247
W I N D LO A D S

Windward wall = 0.018 x 7.82/2 = 0.07
Leeward wall = -1.13 x 7.82/2 = -4.42
Width D = 35.5 m
= 0.02
= qs Cf As Cae
= 1.418 x 0.02 x 157.25 x 0.792 = 3.53 kN
= 3.53 / 2 = 1.77 kN
248
W I N D LO A D S
d.) Wind end case

i.) Walls coefficients
are,
A = 0.2 b = 3.4 m, B = b-A = 13.6 m, C = W–A–B = 35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m


= sqrt ( H2 + W2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 35.5 2)
= 36.50 m
pe = qs Cpe Ca
249
W I N D LO A D S
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.852 = 0.725

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.852 = -1.571
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.852 = -0.967
Zone C (Walls = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.725 – 0.657 = 0.068

Leeward wall = -0.604 – 0.657 = -1.26
Zone A (Walls) = -1.571 – 0.657 = -2.23
Zone B (Walls) = -0.967 – 0.657 = -1.62
Zone C (Walls) = -0.604 – 0.657 = -1.26


Roof,
= 59.78 kN
Wall,
250
W I N D LO A D S

= 12.56 kN

TOTAL LOAD = 119.4

44.4 44.4 44.4

5.67+18.09 105.06+18.09
WIND DIRECTION

= 51.77 kN
before the size effect factor may be conservatively taken as 1.00, hence we
need to recalculate the net pressure using Cae = 1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.000 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.000 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – 0.657 = 0.193 (Will not control)

Leeward wall = -0.709 – 0.657 = -1.37

iiii) Roof coefficients
251
W I N D LO A D S
from (Table 10)



Note:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.97 x 0.792 = -2.212
252
W I N D LO A D S
Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.13 x 0.792 = -1.268

Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.60 x 0.792 = -0.674
Zone D (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.49 x 0.792 = -0.554
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -2.212 – 0.657 = -2.87

Zone B (Roof) = -1.268 – 0.657 = -1.93
Zone C (Roof) = -0.674 – 0.657 = -1.33
Zone D (Roof) = -0.554 – 0.657 = -1.211
Zone B (Walls) = -1.62 x 7.82 = -12.67
Zone D (Roof) = -0. 134 x 7.82 = -9.47
Zone A + C (Roof) = (-2.87 – 1.33)/2 = -2.1
Zone B + C (Roof) = (-1.93 -1.33)/2 = -1.63

= -2.1 x 7.82/2 = -8.21 kN/m
= -1.63 x 7.82/2 = -6.37 kN/m
253
W I N D LO A D S
Wall Panels

Cai = 0.986

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.00 = 0.850
254
W I N D LO A D S
Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709

Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.00 = -1.843
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.00 = -1.134
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – 0.657 = 0.193

Leeward wall = -0.709 – 0.657 = -1.37
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – 0.657 = -2.5
Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – 0.657 = -1.791
Zone C (Walls) = -0.709 – 0.657 = -1.37
Wall Girts

= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.

Cai = 0.986

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.965 = 0.821

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.965 = -1.779
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.965 = -1.095
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
255
W I N D LO A D S
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.821 - 0.657 = 0.16

Leeward wall = -0.684 - 0.657 = -1.34
Zone A (Walls) = -1.779 - 0.657 = -2.44
Zone B (Walls) = -1.095 - 0.657 = -1.75
Zone C (Walls) = -0.684 - 0.657 = -1.34
Roof Panels

Cai = 0.986
1:10.

For Wind End Case


(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
Eave = -1.17
256
W I N D LO A D S
Interior = -0.59
End Bay = -1.29
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 1.00 = -2.48

Eave = 1.418 x -1.17 x 1.00 = -1.66
Interior = 1.418 x -0.59 x 1.00 = -0.84
End Bay = 1.418 x -1.29 x 1.00 = -1.83
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.48 – 0.657 = -3.14

Eave = -1.66 – 0.657 = -2.32
Interior = -0.82 – 0.657 = -1.42
End Bay = -1.83 – 0.657 = -2.49
Roof Purlins
= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.
Cai = 0.986
1:10.

For Wind End Case

257
W I N D LO A D S

(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.965 = -2.395

Eave Purlins = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.965 = -1.601
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x 0.47 x 0.986 = 0.657

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.395 – 0.657 = -3.05

Eave Purlins = -1.601 – 0.657 = -2.23
Interior Purlins = -0.794 – 0.657 = -1.45
End Bay Purlins = -1.765 – 0.657 = -2.42
Continuation:
Now let’s assume opening on Leeward and Cpe = -0.50 as per Table 5.
Cpi = Cpe [ ( Ratio of Opening – 2) x 0.15 + 0.75 ] ( after interpolation )
Cpi = -0.50 [ ( 2.27 – 2.0 ) x 0.15 + 0.75 ] = -0.39
258
W I N D LO A D S
A. Wind left and wind right case
B. Walls coefficients
cases are,
A= 0.2 b= 3.4 m, B = b-A = 17.0 -3.4= 13.6 m, C = W–A–B=35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m


= sqrt ( H2 + L2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 78.22)
= 78.66 m
259
W I N D LO A D S
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.794 = 0.675

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.794 = -1.464
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.794 = -0.901
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.794 = -0.563
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545
Windward wall = 0.675 – (-0.545) = 1.22

Leeward wall = -0.563 – (-0.545) = -0.018
Zone A (Walls) = -1.464 – (-0.545) = -0.919
Zone B (Walls) = -0.901 – (-0.545) = -0.356
Zone C (Walls) = -0.563 – (-0.545) = -0.018
for wind end case.
C.) Roof coefficients
sharp eaves.

260
W I N D LO A D S

Note:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.792 = -1.966

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.792 = -1.316
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.59 x 0.792 = -0.663
Zone E (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.93 x 0.792 = -1.042
Zone F (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.34 x 0.792 = -0.382
Zone G (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.41 x 0.792 = -0.460
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545

p = pe - pi
261
W I N D LO A D S
Zone A (Roof) = -1.966 – (-0.545) = -1.421

Zone B (Roof) = -1.314 – (-0.545) = -0.769
Zone C (Roof) = -0.663 – (-0.545) = -0.118
Zone E (Roof) = 1.043 – (-0.545) = -0.498
Zone F (Roof) = -0.385 – (-0.545) = 0.16
Zone G (Roof) = -0.457 – (-0.545) = 0.88
Windward wall = 1.22 x 7.82 = 9.54

Leeward wall = -0.018 x 7.82 = -0.14
Zone B (Roof) = -0.769 x 7.82 = -6.01
Zone C (Roof) = -0.118 x 7.82 = -0.92
Zone F (Roof) = 0.16 x 7.82 = 1.25 (Using higher of F and G)
Zone G (Roof) = 0.088x 7.82 = 0.69
Windward wall = 1.22 x 7.82 = 9.54

Leeward wall = -0.018 x 7.82 = -0.14
Zone A (Roof) = -1.421x 7.82 = -11.11
Zone C (Roof) = -1.118 x 7.82 = -0.92
Zone E (Roof) = -0.498 x 7.82 = -3.89
Zone G (Roof) = 0.088 x 7.82 = 0.69
262
W I N D LO A D S
Zone A (Roof) = -1.421 x 7.82/2 = -5.56

Zone C (Roof) = -0.118 x 7.82/2 = -0.46
Zone E (Roof) = -0.498 x 7.82/2 = -1.95
Zone G (Roof) = -0.88 x 7.82/2 = -0.344
Therefore, the net pressure for end wall columns needs to be recalculated with Cae =
1.00
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.000 = -1.843

Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.000 = -1.134
pi = qs Cpi Cai
263
W I N D LO A D S
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545

p = pe - pi
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (-0.545) = -1.298

Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (-0.545) = -0.589
Corner columns
Zone A (Walls) = -1.298 x 5.071/2 = -3.29 kN/m
Interior columns
Zone B (Walls) = -0.589 x 5.071 = -2.98 kN/m

Windward wall = 1.22 x 7.82/2 = 4.77
Leeward wall = -0.018 x 7.82/2 = -0.07
Width D = 35.5 m
= 0.02
264
W I N D LO A D S
= qs Cf As Cae
= 1.418 x 0.02 x 157.25 x 0.792 = 3.53 kN
= 3.53 / 2 = 1.77 kN
d.) Wind end case
i.) Walls coefficients
are,
A = 0.2 b = 3.4 m, B = b-A = 13.6 m, C = W–A–B = 35.5–3.4–13.6=18.5 m

265
W I N D LO A D S
= sqrt ( H2 + W2 ) = sqrt ( 8.52 + 35.5 2)

= 36.50 m
pe = qs Cpe Ca
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.852 = 0.725

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.852 = -1.571
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.852 = -0.967
Zone C (Walls = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.852 = -0.604
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.725 – (-0.545) = 1.27
266
W I N D LO A D S
Leeward wall = -0.604 – (-0.545) = -0.059

Zone A (Walls) = -1.571 – (-0.545) = -1.026
Zone B (Walls) = -0.967 – (-0.545) = -0.42
Zone C (Walls) = -0.604 – (-0.545) = -0.059


Roof,
= 59.78 kN
Wall,
= 12.56 kN

= 48.99 Kn
267
W I N D LO A D S
TOTAL LOAD = 119.4

44.4 44.4 44.4

105.81+18.09 4.92+18.09
WIND DIRECTION
The end wall columns will be governed by the wind ward coefficient, but as before
the size effect factor may be conservatively taken as 1.00, hence we need to
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.000 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.000 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545
p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (-0.545) = 1.395

Leeward wall = -0.709 – (-0.545) = -0.164 (Will not control)

ivi) Roof coefficients
from (Table 10)
268
W I N D LO A D S



Note:
a = sqrt [ (0.5W)2 + (0.5W x Tan Ө)2 + L2 ]

a = sqrt [ (0.5 x 35.5)2 + (0.5 x 35.5 x Tan 5.71)2 + 78.22 ]
= 80.20 m

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Zone A (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.97 x 0.792 = -2.212

Zone B (Roof) = 1.418 x -1.13 x 0.792 = -1.268
Zone C (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.60 x 0.792 = -0.674
Zone D (Roof) = 1.418 x -0.49 x 0.792 = -0.554
269
W I N D LO A D S
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all roof = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545
p = pe - pi
Zone A (Roof) = -2.212 – (-0.545) = -1.67

Zone B (Roof) = -1.268 – (-0.545) = -0.72
Zone C (Roof) = -0.674 – (-0.545) = -0.129
Zone D (Roof) = -0.554 – (-0.545) = -0.009
Zone B (Walls) = -0.42 x 7.82 = -3.28
Zone D (Roof) = -0. 009 x 7.82 = -0.70
Zone A + C (Roof) = (-1.67 –0 .129)/2 = -0.90

Zone B + C (Roof) = (-0.72 -0.129)/2 = -0.42
= -0.90 x 7.82/2 = -3.52 kN/m

= -0.42 x 7.82/2 = -1.64 kN/m
270
W I N D LO A D S
Wall Panels

Cai = 0.986

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 1.00 = 0.850

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 1.00 = -1.843
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 1.00 = -1.134
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 1.00 = -0.709
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.850 – (-0.545) = 1.395

Leeward wall = -0.709 – (-0.545) = -0.164
Zone A (Walls) = -1.843 – (-0.545) = -1.298
Zone B (Walls) = -1.134 – (-0.545) = -0.589
Zone C (Walls) = -0.709 – (-0.545) = -1.164
271
W I N D LO A D S
Wall Girts

= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.

Cai = 0.986

pe = qs Cpe Cae
Windward wall = 1.418 x 0.60 x 0.965 = 0.821

Leeward wall = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
Zone A (Walls) = 1.418 x -1.30 x 0.965 = -1.779
Zone B (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.80 x 0.965 = -1.095
Zone C (Walls) = 1.418 x -0.50 x 0.965 = -0.684
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545

p = pe - pi
Windward wall = 0.821 – (-0.545) = -1.366

Leeward wall = -0.684 - (-0.545) = -0.139
Zone A (Walls) = -1.779 - (-0.545) = -1.234
Zone B (Walls) = -1.095 - (-0.545) = -0.55
Zone C (Walls) = -0.684 - (-0.545) = -0.139
Roof Panels
272
W I N D LO A D S

Cai = 0.986
1:10.

For Wind End Case


(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
Eave = -1.17
Interior = -0.59
End Bay = -1.29
pe = qs Cpe Cae
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 1.00 = -2.48

Eave = 1.418 x -1.17 x 1.00 = -1.66
Interior = 1.418 x -0.59 x 1.00 = -0.84
End Bay = 1.418 x -1.29 x 1.00 = -1.83
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545

p = pe - pi
273
W I N D LO A D S
Corner = -2.48 – (-0.545) = -1.94

Eave = -1.66 – (-0.545) = -1.12
Interior = -0.82 – (-0.545) = -0.285
End Bay = -1.83 – (-0.545) = -1.29
Roof Purlins

= sqrt ( 1.752 + 7.822 ) = 8.01 m.

Cai = 0.986
1:10.

For Wind End Case

(A+C) / 2 = -(1.97 + 0.60)/2 = -1.29 (Governs)
(B+C) / 2 = -(1.13 + 0.60)/2 = -0.87 (Not Governing)
Corner = -1.75
pe = qs Cpe Cae
274
W I N D LO A D S
Corners = 1.418 x -1.75 x 0.965 = -2.395

Eave Purlins = 1.418 x -1.17 x 0.965 = -1.601
pi = qs Cpi Cai
all walls = 1.418 x -0.39 x 0.986 = -0.545

p = pe - pi
Corner = -2.395 – (-0.545) = -1.85

Eave Purlins = -1.601 – (-0.545) = -1.056
Interior Purlins = -0.794 – (-0.545) = -0.249
End Bay Purlins = -1.765 – (-0.545) = -1.22
275
6
Chapter
S E I S M I C L O A D S
Seismic Loads
D efinition
AISC 2005
Seismic Design
Manual Generally, seismic force resisting systems are classified into three levels of

performance, designated as, “Ordinary”, “Intermediate” or “Special”,
depending on the level of ductility that the system is expected to provide.
A system designated as ‘Ordinary’ is detailed to meet certain ductility and redundancy

requirements, but the requirements are not as stringent as those of systems classified as
‘Intermediate’ OR ‘Special’.
Also, structures not specifically designed or detailed for seismic resistance by the
Seismic Provisions are referred to as “Low Seismic Structures”
It is important to note, however that even low seismic steel structures possess some
inherent amount of seismic resistance, which may be adequate to resist a limited
amount of seismic demand. Structures with Response Modification Factor (R) <= 3
may be classified as low seismic structures.
1
Earthquake Ground Motion and Structure Response Spectra: Earthquake cause

vibratory ground motions that may occur in all directions. The horizontal
components of these motions produce horizontal ground accelerations, which
cause structural accelerations and impart energy to the structure. Earthquake
motions are a complex combination of many displacements acting at different
vibration frequencies so that the energy imparted to the structure is caused by
the combined effect of many accelerations acting at many frequencies. A spectral
response of these accelerations is a graphical summary of peak response
accelerations for a large number of ground motion natural periods of vibration.
The figure below (Typical Acceleration Spectrum) shows that most of the
earthquake accelerations (and hence the energy imparted to the structure) fall in
a natural period range of 0.2 seconds to 1.0 second, thus structures with natural
periods in this range will collect more energy than structures with periods
outside this range. A typical 2 storey building has a period near 0.2 seconds, and
the period for a 10-storey building is approximately 10 seconds. Since these
frequencies are in the portion of the spectrum that contains most of the
earthquake energy, buildings with 10 stories and less tend to feel the earthquake
more than taller structures. Low rise buildings also tend to be stiff and tall
structures tend to be flexible. A short (generally less than 10 stories) stiff structure
tends to attract a larger percentage of a displacement induced force than a
flexible structure. For these two reasons, earthquake –induced forces in stiff
structures tend to be a larger percentage of the structures weight than those in
flexible taller structures. Tall flexible structures generally experience a greater
total deflection (drift).
Acceleration
Ground motion Ground motion
0.2 Sec 1.0 Sec Period, T

Stiff structure
Typical acceleration spectrum
2
Groundmotion Groundmotion
Flexiblestructure
Seismic Use Group (SUG): The expected performance of a structure is

determined by assigning it to a Seismic Use Group. There are three SUGs (I, II,
III) based on the nature of the structure’s occupancy and the risk to the society
that would be a consequence of earthquake damage to the structure. Also
importance factors are based on the SUG.
Seismic Design Category (SDC): Buildings subject to seismic forces are designed
to allow inelastic, ductile deformations of the system. A building’s Seismic
Design Category establishes the minimum required performance level of the
structure, based on locations, soil conditions, and intended occupancy. The SDC
may limit the framing system types that are permitted for use based on the
required level of ductile performance for the structural system. There are six
SDCs, designated by the letters A, B, C, D, E & F. A being the least severe and F
the most severe.
3
Seismic Force on the structure result from the lateral acceleration due to the
earthquake ground motion, essentially as a function of,
F=ma. (Force = Mass x acceleration), The seismic force resisting system is
designed to resist the induced forces and dissipate the energy causing the
acceleration of the structure.
ASCE 7 describes six procedures for determining the distortions and forces in
structures subject to earthquake ground motion. These are listed below in order
of increasing calculation difficulty and expected accuracy.
1. Index Force procedure

2. Simplified Analysis procedure
3. Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) procedure
4. Modal Analysis procedure (response Spectrum Analysis)
5. Push-Over Analysis procedure (an inelastic static analysis of progressive
yielding through the structure)
6. Inelastic Response History Analysis (stepwise integration of equations of
motion)
The index force and simplified analysis procedures are ‘alternate’ methods that
have limited application and must be approved by the authority having
jurisdiction. The remaining methods account for dissipation of earthquake input
energy by inelastic distortion of the structure.
The Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) procedure and the modal analysis procedure
involve linear elastic analysis that use earthquake effects adjusted to account for
expected inelastic behavior of the structure. Both are approximate methods of
analysis useful within the limitations on their applicability (see FEMA 369). The
last two methods ‘Pushover analysis & inelastic response history analysis’ are
generally not required except in high seismic risk situations.
According to ASCE 7, the Equivalent Lateral Force method is permitted for all
structures, except those subjected to the most severe earthquake conditions, and
the modal analysis is permitted for all structures. Both analysis use four
important seismic parameters,
1. Response modification factors (R)
2. The over strength factor (W o )
3. The deflection amplification factor (C d )
4. The reliability / redundancy factor (ρ)
4
Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF): This method involves application of a set of

representative or equivalent forces on each level of the structure that produce
horizontal deflections that approximate the deflections caused by the ground
motion. A total horizontal force, called the Seismic Base Shear (V s ) is first
computed. The base shear is distributed vertically to each level of the structure as
forces F x at each level. A linear elastic analysis is then performed to determine
the seismic force effects Q E (axial, shear and moment forces) in the structural
components, the components are then designed for these forces. According to
ASCE 7-02, the Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) analysis procedure is permitted
for all structures except those subjected to most severe earthquake conditions.
Response Modification Factor (R): The Seismic Design Category is used, along
with the lateral system type to establish a minimum level of inelastic, ductile
performance that is required for a structure. The corresponding expected system
performance is codified in the form of R-factor, which is a reduction factor to the
lateral force to balance the level of ductility in a structural system with the
required strength of the system. With a higher R-factor the system is expected to
exhibit a greater deformation capacity and may be designed for a lower
equivalent lateral force in the linear elastic analysis. In order for a system to
utilize higher R factors, the system must be able to form multiple yield
mechanisms and the non ductile elements of the system must have appropriate
over strength factor (W o ) in order to support the formation of the yield
mechanisms and support the dynamic response modification of the system due
to increased damping and period change. If this cannot be achieved lower value
of R-factor should be used in the design and detailing of the structure. Steel
framing structures not specifically designed and detailed for high seismic
resistance should utilize R-factor less than or equal to 3. These systems are
permitted in Seismic Design Category A, B and C only. R-factor greater than 3
are intended to be used for structures which are specially designed and detailed
to meet the required Seismic Provisions and the AISC specifications. The 3
examples are as below,
5
1. Special Concentrically Braced Frame (SCBF): These are generally

configured so that the energy dissipation will occur by tension yielding and
or compression buckling in the braces. The connections of such systems are
expected to remain nominally elastic as they undergo deformation. (Diagonal
Bracings, other bracing system with out eccentricity)
2. Eccentrically Braced Frame (EBF): These systems are generally configured so

that energy dissipation will occur by shear yielding and or flexural yielding
in the link. The beam outside the link, connections, braces and columns must
then be proportioned to remain nominally elastic as they undergo
deformations.
3. Special Moment Frame (SMF): These are generally configured so that

energy dissipation will occur by flexural yielding in the girders near, but
away from the connection of the girders to the columns. The connections of
the girders to the columns and the columns themselves must be
proportioned to remain nominally elastic as they undergo deformations.
(Rigid Frames, Portal Frames etc.)
Bucking
Yielding
Nominal Elastic
Nominal Elastic
Elements
Elements
Yielding
Ductile braced frames

Ductile EBF
Yielding Nominal
Elastic
Elements
Ductile moment frames
6
As a result of these special requirements, which force deformations to occur in

specific locations, R greater than 3 design and construction will generally cost
more than R less than or equal to 3 design and construction. The design
provisions for R greater than 3 are also intended to result in distributed
deformations through out the frame to increase the level of available energy
dissipation. The connections in such case are more robust to transmit the
member strength based force demands. Net sections will often require special
attention to avoid having fracture.
Redundancy Factor (r): Adequate redundancy factor is ensured when a large

number of hinges form throughout the structure in a progressive manner and
when no one element is required to provide full seismic resistance of the
structure. To account for a minimum level of redundancy in the structure the
reliability factor (r) is used based on the floor area and the number of frames
resisting the seismic force. When the structures do have redundancy these factors
amplifies the lateral seismic force used in the design of lateral system. The elastic
analysis of the Seismic Force Resisting Structure (SFRS) is performed using base
shear (V s ) based on the tabulated value of (R) and (r) is applied to the resulting
Q E member force effects.
For structures in SDCs A, B, and C (r) = 1.00 is permitted. For SDCs D, E & F the
reliability factor (r) should be computed and used in all structures in SDCs D, E,
and F. Because the need for redundancy in Special Moment Frames (SMF) in
SDC D must be configured so that the computed value of (r) does not exceed
1.25, and SMF in SDC E & F must be configured so that (r) does not exceed
1.10. These limitations are intended to provide sufficient redundancy in what are
typically drift controlled systems.
Over Strength Factor (Ω o ): All seismic force resisting systems rely on dissipation
of earthquake energy through some varying level of inelastic behavior. However,
ductility must be used with care, as the details can affect the level of ductility
available. To account for this, an over strength factor (Ω o ), is used and the
specific components that must be designed to remain nominally elastic are
designed for an amplified force equal to Ω o Q E . The locations where this factor
must be considered are stipulated in the seismic provisions.
7
Structural Deflection and Story Drift: Adequacy of a seismic load resisting

system (SLRS) requires that it be suitable to undergo the deformation that result
as its components deform inelastically to dissipate earthquake energy. A
building with a properly designed SLRS can still behave poorly if the non-SLRS
structural components are not able to safely deform along with the SLRS.
Likewise non-structural components such as exterior cladding and curtain walls
can pose failing hazards or impede egress from the building if they are not
secured to the building in a manner that is compatible with the deformations of
the structural components.
Stability Coefficient: The stability coefficient, θ (ASCE 7-05) is a measure of the

structure’s sensitivity to second order effects at each story level x: When θ <=
0.10, second order effects are negligible. When 0.1 < θ<= θ maximum moments
and forces are increased by multiplying the storey shear V x (obtained by ELF
analysis) by the multiplier θ (1- θ) and recomputing the seismic forces in the
story. The design story drift ∆ is also amplified by this multiplier. The
maximum value of θ max given in ASCE 7-05 represents a level of deformation
that is considered excessive.
Drift Limits: Seismic design requirements include drift limits, usually expressed
in terms of storey drifts. Limiting story drift helps control component inelastic
strain in the Seismic Load Resisting System (SLRS) and to maintain structural
stability. Drift limitations also help to reduce damage to non-structural building
components. Design story drift limits are given in ASCE 7-05. Where second
order effects must be included, the amplified ∆ is used in the drift limit check.
In the subsequent pages the procedure of previous codes are briefly described
with examples in order to provide an overview of all the recent codes.
8
MBMA 1986
 Required Design Data
1. Seismic Zone
a. Range = 0,1, 2, 3 & 4
MBMA 86
b. Default = 2 (unless specified in the PIF)
Section 7.0

Seismic Zone (Figure 7.1) MBMA 86
Seismic Zone Numeric Zone Coefficient = Z
0 0.00
1 0.1875
2 0.375
3 0.75
4 1.00
Eqn. 7.1 Seismic Base Shear (V) = 0.14 Z K W
Where,
K = 1.00 for moment resisting frames

= 1.33 for load bearing frames or shear walls.
W = Total dead load including collateral loads and partition etc. (kN)
25% of the floor live load in storage and warehouse occupancies.
25% of snow load, if greater than 1.49 kN/m2.
Note:- Allowable stresses may be increased 33% for wind and seismic.
9
Example
Example :- 6.1
Given Data:-
Building Use = Warehouse
Roof Dead Load = 0.10 kN/m2
Roof Collateral Load = 0.20 kN/m2
Wall Dead Load = 0.10 kN/m2
Width = 32500 mm
Length = 61280 mm
Roof Slope = 0.5:10 ( θ = 2.862 )
Peak Height = 8362 mm
Symmetry = about ridge
Frame weight = 25 kN (approx.)
Endwall Weight = 18 kN (approx.)
Seismic Zone =3
Solution:-
The two Seismic Force Resisting System in Metal buildings are, “Main Rigid
Frames” in the transverse direction and the “Cross Bracing or Portal Frames” in
the longitudinal direction.
1) Calculate the total weight ‘W’ of structure in transverse direction,
Roof Dead weight = Unit weight x Bay Spacing x Width

= 0.10 x 7.66 x 32.5 = 24.90 kN
Collateral weight = 0.20 x 7.66 x 32.5 = 49.80 kN
Wall Dead weight = Unit weight x Bay Spacing x Eave Height x 2 walls / 2
= 0.10 x 7.66 x 7.55 x 2 / 2 = 5.80 kN
Frame weight = 25 = 25.00 kN
Total Weight ‘W’ = 24.9+49.8+5.80+25 = 105.5 kN
Therefore, the Seismic Base Shear is calculated as below,

K = 1.00 for moment resisting frames,
Z = 0.75 for Zone 3
V = 0.14 Z K W
V = 0.14 x 0.75 x 1.00 x 105.5 = 11.08 kN
10
The total base shear is applied on the frame at left and right side eave points, and
two cases are checked, as shown below. For a multi-span the loads are
distributed depending upon interior column top and bottom connection.
V V
2 2
CLEAR SPAN
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
CASE-2 (FORCES IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION)
V
PINNED TOP
PINNED BASE
V V
2 2
MULTI-SPAN
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
V
FIXED TOP
PINNED OR FIXED
BASE
V V V
3 3 3
MULTI-SPAN
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
11
Assuming that the building has mezzanine in full area,

Floor Dead weight = 3.00 kN/m2
Floor Live weight = 5.00 kN/m2
Top of Concrete = 3750 mm (approx. center of beam 3500 mm)
Floor Dead weight = 3.00 x 7.66 x 32.5 = 747 kN
25% of floor live load, since the building is a warehouse

Floor Live weight = 5.00 x 7.66 x 32.5 x 0.25 = 312 kN
Hence total weight ‘W 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m,

= 747 + 312 = 1059 kN
We know the weight at roof level is ‘W 2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m

= 105.5 kN
Total Weight (W 1 + W 2 ) = 105.5 + 1059 = 1164.5 kN
Therefore,
V = 0.14 x 0.75 x 1.00 x 1164.5 = 122 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 1059 x 3.5 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 122
= 100.4 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 105.5 x 7.55 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 122
= 21.6 kN
Now to calculate the Longitudinal Base shear, we need to calculate the total
building weight, assuming the structure with mezzanine,
Total roof dead weight,
= unit weight x width x length
= 0.10 x 32.5 x 61.28 = 199.16 kN
Total roof collateral weight,
= 0.20 x 32.5 x 61.28 = 398.32 kN
Total sidewall dead weight,
= unit weight x length x eave height x 2 / 2
= 0.10 x 61.28 x 7.55 x 2 / 2 = 46.27 kN
Total end wall weight = unit weight x width x (eave height + peak height) / 2
= 0.10 x 32.5 x (7.55 + 8.36) / 2 = 25.85 kN
12
V2
V1
V1+V2 V1+V2
2 2
CLEAR SPAN
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
V2
PINNED
V1
PINNED BASE
V1+V2 V1+V2
2 2
CLEAR SPAN
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
V2
FIXED TOP
V1
PINNED BASE
V1 V2 V1 V1 V1 V1 V2
+ +
4 2 4 4 4 4 2
CLEAR SPAN
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
13
Total Frame weight = unit weight x number of frames

= 25 x 7 = 175.0 kN
Total End wall weight = 18 x 2 = 36.00 kN
Hence the weight at roof level is ‘W2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m

= 199.16 + 398.32 + 46.27 + 25.85 + 175 + 36 = 880.60 kN
Total mezzanine dead weight,

= unit weight x width x length
= 3 x 32.5 x 61.28 = 5974.8 kN
Total mezzanine 25% live weight,
= unit weight x width x length x 0.25
= 5 x 32.5 x 61.28 x 0.25 = 2489.5 kN
Hence total weight ‘W 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m,
= 5974.8 + 2489.5 = 8464.3 kN
Therefore total weight ‘W’
= 8464.3 + 880.60 = 9344.9 kN
Hence, total base shear, ‘V’
V = 0.14 x 0.75 x 1.00 x 9344.9 = 981 kN
This force should be divided by 2 for distributing to 2 sidewalls,
= 981 / 2 = 490 kN
Now distributing this force along the sidewall to mezzanine and eave level
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 8464.3 x 3.5 / ( 8464.3 x 3.5 + 880.6 x 7.55 )] x 490
= 400 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 880.6 x 7.55 / ( 8464.3 x 3.5 + 880.6 x 7.55)] x 490
= 90 kN
V2
V1
V1+V2 V1+V2 V1+V2

3 3 3
SIDEWALL ELEVATION
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
14
MBMA 1996
 Required Design Data
1. Peak Velocity Acceleration Coefficient (A v )

MBMA 96 a. Range = A v < 0.05 to 0.40
Section 7.0

b. Default = 0.20 (Unless specified in PIF)
2. Peak Acceleration (A a )
a. Range = A a < 0.05 to 0.40
Seismic Coefficient C a (Table 7.4.1.1) MBMA 96
Aa 0.049 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40

Ca = Aa 0.08 0.16 0.28 0.36 0.44
3. Building Use Category (Importance Factor)

a. Range = I , II , III , IV
b. Default = II (Unless specified in PIF)
4. Structural System
a. Rigid / Portal - Ordinary Moment Frames (R=4.5)
b. Bearing Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames (R=4.5)
c. Diagonal Bracings - Concentric Braced Frames (R=5.0)
Eqn. 7.2 Seismic Design Coefficient ( C s ) = 2.5 C a / R
Eqn. 7.1 Seismic Base Shear (V) = Cs W
Where,
25% of the floor live load in storage occupancies.
33% increase in stresses is not allowed for seismic.
15
Example :- 6.2
Using the building data from Example 6.1, other seismic data as below,
Peak Velocity Acceleration Coefficient (A v ) = 0.15
Peak Acceleration (A a ) = 0.15
Therefore from Table 7.4.1.1, C a = 0.22 (Interpolated)
Building use category = II
Calculating the base shear in transverse direction, from example 6.1, without
considering mezzanine we know the total weight ‘W’,
= 105.5 kN
Seismic Design Coefficient ( C s )
= 2.5 C a / R
= 2.5 x 0.222 / 4.5 (R=4.5 for Rigid Frames)
= 0.123
Seismic Base Shear ( V ) = Cs W
= 0.123 x 105.5 = 13.01 kN
Now if we consider the mezzanine, we know that,

Total weight ‘W 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m,
= 747 + 312 = 1059 kN
And the weight at roof level is ‘W 2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m

= 105.5 kN
Total Weight (W 1 + W 2 ) = 105.5 + 1059 = 1164 kN
Therefore,
V = 0.123 x 1164 = 144 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 1059 x 3.5 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 144
= 119 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 105.5 x 7.55 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 144
= 25 kN
16
Similarly the longitudinal direction,

The total weight ‘W 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m,
= 5974.8 + 2489.5 = 8464.3 kN

= 199.16 + 398.32 + 46.27 + 25.85 + 175 + 36 = 880.60 kN

= 8464.3 + 880.60 = 9345 kN
R=5.0 for Diagonal bracing,
Hence we need to recalculate the total base shear, ‘V’
Seismic Design Coefficient ( C s )

= 2.5 C a / R
= 2.5 x 0.222 / 5
= 0.111
Seismic Base Shear ( V )= C s W
= 0.111 x 9345 = 1037 kN

= 1037 / 2 = 519 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 8464.3 x 3.5 / ( 8464.3 x 3.5 + 880.60 x 7.55 )] x 519
= 424 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 880.60 x 7.55 / ( 8464.3 x 3.5 + 880.60 x 7.55)] x 519
= 95 kN
17
UBC 1997
Required Design Data
 1. Seismic Zone
a. Range
b. Default
= 1, 2A, 2B, 3, 4
= 2B
UBC 1997
Section 1626

Seismic Zone Factor (Table 16-I) UBC 97
Seismic Zone Seismic Zone Factor = Z
1 0.075
2A 0.150
2B 0.200
3 0.300
4 0.400
2. Soil Profile Type.

a. Range = A, B, C, D, E & F (S A , S B , S C , S D , S E & S F in UBC code)
b. Default = D (Unless specified in PIF)
3. Structural System
a. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (R=4.5)
(R = 8.0 for Zone 1)
b. Bearing Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (R=4.5)
c. Diagonal Bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames (R=5.6)
4. Seismic coefficient C a
a. Default = 0.28
Seismic coefficient C a (Table 16-Q) UBC 97

Seismic Zone
Soil Profile
Z=1 Z=2A Z=2B Z=3 Z=4
A 0.06 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32 N a
B 0.08 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 N a
C 0.09 0.18 0.24 0.33 0.40 N a
D 0.12 0.22 0.28 0.36 0.44 N a
E 0.19 0.30 0.34 0.36 0.36 N a
F Special site specific analysis should be performed
18
Simplified Design Base Shear
Eqn. 30.11 Seismic Base Shear ( V ) = 3 Ca W / R
Where,
25% of the floor live load in storage and warehouses occupancies.
Minimum of 0.48 kN/m2 if partitions are present.
Note:- 33% increase in stresses is not allowed for seismic.
(For other methods of calculating Seismic Base Shear see UBC 1997)
Structures shall be designed for seismic ground motion and forces in any
horizontal direction, the following Seismic load shall be used in the load
combinations,
Eqn. 30.1 E = r Eh + Ev
Eqn. 30.2 Em = Ωo Eh
Where,
E = the earthquake load on an element of the structure resulting from the
combination of horizontal component E h and vertical component E v .
Eh = the earthquake load due to base shear, V.
Ev = may be taken as zero (0) for ASD.
Ωo = the seismic force amplification factor, required for structural over
strength. (Default = 2.8, minimum = 2, see UBC 97 Table 16-N)
r = Reliability / Redundancy factor. (Min. = 1.0, Max. =1.5)
19
Example :- 6.3
Seismic Zone = 2A
Therefore, Seismic Zone Factor ‘Z’ = 0.15 (Refer Table 16-I)
Soil Profile type =C
Therefore, Seismic Coefficient ‘C a ’ = 0.18 (Refer Table 16-Q)
Considering the building without mezzanine, we know ‘W’ = 105.5 kN

Seismic Base Shear ( V ) = 3 Ca W / R
= 3 x 0.18 x 105.5 / 4.5 (R=4.5 for Rigid Frames)
= 12.66 kN
In order to use these load in combination with other loads, we need to consider
‘E’ as in equation 30.1 above, say the load combination as per UBC 97 is as below
0.9D ± E / 1.4 Eqn. 12-10
E = r Eh + Ev r = 1.00 without mezzanine,

E = 1.00 x V + 0 E v = 0 for ASD
E =V
For the design of moment connections ‘E m ’ should be used,
Em = Ωo Eh Ω o = 2.80
Em = 2.8 V
So when we are designing the frames we should use E=V for all load
combinations with seismic loads, and for the connection design for any load
combination with seismic loads, use E = E m = 2.8 V in the same combination.
Therefore the above load combination for frame design will be,
0.9D ± ( V / 1.4 )
Therefore the above load combination for connection design will be,
0.9D ± (2.8 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 2 V
20

= 747 + 312 = 1059 kN

= 105.5 kN
Therefore,
V = 3 x 0.18 x 1165 / 4.5 = 140 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 1059 x 3.5 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 140
= 115 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 105.5 x 7.55 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 140
= 25 kN
0.9D ± E / 1.4 Eqn. 12-10
E = r Eh + Ev r = 1.50 with mezzanine,

E = 1.50 x V + 0 E v = 0 for ASD
E = 1.5 V
0.9D ± ( 1.5 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 1.07 V
For connection design it is the same as above,
0.9D ± (2.8 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 2 V
21

= 5974.8 + 2489.5 = 8464.3 kN

= 199.16 + 398.32 + 46.27 + 25.85 + 175 + 36 = 880.60 kN

= 8464.3 + 880.60 = 9345 kN
Seismic Base Shear ( V ) = 3 Ca W / R

= 3 x 0.18 x 9345 / 5.6 = 901 kN

= 901 / 2 = 450 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 8464.3 x 3.5 / ( 8464.3 x 3.5 + 880.60 x 7.55 )] x 450
= 367.52 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 880.60 x 7.55 / ( 8464.3 x 3.5 + 880.60 x 7.55)] x 450
= 82.48 kN
The load combination for bracing member design with mezzanine will be,
0.9D ± ( V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± V
The load combination for bracing member design without mezzanine will be,
0.9D ± ( 1.5 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 1.07 V
The load combination for bracing connection design with or without mezzanine
will be,
0.9D ± (2.8 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 2 V
22
Static Force Procedure
Eqn. 30-8 Structure Period (T) = C t h n 3/4
Eqn. 30-4 Seismic Base Shear ( V ) = CV I W / R T
Eqn. 30-5 Maximum Base Shear (V max ) = 2.5 C a I W / R
Eqn. 30-6 Minimum Base Shear (V min ) = 0.11 C a I W
Eqn. 30-7 Minimum Base Shear (V min ) for Zone 4

= 0.8 Z N v I W / R
Where,
Ct = Numerical coefficient = 0.085 for Steel as per section 1630.2.2
hn = Eave or mean height in meters
Cv = Seismic coefficient as per Table 16-R UBC 97
R = Numeric coefficient as per Table 16-N UBC 97
T = Structure Period in Seconds.
Nv = Source nearness factor as per Table 16-T UBC 97
25% of the floor live load in storage and warehouses occupancies.
Minimum of 0.48 kN/m2 if partitions are present.
Seismic coefficient C V (Table 16-R) UBC 97

Seismic Zone
Soil Profile
Z=1 Z=2A Z=2B Z=3 Z=4
A 0.06 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32 N a
B 0.08 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 N a
C 0.13 0.25 0.32 0.45 0.56 N a
D 0.18 0.32 0.40 0.54 0.64 N a
E 0.26 0.50 0.64 0.84 0.96 N a
F Special site specific analysis should be performed
23
Example :- 6.4
Seismic Zone = 2A
Therefore, Seismic Zone Factor ‘Z’ = 0.15 (Refer Table 16-I)
Soil Profile type =C
Therefore, Seismic Coefficient ‘C a ’ = 0.18 (Refer Table 16-Q)
Therefore, Seismic Coefficient ‘C v ’ = 0.25 (Refer Table 16-R)
Considering the building without mezzanine, we know ‘W’ = 105.5 kN

Calculate Structure Period (T) = C t h n 3/4
= 0.085 x 7.553/4 = 0.387
Seismic Base Shear ( V ) = CV I W / R T (R=4.5 for Rigid Frames)
= 0.25 x 1.00 x 105.5 / (4.5 x 0.387) = 15.15 kN
Maximum Base Shear (V max ) = 2.5 C a I W / R
= 2.5 x 0.18 x 1.00 x 105.5 / 4.5 = 10.55 kN
Minimum Base Shear (V min ) = 0.11 C a I W
= 0.11 x 0.18 x 1.00 x 105.5 = 2.09 kN
Therefore Seismic Base Shear = 10.55 kN
0.9D ± E / 1.4 Eqn. 12-10
E = r Eh + Ev r = 1.00 without mezzanine,

E = 1.00 x V + 0 E v = 0 for ASD
E =V
For the design of moment connections ‘E m ’ should be used,
Em = Ωo Eh Ω o = 2.80
Em = 2.8 V
So when we are designing the frames we should use E=V for all load
combinations with seismic loads, and for the connection design for any load
combination with seismic loads, use E = E m = 2.8 V in the same combination.
0.9D ± ( V / 1.4 )
Therefore the above load combination for connection design will be,
0.9D ± (2.8 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 2 V
24

= 747 + 312 = 1059 kN

= 105.5 kN
Therefore,
V
= CV I W / R T (R=4.5 for Rigid Frames)
= 0.25 x 1.00 x 1165 / (4.5 x 0.387) = 167.2 kN
= 2.5 x 0.18 x 1.00 x 1165 / 4.5 = 116.5 kN
= 0.11 x 0.18 x 1.00 x 1165 = 23.06 kN
Therefore Seismic Base Shear = 116.5 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 1059 x 3.5 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 117
= 96 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 105.5 x 7.55 / ( 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 )] x 117
= 21 kN
0.9D ± E / 1.4 Eqn. 12-10
E = r Eh + Ev r = 1.50 with mezzanine,

E = 1.50 x V + 0 E v = 0 for ASD
E = 1.5 V
0.9D ± ( 1.5 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 1.07 V
For connection design it is the same as above,

0.9D ± (2.8 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 2 V
25

= 5974.8 + 2489.5 = 8464.3 kN

= 199.16+398.32+46.27+25.85+175+36 = 880.60 kN

= 8464.3 + 880.60 = 9345 kN
= CV I W / R T
V
= 0.25 x 1.00 x 9345 / (5.6 x 0.387) = 1078 kN
= 2.5 x 0.18 x 1.00 x 9345 / 5.6 = 751 kN
= 0.11 x 0.18 x 1.00 x 9345 = 185 kN
Therefore Seismic Base Shear = 751 kN

= 751 / 2 = 376 kN
V1 = (W 1 h 1 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 8464.3 x 3.5/( 8464.3 x 3.5+880.60 x 7.55 )] x 376
= 310 kN
V2 = (W 2 h 2 / Σ W h ) x V
= [ 880.60 x 7.55/( 8464.3 x 3.5+880.60 x 7.55)] x 376
= 66 kN
0.9D ± ( V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± V
0.9D ± ( 1.5 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 1.07 V
The load combination for bracing connection design with or without mezzanine
will be,
0.9D ± (2.8 V / 1.4 ) = 0.9D ± 2 V
26
MBMA-2002 / IBC 2000 / ASCE 7-98

1. Occupancy Category (Importance Factor)

Table 1-1 7-98
a. Range = I, II, III & IV
b. Default = II (Medium Hazard) (Unless specified in PIF)
2. Seismic Use Group
Table 1604.5 IBC 2000, Table 9.1.3 ASCE 7-98

Seismic Use Group
Occupancy Category
I II III
I X
II X
III X
IV X
3. Site Class
Table 9.4.1.2 7-98
a. Range = A, B, C, D, E & F
b. Default = D (as per IBC 1615.1.1 Unless specified in PIF)
Site Class Definitions Table 1615.1.1 IBC 2000, Table 9.4.1.2 ASCE 7-98
Site Class Soil Profile Name
A Hard rock
B Rock
C Very dense soil and soft rock
D Stiff soil profile
E Soil (see ASCE 7-98)
F (see ASCE 7-98)
4. Mapped Spectral Response Short (S s )

a. Range = 0.15 to 2.50
5. Mapped Spectral Response 1 Second (S 1 )

a. Range = 0.04 to 1.00
Sec. 1616.6.3 IBC 2000 Note:-

Sec 9.5.2.5.3 7-98 For Regular Buildings less than 5 stories in SDC (D, E, F) with T =< 0.5
S S need not exceed 1.5 (S s =1.50 Maximum)

S 1 need not exceed 0.60 (S 1 =0.60 Maximum)
27
6. Response Modification Factor

Table 1617.6 IBC 2000
a. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (R=4.00)
Page 1-164 MBMA 02
b. Endwalls w/bracing - Ordinary Braced Frames. (R=5.00)
c. Sidewalls bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames. (R=5.00)
d. Blockwall - Ordinary Masonry Walls. (R=1.50)
7. Over-Strength Factor
Table 1617.6 IBC 2000
a. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (Ω o =3.00)
Page 1-164 MBMA 02
b. Endwalls w/bracing - Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =2.00)
c. Sidewalls bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =2.00)
d. Blockwall - Ordinary Masonry Walls. (Ω o =2.50)
Note:-
The Over-Strength Factor is used in the design of frame splice connections,

bracing, strut purlin, strut tube etc, using the Special Seismic Load
Combinations 8 & 9 in LRFD and 11 & 12 in ASD (See chapter 9)
Minimum value of Ω o = 2.00 Maximum of Ω o = 3.00
The values of over-strength factor may be reduced by 0.5 for flexible

diaphragms such as metal sheeting, hence above values are re-written as
below,
a. Rigid / Portal Frames - (reduced) (Ω o =2.50)

a. Endwalls w/bracing - (reduction not applicable) (Ω o =2.00)
b. Sidewalls bracing – (reduction not applicable) (Ω o =2.00)
c. Blockwall - (reduction not applicable) (Ω o =2.50)
(Reduction is not applicable since Ω o cannot be less than 2.00)
8. Deflection Amplification Factor

Table 1617.6 IBC 2000
e. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (Ω o =3.50)
Page 1-164 MBMA 02
f. Endwalls w/bracing - Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =4.50)
g. Sidewalls bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =4.50)
h. Blockwall - Ordinary Masonry Walls. (Ω o =1.25)
Note:-
If the Response Modification Factor ‘R’ is less than or equal to 3 for Seismic
Design Category ‘SDC’ (A, B, C) the use of Over-Strength Factor with Special
Seismic Load Combinations 8 & 9 in LRFD and 11 & 12 in ASD (See chapter 9)
need not be applied.
28
Values of Site coefficient (F a ) Table 9.4.1.2.4a ASCE 7-98

Site Class Ss<=0.25 Ss =0.5 Ss=0.75 Ss=1.0 Ss>=1.25
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
E 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9 -
F Site Specific investigation shall be performed, See IBC 2000, ASCE 7-98
Values of Site coefficient (F v ) Table 9.4.1.2.4b ASCE 7-98

Site Class S 1 <=0.10 S 1 =0.2 S 1 =0.3 S 1 =0.4 S 1 =>=0.50
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
D 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.5
E 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 -
Seismic Design Category Table 1616.3(1) IBC 2000, Table 9.4.2.1a ASCE 7-98
Occupancy Category
Value of S DS
I II III
S DS < 0.167g A A A
0.167g <= S DS < 0.33g B B C
0.33g <= S DS < 0.50g C C D
0.50g <= S DS Da Da Da
Seismic Design Category Table 1616.3(2) IBC 2000, Table 9.4.2.1b ASCE 7-98
Occupancy Category
Value of S D1
I II III
S D1 < 0.067g A A A
0.067g <= S D1 < 0.133g B B C
0.133g <= S D1 < 0.20g C C D
0.20g <= S D1 Da Da Da
a – Seismic Use Group I and II structures located on sites with mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral
response acceleration at 1-second period, S 1 , equal to or greater than 0.75g shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category
‘E’ and Seismic Use Group III structures located on such sites shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category ‘F’
29
Seismic Base Shear
1. Lateral Forces (For Seismic Design Category, SDC = A Only)

(Applicable to SDC ‘A’ only as per Section 9.5.2.5.1 ASCE 7-98, for other
categories use Simplified Procedure or Equivalent Force Method)
The Design lateral force applied at story ‘x’
Eqn. 9.5.2.5.1 7-98 (F x ) = 0.01 w x
Where,
w x = portion of the total gravity load of the structure, ‘W’, located or assigned to
level ‘x’.
Example
Example :- 6.4
Using the same data as in Example 6.1, and considering that the SDC (Seismic
Design Category) is ‘A’
The total weight of building in transverse direction is
W = wx = 105.5 kN
Therefore,
V = Fx
Fx = 0.01 x w x
= 0.01 x 105.5 = 1.06 kN
30
2. Simplified Procedure
(This procedure has limited application; see section 9.5.3.8 of ASCE 7-98)
Eqn. 9.4.1.2.4-1 Maximum Spectral Response Short (S MS ) = Fa SS
Eqn. 9.4.1.2.4-2 Maximum Spectral Response 1 Second (S M1 ) = Fv S1
Eqn. 9.4.1.2.5-1 Design Spectral Response Short (S DS ) = 2/3 x S MS
Eqn. 9.4.1.2.5-2 Design Spectral Response 1 Second (S D1 ) = 2/3 x S M1
Eqn. 9.5.3.8.1 Seismic Base Shear (V) = 1.2 S DS W / R
Where,
R = as per table 9.5.2.2 of ASCE 7-98
W = effective seismic weight of the structure, including the total dead load and
other loads listed below,
1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25% of the reduced floor live load
(floor live load in public garages and open parking structures need not be
included).
2. Where an allowance for partition load is included in the floor load design, the
actual partition weight or a minimum of 0.48 kN/m2 of floor area, whichever
is greater.
3. Total weight of permanent operating equipment.
4. 20% of flat roof snow load where flat snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2.
Simplified procedure is permitted to be used for any structure in Seismic Use

Group I, with following exceptions,
Section 9.5.2.5 7-98
1. Buildings of light framed construction not exceeding 3 stories in height,
excluding basements,
2. Buildings of any construction other than light framed, not exceeding 2
stories in height.
31
Vertical Distribution
Section 9.5.3.8.2 7-98
The forces at each level shall be calculated using the following formula:
Eqn. 9.5.3.8.2 Fx = 1.2 S DS w x / R
Where,
w x = portion of the seismic weight of the structure, W, at level x
Example :- 6.5
Assuming the same building data as in Example 6.1, and other seismic data as
below,
Occupancy Category = II
Hence, Importance factor ‘I’ = 1.00
Site Class =C
Mapped Spectral Response Short (S s ) = 0.50
Mapped Spectral Response 1 Sec. (S 1 ) = 0.30
From Table 9.4.1.2.4a for Site Class ‘C’ and S s = 0.50

Fa = 1.20
From Table 9.4.1.2.4b for Site Class ‘C’ and S 1 = 0.30
Fv = 1.50
Maximum Spectral Response Short (S MS )

= Fa SS
= 1.20 x 0.50 = 0.60
Maximum Spectral Response 1 Second (S M1 )

= Fv S1
= 1.50 x 0.30 = 0.45
Design Spectral Response Short (S DS ) = 2/3 x S MS

= 2 /3 x 0.60 =0.40
Design Spectral Response 1 Second (S D1 )

= 2/3 x S M1
= 2/3 x 0.45 = 0.30
32
Therefore,
Seismic Design Category as per Short (S DS ) = C (Table 9.4.2.1a)
Seismic Design Category as per 1 Second (S D1 ) = D (Table 9.4.2.1b)
Seismic Base Shear (V) = 1.20 S DS W / R

Where R = 4.00 for rigid frames
= 1.20 x 0.40 x 105.5 / 4.00
= 12.66 kN
For building with mezzanine
Where R = 4.00 for rigid frames
= 1.20 x 0.40 x 1164 / 4.00
= 139.69 kN
Now distributing the base shear at mezzanine and eave level,
At mezzanine level F x1 = 1.2 S DS w x / R

= 1.2 x 0.40 x 1059 / 4.00
= 127 kN
At roof level F x2 = 1.2 S DS w x / R
= 1.2 x 0.40 x 105.5 / 4.00
= 12.66 kN
Considering longitudinal direction,
Where R = 5.00 for Diagonal Bracings

= 1.20 x 0.40 x 9345 / 5.00
= 897 kN

= 897 / 2 = 448 kN

= 1.2 x 0.40 x 8464 / 5.00
= 813 kN

= 1.2 x 0.40 x 880.6 / 5.00
= 84.5 kN
33
3. Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure

(This procedure can be used for all structures except those subjected most severe
earthquake conditions, see MBMA 2002 page 1-160)
Eqn. 16-39 MBMA 02 Approximate Fundamental Period (T a ) = C T h n 3/4
Eqn. 9.5.3.2.1-1 Seismic Response Coefficient (C s ) = S DS I / R
Eqn. 9.5.3.2.1-2 Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max] ) = S D1 I / T R
Eqn. 9.5.3.2.1-3 Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min] ) = 0.044 I S DS
(For Seismic Category A , B , C & D)
Eqn. 9.5.3.2.1-4 Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min] ) = 0.50 S 1 I / R
(For Seismic Category E & F)
Eqn. 9.5.3.2-1 Seismic Base Shear (V) = Cs W
Where,
CT = 0.085 for Moment Resisting frames.

= 0.0488 for Endwalls & Sidewalls
= 0.0488 for Blockwalls and other structures
hn = Is the height of the building from base.
I = Importance Factor for Seismic
W = total dead load and applicable portions of other loads listed below,
1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25% of the floor live load shall be
applicable. The 2.4 kN/m2 floor live load for passenger cars in parking
garages need not be considered.
2. Where an allowance for partition load is included in the floor load
design, the actual partition weight or a minimum of 0.48 kN/m2 of floor
area, whichever is greater shall be applicable.
3. Total operating weight of permanent equipment and the effective
contents of vessels.
4. Where the flat roof snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2, 20% of the design
snow load shall be included in ‘W’.
34
Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces

Sect.9.5.3.4 7-98 The lateral seismic force (F x ) induced at any level shall be determined from the
following equations
Eqn. 9.5.3.4-1 Fx = C vx V
Eqn. 9.5.3.4-2 C vx = wx hxk / Σ wi hik
Where,
V = total design lateral force or base shear
C vx = Vertical distribution factor
w i , w x = the portion of seismic weight of structure located at level i or x
h i , h x = the height from the base at level i or x
k = an exponent related to the structure period as per table below,
Ta k
T a <= 0.5 1
0.5 < T a < 2.5 Interpolated between 1 & 2
T a >= 2.5 2
Example :- 6.6
Using the building data in example 6.1 and other seismic parameters as in
example 6.5 are recalled below,
Design Spectral Response Short (S DS ) = 0.40
Design Spectral Response 1 Second (S D1 ) = 0.30
Therefore,
Approximate Fundamental Period (T a )

= C T h n 0.75
where,
CT = 0.0853
hn = 7.55 m
Therefore, Approx. Fundamental Period (T a )

= 0.0853 x 7.550.75 = 0.390
35
Seismic Response Coefficient (C s )

= S DS I / R (R=4.00 for Rigid Frames)
= 0.40 x 1.00 / 4.00 = 0.10
Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max])

= S D1 I / T R
= 0.30 x 1.00 / (0.39 x 4.00) = 0.19
Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min])

= 0.044 S DS I
= 0.044 x 0.40 x 1.00 = 0.018

= 0.50 S 1 I / R
= 0.50 x 0.30 x 1.00 / 4.00 = 0.038
Seismic Base Shear (V) = C s W (Without mezzanine)

= 0.10 x 105.5 = 10.55 kN
Seismic Base Shear (V) = C s W (With mezzanine)

= 0.10 x 1164 = 116.4 kN
Calculating the vertical distribution factor C vx
Vertical Distribution Factor C vx

= wx hxk / Σ wi hik
The total weight ‘w 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m,

= 747 + 312 = 1059 kN
And the weight at roof level is ‘w 2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m

= 105.5 = 105.5 kN
Σ Wi hi = 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 = 4503.03
36
Since, T a = 0.39 < 0.50, hence k = 1.00
V1 = (w 1 h 1 k / Σ W i h i k ) x V
= [1059 x 3.5/( 4503 )] x 132.7
= 109.2 kN
V2 = (w 2 h 2 k / Σ W i h i k) x V
= [105.5 x 7.55/( 4503)] x 132.7
= 23.5 kN
Now, calculating the seismic force in the longitudinal direction, we know the
following,


= C T h n 0.75
where,
CT = 0.0488
hn = 7.55 m

= 0.0488 x 7.55 0.75 = 0.22

= S DS I / R (R=5.00 for Bracings)
= 0.40 x 1.00 / 5.00 = 0.08
Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max])

= S D1 I / T R
= 0.30 x 1.00 / (0.22 x 5.00) = 0.27

= 0.044 S DS I
= 0.044 x 1.00 x 0.40 = 0.018

= 0.50 S 1 I / R
= 0.50 x 0.30 x 1.00 / 5.00 = 0.03
37
Seismic Base Shear (V) = C s W

= 0.08 x 9345 = 748 kN

= 748 / 2 = 374 kN
Distributing this force along the sidewall to mezzanine and eave level

The total weight ‘w 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m, = 8464 kN
And the weight at roof level is ‘w 2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m = 880.6 kN
Σ Wi hi = 8464 x 3.5 + 880.6 x 7.55 = 36272.53
Since, T a = 0.22 < 0.50, hence k = 1.00
V1 = (w 1 h 1 k / Σ W i h i k ) x V
= [8464 x 3.5/( 36272 )] x 575
= 470 kN
V2 = (w 2 h 2 k / Σ W i h i k) x V
= [880.6 x 7.55/( 36272)] x 575
= 105 kN
38
Combinations of Load Effects.

The effects on the structure and its components due to seismic forces shall be
Section 9.5.2.7 7-98 combined with gravity loads in accordance with the combination of loads in
section 2 of ASCE 7-98. The earthquake load effects shall include the horizontal
and vertical effects.
For ASD Load Combinations (8, 9 & 10) as per chapter 9,
8) D + C o + 0.7 E h ± 0.7 E v
9) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or S ) + 0.525 E h ± 0.525 E v
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 E h ± 0.7 E v
Where,
Eh = r QE
Ev = 0.20 S DS D
QE = V (Seismic Base Shear)
r = Reliability factor (Minimum = 1.00, Maximum = 1.50)
= 1.00 for SDC (A, B, C)
Section 9.5.2.4 7-98
= 1.50 for SDC (D, E, F) Conservatively
Section 9.5.2.7 7-98 Note:- The vertical seismic effect ‘E v ’ need not be included if S DS =< 0.125
Substituting the value of E h and E v in load combinations (8, 9 & 10),
Equation 8)
= D + C o + 0.7 r Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
* = (1 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
Equation 9)
= D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or S ) + 0.525 r Q E ± 0.525 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or S ) + 0.525 r Q E
* = (1 - 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or S ) + 0.525 r Q E
Equation 10)
= 0.6 D + 0.7 r Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
* = (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
* - Denotes combination will not govern, hence can be ignored
39
Applying the calculated Seismic Base Shear in example 6.6 using Load
Combinations described above,
Using the values of Base Shear (Q E ) from Equivalent Lateral Force Method
Transverse Direction = 12.03 kN (without mezzanine)
For ASD Load Combinations 8)
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
using, r = 1.50
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.50 x 12.03 = 12.63 kN
(1+0.14 S DS ) D = (1+0.14 x 0.40) D = 1.056 D
Therefore, load combination 8) is written and represented as below,
= 1.06 D + 12.63 (Ignoring C o )
1.06 DEAD LOAD
12.63 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
SEISMIC FORCE WITH LOAD COMBINATION
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
40
Similarly for ASD Load Combinations 9)
Where,
0.525 r Q E = 0.525 x 1.50 x 12.03 = 9.47 kN
(1 + 0.105 S DS )D = (1+0.105 x 0.40) D = 1.042 D
Substituting the in load combinations 9)
= 1.04 D + 0.75 L r + 9.47
(Ignoring C o and absence of S and floor live L f )
1.04 DEAD LOAD + 0.75 ROOF LIVE LOAD
9.47 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
41
= (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E

= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
Where,
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.50 x 12.03 = 12.63 kN
(0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6+0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.656 D
(0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6-0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.544 D
Substituting in load combinations 10)
= 0.66 D + 12.63 (Ignoring C o )

= 0.54 D + 12.63 (Ignoring C o ) (Will govern)
0.54 DEAD LOAD
12.63 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
42
If mezzanine is considered, the distributions of forces are,

V1 = 109.2 kN
V2 = 23.50 kN
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
using, r = 1.50
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.50 x 109.2 = 114.6 kN
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.50 x 23.50 = 24.68 kN
(1+0.14 S DS ) D = (1+0.14 x 0.40) D = 1.056 D
= 1.06 D + 114.6 + 24.68 (Ignoring C o )
1.06 DEAD LOAD
24.7 kN
114.6 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
SEISMIC FORCE W ITH LOAD COM BINATION
CASE-1 (AS SHOW N)
43
Where,
0.525 r Q E = 0.525 x 1.50 x 109.2 = 85.99 kN
0.525 r Q E = 0.525 x 1.50 x 23.50 = 18.51 kN
(1 + 0.105 S DS )D = (1+0.105 x 0.40) D = 1.042 D
= 1.04 D + 0.75 L f + 0.75 L r + 85.99 + 18.51
18.5 kN
0.75 FLOOR LIVE LOAD
86 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
SEISM IC FORCE W ITH LOAD COMBINATION
CASE-1 (AS SHOW N)
44
= (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E

= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
Where,
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.50 x 109.2 = 114.6 kN
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.50 x 23.50 = 24.68 kN
(0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6+0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.656 D
(0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6-0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.544 D
= 0.66 D + 114.6 + 24.68 (Ignoring C o )

= 0.54 D + 114.6 + 24.68 (Ignoring C o ) (Will govern)
0.54 DEAD LO AD
24.7 kN
115 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
SEISM IC FORCE W ITH LOAD COM BINATION
CASE-1 (AS SHO W N)
Similarly for longitudinal direction.
45
Seismic Load Effect including over Strength Factor

The Seismic Over strength Factor using E m load combination is applied to ensure
a ductile performance under seismic loading, in other words, if failure is occur it
should be yielding failure of the member in consideration rather than a brittle
failure of the connections. Hence, all connections of moment resisting frames,
braced frames, tension bracing & their connections, strut members and their
connections should be designed using E m load combinations.
Note:-
For ASD Load Combinations (11 & 12) as per chapter 9,

11) D + C o + 0.7 E mh ± 0.7 E v
12) 0.6 D + 0.7 E mh ± 0.7 E v
Where,
E mh = Ω o QE
Ev = 0.20 S DS D
Ωo = 2.50 for Main Frames
= 2.00 for bracings
Substituting the value of E mh and E v in load combinations (8, 9 & 10),
Equation 11)
= D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
* = (1 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
Equation 12)
= 0.6 D + 0.7 Ω o Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
* = (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
46
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
using, Ωo = 2.50 for main frames or 2.00 for bracing
0.7 Ω o Q E = 0.7 x 2.50 x 12.03 = 21.05 kN

(1+0.14 S DS ) D = (1+0.14 x 0.40) D = 1.056 D
= 1.06 D + 21.05 (Ignoring C o )
1.06 DEAD LOAD
21.05 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
47
= 0.6 D + 0.7 Ω o Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)

= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
Where,
0.7 Ω o Q E = 0.7 x 2.50 x 12.03 = 21.05 kN
(0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6-0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.544 D
= 0.54 D + 21.05 (Ignoring C o )
0.54 DEAD LOAD
21.05 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
48
Table 9.5.2.8 ASCE 7-98 Allowable Story Drift

Seismic Use Group
Structure
I II III
Structures other than masonry shear wall or
masonry wall frame structures, 4 stories or less with
interior walls, partitions, ceilings and exterior wall Hb / 40 H / 50 H / 66
systems that have been designed to accommodate
the story drifts
Masonry cantilever shear wall structures c H / 100 H / 100 H / 100
Other masonry shear wall structures H / 142 H / 142 H / 142
Masonry wall frame structures H / 76 H / 76 H / 100
All other structures H / 50 H / 66 H / 100
Where,
a) H – is the story height below level ‘x’
b) There shall be no drift limit for single story structures with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, and exterior wall systems that
have been designed to accommodate the story drifts. The structure separation requirement of section 9.5.2.8 is not wavied.
c) Structures in which the basic structural system consists of masonry shear walls designed as vertical elements cantilevered from
their base or foundation support which are so constructed that moment transfer between shear walls (coupling) is negligible
49
Distribution of Seismic Forces
50
MBMA-2006 / IBC 2006 / ASCE 7-05
 Seismic Loads
The 2006 International Building Code, Section 1613, covers the requirements for
earthquake loads. Section 1613.1 defines the scope of seismic design as follows:
MBMA 2006

Every structre, and portion thereof, including nonstructural components that
are permanently attached to structures and their supports and attachments,
shall be designed and constructed to resist the effects of earthquake motions
in accordance with ASCE 7-05, excluding Section 14 and Appendix 11A.
Several exceptions are listed where seismic loads are not required to be
evaluated, and the only one that would be applicable to metal building
applications is agricultural storage structures intended only for incidental
human occupancy.
It should be noted that the 2006 IBC references ASCE 7-05 for its seismic criteria
requirements and the 2005 AISC Seismic Provisions for its steel seismic detailing
requirements. The 2006 IBC, ASCE 7-05 and 2005 AISC Seismic Provisions are
fully compatible through a significant coordination that took place between the
various code and standard writing committees.
A Design Guide for applying seismic loads to metal buildings was jointly
published by the International Code Council (ICC) and MBMA. It has recently
been updated to the IBC 2006 and ASCE 7-05. Some excerpts from this Guide,
which will be referred to as the 2006 Design Guide, as well as the first complete
example are provided in the following sections.
Basic Concept of Seismic Code Reduced Forces

The 2006 IBC requires that all structures, in most parts of the United States, be
designed to resist design earthquake ground motions. As currently defined,
these design earthquake motions have average return periods of between 300
and 800 years and are quite severe. In the higher seismic regions of the United
States it would be economically prohibitive to design structures to remain elastic
for these motions (as is done for wind loads).
Based on this, earthquake engineering has evolved to allow for inelastic yielding
to accommodate seismic loadings as long as such yielding does not impair the
vertical load capacity of the structure. To reconcile with the allowance of damage
from inelastic response, forces determined by linear analysis are reduced to a
design earthquake force level through the introduction of the seismic force
reduction factor, (R) .
51
Various magnitudes of (R), based on the inelastic absorption of structure types,

have been defined. The larger the value of (R), the lower the design earthquake
force, and more detailing requirements are imposed to assure that the structure
will perform inelastically as intended. Larger (R)-values also result in more
restrictions regarding the proportioning of members and their connections. In
addition, there are limitations on the types of structural systems that can
utilize a high (R) -value.
In the 2006 Design Guide, the seismic force reduction factors that are used are
consistent with the structural systems found in metal buildings. Because reduced
forces are used, special design and detailing is required for some members and
connections. The design examples clearly illustrate where these special
connection forces are required and how they should be applied.
The user is cautioned that application of reduced seismic forces in design

without the corresponding application of seismic detailing will likely result in
a design that does not comply with the 2006 IBC.
Metal Building Standard Design and Analysis Practice/Economy

The economies associated with metal building systems come from a variety of
factors. First, through years of improvements and innovations, the metal
building industry has consistently produced lighter structures than typically
found in conventional construction. This is achieved through the use of built-up
structural members, including roof purlins and wall girts.
Another economical aspect of metal building systems is the combination of mass-

produced components with custom-designed and fabricated structural members.
To achieve this efficiency, the metal building industry has developed computer
software that performs structural analyses, determines member and connection
sizes, selects mass-produced components when appropriate, and produces shop
and erection drawings.
Metal buildings are typically analyzed based on the assumption that the roof acts
as a flexible diaphragm and distributes loads to each line of resistance based on
the tributary area. Frames and bracing are then designed using two- dimensional
models.
Seismic design presents a challenge for metal building systems due to the many
special seismic detailing requirements that are not otherwise required. In some
cases, this requires the manufacturer to prepare extensive calculations and details
in addition to the calculations and details typically produced by its proprietary
software.
52
Due to the flexibility of metal building structures, typical code limits on drift
(sidesway) can be exceeded when it can be demonstrated that non-structural
components attached to the framing can accommodate the excess movement or
that special detailing allows for differential movement.
Typically, the engineer for the metal building manufacturer designs only the
steel building structure. Another engineer normally performs the design of the
remainder of the structure, including foundations and concrete or masonry
walls. This is further discussed in the Common Industry Practices section of the
Manual.
Approach to Metal Building Roof Diaphragm Rigidity (Flexible vs Rigid) and

Accidental Torsion.
1. Diaphragm Flexibility
Applied forces are distributed within any building in a direct relationship to the
rigidity of the structural elements of that building. A significant factor is the
rigidity of structural elements that transfer forces horizontally, relative to
elements that transfer force vertically. For either extreme of this relative rigidity
between horizontal and vertical elements, engineers have developed simplified
design approaches to determine force distributions.
The two extremes are defined as follows:

(a) Flexible Diaphragm: The rigidity of the horizontal diaphragm is very
small relative to the rigidity of the vertical systems.
(b) Rigid Diaphragm: The rigidity of the horizontal diaphragm is very
large compared to the rigidity of the vertical systems.
Analysis using either of these bounding assumptions produces results that vary
in accuracy depending upon how closely the actual structure matches the
simplifying assumptions. Although many (perhaps most) structures fall
somewhere between these extremes, more accurate analysis can only be done by
using complex finite-element models that are generally not practical to use for
ordinary building designs.
2006 IBC Section 1602.1 defines a flexible diaphragm as having a lateral

deflection of more than two times the average story drift of the vertical elements
supporting the diaphragm, and a rigid diaphragm as everything else. This
definition requires calculation of diaphragm deflection, which is complex and
imprecise for many types of diaphragm construction. Therefore, it is important to
be able to select and use appropriate simplified assumptions to obtain rapid
structural design solutions.
53
Diaphragm deflection varies, depending upon the materials used, the type and
spacing of fasteners used in the construction, the depth of the diaphragm in the
direction of deformation, and the width or span of the diaphragm transverse to
the direction of deformation. Horizontal diaphragm systems in metal buildings
might consist of either the metal cladding of the roof itself or horizontal bracing
systems installed beneath the roof alone. Examples of horizontal bracing systems
used include rods, angles, cables, or other structural members and are often
tension-only bracing.
Metal Roof Systems

Metal roof cladding typically consists of either standing seam metal panels or
through-fastened roof panels. In standing seam roof (SSR) systems, the formed
roof sheets are restrained against uplift but are free to slide against each other
(float) along the length of the joining seams. Side seam resistance to slip varies.
The panel clips allow for relative movement between the panels and their
supporting structure to accommodate thermal expansion. The resulting roof
systems vary in the strength and stiffness required to transfer horizontal forces,
and in general they are considered to be flexible for any type of construction.
Therefore, separate horizontal bracing systems that are designed to resist the full
wind and earthquake demands usually need to be provided. Friction caused by
sliding of panels at the attachments along seams probably provides energy
dissipation (damping) to the structure that is beneficial to earthquake response,
but is usually ignored in the design. There are exceptions to this typical
presumed behavior. Standing seam roof systems with documented diaphragm
strength and stiffness values may be sufficient to act as sub diaphragms for the
distribution of portions of the lateral forces to the main diaphragm cross-ties, i.e.
strut purlins.
Through-fastened roof (TFR) systems come in many types. Some systems use
screws that fasten through only one sheet of adjoining roof panels, while an
overlapping rib holds down the adjacent sheet. This roofing type, like a standing
seam roof, is considered to be flexible for all types of construction. Other TFR
systems use concealed or exposed screws that fasten through both metal sheets
along an overlapping edge. The rigidity of these systems varies depending upon
the type and spacing of fasteners, the profile and thickness of the joining metal
roofing sheets, and the overall depth and width of the diaphragm.
It has been a traditional metal building design practice to assume that

diaphragms of all types are flexible, regardless of the size or shape of the
building or the type and relative rigidity of the vertical structural elements. For
the most part, this assumption is reasonably correct and appropriate.
54
A typical metal building that is relatively square in plan view, with either an
SSR or TFR roof system, a series of moment frames in the transverse
directions, and several bays of tension-rod bracing in the longitudinal
direction, would be expected to meet the deflection check as a flexible
diaphragm system. However, the design engineer should be aware that some
structural geometries might be better classified as having rigid diaphragms:
As an example, a warehouse building with a TFR roof system that has a series of
moment (portal) frames instead of bracing along the walls of the longitudinal
axis, in order to provide a continuous line of loading docks along the walls of the
building. The relatively flexible moment frames are likely to experience
deflections equal to or greater than the TFR system. Note that an SSR roof system
would still be considered flexible for this building.
Structures using relatively flexible cable bracing systems as vertical bracing, in

conjunction with relatively more rigid tension-rod horizontal bracing or a TFR
roof system might be considered as having rigid diaphragms.
In a recent development, ASCE 7-05 has adopted a new provision found in

Section 12.3.1.1 which states that un-topped steel decking is permitted to be
considered as a flexible diaphragm in structures in which the vertical elements
are structural steel braced frames or concrete, masonry, steel or composite shear
frames.
Inherent and Accidental Torsion

ASCE 7-05 Section 12.8.4.1 requires, for diaphragms which are rigid (i.e. not
flexible), that the distribution of base shear forces should consider the inherent
torsional moment caused by the difference in location between the center of mass
and center of stiffness of the structure. In addition, ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8.4.2
requires, for rigid diaphragms, that an additional accidental torsional moment be
added to the inherent torsion defined by ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8.4.1. Further,
ASCE 7-05, Section 12.8.4.3 requires that in some instances the combined inherent
and accidental torsional moment must be multiplied by a dynamic amplification
factor.
55
Unique Structure Geometries

Many buildings have geometries that complicate the picture when considering
horizontal force distribution. A common instance is for buildings that contain
partial mezzanine floor levels. These floors might be clearly rigid by inspection,
such as when consisting of concrete-topped metal decking supported by steel
beams, or they might be of more questionable rigidity, such as when plywood
floor sheathing is used. In either instance, the design of the overall building
would need to include the forces generated by the weight of the floor system,
and appropriate structural elements would need to be provided to resist these
forces. The method used to distribute these forces to the building system,
whether flexible, rigid or envelope would be determined based on comparison of
the relative rigidity of the horizontal floor system versus the rigidity of the
resisting vertical elements.
It is not inappropriate or uncommon that flexible diaphragm assumptions might

be used to distribute roof forces while also using rigid diaphragm assumptions to
distribute forces from an interior mezzanine system. This is the approach, using a
torsional rigidity analysis to determine the lateral force distribution, which is
used in Design Example 3 of the 2006 Design Guide. It should be noted that the
approach in Design Example 3 is significantly different than that found in the
previous edition of this document. Because of new limitations placed on
ordinary steel systems found in ASCE 7-05 for structures assigned to Seismic
Design Categories D, E and F, the building and mezzanine are structurally
independent structures in Design Example 3 of the 2006 Design Guide. There is
also the option of using intermediate moment frames instead of ordinary
moment frames, which is discussed further in Design Example 3 of the 2006
Design Guide.
Lower Seismic Area Design Alternative

The design approach typically used assumes the largest (R) value that is
permitted for the structural system being utilized, resulting in the lowest seismic
design forces. This means that specific and somewhat stringent detailing
requirements of the AISC Seismic Provisions are imposed.
In the lower areas of seismicity for structures that are classified as Seismic
Design Category B or C, the steel building design engineer has the option to
design for somewhat higher seismic forces assuming R-value = 3 (R = 3), but
ignoring the special detailing requirements.
56
There are several special requirements embedded in the 2006 IBC. These are
discussed in Section 4d of the Example that begins in Section 1.3.6.9 of this
Manual. The advantage of the (R=3) option might be that other loads (such as
wind) may govern the design.
The (R=3) option may perhaps result in a much simpler design and analysis
for such cases without any reduction in economy. The 2006 Design Guide
provides an (R = 3) option alternate to demonstrate its use.
Advantages in Performing a Geotechnical Investigation

For many constructed metal buildings, geotechnical investigations are not
performed, and the minimum soil allowables are used for foundation design.
However, there may be advantages of performing a geotechnical investigation
for a project site, including: Determination of the site class of the soil profile of
the site. Without this determination, the default value of Site Class D must be
assumed by code, which could result in earthquake design forces being over
two times greater than that required if the site class was actually Site Class B.
A lower site class may also result in a reduction in a seismic design category for a
particular structure, which in turn may mean less restrictive detailing
requirements and height limitations. This would result in a lower cost structure
and foundation. Determination of site-specific soil bearing values. This
determination would usually result in higher allowable bearing pressures than
the default values provided in the code, resulting in more economical foundation
designs. Detection of soil or foundation problems, which could adversely affect
the construction or structural performance of the metal building. These problems
could include subsurface areas of weakness, expansive soils, corrosive soils and
water table issues. Mitigating these problems, if present, would likely result in a
building that performs better over its life. Note that according to 2006 IBC Section
1613.5.5 (ASCE 7-05 Section 20.1), the site classification is ideally based on site
specific soil data to a depth of 100 feet (30.48 m). However in lieu of data
available to that depth, IBC permits the “soil properties to be estimated by the
registered design professional preparing the soil report based on known geologic
conditions.” Therefore, it is important to request that borings be taken to the
necessary depth to comply with this requirement.
57
Relationship and Issues between the Metal Building Manufacturer and the
Building Specifying Engineer
Metal building systems are designed and fabricated by manufacturers, then
typically sold through franchised builders (or dealers) who also provide erection
who has a direct relationship with the end customer and the other project
designers. This creates a line of communication that often includes
nontechnical personnel, a situation that can lead to designs that do not fully
satisfy project needs. To avoid such problems, it is vitally important that all
project requirements, including design specifications, special loading and
applicable code provisions, are clearly communicated to the metal building
design engineer. It is equally output data are communicated to the end customer,
the project architect, and the foundation engineer. Furthermore, 2006 IBC
Section 1603 requires that the construction documents clearly indicate
pertinent structural design information, including earthquake design data.
Typically, due to lack of direct contact with the end user, the metal building of
record for a project. This function must be served by a registered design
professional who prepares the design for the foundation and any other
structural components or systems and who has a direct relationship with the
lead designer or end customer. Additionally the design professional of record
has the responsibility to coordinate dimensions and the layout of grid lines,
frame lines, and building lines.
Relationship and Issues between the Metal Building Manufacturer and

Foundation/Hardwall Engineer (Blockwall)
As previously stated, it is typical practice to have the foundation and concrete or
masonry walls of metal buildings designed by a separate registered design
professional. It is very important that the loads imposed by the metal building to
a foundation or hardwall are clearly identified to the engineer responsible for
their design. Also, the interface details between the building, walls and
foundation (bolt type, size, location, spacing and connection details) need to be
clearly identified. It is also very important that the hardwall design engineer
clearly communicate all applicable design criteria to the metal building engineer.
For example if the wall engineer’s design assumes that hardwalls do not behave
as shear walls, then special connections need to be provided between the
hardwall and the building to accommodate the building lateral in-plane
displacement. shear wall loads imposed by the building need to be
communicated to the hardwall engineer so he or she can engineer the hardwall
and its foundation for these loads. In general, if hardwalls are being used, they
will usually have more than adequate strength to act as shear walls if designed to
do so.
58
This would mean different seismic design assumptions and building/wall

interface details. It is also important that consistent (R) values are used between
the metal building designer and hardwall engineer. The choice of (R) affects the
seismic force levels in the overall structure and detailing requirements for the
hardwall engineer. This subject is covered in more detail in Design Example 4 of
the 2006 Design Guide. Additionally, it must be understood who is taking overall
responsibility for the building design for purposes of sealing of drawings and
submission to drawings normally only applies to the products furnished or
specified by the metal building manufacturer. In general, the wall and
foundation engineer acts as the design professional of record and accepts
responsibility for the overall work product which includes approval of all
building/wall interface details.
Hardwall Detailing and Actual Behavior

Clear and complete communication between the wall design engineer and the
metal building system design engineer are imperative in order to ensure
building/wall compatibility and achieve the desired building performance. For
example, if a building is located in an area with a relatively high level of
seismicity and the hardwalls are not designed as shear walls, building-to-wall
connection details must be designed to accommodate the relative displacement
between the building and hardwall. Failure to coordinate this issue will almost
designed for the resulting level of force. This is not an acceptable situation. The
building will resist seismic loads along the stiffest lines of resistance regardless of
inconsistent assumptions that may be made by the building and hardwall design
engineers. If an earthquake occurs and the connections between the building and
hardwall cannot accommodate the relative displacement and do not have the
necessary strength and displacement compatibility, the connections will likely
fail, creating a falling hazard from the walls and perhaps causing severe torsional
needs to be one engineer who takes overall responsibility for such a building so
that assumptions at interfaces are aligned. This person must be the wall design
engineer, since only he or she is familiar with the wall design criteria and
limitations.
59
1. Occupancy Category (Importance Factor)

a. Range = I, II, III & IV
b. Default = II (Medium Hazard) (Unless specified in PIF)
Importance Factor [Table 1.3.1(a) MBMA 2006] (Same as in MBMA 2002)

Occupancy
Nature of Occupancy Seismic Factor (I s )
Category
Low Hazard I 1.00
Table 11.5-1 7-05
2. Seismic Use Group (Not applicable in MBMA 2006, IBC 06, ASCE 7-05)
3. Site Class
a. Range = A, B, C, D, E & F
b. Default = D (as per 1613.5.2 IBC06 Unless specified in PIF)
Site Class Definitions IBC 06 Table 1613.5.2 (Same as in MBMA 2002)

Site Class Soil Profile Name
A Hard rock
B Rock
Table 20.3-1 7-05 C Very dense soil and soft rock
D Stiff soil profile
E Soil (see IBC 06)
F (see IBC 06)
4. Mapped Spectral Response Short (0.2 Sec) (S s )

(To be provided by Customer’s Engineer)
a. Range = 0.15 to 2.50
5. Mapped Spectral Response (1 Sec) (S 1 )

(To be provided by Customer’s Engineer)
a. Range = 0.04 to 1.00
Note:-
If S 1 <= 0.04 and S s <= 0.15 than the structure may be assigned Seismic Design
Category (A)
60
6. Response Modification Factor

Table 12.2-1 7-05
a. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (R=3.50)4*
b. Endwalls w/bracing - Ordinary Braced Frames. (R=4.00)5*
c. Sidewalls bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames. (R=3.25)5*
d. Blockwall - Ordinary Masonry Walls. (R=1.50)
(* - Denotes values in MBMA 2002)
7. Over-Strength Factor (Same as in MBMA 2002)

a. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (Ω o =3.00)
b. Endwalls w/bracing - Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =2.00)
c. Sidewalls bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =2.00)
d. Blockwall - Ordinary Masonry Walls. (Ω o =2.50)
Note:-
The Over-Strength Factor is used in the design of frame splice connections,

bracing, strut purlin, strut tube etc, using the Special Seismic Load
Combinations 8 & 9 in LRFD and 11 & 12 in ASD (See chapter 9)
Minimum value of Ω o = 2.00 Maximum of Ω o = 3.00
The values of over-strength factor may be reduced by 0.5 for flexible

Table 12.2-1 7-05
diaphragms such as metal sheeting, hence above values are re-written as
Foot Note (g)
below,
a. Rigid / Portal Frames - (reduced) (Ω o =2.50)

a. Endwalls w/bracing - (reduction not applicable) (Ω o =2.00)
b. Sidewalls bracing – (reduction not applicable) (Ω o =2.00)
c. Blockwall - (reduction not applicable) (Ω o =2.50)
(Reduction is not applicable since Ω o cannot be less than 2.00)
8. Deflection Amplification Factor

Table 12.2-1 7-05
e. Rigid / Portal Frames - Ordinary Moment Frames. (Ω o =3.25)3.5
f. Endwalls w/bracing - Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =3.50)4.5
g. Sidewalls bracing – Ordinary Braced Frames. (Ω o =3.25)4.5
h. Blockwall - Ordinary Masonry Walls.(Ω o =1.25)
Note:-
61
Values of Site coefficient (F a ) Table 1613.5.3(1) IBC 2006

Site Class Ss<=0.25 Ss =0.5 Ss=0.75 Ss=1.0 Ss>=1.25
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
D 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
E 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9 0.9
Values of Site coefficient (F v ) Table 1613.5.3(2) IBC 2006

Site Class S 1 <=0.10 S 1 =0.2 S 1 =0.3 S 1 =0.4 S 1 =>=0.50
A 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
D 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.5
E 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.4
Seismic Design Category for S s 1613.5.6(1) IBC 2006

Occupancy Category
Value of S DS
I II III
S DS < 0.167g A A A
0.167g <= S DS < 0.33g B B C
0.33g <= S DS < 0.50g C C D
0.50g <= S DS D D D
Seismic Design Category for S 1 1613.5.6(2) IBC 2006

Occupancy Category
Value of S D1
I II III
S D1 < 0.067g A A A
0.067g <= S D1 < 0.133g B B C
0.133g <= S D1 < 0.20g C C D
0.20g <= S D1 D D D
a – Seismic Use Group I and II structures located on sites with mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral
response acceleration at 1-second period, S 1 , equal to or greater than 0.75g shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category
‘E’ and Seismic Use Group III structures located on such sites shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category ‘F’
Foot note not applicable in MBMA 2006
62
Seismic Base Shear
1. Lateral Forces (For Seismic Design Category, SDC = A Only)

(Applicable to SDC ‘A’ only as per Section 11.7 ASCE 7-05, for other categories
use Simplified Procedure or Equivalent Force Method)
The Design lateral force applied at story ‘x’
Eqn. 11.7-1 7-05 (F x ) = 0.01 w x
Where,
w x = portion of the total gravity load of the structure, ‘W’, located or assigned to
level ‘x’.
Example
Example :- 6.4
Using the same data as in Example 6.1, and considering that the SDC (Seismic
Design Category) is ‘A’
The total weight of building in transverse direction is
W = wx = 105.5 kN
Therefore,
V = Fx
Fx = 0.01 x w x
= 0.01 x 105.5 = 1.06 kN
63
2. Simplified Procedure
(This procedure has limited application; see section 12.14 of ASCE 7-05)
Eqn. 11.4-1 Maximum Spectral Response Short (S MS ) = Fa SS
Eqn. 11.4-2 Maximum Spectral Response 1 Second (S M1 ) = Fv S1
Eqn. 11.4-3 Design Spectral Response Short (S DS ) = 2/3 x S MS
Eqn. 11.4-4 Design Spectral Response 1 Second (S D1 ) = 2/3 x S M1
Eqn. 12.14-11 Seismic Base Shear (V) = F S DS W / R
Where,
R = as per table 12.2-1 of ASCE 7-05
W = effective seismic weight of the structure, including the total dead load and
other loads listed below,
1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25% of the reduced floor live load
(floor live load in public garages and open parking structures need not be
included).
2. Where an allowance for partition load is included in the floor load design, the
actual partition weight or a minimum of 0.48 kN/m2 of floor area, whichever
is greater.
3. Total weight of permanent operating equipment.
4. 20% of flat roof snow load where flat snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2.
F = 1.0 for one storey building

= 1.1 for two storey building
= 1.2 for three storey building
Ss - Need not be larger than 1.50
64
Vertical Distribution
Section 9.5.3.8.2 7-98
The forces at each level shall be calculated using the following formula:
Eqn. 12.14-12 Fx = wx V / W
Where,
w x = portion of the seismic weight of the structure, W, at level x
Example :- 6.5
Assuming the same building data as in Example 6.1, and other seismic data as
below,
Occupancy Category = II
Hence, Importance factor ‘I’ = 1.00
Site Class =C
Mapped Spectral Response Short (S s ) = 0.50
Mapped Spectral Response 1 Sec. (S 1 ) = 0.30
From Table 1613.5.3(1) for Site Class ‘C’ and S s = 0.50

Fa = 1.20
From Table 1613.5.3(2) for Site Class ‘C’ and S 1 = 0.30
Fv = 1.50
Maximum Spectral Response Short (S MS )

= Fa SS
= 1.20 x 0.50 = 0.60
Maximum Spectral Response 1 Second (S M1 )

= Fv S1
= 1.50 x 0.30 = 0.45
Design Spectral Response Short (S DS ) = 2/3 x S MS
= 2 /3 x 0.60 =0.40
Design Spectral Response 1 Second (S D1 )
= 2/3 x S M1
= 2/3 x 0.45 = 0.30
65
Therefore,
Seismic Base Shear (V) = F S DS W / R

Where R = 3.50 for rigid frames & F=1.00 for 1 Storey
= 1.00 x 0.40 x 105.5 / 3.50
= 12.05 kN
For building with mezzanine
Seismic Base Shear (V) = S DS W / R
Where R = 3.50 for rigid frames & F=1.10 for 2 Storey
= 1.10 x 0.40 x 1164 / 3.50
= 146.3 kN
Now distributing the base shear at mezzanine and eave level,

= 1.2 x 0.40 x 1059 / 3.50
= 145 kN
= 1.2 x 0.40 x 105.5 / 3.50
= 14.4 kN
Considering longitudinal direction,
Seismic Base Shear (V) = S DS W / R
Where R = 3.25 for Diagonal Bracings

= 0.40 x 9345 / 3.25
= 1150 kN

= 1150 / 2 = 575 kN

= 1.2 x 0.40 x 8464 / 3.25
= 1250 kN

= 1.2 x 0.40 x 880.6 / 3.25
= 130 kN
66
3. Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure

(This procedure can be used for all structures except those subjected most severe
earthquake conditions, see Table 12.6-1 ASCE 7-05)
Eqn. 12.8-7 Approximate Fundamental Period (T a ) = CT hnx
Eqn. 12.8-2 Seismic Response Coefficient (C s ) = S DS I / R
Eqn. 12.8-3 Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max] ) = S D1 I / T R

(For T <= T L )
Eqn. 12.8-4 Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max] ) = S D1 T L I / T2 R

(For T > T L )
Eqn. 12.8-5 Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min] ) = 0.01
Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min] ) = 0.5 S 1 I / R

Eqn. 12.8-6 (For structures located where S 1 >= 0.6g)
Eqn. 12.8-1 Seismic Base Shear (V) = Cs W
Where,
C T & x = (0.0724) (0.80) for Moment Resisting frames.

= (0.0488) (0.75) for Endwalls & Sidewalls
= (0.0488) (0.75) for Blockwalls and other structures
hn = Is the height of the building from base.
I = Importance Factor for Seismic
TL = The Long-Period transition period (Should be provided for a location)
ranges from 4 to 16 seconds, use 4 sec if not provided)
W = total dead load and applicable portions of other loads listed below,
1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25% of the floor live load shall be
applicable. The 2.4 kN/m2 floor live load for passenger cars in parking
garages need not be considered.
2. Where an allowance for partition load is included in the floor load
design, the actual partition weight or a minimum of 0.48 kN/m2 of floor
area, whichever is greater shall be applicable.
3. Total operating weight of permanent equipment and the effective
contents of vessels.
4. Where the flat roof snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2, 20% of the design
snow load shall be included in ‘W’.
67
Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces (Same as in MBMA 2002)

Sect.12.8.3 7-05 The lateral seismic force (F x ) induced at any level shall be determined from the
following equations
Eqn. 12.8-11 Fx = C vx V
Eqn. 12.8-12 C vx = wx hxk / Σ wi hik
Where,
V = total design lateral force or base shear
C vx = Vertical distribution factor
w i , w x = the portion of seismic weight of structure located at level i or x
h i , h x = the height from the base at level i or x
k = an exponent related to the structure period as per table below,
Ta k
T a <= 0.5 1
0.5 < T a < 2.5 Interpolated between 1 & 2
T a >= 2.5 2
Example :- 6.6
Using the building data in example 6.1 and other seismic parameters as in
example 6.5 are recalled below,
Therefore,
Seismic Design Category as per 1 Sec (S D1 ) = D (Table 9.4.2.1b)

= CT hnx
where,
CT = 0.0853
hn = 7.55 m
x = 0.80
= 0.0853 x 7.55 0.80 = 0.43 Sec
68

= S DS I / R (R=3.5 for Rigid Frames)
= 0.40 x 1.00 / 3.5 = 0.114
Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max]) (For T < T L )

= S D1 I / T R
= 0.30 x 1.00 / (0.43 x 3.5) = 0.20
Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max]) (For T > T L )

= S D1 T L I / T2 R
= 0.30 x 4 x 1.00 / ( 0.432 x 3.5 ) = 1.85
Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min]) = 0.01
Seismic Base Shear (V) = C s W (Without mezzanine)

= 0.114 x 105.5 = 12.03 kN
Seismic Base Shear (V) = C s W (With mezzanine)

= 0.114 x 1164 = 132.7 kN

The total weight ‘w 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m,

= 747 + 312 = 1059 kN
And the weight at roof level is ‘w 2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m

= 105.5 = 105.5 kN
Σ Wi hi = 1059 x 3.5 + 105.5 x 7.55 = 4503.03
69
Since, T a = 0.43 < 0.50, hence k = 1.00
V1 = (w 1 h 1 k / Σ W i h i k ) x V
= [1059 x 3.5/( 4503 )] x 132.7
= 109.2 kN
V2 = (w 2 h 2 k / Σ W i h i k) x V
= [105.5 x 7.55/( 4503)] x 132.7
= 23.5 kN
Now, calculating the seismic force in the longitudinal direction, we know the
following,


= CT hnx
where,
CT = 0.0488
hn = 7.55 m
x = 0.75
= 0.0488 x 7.55 0.75 = 0.22

= S DS I / R (R=3.25 for Bracings)
= 0.40 x 1.00 / 3.25 = 0.123
Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max]) (For T < T L )

= S D1 I / T R
= 0.30 x 1.00 / (0.22 x 3.25) = 0.42
Max. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [max]) (For T > T L )

= S D1 T L I / T2 R
= 0.30 x 4 x 1.00 / ( 0.222 x 3.25 ) = 7.62
Min. Seismic Response Coefficient (C s [min]) = 0.01
70
Seismic Base Shear (V) = C s W

= 0.123 x 9345 = 1149 kN

= 1149 / 2 = 575 kN
Distributing this force along the sidewall to mezzanine and eave level

The total weight ‘w 1 ’ at mezzanine level h 1 = 3.5 m, = 8464 kN
And the weight at roof level is ‘w 2 ’ at eave level h 2 = 7.55 m = 880.6 kN
Σ Wi hi = 8464 x 3.5 + 880.6 x 7.55 = 36272.53
Since, T a = 0.22 < 0.50, hence k = 1.00
V1 = (w 1 h 1 k / Σ W i h i k ) x V
= [8464 x 3.5/( 36272 )] x 575
= 470 kN
V2 = (w 2 h 2 k / Σ W i h i k) x V
= [880.6 x 7.55/( 36272)] x 575
= 105 kN
71
Combinations of Load Effects.

The effects on the structure and its components due to seismic forces shall be
Section 12.4.2.3 7-05 combined with gravity loads in accordance with the combination of loads in
Chapter 2 of ASCE 7-05. The earthquake load effects shall include the horizontal
and vertical effects.
For ASD Load Combinations (8, 9 & 10) as per chapter 9,
8) D + C o + 0.7 E h ± 0.7 E v
9) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 E h ± 0.525 E v
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 E h ± 0.7 E v
Where,
Eh = r QE
Ev = 0.20 S DS D
r = Reliability factor (Minimum = 1.00, Maximum = 1.50)
= 1.00 for SDC (A, B, C)
Section 12.3.4.2 7-05
= 1.30 for SDC (D, E, F) Conservatively
(See ASCE 7-05 Section 12.3.4.2 for more details)
Substituting the value of E h and E v in load combinations (8, 9 & 10),
Equation 8)
= D + C o + 0.7 r Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
* = (1 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
Equation 9)
= D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 r Q E ± 0.525 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 r Q E
* = (1 - 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 r Q E
Equation 10)
= 0.6 D + 0.7 r Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
* = (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
72
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
using, r = 1.30
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.30 x 12.03 = 10.95 kN
(1+0.14 S DS ) D = (1+0.14 x 0.40) D = 1.056 D
= 1.06 D + 10.95 (Ignoring C o )
1.06 DEAD LOAD
10.95 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
73
Where,
0.525 r Q E = 0.525 x 1.30 x 12.03 = 8.21 kN
(1 + 0.105 S DS )D = (1+0.105 x 0.40) D = 1.042 D
= 1.04 D + 0.75 L r + 8.21
1.04 DEAD + 0.75 ROOF LIVE LOAD
8.21 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
74
= (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E

= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
Where,
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.30 x 12.03 = 10.95 kN
(0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6 + 0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.656 D
(0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6 - 0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.544 D
= 0.66 D + 10.95 (Ignoring C o )

0.54 DEAD LOAD
10.95 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
75
If mezzanine is considered, the distributions of forces are,

V1 = 109.2 kN
V2 = 23.50 kN
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
using, r = 1.30
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.30 x 109.2 = 99.37 kN
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.30 x 23.50 = 21.39 kN
(1+0.14 S DS ) D = (1+0.14 x 0.40) D = 1.056 D
= 1.06 D + 99.37 + 21.39 (Ignoring C o )
1.06 DEAD LOAD
21.39 kN
99.37 kN
Vh Vh
Vv CASE-1 (AS SHOWN) Vv
76
Where,
0.525 r Q E = 0.525 x 1.30 x 109.2 = 74.53 kN
0.525 r Q E = 0.525 x 1.30 x 23.50 = 16.04 kN
(1 + 0.105 S DS )D = (1+0.105 x 0.40) D = 1.042 D
= 1.04 D + 0.75 L f + 0.75 L r + 74.53 + 16.04
16.04 kN
0.75 FLOOR LIVE LOAD
74.53 kN
Vh Vh
77
= (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E

= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 r Q E
Where,
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.30 x 109.2 = 96.37 kN
0.7 r Q E = 0.7 x 1.30 x 23.50 = 21.39 kN
(0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6+0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.656 D
(0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6-0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.544 D
= 0.66 D + 96.37 + 21.39 (Ignoring C o )

= 0.54 D + 96.37 + 21.39 (Ignoring C o ) (Will govern)
0.54 DEAD LOAD
21.39 kN
99.37 kN
Vh Vh
78
Seismic Load Effect including over Strength Factor

The Seismic Over strength Factor using E m load combination is applied to ensure
a ductile performance under seismic loading, in other words, if failure is occur it
should be yielding failure of the member in consideration rather than a brittle
failure of the connections. Hence, all connections of moment resisting frames,
braced frames, tension bracing & their connections, strut members and their
connections should be designed using E m load combinations.
Note:-
Seismic Load Combinations 8 & 9 in LRFD and 11,12,13 in ASD (See chapter 9)
For ASCE 7-05 ASD Load Combinations (11,12,13) as per chapter 9,

11) D + C o + 0.7 E mh ± 0.7 E v
12) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 (L r or f 2 S) + 0.525 E mh ± 0.525 E v
13) 0.6 D + 0.7 E mh ± 0.7 E v
Where,
E mh = Ω o QE
Ev = 0.20 S DS D
Ωo = 2.50 for Main Frames
= 2.00 for bracings
Substituting the value of E mh and E v in load combinations (11,12),
Equation 11)
= D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
* = (1 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
Equation 12)
= D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 Ω o Q E ± 0.525 (0.20 S DS D)
= (1 + 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 Ω o Q E
* = (1 - 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 Ω o Q E
Equation 13)
= 0.6 D + 0.7 Ω o Q E ± 0.7 (0.20 S DS D)
* = (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
79
= (1 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
using, Ωo = 2.50 for main frames or 2.00 for bracing
0.7 Ω o Q E = 0.7 x 2.50 x 12.03 = 21.05 kN

(1+0.14 S DS ) D = (1+0.14 x 0.40) D = 1.056 D
= 1.06 D + 21.05 (Ignoring C o )
1.06 DEAD LOAD
21.05 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
80
= (1 + 0.105 S DS ) D + C o + 0.75 L f + 0.75 ( L r or f 2 S ) + 0.525 Ω o Q E
Where,
0.525 Ω o Q E = 0.525 x 2.50 x 12.03 = 15.79 kN
(1 + 0.105 S DS )D = (1+0.105 x 0.40) D = 1.042 D
= 1.04 D + 0.75 L r + 15.79
1.04 DEAD + 0.75 ROOF LIVE LOAD
15.79 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
81
= (0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E

= (0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D + C o + 0.7 Ω o Q E
Where,
0.7 Ω o Q E = 0.7 x 2.50 x 12.03 = 21.05 kN
(0.6 + 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6 + 0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.656 D
(0.6 - 0.14 S DS ) D = (0.6 - 0.14 x 0.40) D = 0.544 D
= 0.66 D + 21.05 (Ignoring C o )

0.54 DEAD LOAD
21.05 kN
Vh Vh
Vv Vv
CASE-1 (AS SHOWN)
82
Table 6.1 Comparison Table for Seismic Zones and Coefficients
Important Note:-
1) This comparison is based on an excersice of back calculating the values of ( Ss ) and ( S1 )

required in MBMA 06 in order to get the same value of Seismic Base Shear as per UBC 97, for a given
weight and other constant parameters.
2) There is no validation from any code for this comparison. It is merely a tool to facilitate the
calculation of same base shear for both UBC 97 and MBMA 06 code.
3) This comparison is valid upto a height of 13 meters. For values greater than 13 meters, the user can
calculate the value by trial and error. Values for 15 & 25 M is also given below.
4) The comparison is valid for only default values indicated below
Default Values
UBC 97 MBMA 06
1 Soil Profile = D Occupancy Category II
2 Occupancy Categories = Standard Structures Site Class D
3 Seismic Source type = B Reponse Modification Factor R = 3
4 Distance to Seismic Source 10 km
For Building Height upto 13 meters

UBC 97 Zones 1 2A 2B 3 4
Ss 0.1055 0.3650 0.5000 0.9310 1.2830
MBMA 06
S1 0.0400 0.0900 0.1300 0.2600 0.3000
For Building Height = 15 meters

Ss 0.1950 0.4000 0.6000 0.8300 1.2000
MBMA 06
S1 0.0410 0.1720 0.2350 0.3700 0.4770
For Building Height = 25 meters

Ss 0.1800 0.4000 0.6000 0.7500 0.9000
MBMA 06
S1 0.0420 0.1780 0.2431 0.3850 0.4950
83
Table 12.12-1 ASCE 7-05 Allowable Story Drift

Occupancy Category
Structure
I or II III IV
Structures other than masonry shear wall or
masonry wall frame structures, 4 stories or less with
interior walls, partitions, ceilings and exterior wall Hc / 40 H / 50 H / 66
systems that have been designed to accommodate
the story drifts
Masonry cantilever shear wall structures d H / 100 H / 100 H / 100
Other masonry shear wall structures H / 142 H / 142 H / 142
Masonry wall frame structures H / 76 H / 76 H / 100
All other structures H / 50 H / 66 H / 100
Where,
a) H – is the story height below level ‘x’
b) For seismic force resisting systems comprised solely of moment frames in seismic design categories D, E, F, the allowable story
drift shall comply with requirements of section 12.12.1.1
c) There shall be no drift limit for single story structures with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, and exterior wall systems that
have been designed to accommodate the story drifts. The structure separation requirement of section 12.12.3 is not wavied.
d) Structures in which the basic structural system consists of masonry shear walls designed as vertical elements cantilevered from
their base or foundation support which are so constructed that moment transfer between shear walls (coupling) is negligible
e) Striked out line is removed from ASCE 7-05
84
Elements Designed Using Seismic Force Effects, (E) and (E m ).
The seismic force effects, (E) and (E m ) should be used to design the
following elements for all seismic design categories except SDC A
(all 3 sites).
ASCE 7 Sections Requiring Use of the (E m ) Load Combination

The following ASCE 7-05 Sections require the use of the (E m ) load
combination:
1. ASCE 7 Section 12.10.2.1 Collector elements, splices, and their

connections to resisting elements.
2. ASCE 7 Section 12.3.3.3 Elements supporting discontinuous walls or
frames.
AISC Seismic Provisions Requiring Use of the (E m ) Load

Combination
The AISC Seismic Provisions apply where the code specified seismic
response modification coefficient (R), for steel structures is greater
than 3.0, unless specifically required by the IBC. It should be noted
that the AISC Seismic Provisions would also apply for cantilever
column systems where (R) is less than 3 for SDC B, C, D, E or F. Note
that the 2005 edition of the AISC Seismic Provisions eliminated Part
III which contained the rules for Allowable Stress Design to LRFD
(strength) conversion. This latest edition still allows two strength
based design methods; Allowable Strength Design (new ASD) and
LRFD. However, all affected provisions in Part I were rewritten in
the dual format (new ASD and LRFD), which assumes the use of the
matching load combinations from the Applicable Building Code
(e.g. 2006 IBC). If the option is taken to design the structure using
(R=3) and (Ω o =3) , and to not include seismic detailing, then the
additional requirements of AISC Seismic Provisions do not apply.
85
The following AISC Seismic Provisions require the use of the (E m )

load combination:
1. AISC Seismic Provisions Part I, Section 8.3 Column Strength
The following provisions for column axial strength (shown here in

the ASD format) are only required to be met when ( Ω c P a / P n > 0.4
) Note that (Ω c ) is 1.67 for ASD and (P a ) is the required axial strength
of a column using ASD load combinations (without consideration of
the amplified seismic load).
a) Axial tensile strength, considered in the absence of any applied

moment, except that it need not exceed the maximum expected
strength of the foundation to resist uplift, as stated in Section
8.3(2)(b). Note that this provision inherently presumes that the
tensile strength of the foundation anchor rods is sufficient to carry
the full foundation weight. A separate provision in Section 8.5
specifies that anchor rods should be designed using the same load
combinations used for the attached structure elements, including
amplified seismic loads for shear, if applicable.
b) Axial compressive strength, considered in the absence of any

applied moment, except that it need not exceed the limits on the
required compressive strength based on the nominal strengths of the
connecting beam or brace elements.
2. AISC Seismic Provisions Part I, Section 14.4 – Ordinary

Concentrically Braced Frames
Ordinary steel concentrically braced frame systems, for the

connections of braces, as stated in Section 14.4.
However, the force need not exceed the maximum force that can be
transferred by either the brace or structure system (see Exceptions in
Section 14.4).
86
3. AISC Seismic Provisions Part I, Section 11.2a - Ordinary Steel

Moment Frame Beam-to-Column Connections
The beam-to-column connections of ordinary steel moment frames

are required to be designed for the lesser of either the flexural
strength of the beam or girder (1.1 R y M p ) or the maximum moment
that can be delivered by the system (See Section 1.3.3.1 for further
discussion). Alternatively, the connections may meet the
requirements for intermediate or special steel moment frames.
4. AISC Seismic Provisions Part I, Section 8.4a – Column Splices
A column splice is a field connection which is either bolted, welded,

or a combination of both. These splices need to be designed for the
amplified forces determined at the location of the splice.
5. AISC Seismic Provisions Part I, Section 8.5b – Required Shear

Strength of Columns at Column Bases.
Note this provision applies to both pinned and fixed base columns.
6. AISC Seismic Provisions Part I, Section 8.5c – Required

Flexural Strength of Columns at Column Bases.
Note that this provision only applies to fixed base columns.
Elements Designed Using Seismic Load Effects (E)
The seismic load effects (E) should be used to design all other
elements, not listed above, for all seismic design categories except
SDC A (all 3 sites). However, in the AISC Seismic Provisions , Part I,
Sections 13.4a and 14.4a, only the special design requirements apply
for beams intersected by bracing members.
87
Distribution of Seismic Forces
88
7
Chapter
S N O W L O A D S
Snow Loads
 D efinition
MBMA 02
Section 1.5
ASCE 7-98 The International Building Code requires the design snow loads to be
Section 7.0 determined in accordance with ASCE 7-98 for MBMA 2002 and ASCE 7-05 for

MBMA 2006. In this section, the snow load requirements of ASCE 7-98 for
MBMA 2002 and ASCE 7-05 for MBMA 2005 are summarized and examples are
provided for typical metal roofing systems on low rise buildings. Appropriate
cross-reference to sections in ASCE 7-98 or ASCE 7-05 are provided
Ground Snow Loads (p g ) – Ground snow loads is to be used in the
 determination of design snow loads for roof. Site specific case studies shall be
made to determine ground snow loads in areas where the data is not available,
or shall be provided by the authority having jurisdiction. Ground snow load
determination shall be based on an extreme value of statistical analysis of data
MBMA 06
available in the vicinity of the site using a value with a 2% annual probability of
Section 1.3.5
being exceeded (50 year mean recurrence interval).
ASCE 7-05
Chapter 7.0

Table 7.1(a) MBMA 02 and Table 1.3.1(a) MBMA 06 (No Change)
Nature of Occupancy
Snow Factor (Is)
Occupancy Category
Low Hazard I 0.80
Standard
II 1.00
Buildings
Substantial
III 1.10
Hazard
Essential
IV 1.20
Facilities
For more details see MBMA-2002, MBMA-2006ASCE 7-05, IBC 2006
1
S N O W L O A D S
Flat Roof Snow Loads (p f ) – The snow load, P f on a roof with a slope equal to or
less than 5° shall be calculated as per equation 7-1 below,
Eqn. 7-1 ASCE 7-98 p f = 0.7 C e C t I s p g

Eqn. 7-1 ASCE 7-05
But not less than following minimum values, for monoslope roofs with slopes
less than 15°, hip and gable roofs with slopes less than or equal to
Sect. 7.3.4 ASCE 7-98 (21.3/W)+0.5 and curved roofs where the vertical angle from the eaves to the
Sect.7.3.4 ASCE 7-05 crown is less than 10°
If p g <= 0.96 kN/m2 then p f >= I s p g

If p g > 0.96 kN/m2 then p f >= 0.96 I s
Where,
Ce = exposure factor from Table 7-2 ASCE 7-98 / 05 (Default C e = 0.90)
Ct = thermal factor from Table 7-3 ASCE 7-98 / 05 (Default C t = 1.20)
Is = Importance Factor from Table 1.1 (a) / 1.3.1(a) (Default II, I s = 1.00)
pg = Ground Snow load in kN/m 2
W = is the horizontal distance from eave to ridge in meters.
Table 1.5.2 / 1.3.5.2 Typical Heated and Unheated Building Usage

C t = 1.00 C t = 1.20
Manufacturing Production Agricultural buildings
Manufacturing Equipment Service On-Farm Structures
Commercial Retail Stores Commercial Warehouse / Freight Terminals1
Some recreational facilities such as ice rinks,
Commercial Office and Banks gyms, field houses, exhibition buildings, fair
buildings etc.
Some warehouse facilities such as raw material
Commercial Garages and Service Stations storage, mini warehouses parking and vehicle
storage, etc.
Educational Complexes Refrigerated Storage Facilities
Hospital and Treatment Facilities
Churches
Government Administration & Service
Transport Terminals
Residential
Some recreation facilities such as bowling lanes,
theaters, museums, clubs studios etc.
Some warehouse facilities’ such as retail
storage, parts distribution and storage, etc.
1 - C = 1.10 if the building is kept just above freezing
t
The values in the table serve as a guide to assess if a building falls in a heated or unheated category, the actual planned use and
occupancy of a given structure must be considered in determining the thermal factor of the building.
2
S N O W L O A D S
Exposure Factor, C e Table 7-2 ASCE 7-98 / 7-05

Exposure of Roof
Terrain Category
Fully Exposed Partially Exposed Sheltered
A* N/A 1.10 1.30
B 0.90 1.00 1.20
C 0.90 1.00 1.10
D 0.80 0.90 1.00
E 0.70 0.80 N/A
F 0.70 0.80 N/A
E – Above tree line in windswept mountainous areas.
F – In areas where trees do not exist for more than 3 km radius.
* - Category A is removed in ASCE 7-05
Fully Exposed:- Roofs exposed on all sides with no shelters afforded by

terrain, higher structures or trees. Roofs that contain several large pieces of
mechanical equipment, parapets which extend above the height of the
balanced snow load (h b ), or other obstructions are not in this category.
Partially Exposed:- All roofs except as indicated as defined in Fully Exposed

and Sheltered roofs.
Sheltered:- Roof located tight in among conifers that qualify as obstructions.
Sloped Roof Snow Loads:- Snow loads acting on a sloping surface shall be
assumed to act on the horizontal projection of that surface. The sloped roof
snow load, (p s ) shall be obtained as below,
Eqn. 7-2 ASCE 7-98 ps = CS pf

Eqn. 7-2 ASCE 7-05
Where,
C s = Roof slope factor (may be conservatively taken as 1.00) see MBMA 02/06
and ASCE 7-98/05 for more details and relevant equations for steep roof
slopes.
Slippery surface values shall be used only where the roofs surface is
unobstructed and sufficient space is available below the eaves to accept all the
sliding snow. A roof shall be considered unobstructed if no objects exist on it
which prevent snow on it from sliding.
Note that metal roofs are assumed as slippery surfaces unless the presence
of snow guards or other obstructions prevents snow from sliding. (See
MBMA Metal Roofing Systems Design Manual)
3
S N O W L O A D S
Roof Slope Factor (C s ):- The requirements of roof slope factor are provided in
equation form below,
a) For warm roofs (C t <= 1.00), [i.e. all roofs not meeting the definitions of (b)
cold roofs or (c) cool roofs.]
1) Unobstructed slippery roofs that will allow the snow to slide off the
eaves and provided it is either a non-ventilated roof with R>= 30 ft2 h
°F/Btu (5.3 °C m2/W), or a ventilated roof with R>= 20 ft2 h °F/Btu (3.5
°C m2/W) [where, R is the thermal resistance of the roofing material in
ft2 h °F/Btu (°C m2/W) ,
Cs = 1.00 for, θ <= 5°

Cs = 1-(θ-5)/65 for, 5° < θ < 70°
Cs =0 for, θ >= 70°
Note that for a ventilated roof the exterior air under it shall be able to circulate
freely from its eaves to its ridge.
2) All other warm roofs,
Cs = 1.00 for, θ <= 30°

Cs = 1-(θ-30)/40 for, 30° < θ < 70°
Cs =0 for, θ >= 70°
b) For cold roofs (C t = 1.20), [i.e. unheated structures and structures

intentionally kept below freezing]
eaves,
Cs = 1.00 for, θ <= 15°

Cs = 1-(θ-15)/55 for, 15° < θ < 70°
Cs =0 for, θ >= 70°
Cs = 1.00 for, θ <= 30°

Cs = 1-(θ-45)/25 for, 30° < θ < 70°
Cs =0 for, θ >= 70°
4
S N O W L O A D S
c) For cool roofs (C t = 1.10), [i.e. structures kept just above freezing and
others with cold, ventilated roofs with a thermal resistance between the
ventilated space and the heated space greater than R=25
eaves,
Cs = 1.00 for, θ <= 10°

Cs = 1-(θ-10)/60 for, 10° < θ < 70°
Cs =0 for, θ >= 70°
Cs = 1.00 for, θ <= 37.5°

Cs = 1-(θ-37.5)/32.5 for, 37.5° < θ < 70°
Cs =0 for, θ >= 70°
For curved roofs, multiple folded plate roofs, saw-tooth roofs, or barrel vault
roofs see ASCE 7-98 or ASCE 7-05 for appropriate C s values.
Ice Dams and Icicles along Eaves:- Additional loads due to ice dams and
icicles along the eaves are specified in ASCE 7-98 / 05, section 7.4.5 as follows,
Two types of warm roofs that drain water over their eaves shall be capable of
sustaining a uniformly distributed load = 2 P f , on all overhanging portions:
a) Unventilated warm roofs that have an R-value less than R-30

b) Ventilated warm roofs that have an R-values less than R-20
No other loads except dead loads shall be present on the roof when this
uniformly distributed load is applied.
The intent is to consider heavy loads from ice that forms along the eaves only
for structures where such loads are likely to form. It is also not considered
necessary to analyze the entire structure for such loads, just the eaves
themselves. These may be ignored in case the building is provided with
curved eaves.
Partial Loading:- The effect of having a selected spans loaded with the
balanced snow load and remaining spans loaded with half the balanced snow
load shall be investigated as follows,
5
S N O W L O A D S
Continuous Beam Systems, shall be investigated for the effects of the 3 loading
conditions as shown in figure 7-4 and explained in 3 cases below,
Case -1:- Full unbalanced snow load on either exterior span and half the
balanced snow load on all other spans.
Case-2:- Half the balanced snow load on either exterior span, and full balanced
snow load on all other spans.
Case-3:- All possible combinations of full balanced snow load on any two
adjacent spans and half the balanced snow load on all other spans. For this
case there will be (n-1) possible combinations where n equals the number of
spans in the continuous beam system.
If a cantilever is present in any of the above cases, it shall be considered to be a

span.
Partial load provisions need not be applied to the structural members which
span perpendicular to the ridge line (main frame rafters) in gable roofs with
slopes greater than (21.3/W+0.5)
6
S N O W L O A D S
Unbalanced Snow Loads:- For hip and gable roofs with a slope exceeding 70°
or with a slope less than (21.3/W+0.5), unbalanced snow loads are not
required to be applied. A summary of unbalanced load cases for hip and gable
roofs is given in figure below as per MBMA 2002 (Revised in MBMA 2006 see
following page),
Where,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
Eqn. 7-3 ASCE 7-98
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
L = roof length parallel to ridge line

W = is the horizontal distance from eave to ridge in meters.
7
S N O W L O A D S
Unbalanced Snow Loads for Gable / Hip Roof As per MBMA 2006
8
S N O W L O A D S
Drifts on Lower Roofs:- Drift loads on lower roofs are specified in section 7.7
of ASCE 7-98/05, separate provisions are given for drifting at roof steps
(higher portions of the same structure) and for drifting caused by adjacent
structures and terrain features. The triangular drift loads are superimposed on
the balanced snow load.
The requirements of ASCE 7-98/05 are summarized below in a form more

suitable for programming,
Eqn. 7-9 ASCE 7-98 1) Lower Roof of a structure (ASCE7-98/05, Section 7.7.1)
Eqn. 7-9 ASCE 7-05
a. Leeward Drift Height (m):
h d = [(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457

where,
Lu = length of upper roof in meters
If L u <= 7.62 m, use L u = 7.62 m
b. Windward Drift Height (m):
h d = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457}

where,
LL = length of upper roof in meters
If L L <= 7.62 m, use L L = 7.62 m
The larger of the leeward drift height and the windward drift height shall be
used in design.
Drift width:- For both leeward and windward drifts, the width ‘w’ is
determined as follows:
If h d <= h c then, w = 4h d <= 8h c

If hd > hc then, w = 4h d 2 / h c <= 8h c
If hd = hc
Where,
hc = clear height from top of balanced snow load to
(1) closest point on the adjacent upper roof,
(2) top of parapet
(3) top of a projection on the roof, in meters.
9
S N O W L O A D S
If the drift width, ‘w’ exceeds the width of the lower roof, the drift shall be
truncated at the far edge of the roof, not reduced to zero there.
The maximum intensity of the drift surcharge load, P d g equals h d g where

snow density ‘g’, is defined as below
Eqn. 7-4 ASCE 7-98 g = [ 0.426 Pg + 2.2 ] <= 4.70 kN/m3

Eqn. 7-4 ASCE 7-05
This density shall also be used to determine h b by dividing p f (or p s ) by g,
Where,
h b = height of unbalanced snow load in meters determined by dividing p f or
p s by the snow density g
2) Adjacent structure and terrain features, the drifting loads caused by

adjacent structures and terrain features is specified in ASCE 7-98 section
7.7.2 and is as follows:
“The requirements for drifts of lower roofs above shall also be used to
determine drift loads caused by a higher structure or terrain feature within
6.096 meters of a roof. The separation distance ‘s’ between the roof and
adjacent structure or terrain feature shall reduce any applied drift loads on the
lower roof by a factor equal to (6.096 – s)/6.096, where ‘s’ is in meters.”
10
S N O W L O A D S
Roof Projections:- Drift loads by roof projections are specified in ASCE 7-

98/05 section 7.8. The drifts are calculated the same as for a roof step, figure 7-
9 of ASCE 7-98/05, except that the drift height is taken as 0.75 h d and L u is
equal to the length of the roof upwind of the projection.
Sliding Snow:- (Revised in MBMA 2006 / ASCE 7-05)

Sliding snow is specified in ASCE 7-98 section 7.9 as follows:
“The extra load caused by snow sliding off a sloped roof onto a lower roof
shall be determined assuming that all the snow that accumulates on the upper
roof under the balanced loading condition slides onto the lower roof.”
Engineering judgment is also required regarding the width ‘W’ of the

deposited sliding snow. The recommended approach below is based on the
information provided in ASCE 7-98 commentary.
It is the recommendation of MBMA that the following method be used to

determine the amount of sliding snow for a metal roof. The weight of sliding
snow in kN/m of length of the lower roof, S L shall be distributed as a uniform
load over a width of lower roof, ‘W’ as follows,
S L = 1.25 P fu L u ( 1 - C SD ) <= g h c w
Where,
P fu = balanced roof snow load on the upper roof
Lu = width of the upper roof sloped in the direction of the lower roof
g = density of snow
hc = clear height from top of balanced snow load to
(1) closest point on the adjacent upper roof,
(2) top of parapet
(3) top of a projection on the roof, in meters.
w = lesser of 6.096 meters or width of lower roof when, h c <= 0.914 m
w = 18.28/h c >= 1.524 meters, h c > 0.914 m
C SD = ( 1 - θ / 65) θ <= 65° (See figure 1.5.11)
C SD =0 θ > 65°
11
S N O W L O A D S
The above figure from MBMA 2002 is removed in MBMA 2006
Sliding snow is specified in ASCE 7-05, Section 7.9 as follows:
“The load caused by snow sliding off a sloped roof onto a lower roof shall be
determined for slippery upper roofs with slopes greater than θ =1.193°, and for
other (i.e. nonslippery) upper roofs with slopes greater than θ =9.46°. The total
sliding load per unit length of eave shall be 0.4 p f W, where W is the
horizontal distance from the eave to ridge for the sloped upper roof.
The sliding load shall be distributed uniformly on the lower roof over a
distance of 4.57 m from the upper roof eave. If the width of the lower roof is
less than 4.57 m, the sliding load shall be reduced proportionally. The sliding
snow load shall not be further reduced unless a portion of the snow on the
upper roof is blocked from sliding onto the lower roof by snow already on the
lower roof or is expected to slide clear of the lower roof.
Refer example for more details
12
S N O W L O A D S
Combining Snow loads:- Balanced snow loads, unbalanced snow loads, drift
loads, and sliding snow are treated as separate load cases and are not to be
combined except as noted below,
Sliding snow loads shall be superimposed on the balanced snow load as per
ASCE 7-98/05, section 7.9
Drift loads shall be superimposed on balanced snow loads as per ASCE 7-

98/05, section 7.7 and 7.7.1 respectively
Rain-On-Snow surcharge:- Rain-on snow surcharge is specified in section 7.10

of ASCE 7-98/05. It is only applicable when p g <= 0.957 kN/m2, but not zero,
and the roof slope is less than (θ < 2.386 in MBMA 02 and W/15240 in MBMA
2006, W is in mm) . The maximum surcharge is 0.239 kN/m2.
13
S N O W L O A D S
Snow loads for Iran:
To be checked with the customer. For Kish island located jobs snow loads are
not applicable.
Snow loads for Jordan:
To be checked with the customer. Usually it is 0.75 kN/m2 on the “Roof”.
14
S N O W L O A D S
Example
Example :- 7.1
Given Data:-
Building Use = Warehouse (Standard Building)
Building width = 15240 mm
Building length = 30480 mm
Eave height = 4877 mm
Roof Slope = 1:12 (θ = 4.76°) S = 12
Roof Extension = 3048 x 12192 mm (at eave, along sidewall)
Frame type = Clear span
Terrain category =B
Adjacent Structures = more than 6096 mm away
Roof type = partially exposed, heated, smooth surface, unventilated.
Roof Insulation = R-19
Ground Snow P g = 0.718 kN/m2
3048
4877 12192

30480
15240
BUILDING GEOMETRY
15
S N O W L O A D S
Solution:- (As per MBMA 2002)
Since the building is standard building, Importance Factor

Is = 1.00 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Thermal Factor, C t = 1.00 Table 1.5.2
Roof Exposure Category, C e = 1.00 Table 7.2
Roof Slope factor C s = 1.00 (Section 1.5.5(a)(ii))
Eave to ridge distance ‘W’ = 7620 mm
Building length ‘L’ = 30480 mm
Rain on surcharge need not be considered since the roof slope θ = 4.76° > 2.386°
Roof Snow Load:-

1) Flat Roof Snow Load p f = 0.7 C e C t I s p g
= 0.7 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 0.718 = 0.502 kN/m2
Check if minimum p f requirement is satisfied,

(21.3/W)+0.5 = (21.3/7.62)+0.5 = 3.29° < 4.76°
Therefore, roof is not classified as Low-Slope and minimum P f does not apply.
2) Sloped Roof Snow Load p s = Cs pf (balanced load)

= 1.00 x 0.502 = 0.502 kN/m2
3) Unbalanced snow load need not be considered if the roof slope is,
θ > 70°
OR
θ < [(21.3/W)+0.5]
Since the roof slope is more than 3.29° < 4.76°, unbalanced snow load should be
considered.
Note:- ASCE 7-98 does not address asymmetric roofs with regard to unbalanced
load. This situation exists in this example, since the roof extension does not
extend the entire length of the building; one rational method to handle this is to
compute effective width as below,
W1 = 7620 mm W2 = 10668 mm (W 1 + Roof extension width)

L1 = 18288 mm L 2 = 12192 mm
W eff = (W 1 L 1 + W 2 L 2 ) / (L 1 + L 2 )
= (7620 x 18288 + 10668 x 12192) / (18288+12192)
W eff = 8839.2 mm
16
S N O W L O A D S
W2
A A
L2
Ww Weff
he = 0.89
RIDGE LINE
WIND
B B
L1
W1
Case-1
Ww = 7620 mm W eff = 8839 mm

L/W eff = (30480 / 8839) = 3.45 <= 4.00
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 (3.45) = 0.91
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 0.718 + 2.2 = 2.50 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since, effective width
WL =W eff = 8839 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 0.91 x 0.502 / (2.50 x 8.839) = 5.68°
Roof slope θ = 4.76° < 5.68°
Therefore case (d) of figure 1.5.8 governs as shown in figure below, the load
values at various points left eave, ridge and right eave are calculated as below,
17
S N O W L O A D S
Uniform windward load (left eave)

= 0.3 p f = 0.30 x 0.502 = 0.15 kN/m2
Tapered leeward load (ridge)
= 1.2 p f / C e
= 1.2 x 0.502 / 1.00 = 0.60 kN/m2
Tapered leeward load (right eave)
= 1.2 (1+β) p f / C e
= 1.2 (1+0.91) x 0.502 / 1.00 = 1.15 kN/m2
Maximum load at right eave = 1.2 (p f /C e )+gh e
= 1.2 x (0.502/1.00)+2.50 x 0.89
= 2.83 = 2.83 kN/m2
The load at right eave should not exceed the maximum load.
0.99
0.60
1.15
0.15
UNBALANCED SNOW LOAD
0.50
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
18
S N O W L O A D S
WL Ww
he=0.63
WIND
Case-2
W w = W eff = 8839 mm WL = 7620 mm

L/W L = (30480 / 7620) = 4.00 <= 4.00
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 (4.00) = 1.00
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 0.718 + 2.2 = 2.50 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
WL = 7620 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 1.00 x 0.502 / (2.50 x 7.62) = 7.24°
Roof slope θ = 4.76° < 7.24°
19
S N O W L O A D S
Uniform windward load (right eave)

= 0.3 p f = 0.30 x 0.502 = 0.15 kN/m2
= 1.2 p f / C e
= 1.2 x 0.502 / 1.00 = 0.60 kN/m2
Tapered leeward load (left eave)
= 1.2 (1+β) p f / C e
= 1.2 (1+1.00) x 0.502 / 1.00 = 1.20 kN/m2
= 1.2 x (0.502/1.00)+2.50 x 0.63
= 2.18 = 2.18 kN/m2
The load at left eave should not exceed the maximum load.
0.60
1.20
0.15
0.50
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
20
S N O W L O A D S

Is = 1.00 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Snow Load:-

= 0.7 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 0.718 = 0.502 kN/m2

(21.3/W)+0.5 = (21.3/7.62)+0.5 = 3.29° < 4.76°
Therefore, roof is not classified as Low-Slope and minimum P f does not apply.

= 1.00 x 0.502 = 0.502 kN/m2
Less than the larger of (21.3/W)+0.5 = 3.29° or 2.38°
Since the roof slope is more than 3.29° < 4.76°, unbalanced snow load should be
considered.
Note:- ASCE 7-05 does not address asymmetric roofs with regard to unbalanced
load. This situation exists in this example, since the roof extension does not
extend the entire length of the building; one rational method to handle this is to
compute effective width as below,
W1 = 7620 mm W2 = 10668 mm (W 1 + Roof extension width)

L1 = 18288 mm L 2 = 12192 mm
W eff = (W 1 L 1 + W 2 L 2 ) / (L 1 + L 2 )
= (7620 x 18288 + 10668 x 12192) / (18288+12192)
W eff = 8839.2 mm
Note:- W eff = W 2 = 10668 mm in MBMA 2006
21
S N O W L O A D S
W2
A A
L2
Ww Weff
he = 0.89
RIDGE LINE
WIND
B B
L1
W1
Case-1
Ww = 7620 mm W eff = 10668 mm

(21.3/W+0.5) = (21.3/7.62+0.5) = 3.30 > 2.38
h d = [(0.416) (W W )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= [(0.416) (7.62)1/3 (0.718 + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= 0.399 m
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 0.718 + 2.2 = 2.50 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since the Roof slope θ = 4.76° is greater than the greater of (21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30
or 2.38°, Unbalanced loads must be considered.
Therefore case (c) of figure 1.3.5.8 governs as shown in figure below, the load
22
S N O W L O A D S
Uniform windward load

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 0.502 = 0.15 kN/m2
Uniform leeward load = ps = 0.502 = 0.50 kN/m2
Surcharge leeward load = h d g / ( S ) 0.5
= 0.399 x 2.50 / ( 12 ) 0.5 = 0.29 kN/m2
Surcharge leeward length = (8/3) h d ( S ) 0.5
= (8/3) x 0.399 ( 12 ) 0.5 = 3.69 m
The balanced and unbalanced design snow loads are shown in the figure below,
3.69
0.29
0.50
0.15
0.50
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
23
S N O W L O A D S
WL Ww
he=0.63
WIND
Case-2
WL = 7620 mm Ww = 10668 mm
(21.3/W w +0.5) = (21.3/10.668+0.5) = 2.50 > 2.38
h d = [(0.416) (W W )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= [(0.416) (10.668)1/3 (0.718 + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= 0.502 m
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 0.718 + 2.2 = 2.50 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
24
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 0.502 = 0.15 kN/m2
= 0.502 x 2.50 / ( 12 ) 0.5 = 0.36 kN/m2
= (8/3) x 0.502 ( 12 ) 0.5 = 4.64 m
4.632
0.36
0.50
0.15
0.50
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
25
S N O W L O A D S
Example :- 7.2 (As per MBMA 2002)

Consider the same as example 7.1 without the canopy
Since the roof slope of 4.76° is greater than (21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30°,

Unbalanced loads must be considered.
Ww WL
he=0.63
WIND
Case-1
Ww = 7620 mm WL = 7620 mm
L/W = (30480 / 7620) = 4.00 = 4.00
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 (4.00) = 1.00
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 0.718 + 2.2 = 2.50 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
WL =W w = 7620 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 1.00 x 0.502 / (2.50 x 7.62) = 7.24°
Roof slope θ = 4.76° < 7.24°
26
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p f = 0.30 x 0.502 = 0.15 kN/m2
= 1.2 p f / C e
= 1.2 x 0.502 / 1.00 = 0.60 kN/m2
= 1.2 (1+β) P f / C e
= 1.2 (1+1.00) x 0.502 / 1.00 = 1.20 kN/m2
= 1.2 x (0.502/1.00)+2.50 x 0.63
= 2.18 = 2.18 kN/m2
0.60
1.20
0.15
0.50
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
The unbalanced loading in the other direction will be mirror image of the above
pattern, if the structural sections are symmetrical there is no need of other checks,
but if not, then the sections should be checked.
27
S N O W L O A D S
Example :- 7.2 (As per MBMA 2006)

Consider the same as example 7.1 without the canopy
Since the roof slope of 4.76° is greater than (21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30°,

Unbalanced loads must be considered.
Ww WL
he=0.63
WIND
Case-1
Ww = 7620 mm WL = 7620 mm
(21.3/W+0.5) = (21.3/7.62+0.5) = 3.30 > 2.38
h d = [(0.416) (W W )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= [(0.416) (7.62)1/3 (0.718 + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= 0.399 m
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 0.718 + 2.2 = 2.50 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
28
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 0.502 = 0.15 kN/m2
= 0.399 x 2.50 / ( 12 ) 0.5 = 0.29 kN/m2
= (8/3) x 0.399 ( 12 ) 0.5 = 3.69 m
3.69
0.29
0.50
0.15
0.50
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
The unbalanced loading in the other direction will be mirror image of the above
pattern, if the structural sections are symmetrical there is no need of other checks,
but if not, then the sections should be checked.
29
S N O W L O A D S
Partial Loading:-
a) Rigid Frames:-Partial Loading is not required on the members that span
perpendicular to the ridge line in gable roofs with slopes greater than
[(21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30° (As per MBMA 2002)] [Greater of (21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30°
or 2.38° as per MBMA 2006]
b) Continuous Roof Purlin:- All three load cases need to be evaluated as
follows: (Same in MBMA 2002 and 2006)
Case-1: Full balance snow load on each exterior span and half the
balance snow load on all other spans
0.50 0.25
End Bay Interior Bay End Bay
0.25 0.50
Case-2: Half the balance snow load on each exterior span and
full balanced snow load on all other spans
0.25 0.50
0.50 0.25
Case-3: All possible combinations of full balanced snow load on any

2 adjacent spans and half the balanced snow load on all other spans
0.25 0.50 0.25

0.50 0.25
0.25 0.50
30
S N O W L O A D S
Note:- Purlin design may be controlled by minimum roof live loads per section
1.3.3 or the unbalanced tapered load of 0.60 kN/m2 at ridge and 1.20 kN/m2 at
the eave.
Eave Overhang Ice Loading:- This load is stipulated as a UDL = 2p f = 0.502 x 2 =

1.004 kN/m2, this needs to be combined only with dead and only the eave
members should be designed for this load. as a uniformly distributed load equal.
Note that even though the overhang is unheated, the value of 2 p f is calculated
using C t = 1.0. However for gable overhangs, p f should be calculated using C t =
1.2. No other loads except dead loads shall be present on the roof when this load
is applied.
31
S N O W L O A D S
Example: - 7.3 (As per MBMA 2002)

This example demonstrates the calculation of a typical roof snow load with a
check for minimum roof snow load.
Given:-
Building Use = Fire Station (Essential Facility)
Roof Slope = 3:12 (θ = 14.04°)
Frame type = Clear Span
Roof type = Exposed, Heated, Smooth surface, unventilated,
Roof insulation = R-30
Terrain Category =B
Ground Snow Load p g = 1.197 kN/m2
Solution:-
Since the building is essential building, Importance Factor
Is = 1.20 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Slope factor C s = 1-( θ-5)/65 (Section 1.5.5(a)(i))
= 1-(14.04-5)/65 = 0.86
Roof Snow Load:-

= 0.7 x 0.9 x 1 x 1.2 x 1.197 = 0.905 kN/m2

(21.3/W)+0.5 = (21.3/7.62)+0.5 = 3.29° < 14.04°
Therefore, roof is not classified as Low-Slope and minimum p f does not apply.

= 0.86 x 0.905 = 0.778 kN/m2
32
S N O W L O A D S
θ > 70°
OR
θ < [(21.3/W)+0.5]
Since the roof slope is more than 3.29° < 14.04°, unbalanced snow load should
be considered.
L/W = (30480 / 7620) = 4.00 = 4.00

We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 (4.00) = 1.00
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.197 + 2.2 = 2.71 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since, width
WL = 7620 > 6096 mm and,
275 βP f /gW L = 275 x 1.00 x 0.905/ (2.71 x 7.62) = 12.05°
Roof slope θ = 14.04° > 12.05°
Therefore case (c) of figure 1.5.8 governs as shown in figure below, the load
1.56
0.23
0.78
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
33
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 0.778 = 0.23 kN/m2
Uniform leeward load (ridge & right eave)
= 1.2 (1+0.5β) p s / C e
= 1.2 (1+0.5) x 0.778 / 0.9 = 1.56 kN/m2
The balanced and unbalanced design snow loads are shown in the figure above.
Partial Loading:-
(21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30°
b) Continuous Roof Purlin:- All three load cases need to be evaluated as in
example 7.2
Note:- Purlin Design may be controlled by the unbalanced snow load of 1.56
kN/m2

members should be designed for this load.
34
S N O W L O A D S

This example demonstrates the calculation of a typical roof snow load with a
check for minimum roof snow load.
Given:-
Building Use = Fire Station (Essential Facility)
Roof Slope = 3:12 (θ = 14.04°) S = 12/3 = 4
Roof type = Exposed, Heated, Smooth surface, unventilated,
Terrain Category =B
Solution:-
Since the building is essential building, Importance Factor
Is = 1.20 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Slope factor C s = 1-( θ-5)/65 (Section 1.5.5(a)(i))
= 1-(14.04-5)/65 = 0.86
Roof Snow Load:-

= 0.7 x 0.9 x 1 x 1.2 x 1.197 = 0.905 kN/m2

(21.3/W)+0.5 = (21.3/7.62)+0.5 = 3.29° < 14.04°
Therefore, roof is not classified as Low-Slope and minimum p f does not apply.

= 0.86 x 0.905 = 0.778 kN/m2
35
S N O W L O A D S
Less than the larger of (21.3/W)+0.5 = 3.29° or 2.38°
Since the roof slope is more than 3.29° < 14.04°, unbalanced snow load should
be considered.
Ww = 7620 mm WL = 7620 mm
(21.3/W+0.5) = (21.3/7.62+0.5) = 3.29 > 2.38
h d = [(0.416) (W W )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= [(0.416) (7.62)1/3 (1.197 + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457
= 0.475 m
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.197 + 2.2 = 2.71 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Uniform windward load = 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 0.778 = 0.23 kN/m2

= 0.475 x 2.71 / ( 4 ) 0.5 = 0.64 kN/m2
= (8/3) x 0.475 ( 4 ) 0.5 = 2.53 m
36
S N O W L O A D S
2.53
0.64
0.78
0.23
0.78
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
Partial Loading:-
c) Rigid Frames:-Partial Loading is not required on the members that span
(21.3/W+0.5) = 3.30°
d) Continuous Roof Purlin:- All three load cases need to be evaluated as in
example 7.2
kN/m2

is applied.
37
S N O W L O A D S
Example: - 7.4
Given:-
Building Use = Manufacturing (Standard Building)
Building Size
Width x Length x Eave Height
(Area 01) = 30480 x 91440 x 9144 mm
(Area 02) = 30480 x 53340 x 6096 mm
(Area 03) = 30480 x 38100 x 9144 mm
(Area 04) = 15240 x 9144 x 3658 mm (Flat Roof)
Roof Slope = 2:12 (θ = 9.46°) S = 12/2 = 6
Roof type = Sheltered, Heated, Smooth surface, unventilated,
Terrain Category =B
Ground Snow Load P g = 1.915 kN/m2
Area 01
12 Area 03
2
Area 04
F
E
9144 C2
B C1 9144
3657 A
3048
7620 38100
15240
9144 D
7620
53340
6096 Area 02
30480
4572
3048
Building Geometry and Drift Locations
38
S N O W L O A D S

Is = 1.00 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Snow Load:-

1) Flat Roof Snow Load:-
pf = 0.7 C e C t I s p g
= 0.7 x 1.2 x 1 x 1 x 1.915 = 1.609 kN/m2
Check if minimum P f requirement is satisfied,
If p g > 0.96 kN/m2 then p f >= 0.96 I s = 0.96 kN/m2
Therefore pf = 1.609 kN/m2
2) (Area 01) = 30480 x 91440 x 9144 mm

Sloped Roof Snow Load p s = Cs pf (balanced load)
= 1.00 x 1.609 = 1.609 kN/m2
Unbalanced Snow Load:-
Since the roof slope 9.46° is greater than (21.3/W+0.5) =1.89°, unbalanced loads
must be considered.
Gable roof length to width ratio L/W = 91440 / 15240 = 6.00
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 1.00
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.915 + 2.2 = 3.02 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since, width
WL = 15240 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 1.00 x 1.609/ (3.02 x 15.24) = 9.62°
Roof slope θ = 9.46° < 9.62°
39
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p f = 0.30 x 1.609 = 0.48 kN/m2
= 1.2 p f / C e
= 1.2 x 1.609 / 1.2 = 1.609 kN/m2
= 1.2 (1+β) p f / C e
= 1.2 (1+1.00) x 1.609 / 1.2 = 3.22 kN/m2
Maximum load at right eave = 1.2 (P f /C e )+gh e
= 1.2 x (1.609/1.2)+3.02 x 2.54
= 9.28 = 9.28 kN/m2
1.61
3.22
0.48
1.61
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
Partial Loading:-
(21.3/W+0.5) = 1.89°
example 7.2
kN/m2
Eave Overhang Ice Loading:- This load is stipulated as a UDL = 2p f = 2 x 1.609 =

40
S N O W L O A D S
3) (Area 02) = 30480 x 53340 x 6096 mm

= 1.00 x 1.609 = 1.609 kN/m2
must be considered.
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 (3.5) = 0.91
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.915 + 2.2 = 3.02 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since, width
WL = 15240 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 0.91 x 1.609/ (3.02 x 15.24) = 8.75°
Roof slope θ = 9.46° > 8.75°
2.34
0.48
1.61
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
41
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 1.609 = 0.48 kN/m2
= 1.2 (1+0.5β) p s / C e
= 1.2 (1+0.5x0.91) x 1.609 / 1.2 = 2.34 kN/m2
Partial Loading:-
(21.3/W+0.5) = 1.89°
example 7.2
kN/m2
4) (Area 03) = 30480 x 38100 x 9144 mm

Sloped Roof Snow Load P s = Cs pf (balanced load)
= 1.00 x 1.609 = 1.609 kN/m2
must be considered.
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 (2.5) = 0.75
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.915 + 2.2 = 3.02 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since, width
WL = 15240 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 0.75 x 1.609/ (3.02 x 15.24) = 7.21°
Roof slope θ = 9.46° > 7.21°
42
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 1.609 = 0.48 kN/m2
= 1.2 (1+0.5β) p s / C e
= 1.2 (1+0.5x0.75) x 1.609 / 1.2 = 2.21 kN/m2
2.21
0.48
1.61
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
Partial Loading:-
c) Rigid Frames:-Partial Loading is not required on the members that span
(21.3/W+0.5) = 1.89°
d) Continuous Roof Purlin:- All three load cases need to be evaluated as in
example 7.2
kN/m2
43
S N O W L O A D S
5) (Area 04) = 15240 x 9144 x 3658 mm (Flat Roof)

Flat Roof Snow Load p s = Cs pf (balanced load)
= 1.00 x 1.609 = 1.609 kN/m2
Drift Loads and Sliding Snow Loads:-
Note:- Unbalanced snow loads, drift loads and sliding snow load are treated as
separate load cases and are not to be combined as per section 1.5.12.
1) Calculation of Snow Area ‘A’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
h r (Average) = (h 1 + h 3 )/2 – h 2
h1 = Eave height +(width/2) tan θ
= 9.14 + (30.48/2) x tan 9.46 = 11.68 m
h2 = 3.65
h3 = Eave height +(Offset/2) tan θ
= 9.14 + (15.24/2) x tan 9.46 = 10.41 m
h r (Average) = (11.68 + 10.41)/2 – 3.65 = 7.40 m
h b (Depth of snow) = Pressure / Density

= pf / g = 1.609 /3.02 = 0.533 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 7.40 – 0.533 = 6.87 m
hc / hb = 6.87 /0.533 = 12.89 > 0.20
Therefore, Drift Loads should be considered.
hd hr (Avg.)
hb
9144
(average)
LOWER ROOF
7.26 hr h3
h1
1.61
h2
7498
9144
44
S N O W L O A D S
L L (windward) = 9.14 m
h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (9.14) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.469 m < h c = 6.87 m
L u (leeward) = 91.44 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (91.44) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.875 m < h c = 6.87 m
Therefore, Leeward drift controls with h d = 1.875 m, and

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.875 = 7.50 m
Drift Surcharge load, P d = h d g = 1.875 x 3.02 = 5.66 kN/m2
Total load at Drift location = p s + p d = 1.609 + 5.66 = 7.26 kN/m2
b. Sliding Snow
Not applicable, because from the profile of the building, we can see that no
snow will slide from the Area 01 to Area 04
2) Calculation of Snow Area ‘B’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
Sloped –roof snow load, Ps = 1.609 kN/m2 (balanced load)
hr = Eave Height Area 1 – Eave Height Area 2
= 9.144 – 6.096 = 3.048 m
= pf / g = 1.609 /3.02 = 0.533 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.533 = 2.515 m
hc / hb = 2.515 /0.533 = 4.72 > 0.20
LOWER ROOF
hr (Avg.) hd 5.11
1.61
hb 4640
w
45
S N O W L O A D S
L L (windward) = L u (leeward) = 30.48 m

Therefore, leeward drift controls,
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (30.48) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.16 m < h c = 2.515 m
Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.16 = 4.64 m
b. Sliding Snow
We know,
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.533 = 2.515 m
Snow will slide from ridge to eave width of Area 01 towards Area 02
Lu = 30.48 /2 = 15.24 m
Since roof slope of 9.46° is less than 65°
C SD = (1 – θ/65) = (1-9.46°/65) = 0.854
Since h c > 0.914 m
w = (0.914 / h c ) x 6.096
= (0.914 / 2.515) x 6.096 = 2.215
But w should not be greater than 1.524 m, hence w = 1.524
Sliding Snow Load S L = 1.25 p fu L u (1-C SD ) <= g h c w

= 1.25x1.609x15.24x(1-0.854) = 4.48 kN/m
Maximum Sliding Load = g h c w = 3.02 x 2.515 x1.524 = 11.6 kN/m
Sliding Load /m2 = S L / w = 4.48/ 1.524 = 2.94 kN/m2
Therefore total load = 1.609 + 2.94 = 4.55 kN/m2
46
S N O W L O A D S
3) Calculation of Snow Area ‘C 1 ’ & ‘C 2 ’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
Sloped –roof snow load, ps = 1.609 kN/m2 (balanced load)
Note:- C 1 is on unobstructed side and C 2 is on obstructed side where the snow

is prevented from sliding off eave. However, as previously indicated, Cs is
equal to 1.00 for both sides for the roof insulation of R-19
= 9.144 – 6.096 = 3.048 m
= pf / g = 1.609 /3.02 = 0.533 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.533 = 2.515 m
hc / hb = 2.515 /0.533 = 4.72 > 0.20
LOWER ROOF
hd hr 5.48
1.61
hb
5120
w 53340
53340
h d (leeward) = 0.75 x [(0.416) (53.34) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.12 m < h c = 2.515 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (38.10) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.28 m < h c = 2.515 m
Therefore, leeward drift controls with hd = 1.28 m
Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.28 = 5.12 m
Drift Surcharge load, p d = h d g = 1.28 x 3.02 = 3.86 kN/m2
b. Sliding Snow
snow will slide from this Area.
47
S N O W L O A D S
4) Calculation of Area ‘D’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
Unheated structure due to canopy condition (C t = 1.20)
Flat Roof Snow Load P f = 0.7 C e C t I s p g
= 0.7 x 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.0 x 1.915 = 1.93 kN/m2
hr = Eave Height Area 2 – Canopy Height

= 6.096 – 4.572 = 1.524 m
= pf / g = 1.93 /3.02 = 0.639 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 1.524 – 0.639 = 0.885 m
hc / hb = 0.885 /0.639 = 1.38 > 0.20
CANOPY LOWER
THAN EAVE HEIGHT 3.26
1524 4.67
1.93
3048
3048
6096
LOAD ON CANOPY
L L (windward) = 3.048 m < 7.62, hence use L L = 7.62 m

h d (leeward) = 0.75 x [(0.416) (7.62) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 0.42 m < h c = 0.885 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (30.48) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.16 m > h c = 0.885 m
Therefore, leeward drift controls with h c = 0.885 m
Width ‘w’ = 4h d 2 / h c = 4 x 1.162/0.885 = 6.08 m
Maximum Drift width, w = 8h c = 8 x 0.885 = 7.08 m
Hence use w = 6.08 m
Drift Surcharge load, p d = h c g = 0.885 x 3.02 = 2.67 kN/m2
Total load at Drift location = p f + p d = 1.93 + 2.67 = 4.67 kN/m2
Note: - For the below eave canopy, the minimum design live load per section
1607.11.2.5 of the IBC 2000 is 2.87 kN/m2
48
S N O W L O A D S
b. Sliding Snow
We know,
hc = (h r – h b ) = 1.524 – 0.639 = 0.885 m
Lu = 30.48 /2 = 15.24 m
C SD = (1 – θ/65) = (1-9.46°/65) = 0.854
Since h c < 0.914 m, w is lesser of 6.096 or the lower roof width = 3.048
w =3.048 m
= 1.25x1.609x15.24x(1-0.854) = 4.48 kN/m
Maximum Sliding Load = g h c w= 3.02 x 0.885 x3.048 = 8.15 kN/m
Sliding Load /m 2 = S L / w = 4.48/ 3.048 = 1.47 kN/m2
CANOPY TOTAL = 3.40

1524 1.47 (Sliding Snow)
1.93 (Flat Roof Snow)
3048
3048
LOAD ON CANOPY
5.48
5.11
0.53
4.62
5.15
1.61
49
S N O W L O A D S
5) Calculation of Area ‘E’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
For the intersection of the drifts B and C2 at E, the design load should be as
shown in figure below in kN/m2,
6) Calculation of Area ‘F’ (See isometric view)

a. Valley Drift Load
For Area 1 and 3, p f = 1.61 kN/m2
hb = pf / g = 1.61 / 3.02 = 0.533 m
we know, Ce = 1.20
The unbalanced snow load,
At Ridge = 0.50 p f = 0.50 x 1.61 = 0.80 kN/m2

At Valley = 2 p f /C e = 2 x 1.60/1.2 = 2.67 kN/m2
Check if calculated snow depth in valley extends above snow level at ridge:
Snow depth at valley, h dv = 2.67 / 3.02 = 0.88 m
Snow level at ridge relative to valley

= 15.24 x 2 / 12 + 0.533/2 = 2.80 m
Since snow depth at valley 0.88 < 2.80, the valley snow does not extend above
the ridge.
Windward slope snow load = 0.3 p f = 0.3 x 1.61 = 0.483

kN/m2
0.5 Pf 0.5 Pf
2Pf / Ce
hdv
2.67
0.80 0.80
0.48
15240 15240
RIDGE VALLEY RIDGE
VALLEY SNOW DRIFT
50
S N O W L O A D S
51
S N O W L O A D S

Is = 1.00 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Snow Load:-

pf = 0.7 C e C t I s P g
= 0.7 x 1.2 x 1 x 1 x 1.915 = 1.609 kN/m2
2) (Area 01, 02 & 03) = 30480 x 91440 x 9144 mm

= 1.00 x 1.609 = 1.609 kN/m2
Since the roof slope 9.46° is greater than the larger of (21.3/W+0.5) =1.89°, 2.38°,
unbalanced loads must be considered.
Ww = 15240 mm
(21.3/W+0.5) = (21.3/15.24+0.5) = 1.89 < 2.38
h d = [(0.416) (W W ) (p g + 0.4788) ] - 0.457
1/3 1/4
= [(0.416) (15.24)1/3 (1.92 + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457

= 0.826 m
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.92 + 2.2 = 3.01 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since the Roof slope θ = 9.46° is greater than the greater of (21.3/W+0.5) =
1.89° or 2.38°, Unbalanced loads must be considered.

= 0.826 x 3.01 / ( 6 ) 0.5 = 1.02 kN/m2
= (8/3) x 0.826 ( 6 ) 0.5 = 5.39 m
52
S N O W L O A D S
5.39
1.01
1.61
0.48
1.02
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
Partial Loading:-
(21.3/W+0.5) = 1.89°
example 7.2
kN/m2
Eave Overhang Ice Loading:- This load is stipulated as a UDL = 2p f = 2 x 1.609 =

is applied.
53
S N O W L O A D S
3) (Area 04) = 15240 x 9144 x 3658 mm (Flat Roof)

Flat Roof Snow Load p s = Cs pf (balanced load)
= 1.00 x 1.609 = 1.609 kN/m2
Note:- Although slope is less than W/50, still no rain on snow required since pg
> 0.96 kN/m2
separate load cases and are not to be combined as per section 1.3.5.12.

a. Drift Load
h r (Average) = (h 1 + h 3 )/2 – h 2
h1 = Eave height +(width/2) tan θ
= 9.14 + (30.48/2) x tan 9.46 = 11.68 m
h2 = 3.65
h3 = Eave height +(Offset/2) tan θ
= 9.14 + (15.24/2) x tan 9.46 = 10.41 m
h r (Average) = (11.68 + 10.41)/2 – 3.65 = 7.40 m

= Pf / g = 1.609 /3.02 = 0.533 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 7.40 – 0.533 = 6.87 m
hc / hb = 6.87 /0.533 = 12.89 > 0.20
hd hr (Avg.)
hb
9144
(average)
LOWER ROOF
7.26 hr h3
h1
1.61
h2
7498
9144
54
S N O W L O A D S
h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (P g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (9.14) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.469 m < h c = 6.87 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (P g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (91.44) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.875 m < h c = 6.87 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.875 = 7.50 m
Total load at Drift location = P s + P d = 1.609 + 5.66 = 7.26 kN/m2
b. Sliding Snow
snow will slide from the Area 01 to Area 04

a. Drift Load
Sloped –roof snow load, p s = 1.609 kN/m2 (balanced load)
= 9.144 – 6.096 = 3.048 m
= Pf / g = 1.609 /3.02 = 0.533 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.533 = 2.515 m
hc / hb = 2.515 /0.533 = 4.72 > 0.20
LOWER ROOF
hr (Avg.) hd 5.11
1.61
hb 4640
w
55
S N O W L O A D S
L L (windward) = L u (leeward) = 30.48 m

Therefore, leeward drift controls,
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (30.48) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.16 m < h c = 2.515 m
Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.16 = 4.64 m
b. Sliding Snow
We know,
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.533 = 2.515 m
Lu = 30.48 /2 = 15.24 m
Since roof slope of 9.46° is greater than 1.19° Sliding snow must be checked
Total Sliding load/m of eave = 0.4 p f W

= 0.4 x 1.609 x 15.24 = 9.808 kN/m
Sliding snow shall be distributed over a length of 15 ft = 4.57 m
= 9.808 / 4.57 = 2.15 kN/m2
Since, (S d /g) = 2.15 / 3.02 = 0.712 m < 2.515 m, no reduction is allowed
pt = (p s + S d ) = (1.609+2.15) = 3.76 kN/m2

hc
hr
hb
LOWER ROOF
3.76
1.61
4.57
56
S N O W L O A D S
3) Calculation of Snow Area ‘C 1 ’ & ‘C 2 ’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
Sloped –roof snow load, p s = 1.609 kN/m2 (balanced load)
Note:- C 1 is on unobstructed side and C 2 is on obstructed side where the snow

is prevented from sliding off eave. However, as previously indicated, C s is
equal to 1.00 for both sides for the roof insulation of R-19

= 9.144 – 6.096 = 3.048 m
= pf / g = 1.609 /3.02 = 0.533 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.533 = 2.515 m
hc / hb = 2.515 /0.533 = 4.72 > 0.20
LOWER ROOF
hd hr 5.48
1.61
hb
5120
w 53340
53340
h d (leeward) = 0.75 x [(0.416) (53.34) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.12 m < h c = 2.515 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (38.10) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.28 m < h c = 2.515 m
Therefore, leeward drift controls with hd = 1.28 m
Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.28 = 5.12 m
57
S N O W L O A D S
b. Sliding Snow
snow will slide from this Area.
4) Calculation of Area ‘D’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
Unheated structure due to canopy condition (C t = 1.20)
Flat Roof Snow Load p f = 0.7 C e C t I s p g
= 0.7 x 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.0 x 1.915 = 1.93 kN/m2
hr = Eave Height Area 2 – Canopy Height

= 6.096 – 4.572 = 1.524 m
= pf / g = 1.93 /3.02 = 0.639 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 1.524 – 0.639 = 0.885 m
hc / hb = 0.885 /0.639 = 1.38 > 0.20
CANOPY LOWER
THAN EAVE HEIGHT 3.26
1524 4.67
1.93
3048
3048
6096
LOAD ON CANOPY
L L (windward) = 3.048 m < 7.62, hence use L L = 7.62 m

h d (leeward) = 0.75 x [(0.416) (7.62) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 0.42 m < h c = 0.885 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (30.48) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.16 m > h c = 0.885 m
Therefore, leeward drift controls with h c = 0.885 m
Width ‘w’ = 4h d 2 / h c = 4 x 1.162/0.885 = 6.08 m
Maximum Drift width, w = 8h c = 8 x 0.885 = 7.08 m
Hence use w = 6.08 m
Drift Surcharge load, p d = h c g = 0.885 x 3.02 = 2.67 kN/m2
Note: - For the below eave canopy, the minimum design live load per section
7.4.5 of the ASCE 7-05 is 2 p f = 3.87 kN/m2
58
S N O W L O A D S
b. Sliding Snow
We know,
hc = (h r – h b ) = 1.524 – 0.639 = 0.885 m

= 0.4 x 1.609 x 15.24 = 9.808 kN/m

(Even though the canopy width is 10ft = 3.048 m)
= 9.808 / 4.57 = 2.15 kN/m2
pt = (p f + S d ) = (1.934+2.15) = 4.08 kN/m2
CANOPY
1524
4.08
2.15
1.93
3048 3048
5.48
5.11
0.53
4.62
5.15
1.61
59
S N O W L O A D S
5) Calculation of Area ‘E’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
For the intersection of the drifts B and C2 at E, the design load should be as
shown in figure below in kN/m2,
6) Calculation of Area ‘F’ (See isometric view)

For Area 1 and 3, p f = 1.61 kN/m2
hb = pf / g = 1.61 / 3.02 = 0.533 m
we know, Ce = 1.20
At Ridge = 0.50 p f = 0.50 x 1.61 = 0.80 kN/m2


= 15.24 x 2 / 12 + 0.533/2 = 2.80 m
the ridge.
Windward slope snow load = 0.3 p f = 0.3 x 1.61 = 0.483 kN/m2
0.5 Pf 0.5 Pf
2Pf / Ce
hdv
2.67
0.80 0.80
0.48
15240 15240
RIDGE VALLEY RIDGE
VALLEY SNOW DRIFT
60
S N O W L O A D S
Example: - 7.5
This example demonstrates the calculation of drift snow loads including
unbalanced gable roof snow load and sliding snow.
Given:-
Building Use = Warehouse (Standard Building)
Building Size Width x Length x Eave Height
(Area 01) = 36576 x 38100 x 7315 mm
(Area 02) = 36576 x 38100 x 7315 mm
(Area 03) = 9144 x 3657mm (Flat Roof)
(Area 04) = 13716 x 4267 mm (Flat Roof)
Roof Slope = 6:12 (θ = 26.56°) S = 12/6 = 2
Frame type = Multi Gable
Roof type = Partially Exposed, Heated, Smooth surface,
Unventilated,
Terrain Category =B
Area 01 Area 02
12
6
Area 05
16459 B
7315
D
3048
A
4267
38100 C
Area 03
3657
3657
6096 13716
3353
18288
18288
36576
9144 Area 04
61
S N O W L O A D S

Is = 1.00 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Snow Load:-

= 0.7 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1.44 = 1.008 kN/m2
2) (Area 01) = 36576 x 38100 x 7315 mm

= 1.00 x 1.008 = 1.008 kN/m2
must be considered.
We know,
β = 0.50 if, L/W <= 1.00
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W if, 1.00 < L/W <= 4
β = 1.00 if, L/W > 4
Therefore,
β = 0.33 + 0.167 L/W = 0.678
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.44 + 2.2 = 2.81 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since, width
WL = 18288 > 6096 mm and,
275 βp f /gW L = 275 x 0.678 x 1.008/ (2.81 x 18.29) = 3.65°
Roof slope θ = 26.56° > 3.65°
62
S N O W L O A D S

= 0.3 p s = 0.30 x 1.008 = 0.30 kN/m2
= 1.2 (1+0.5β) p s / C e
= 1.2 (1+0.5x0.678) x 1.008/1.0 = 1.62 kN/m2
The balanced and unbalanced loads are shown in figure below
1.62
0.30
1.00
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
Partial Loading:-
(21.3/W+0.5) = 1.66°
example 7.2
kN/m2
separate load cases and are not to be combined as per section 1.5.12.
63
S N O W L O A D S

a. Drift Load
hr = Eave Ht. Area 1 – Eave Ht. Area 3

hr = 7.315 – 3.658 = 3.66
= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.66 – 0.359 = 3.30 m
hc / hb = 3.30 /0.359 = 9.19 > 0.20
hb
LOWER ROOF
hr hd 4.29
1.00
hb
4670
w
h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (9.14) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.425 m < h c = 3.30 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (36.58) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.16 m < h c = 3.30 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.16 = 4.64 m
64
S N O W L O A D S
b. Sliding Snow
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.66 – 0.359 = 3.30 m
Lu = 36.58 /2 = 18.29 m
C SD = (1 – θ/65) = (1-26.56°/65) = 0.591
Since h c > 0.914 m
w = (0.914 / h c ) x 6.096
= (0.914 / 3.30) x 6.096 = 1.688

= 1.25x1.008x18.29x(1-0.591) = 9.42 kN/m
Maximum Sliding Load = g h c w = 2.81 x 3.30 x 1.688 = 15.65 kN/m
Sliding Load /m2 = S L / w = 9.42/ 1.688 = 5.58 kN/m2
hb
LOWER ROOF
hr hd 6.59
1.00
hb
1688
w
65
S N O W L O A D S

For Area 01 and Area 02 p f = 1.008 kN/m2

= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
we know, Ce = 1.00
At Ridge = 0.50 p f = 0.50 x 1.008 = 0.50 kN/m2


= 18.29 x 6 / 12 + 0.72/2 = 9.51 m
the ridge.
Windward slope snow load = 0.3 p = 0.3 x 1.008 = 0.30 kN/m2
0.5 Pf 0.5 Pf
2Pf / Ce
hdv
2.01
0.50 0.50
0.30
18288 18288
RIDGE VALLEY RIDGE
VALLEY SNOW DRIFT
66
S N O W L O A D S
3) Calculation of Snow Area ‘C’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
h r (Average) = Eave Ht. Area 1+Width /4 x Slope–Ht. Area 4

hr = 7.31 + 36.58/4 x 6/12 – 3.657 = 8.22 m
= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 8.22 – 0.359 = 7.86 m
hc / hb = 7.86 /0.359 = 21.89 > 0.20
AREA 1 AREA 2 RIDGE
EAVE
hr (Average) 4.35
1.00
hd
hb 4754
AREA 4
L L (windward) = 6.096 m < 7.62 m, use 7.62 m

h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (7.62) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.381 m < h c = 7.86 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (38.10) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.19 m < h c = 3.30 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.19 = 4.76 m
b. Sliding Snow
We can see that no will slide from Area 2 to Area 4
67
S N O W L O A D S
4) Calculation of Snow Area ‘D’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
h r (Average) = Eave Ht. Area 2 + Eave Ht. Area 5

hr = 7.315 + 4.267 = 3.048 m
= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.359 = 2.689 m
hc / hb = 2.689 /0.359 = 7.49 > 0.20
2.47
hr 4.29
1.00
AREA 5
3352
4648
3352
L L (windward) = (13.716+3.35) m = 17.06 m

h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L ) (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
1/3
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (17.06) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.602 m < h c = 7.86 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (36.58) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.17 m < h c = 3.30 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.17 = 4.68 m
68
S N O W L O A D S
h d is reduced because of horizontal separation

= (6.096 - 3.352) / 6.096 = 0.45
Therefore, h d = 1.17 x 0.45 = 0.52 m
hd + hb = 0.52 + 0.359 = 0.879 m
Therefore, p t = g (h d + h b ) = 2.81 x 0.879 = 2.47 kN/m2
b. Sliding Snow
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.359 = 2.689 m

C SD = (1 – θ/65) = (1-26.56°/65) = 0.591
Since h c > 0.914 m
w = (0.914 / h c ) x 6.096
= (0.914 / 2.689) x 6.096 = 2.07 m
w cannot be greater than 1.524, hence w = 1.524 m
Since the width of sliding snow ‘w’ = 1.524 < gap = 3.35 m, the sliding snow
will fall in between the building.
69
S N O W L O A D S

Is = 1.00 Table 1.1(a)
Roof Snow Load:-

= 0.7 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1.44 = 1.008 kN/m2
2) (Area 01 & 02) = 36576 x 38100 x 7315 mm

= 1.00 x 1.008 = 1.008 kN/m2
Since the roof slope 26.6° is greater than the larger of (21.3/W+0.5) =1.67°, 2.38°,
unbalanced loads must be considered.
Ww = 18288 mm
(21.3/W+0.5) = (21.3/18.29+0.5) = 1.67 < 2.38
h d = [(0.416) (W W ) (p g + 0.4788) ] - 0.457
1/3 1/4
= [(0.416) (18.29)1/3 (1.44 + 0.4788)1/4] - 0.457

= 0.833 m
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.44 + 2.2 = 2.81 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
Since the Roof slope θ = 9.46° is greater than the greater of (21.3/W+0.5) =
1.89° or 2.38°, Unbalanced loads must be considered.

= 0.833 x 2.81 / ( 2 ) 0.5 = 1.66* kN/m2
(* - This value is in correct in MBMA 2006)
70
S N O W L O A D S

= (8/3) x 0.833 ( 2 ) 0.5 = 3.14 m
3.14
1.66
1.00
0.30
1.00
BALANCED SNOW LOAD
RIDGE
LEFT RIGHT
EAVE EAVE
ELEVATION
Partial Loading:-
(21.3/W+0.5) = 1.66°
example 7.2
kN/m2
separate load cases and are not to be combined as per section 1.3.5.12.
71
S N O W L O A D S

a. Drift Load
hr = Eave Ht. Area 1 – Eave Ht. Area 3

hr = 7.315 – 3.658 = 3.66
= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.66 – 0.359 = 3.30 m
hc / hb = 3.30 /0.359 = 9.19 > 0.20
hb
w
LOWER ROOF
hd
hr
4.26
1.00
4.64
hb
h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (9.14) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.425 m < h c = 3.30 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (36.58) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.16 m < h c = 3.30 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.16 = 4.64 m
72
S N O W L O A D S
c. Sliding Snow
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.66 – 0.359 = 3.30 m
Lu = 36.58 /2 = 18.29 m

= 0.4 x 1.008 x 18.29 = 7.37 kN/m
= 7.37 / 4.57 = 1.61 kN/m2
pt = (p f + S d ) = (1.008+1.61) = 2.62 kN/m2
hb
w
LOWER ROOF
hc
hr
2.62
1.00
4.57
hb
73
S N O W L O A D S

For Area 01 and Area 02 p f = 1.008 kN/m2

= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
we know, Ce = 1.00
At Ridge = 0.50 p f = 0.50 x 1.008 = 0.50 kN/m2


= 18.29 x 6 / 12 + 0.72/2 = 9.51 m
the ridge.
Windward slope snow load = 0.3 p = 0.3 x 1.008 = 0.30 kN/m2
0.5 Pf 0.5 Pf
2Pf / Ce
hdv
2.01
0.50 0.50
0.30
18288 18288
RIDGE VALLEY RIDGE
VALLEY SNOW DRIFT
74
S N O W L O A D S
7) Calculation of Snow Area ‘C’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
h r (Average) = Eave Ht. Area 1+Width /4 x Slope–Ht. Area 4

hr = 7.31 + 36.58/4 x 6/12 – 3.657 = 8.22 m
= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 8.22 – 0.359 = 7.86 m
hc / hb = 7.86 /0.359 = 21.89 > 0.20
w
AREA 2 RIDGE
AREA 1
EAVE
hd
hd
hr (average)
hr
4.35
1.00
4.75 1.34
AREA 4
hb
hb
L L (windward) = 6.096 m < 7.62 m, use 7.62 m
h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (7.62) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.381 m < h c = 7.86 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (38.10) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.19 m < h c = 3.30 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.19 = 4.75 m
b. Sliding Snow
We can see that no will slide from Area 2 to Area 4
75
S N O W L O A D S
76
S N O W L O A D S
8) Calculation of Snow Area ‘D’ (See isometric view)

a. Drift Load
h r (Average) = Eave Ht. Area 2 + Eave Ht. Area 5

hr = 7.315 + 4.267 = 3.048 m
= pf / g = 1.008 /2.81 = 0.359 m
hc = (h r – h b ) = 3.048 – 0.359 = 2.689 m
hc / hb = 2.689 /0.359 = 7.49 > 0.20
2.47
hr 4.29
1.00
AREA 5
3352
4648
3352
L L (windward) = (13.716+3.35) m = 17.06 m

h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L ) (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -
1/3
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (17.06) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.602 m < h c = 7.86 m
h d (leeward) = [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (p g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457
= [(0.416) (36.58) 1/3 (1.44+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457
= 1.17 m < h c = 3.30 m

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.17 = 4.68 m
77
S N O W L O A D S
h d is reduced because of horizontal separation

= (6.096 - 3.352) / 6.096 = 0.45
Therefore, h d = 1.17 x 0.45 = 0.52 m
hd + hb = 0.52 + 0.359 = 0.879 m
Therefore, p t = g (h d + h b ) = 2.81 x 0.879 = 2.47 kN/m2
b. Sliding Snow
Not applicable for this example, sliding snow will fall between the two
buildings. (The final resting place of any snow that slides off a higher roof onto
a lower roof will depend on the size, position, and orentation of each roof.
Reference ASCE commentary)
78
S N O W L O A D S
Example: - 7.6
Given:-
Building Use = School Gymnasium (Substantial Hazard)
Building Size = 33528 x 60960 x 5486 mm
Roof Slope = 0.25:12 (θ = 1.20°) S = 12/0.25 = 48
Frame type = Multi-span (2 @ 16764 mm)
Roof type = Partially Exposed, Heated, Smooth surface,
Unventilated,
Terrain Category =B
A
1828 7620
A
C B
5486
30480
60960
33528
22860 3048 7620

3048x2438x30480
Raised Roof
2438
5486
33528
Solution:- (Same for both MBMA 2002 and 2006)

Since the building is substantial Hazard building, Importance Factor
Is = 1.10 Table 1.1(a)
Since Pg is greater than 0.96 kN/m2, Rain on surcharge need not be considered.
79
S N O W L O A D S
Roof Snow Load:-

pf = 0.7 C e C t I s p g
= 0.7 x 1 x 1 x 1.1 x 1.915 = 1.47 kN/m2
Snow density,
g = [0.426 p g + 2.2] <= 4.70 kN/m3
g = 0.426 x 1.915 + 2.2 = 3.02 kN/m3 < 4.70 kN/m3
2) Continuous Beam Systems:

The main frames will be designed for the following condition:
a. Full balanced snow load of 1.47 kN/m2 on either span and 0.735
kN/m2 on the other span.
Drift Snow Load:- (Required only for sides greater than 4572 mm)
1) Calculation for Area A:-
hr = 2.44 m
hb = 1.47 / 3.02 = 0.486 m
hc = (h r - h b ) = (2.44 – 0.486) = 1.954 m
h c / h b = 1.954 / 0.486 = 4.021 m
Since h c / h b = 4.02 > 0.2, Drift loads must be considered.
L L1 (windward) = 7.62 m = 7.62 m
h d (windward) = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L1 )1/3 (P g + 0.4788)1/4] -
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (7.62) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457}
= 0.421 m < h c = 1.954 m
Therefore, hd = 0.76 m, and
Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 0.421 = 1.68 m
h d - h b = 0.421 + 0.486 = 0.907 m
Therefore, p t = (h d - h b ) x g
= 0.907 x 3.02 = 2.74 kN/m2
22860 3048 7620

w2 w1 3.76
2.74
hd hr
1.47
hb
3030 1680
80
S N O W L O A D S
2) Calculation for Area B:-
L L2 R R = 22.86 m
hd R R = 0.75 x [(0.416) (L u )1/3 (P g + 0.4788)1/4] -0.457R R P P R R P P
= 0.75 x [(0.416) (22.86) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457 P P P PR R
= 0.76 m < h c = 1.954 m R R
Therefore, hd R R = 0.76 m, and

Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 0.76
R R = 3.03 m
hd - hb R R R R = 0.76 + 0.486 = 1.246 m
Therefore, P t R R = (h d - h b ) x g
R R R R
= 1.246 x 3.02 = 3.76 kN/m2 P
w1
5.03
hr hd
1.47
hb
4740
3) Calculation for Area C:-
hr = 1.83 m R R
hb = 1.47 / 3.02 R = 0.486 m

R
hc = (h r - h b )
R R = (1.83 – 0.486)R R R R = 1.344 m
h c / h b = 1.344 / 0.486 R = 2.765 m
R R R
Since h c / h b = 2.765 > 0.2, Drift loads must be considered.

R R R R
L L1 (windward)
R R = 60.96 m = 60.96 m
h d (windward)R R = 0.75 {[(0.416) (L L1 )1/3 (P g + 0.4788)1/4] - R R P P R R P P
0.457}
= 0.75 {[(0.416) (60.96) 1/3 (1.915+0.4788) ¼ - 0.457} P P P PR R
= 1.18 m < h c = 1.344 m R R
Therefore, hd = 1.18 m, and R R
Width ‘w’ = 4h d = 4 x 1.18 = 4.74 m R R
h d - h b = 1.18 + 0.486 R = 1.66 m R R R
Therefore, p t = (h d - h b ) x g
R R R R R R R R
= 1.66 x 3.02 = 5.03 kN/m2 P
81
8
Chapter
C R A N E L O A D S
Crane Loads
 G eneral
MBMA 02
MBMA 06
Section 2.1 The recommended practices in this chapter are intended to serve as a guide for

the design of crane buildings with bridge, monorail, jib and single leg gantry
cranes of service classifications A through F.
The class of crane service can significantly affect design, and therefore, the cost
and performance of building framing used for the support of the crane system.
The six different categories of crane service classification have been established
by the CMAA as a guide for determining the service requirements of specific
applications. See table 8.1 below for details on these classification.
MBMA recommendations are normally not applicable for crane buildings with
service class E or F, however some additional guidelines have been provided. For
more detailed information see AISE Technical Report # 13.
Cranes may be manufactured to suit any of the crane classification described by

CMAA. Cranes are available with bridge, hoist, or trolley, either hand geared or
electric powered. The speed of hand geared cranes is low, and the impact forces
which the supporting structures may resist are low compared to faster electric
cranes, these are generally specified by the customer end-user in the PIF.
The different types of cranes commonly used are listed below,
1. Top Running Cranes. (Gantry Cranes)

2. Monorail Cranes.
3. Underhung Cranes.
4. Jib Cranes.
5. Semi Gantry Cranes.
Note:- There are no major changes in MBMA 2006 compared MBMA 2002
1
C R A N E L O A D S
Table 8.1 Crane Service Class Classification as per CMAA
Class A
(Standby or Infrequent Service)
This service class covers cranes used in installations such as powerhouses, public utilities, turbine
rooms, motor rooms, and transformer stations, where precise handling of equipment at slow
speeds with long, idle periods between lifts is required. Hoisting at the rated capacity may be
done for initial installation of equipment and for infrequent maintenance.
Class B
(Light Service)
This service class covers cranes used in repair shops, light assembly operations, service buildings,
light warehousing, or similar duty, where service requirements are light and the speed is slow.
Loads may vary from no load to occasional full-rated loads, with 2 - 5 lifts per hour.
Class C
(Moderate Service)
This service class covers cranes used in machine shops or paper mill machine rooms, or similar
duty, where service requirements are moderate. The cranes will handle loads that average 50% of
the rated capacity, with 5 - 10 lifts/hour, with not over 50% of the lifts at rated capacity.
Class D
(Heavy Service)
This service class covers cranes that may be used in heavy machine shops, foundries, fabricating
plants, steel warehouses, container yards, lumber mills, or similar duty, and standard duty
bucket and magnet operations where heavy-duty production is required. Loads approaching
50% of the rated capacity are handled constantly during the working period. High speeds are
desirable for this type of service, with 10 - 20 lifts/hour, with not over 65% of the lifts at rated
capacity.
Class E
(Severe Service)
This type of service requires cranes capable of handling loads approaching the rated capacity
throughout their life. Applications may include magnet, bucket, and magnet/bucket combination
cranes for scrap yards, cement mills, lumber mills, fertilizer plants, container handling, or similar
duty, with 20 or more lifts/hour at or near the rated capacity.
Class F
(Continuous Severe Service)
This type of service requires cranes capable of handling loads approaching rated capacity
continuously under severe service conditions throughout their life. Applications may include
custom-designed specialty cranes essential to performing the critical work tasks affecting the
total production facility. These cranes must provide the highest reliability, with special attention
to ease-of-maintenance features.
(CMAA – stands for “Crane Manufacturers Association of America”)
2
C R A N E L O A D S
Table 8.2 General Range of Crane Types.
Crane Type Power Source Description Span or Reach Capacity

1. Hand Geared Single Girder 3.0 to 15.0 m 0.5 to 10 MT
Underhung
2. Electric Single Girder 3.0 to 15.0 m 1.0 to 10 MT
1. Hand Geared Single Girder 3.0 to 15.0 m 0.5 to 10 MT
2. Electric Single Girder 3.0 to 15.0 m 0.5 to 10 MT
MBMA 02 3. Electric Double Girder 6.0 to 18.0 m 5.0 to 25 MT
MBMA 06 Box Girder
Table 2.2

Pendant Operated
4. Electric 15.0 to 27.0 m 5.0 to 25 MT
4-Wheel End
Truck
Top Running Box Girder
Cab Operated
5. Electric 15.0 to 30.0 m Up to 60 MT
4-Wheel End
Truck
Box Girder
Cab Operated
6. Electric 15.0 to 30.0 m Up to 250 MT
8-Wheel End
Truck
1. Hand Geared Floor Mounted
2.4 to 6.0 0.25 to 5 MT
or Electric 280° to 360°
Jib Cranes
2. Hand Geared Column Mounted
2.4 to 6.0 0.25 to 5 MT
or Electric 180°
Crane Loads
Crane buildings must be designed for forces induced by the operation or

movement of the bridge, hoist, and trolley of the supported cranes. All elements
affected by crane loads shall be designed to resist the loads specified. Unless
otherwise specified in the PIF, the vertical impact, lateral and longitudinal forces
for cranes are calculated using the normal allowance given in MBMA for service
class A to D and AISE Report # 13 for Class E & F. These allowances depend
solely on the power source of crane, hand geared or electric, and the method of
operation, Pendant or Cab. These impact factors and may be inadequate for:
1. Special Purpose Cranes
2. Cranes with fast operating speeds
3. Top running cranes with double flange, straight tread wheels or guide
rollers.
4. Improper bridge or trolley bumpers
5. High span to wheel base ratios.
6. Poorly aligned and maintained cranes, rails and runway beams
7. Improper operating procedures.
3
C R A N E L O A D S
Wheel Loads
1. Vertical Loads
The crane beams are designed for all loads transferred by the crane wheels,
Vertical, Lateral & Longitudinal. In case the crane wheel loads are not specified
in the specification from the supplier, the vertical wheel load may be
conservatively approximated as below,
Eqn. 2.4.1-1 MBMA 02 WL = RC + HT + 0.5 CW

Eqn. 2.4.1-1 MBMA 06 NW b
Where,
WL = Maximum Wheel Load
RC = Rated Capacity
HT = Weight of hoist with trolley
CW = Weight of crane excluding the hoist with trolley
NW b = Number of end truck wheels at one end of the bridge.
Table 8.3 Vertical Impact Factors

Sr. No. Crane Description Impact Factor
Monorail Cranes (Powered), (Brackets &
1 25
Connections included)
2 Cab or Radio operated bridge cranes (Powered) 25
MBMA 02 3 Pendant operated bridge cranes (Powered) 10
MBMA 06
Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with hand
Section 2.4.2 4 0
geared bridge, trolley and hoist
ASCE 7-05
Vertical Impact shall not be required for Design of frames, support columns, or the building
Section 4.10.2

foundation.
The maximum wheel loads used for the design of runway beams, including
monorails, their connections and support brackets, shall be increased by the
percentage given in table 8.3 to allow for the vertical impact or vibration.
Vertical Impact is not applied for the design of main frame columns,
independent crane columns and foundation.
4
C R A N E L O A D S
2. Lateral Loads
The lateral force or the horizontal load on the bridge crane runway beams with
electrically powered trolleys shall be calculated as 20% of the sum of the rated
capacity of the crane and weight of the hoist and trolley.
This force is assumed to act horizontally at the top surface of a runway rail, in
either direction perpendicular to the beam length and should be distributed with
due regard to the lateral stiffness of the crane runway beam, the runway beams
are of equal stiffness, the lateral forces shall be distributed equally between them.
Sec. 2.4.3 MBMA 02 Lateral Force = 0.20 x ( RC + HT )

Sec. 2.4.3 MBMA 06
Where,
RC = Rated Capacity
HT = Weight of hoist with trolley
3. Longitudinal Loads
Runway beams, including monorails, their connections, and the longitudinal

bracing system shall be designed to support horizontal forces calculated as 10%
of the maximum wheel loads excluding the vertical impact. Longitudinal loads
shall be assumed to act horizontally at the top of the rails and in each direction
parallel to the length of the runway beam. The runway beams, including the
monorails, their connections, and the longitudinal bracing system shall also be
designed for crane stop forces.
Sec. 2.4.4 MBMA 02 Longitudinal Force = 0.10 x WL (WL is without impact)

Sec. 2.4.4 MBMA 06
Where,
WL = Maximum Wheel Load
5
C R A N E L O A D S
Table 8.4 Crane Impact, Side Thrust and Traction Forces for Crane Class E & F
Tractive force
Vertical Impact % Total side thrust
(Long. Load) as %
Crane Type of maximum (Lateral Load) as
of maximum load
wheel loads % of lifted load
on driving wheels
Mill cranes 25 40 20
Ladle cranes 25 40 20
Clamshell bucket and magnet cranes
(including slab and billet yard 25 100 20
cranes)
Soaking pit cranes 25 100 20
Stripping cranes 25 100 20
Motor room, maintenance cranes, etc 20 30 20
Stacker cranes (cab operated) 25 200 20
Pendant operated cranes 10 10 20
See AISE Technical Report # 13 Table – 1 for more details
Example
Example: - 8.1
Crane Capacity (RC) = 10 MT

Weight of trolley (HT) = 0.74 MT
Weight of Crane = 8.30 MT
Therefore, CW = 8.30 – 0.74 = 7.56 MT
Number of end truck wheels =2
Class of Crane A to D
1. Vertical Loads (All Class A to F)
Hence, Maximum Vertical Wheel Load, WL
= RC + HT + 0.5 CW
NW b
= (10 + 0.74 + 0.5 x 7.56) / 2 = 7.26 MT
Maximum Vertical Wheel Load, WL = 72.6 kN
6
C R A N E L O A D S
Applying the Impact factors for different cranes from table 8.3, the vertical load
with impact will be,
Monorails
Powered = 72.6 x 1.25 = 90.75 kN
Hand Operated = 72.6 x 1.00 = 72.60 kN
Bridge Cranes Powered

Cab or radio operated cranes = 72.6 x 1.25 = 90.75 kN
Pendant operated cranes = 72.6 x 1.10 = 79.86 kN
Hand Operated = 72.6 x 1.00 = 72.60 kN
2. Lateral Loads
a. Service Class A to D
Lateral Force = 0.20 x ( RC + HT )

= 0.20 x ( 10 + 0.74 ) = 2.15 MT
= 21.5 kN
If there are 4 wheels,
Lateral Load/wheel = 21.5 / 4 = 5.38 kN
b. Service Class E & F (Refer Table 8.4)
Mill Cranes = 0.40 x ( 10 + 0.74 ) = 4.30 MT

= 43.0 kN
If there are 4 wheels,
Lateral Load/wheel = 43.0 / 4 = 10.75 kN
Similarly for other cranes listed in table 8.4
a. Service Class A to D
Longitudinal Force = 0.10 x WL

= 0.10 x 72.6 = 7.26 kN
Dividing by 2 sides of the bridge,
Longitudinal Force /side = 7.26 / 2 = 3.63 kN
b. Service Class E & F (Refer Table 8.4)
Longitudinal Force = 0.20 x 72.6 = 14.5 kN
Dividing by 2 sides of the bridge,

Longitudinal Force /side = 14.5 / 2 = 7.25 kN
7
C R A N E L O A D S
Runway Beams, Brackets and Suspension Systems
Runway beams, their connections, support brackets and suspension systems for
single and multiple cranes shall be designed in accordance with table 2.6 of
MBMA below.
The cranes shall be located longitudinally in the aisle in the positions that
produce the most unfavorable effect on the runway beam, their connections,
support brackets and suspension systems. Consideration shall be given to
eccentric loads induced by a single crane.
Runway beams for top running bridge crane applications may be provided by
the building manufacturer. The design of these beams takes into account the
vertical impact of the crane, the lateral force resulting from the effect of moving
crane trolleys and longitudinal force from moving cranes. Typical sections
include hot-rolled shapes and built-up plate girders
Runway beams for underhung and monorail crane are preferably made from
hot-rolled shapes, the design should account for forces produced by the cranes
including local flange bending effects near the edges of the flanges. Runway
beams for monorails and underhung cranes of higher service (> C) should be
designed with extreme caution and all specifications should be provided by the
customer end user.
8
C R A N E L O A D S
Crane Loading Conditions
For bridge cranes the location and lateral movement of the trolley shall be
considered in the design of crane buildings as shown below including the
following four crane loading conditions:
1. The maximum wheel load at the left end truck and the minimum wheel load
at the right end truck, acting simultaneously with the lateral force acting to
the left.
2. The maximum wheel load at the left end truck and the minimum wheel load
at the right end truck, acting simultaneously with the lateral force acting to
the right.
3. The maximum wheel load at the right end truck and the minimum wheel
load at the left end truck, acting simultaneously with the lateral force acting
to the left.
4. The maximum wheel load at the right end truck and the minimum wheel
load at the left end truck, acting simultaneously with the lateral force acting
to the right.
Building Frames and Support Columns
Building frames and support columns for crane buildings with single or
multiple cranes in one or more aisles shall be designed with crane or cranes
located longitudinally in the aisle or aisles in the positions that produce the
most unfavorable effect. Unbalanced loads shall be applied as induced by a
single crane operating in a crane aisle, and by a crane or cranes operating in
one crane aisle of a building with multiple crane aisles. See the Table 2.5 of
MBMA below,
9
C R A N E L O A D S
10
C R A N E L O A D S
Brackets and Crane Columns
Runway beams for top running cranes located within the building may be
supported by brackets attached to the building frame columns, by separate
columns located inside and in line with the building frame columns, or by
stepped columns. When crane aisles extend outside the building A-Frames are
commonly used to support the runway beams.
Brackets may be used to support cranes with up to 222.4 kN (50 kip) depending
on the type, span, and service classification of the crane. For cranes with more
than 222.4 kN (50 kip) it may be more economical to support the runway beams
with separate support columns. However, the columns for buildings having high
eave heights and or large wind and snow loads may support heavier cranes
without substantial weight penalty.
Stepped columns combining the crane column and building column may be
more economical for high eave heights and for maximum crane coverage in the
building width.
The crane runway must be tied back to the building column by a connection
capable of transferring the crane side thrust (Horizontal loads) but allowing end
rotation of the girders.
For allowable deflections see chapter 10 on serviceability.
11
C R A N E L O A D S
Suspension Systems
Monorail and Underhung suspension systems may be rigid or flexible as shown

in the figure below, flexible systems may result in lower effective crane loads and
reduced wear.
For flexible systems, anti-sway bracing should be provided to limit the sway of
the flexible supports to five degrees in both the lateral and longitudinal
directions.
All runway systems must be aligned and leveled before anti-sway bracing is
installed. The bracing should not be allowed to carry any of the vertical loads
imposed on the support system.
Anti-sway bracing should be installed so that it does not interfere with or restrict
the normal thermal expansion or contraction of the system. On two runway
systems, only one of the runways should be laterally braced. Lateral braces
should be installed at each suspension point. The other runway beam must be
left free to float and provide a relief for variations in runway alignment, crane
deflections and building variations.
12
C R A N E L O A D S
Longitudinal Crane Bracing
Longitudinal bracing for each crane aisle shall be designed for the longitudinal
forces produced by the crane loadings see figure 2.7a and 2.7b. The summary of
these are as per Table 2.7 of MBMA as below,
13
C R A N E L O A D S
Runway Stops
The force produced by a crane striking a runway stop is dependant on the
energy-absorbing device used in the crane bumper. The device may may be
hydraulic or spring type. The bumper forces should be obtained from the crane
manufacturer and provided by the customer. In the absence of this data, AISE
Technical Report # 13 provides guidance on computing the bumper forces for
different energy absorbing device types.
For cranes located outside enclosed buildings, consideration should be given to

the initial velocity and related bumper force that may be produced by the action
of specified wind loads on the crane.
14
C R A N E L O A D S
Example
Example: - 8.2

Therefore, CW = 8.30 – 0.74 = 7.56 MT
Number of end truck wheels =2
Bridge Load Rated Speed V B = 1.5 m/sec
Trolley Load Rated Speed = 0.8 m/sec
Impact weight per side W E = (0.5 CW) + (0.9 HT)

= 0.5 x 7.56 + 0.90 x 0.74 = 4.45 MT
= 44.5 kN
Kinetic Energy to be absorbed at 100% full load rated speed
KE = W E V B 2 / 2g
= 44.5 x 1.52 / (2 x 9.81) = 5.10 kN-m
Maximum allowable end force to decelerate the crane at 4.88 m/sec2
FA = 0.5 W E = 22.3 kN
Kinetic energy to be absorbed at 50% full load rated speed
KH = 0.25 W E V B 2 / 2g
= 0.25 x 44.5 x 1.52 / (2 x 9.81) = 1.28 kN-m
Bumper Selection:
1. Kinetic energy absorption or storage
2. Bumper stroke required:
KH = FA S h
Where,
S = bumper stroke in meters
h = bumper efficiency
a) Hydraulic Bumper (assuming h = 0.8)

S = KH / FA h
= 1.28 / (22.3 x 0.8) = 0.071 m
b) Spring Bumper (assuming h = 0.5)

S = KH / FA h
= 1.28 / (22.3 x 0.5) = 0.11 m
Note: - Bumpers and stops are available in measure of stroke distance
15
C R A N E L O A D S
Fatigue
The effect of fatigue shall be included in the design and detailing of crane
runway beams, their connections, support brackets (Not including supporting
column in case of stepped or independent columns), and suspension systems
(For Monorail Cranes) for cranes with service classifications B through D as give
below, for crane classification E & F refer AISE Report # 13. Frames, support
columns, and longitudinal bracing need not be designed for fatigue conditions.
Table 8.5 Loading Condition for Parts and Connections Subject to Fatigue

AISC Loading Condition
Service Class (CMAA)
R < = 0.5 R > 0.5
B - 1
C 1 2
MBMA 02 D 2 3
Table 2.9

Parts and Connections include all parts of a crane beam except the crane beam.
Table 8.5 Design Life Stress Range Fluctuations for Parts and Connections
Subject to Fatigue

Design Life Stress Range Fluctuations (N)
Service Class (CMAA)
R < = 0.5 R > 0.5
B 20,000 100,000
C 100,000 500,000
MBMA 06 D 500,000 2,000,000
Table 2.9

Parts and Connections include all parts of a crane beam except the crane beam.
Where,
R = TW / (TW + RC) for underhung monorail cranes
R = TW / (TW + 2RC) for bridge cranes
RC = Rated Capacity of the crane
TW = Total weight of the crane including bridge with end trucks,
hoist with trolley, and cab with walkway for cab operated cranes.
16
C R A N E L O A D S
Example
Example: - 8.3
Therefore, CW = 8.30 – 0.74 = 7.56 MT
R = TW / (TW + RC)
= 8.30 / (8.30 + 10) = 0.45
So, if the CMAA service class is (as per Table 8.5),
B then AISC Loading condition for parts & connections = N/A

B then Design Life Stress Range Fluctuations (N) = 20,000
C then AISC Loading condition for parts & connections =1
C then Design Life Stress Range Fluctuations (N) = 100,000
D then AISC Loading condition for parts & connections =2
D then Design Life Stress Range Fluctuations (N) = 500,000
Table 8.6 Crane Loading Conditions

Crane Loading Conditions
 CMAA Crane Classification

A, B
C, D
E
AISC Loading Condition
1
2
3
MBMA 02
Table 2.9.2 F 4


Table 8.7 Allowable Stress Range (kN/cm2)
Stress Category
(Table A-K4.2)
A
B
B’
1
43.41
33.76
26.89
Loading Condition
2
25.51
19.99
15.86
3
16.54
12.41
10.34
4
16.54
11.03
8.27
C 24.13 14.48 8.96 6.89a
AISC 89 D 19.30 11.03 6.89 4.82
Table A-K4.3

E 15.16 8.96 5.51 3.45
E’ 11.03 6.20 4.14 2.06
F 10.34 8.27 6.21 5.52
a Flexural stress range of 8.27 kN/m2 permitted at toe of stiffener welds on
webs or flanges.
17
C R A N E L O A D S
Table 8.8 Crane Classification Comparative International Standards
Sr. DIN CMAA /

Crane Application BS FEM AS
No. H B AISE
Cranes for power stations,
engine houses etc. (used
1 heavily during installation but 1-2 1–3 H1 B2 – B3 1 A1
then only for maintenance and
repair)
Light maintenance,
2 assembly, repair, and machine 1-2 2–3 H1 – H2 B1 – B3 1-2 A2 - B
shop cranes
Stores, warehouse Cranes
3 (indoor, not bulk materials or 1-3 3–5 H2 B4 1-2 B-C
steel)
Medium and heavy duty
4 workshop cranes 2 3–4 H2 – H3 B3 – B4 2-3 C-D
Goliath cranes for general hook
5 service 2 4–5 H2 B4 – B5 - -
Steel furnace maintenance
6 cranes 2-3 - - - - -
Production cranes for mills,
7 fabricating plants etc. (not steel 2-3 - - - 2-3 C-D
mills)
8 Foundry Cranes 2-3 - - - - D
9 Ship building cranes - 4–5 H2 B3 – B4 4 -
10 Goliath cranes for containers 2-3 4–5 - B5 – B6 4 -
11 Ladle cranes for foundry works 3 5 H2 – H3 B5 – B6 - -
12 Steel stockyard cranes (magnet) 3-4 5–6 H3 – H4 B5 – B6 4–5 D

Goliath and bridges for
13 grabbing work 3-4 5–6 H3 – H4 B5 – B6 - D-E
14 Scrap yard magnet cranes 4 5–6 H3 – H4 B5 – B6 - D-E
15 Steelworks ladle cranes 4 5 H2 – H3 B5 – B6 5 F
16 Forging cranes 4 5–6 H4 B5 – B6 5 F
17 Pig-breaking cranes 4 5–6 H3 – H4 B5 – B6 5 F
18 Soaking pit cranes 4 5–6 H3 – H4 B6 5 F

Stripper cranes; charging
19 cranes 4 6 H4 B6 5 F
18
C R A N E L O A D S
Table 8.9 Crane Rail Sections (ASCE, ASTM, DIN)
Weight Height Width (mm)

Sr. No. Type
Lb/yd Kgs/m (mm) Base Head
ASCE Profiles
1 ASCE 20 9.09 66.68 66.68 34.13
2 ASCE 25 11.36 69.85 69.85 38.10
3 ASCE 30 13.64 79.38 79.38 42.86
4 ASCE 35 15.91 84.14 84.14 44.45
5 ASCE 40 18.18 88.90 88.90 47.63
6 ASCE 45 20.45 93.66 93.66 50.80
7 ASCE 50 22.73 98.43 98.43 53.98
8 ASCE 55 25.00 103.19 103.19 57.15
9 ASCE 60 27.27 107.95 107.95 60.33
10 ASCE 65 29.55 112.71 112.71 61.12
11 ASCE 70 31.82 117.48 117.48 61.91
12 ASCE 75 34.09 122.24 122.24 62.71
13 ASCE 80 36.36 127.00 127.00 63.50
14 ASCE 85 38.64 131.76 131.76 65.09
15 ASCE 90 40.91 136.53 136.53 66.68
16 ARA-A 90 40.91 142.88 130.18 65.09
17 ARA-B 90 40.91 133.75 121.05 65.09
18 ASCE 100 45.45 146.05 146.05 69.85
19 ARA-A 100 45.45 152.40 139.70 69.85
20 ARA-B 100 45.45 143.27 130.56 67.47
ASTM Profiles
1 CR 104 113 51.59 127.00 127.00 63.50
2 CR 105 115 52.09 131.76 131.76 65.09
3 CR 135 147 66.97 146.05 131.76 87.31
4 CR 171 187 84.83 152.40 152.40 109.22
5 CR 175 191 86.80 152.40 152.40 107.95
DIN Profiles
1 A 45 49 22.10 55.00 130.00 45.00
2 A 55 70 31.80 65.00 150.00 55.00
3 A 65 95 43.10 75.00 180.00 65.00
4 A 75 124 56.20 85.00 200.00 75.00
5 A 100 163 74.30 95.00 200.00 100.00
6 A 120 220 100.00 110.00 220.00 120.00
7 A 150 331 150.30 150.00 220.00 150.00
19
C R A N E L O A D S
Example

Bridge Span = 25 m
Weight of Bridge = 12.93 MT
Operation = Pendant Operated
Crane Service Class =C
Maximum wheel Load (WL) = 136 kN
Crane use = Warehouse
AISC 89 Loading Conditions as per Table 8.6 =2
Allowable Stress Range in kN/cm2 for Crane Runway Beams as per Table 8.7,
1. Hot Rolled Sections = Stress Category ‘A’ = 25.51 kN/cm2
2. Built-Up Sections = Stress Category ‘B’ = 19.99 kN/cm2
3. All Fillet Welds = Stress Category ‘F’ = 8.27 kN/cm2
Loading Conditions for Parts & Connections as per Table 8.5,

R = TW / (TW + RC)
= (12.93+0.94) / (19.93+0.94+10) = 0.58
Therefore AISC Loading condition for R> 0.5 and Service Class ‘C =2
Hence use same Allowable stress range as above for all sections and welds used
in parts and connections of a crane runway beam.
1. Vertical Load
Maximum wheel Load = 136 kN

Impact Factor = 10% (Table 8.3)
Vertical Load with Impact = 136 x 1.1 = 149.6 kN
2. Lateral Load
Lateral Load = 0.20 (RC + HT)

= 0.20 (20 + 0.94) = 4.18 MT = 41.88 kN
3. Longitudinal Load
Longitudinal Load = 0.10 (WL)

= 0.10 x 136 = 13.6 kN
20
C R A N E L O A D S
Example

Bridge Span = 25 m
Weight of Bridge = 12.93 MT
Operation = Pendant Operated
Crane Service Class =C
Maximum wheel Load (WL) = 136 kN
Crane use = Warehouse
Design Life Stress Range (N) for Service Class (C) = 100,000
As per AISC 2005 (Table A-3.1)

Stress Category B C f = 120x108 F TH = 110 N/mm2
Allowable Stress Range F SR = ( C f x 329 / N )0.333 >= F TH
= (120x108x329/100,000) 0.333 = 338 N/mm2
Loading Conditions for Parts & Connections as per Table 8.5,

R = TW / (TW + RC)
= (12.93+0.94) / (19.93+0.94+10) = 0.58
Therefore AISC Loading condition for R> 0.5 and Service Class ‘C =2
Hence use same Allowable stress range as above for all sections and welds used
in parts and connections of a crane runway beam.
1. Vertical Load
Maximum wheel Load = 136 kN

Impact Factor = 10% (Table 8.3)
Vertical Load with Impact = 136 x 1.1 = 149.6 kN
2. Lateral Load
Lateral Load = 0.20 (RC + HT)

= 0.20 (20 + 0.94) = 4.18 MT = 41.88 kN
3. Longitudinal Load
Longitudinal Load = 0.10 (WL)

= 0.10 x 136 = 13.6 kN
21
C R A N E L O A D S
MBMA Recommendations for Heavy-Duty Cycle Cranes

Heavy-duty cycle cranes require special considerations that are addressed in
this section. Heavy-duty cycle cranes are utilized in lift intensive operations
categorized by CMAA as Classes E or F as defined in Section 2.9.1. of MBMA
2002 / 2006
Crane Runway Loading

Runways are designed to support a specific crane or group of cranes. The
weight of the crane bridge and trolley and the wheel spacing for the specific
crane should be obtained from the crane manufacturer. The crane weight can
vary significantly depending on the manufacturer and the classification of the
crane. Based on the manufacturer’s data, design forces are determined to
account for impact, lateral loads, and longitudinal loads. The AISC
Specification and most model building codes address crane loads and set
minimum standards for these loads. The AISE Technical Report No. I 3 “Guide
for the Design and Construction of Mill Buildings” also set minimum
requirements for impact, lateral and longitudinal crane loads. The AISE
requirements are used when the engineer and owner determine that the level
of quality set by the AISE Guide is appropriate for a given project.
Whether or not the AISE requirements are specified by the owner these
requirements should be followed for cranes with high duty cycles, i.e. cranes
with CMAA Classes E or F.
1. Vertical Loads
The vertical wheel loads are typically magnified (factored) by the use of an
impact factor. The impact factor accounts for the effect of acceleration in
hoisting the loads and impact caused by the wheels jumping over
irregularities in the rail. Bolted rail splices will tend to cause greater impact
effects than welded rail splices.
In the U.S., most codes and the AISE Technical Report No. 13 require a twenty-
five percent (1.25 factor) increase in loads for cab and radio operated cranes
and a ten percent increase (1.10 factor) for pendant operated cranes.
22
C R A N E L O A D S
2. Lateral Loads
Lateral crane loads (side thrusts) are oriented perpendicular to the crane
runway and are applied at the top of the rails. Lateral loads are caused by:
1. acceleration and deceleration of the trolley and loads
2. non-vertical lifting
3. unbalanced drive mechanisms
4. oblique or skewed travel of the bridge
Except for the case of the trolley running into the bridge end stops, the
magnitude of lateral load due to trolley movement and non-vertical lifting is
limited by the coefficient of friction between the end truck wheels and rails.
Drive mechanisms provide either equal drive wheel torque on each side of the
crane or they are balanced to align the center of the tractive force with the
center of gravity of the crane and lifted load. If the drive mechanism is not
balanced, acceleration and deceleration of the bridge crane results in skewing
of the bridge relative to the runways. The skewing imparts lateral loads onto
the crane girder. Oblique travel refers to the fact that bridge cranes cannot
travel in a perfectly straight line down the center of the runway. Oblique travel
may be thought of as being similar to the motion of an automobile with one
tire under inflated. The tendency of the crane to wander can be minimized by
properly maintaining the end trucks and the rails. The wheels should be
parallel and they should be in similar condition of wear. The rails should be
kept aligned and the surfaces should be smooth and level. A poorly aligned
and maintained runway can result in larger lateral loads. The relatively larger
lateral loads will in turn reduce the service life of the crane girder.
The AISC Specification and most model building codes set the magnitude of
lateral loads at 20% of the sum of the weights of the trolley and the lifted load.
The AISE Technical Report No. 13 varies the magnitude of the lateral load
based on the function of the crane (see table 8.4)
a) Cab-operated cranes:
The maximum of,
(1) That specified in Table 8.4, or
(2) 20% of the combined weight of the lifted load and trolley. For
stacker cranes, this factor shall be 40% of the combined weight of the
lifted load, trolley, rigid arm and material handling device,
or
(3) 10% of the combined total weight of the lifted load and the crane
weight. For stacker cranes, this factor shall be 15% of the combined
total weight of the lifted load and the crane weight.
23
C R A N E L O A D S
b) Pendant cranes:
10% of the total combined weight of the lifted load and the entire crane
weight including trolley, end trucks and wheels for the total side thrust.
c) Radio-operated cranes:
Radio-operated cranes shall be considered the same as cab operated cranes
for vertical impact, side thrust and traction.
The lateral loads are to be applied to each runway girder with due regard to
the relative lateral stiffness of the structures supporting the rails.
Longitudinal crane forces are due to either acceleration or deceleration of the
crane bridge or the crane impacting the bumper. The tractive forces are limited
by the coefficient of friction of the steel wheel on the rails. For pendant cranes,
the AISE Technical Report No. 13 requires 20% of the maximum load on the
driving wheels to be used for the tractive force. The force imparted by impact
with hydraulic or spring type bumpers is a function of the length of stroke of
the bumper and the velocity of the crane upon impact with the crane stop. The
owner should obtain the longitudinal forces from the crane manufacturer. If
this information is not available, the AISE Technical Report No. 13 provides
equations that can be used for determining the bumper force.
Building Classifications
To apply the requirements of AISE Load Combination Case 1 described below,
the classification of the building must be established (not to be confused with
the crane classification). The building classes are denoted A, B, C and D and
are described in AISE Technical Report No. 13 as follows:
 Building Class A - shall be those buildings in which members may

experience either 500,000 to 2,000,000 repetitions (AISC Loading
Condition 3) or over 2,000,000 repetitions (AISC Loading Condition 4)
in the estimated life span of the building (approximately 50 years).
Loading condition refers to the fatigue criteria given in Appendix K of
the AISC Specification. The owner must analyze the service and
determine which load condition may apply.
 Building Class B - shall be those buildings in which members may

experience a repetition from 100,000 to 500,000 cycles (AISC Loading
Condition 2) of a specific loading, which is equivalent to 5 to 25
repetitions of such load per day in the estimated life span of the
building (approximately 50 years).
24
C R A N E L O A D S
 Building Class C - shall be those buildings in which members may

experience a repetition of from 20,000 to 1 00,000 cycles (AISC Loading
Condition 1) of a specific loading, which is equivalent to 1 to 5
repetitions of such load per day in the estimated life span of the
building (approximately 50 years).
 Building Class D - shall be those buildings in which no member will

experience more than 20,000 repetitions of a specific loading during the
expected life span of the building.
AISE Load Combinations

The AISE Technical Report No. 13 provides three distinct load combinations,
which are referred to as Cases.
Case 1.
This case applies to load combinations for members designed for repeated
loads. The stress range shall be based on one crane (in one aisle only - where
aisle represents the zone of travel of a crane parallel to its runway beams)
including full vertical impact, eccentric effects and 50% of the side thrust. The
number of load repetitions used as a basis for the design shall be 500,000 to
2,000,000 (AISC Loading Condition 3) or over 2,000,000 (AISC Loading
Condition 4), as determined by the owner, for Building Class A construction.
Building Class B and Building Class C constructions shall be designed for
100,000 to 500,000 (AISC Load Condition 2) and 20,000 to 100,000 (AISC
Loading Condition 1) respectively. This case does not apply to Class D
buildings. The permissible stress range shall be in accordance with the AISC
recommendations (AISC Appendix K).
Note: As a further guide to the selection of the appropriate AISC Loading

Condition, a relationship between CMAA crane classification and AISC
loading conditions are given in Table 8.6. CMAA crane classification E
corresponds to AISC Loading Condition 3, while CMAA crane classification F
corresponds to AISC Loading Condition 4. This relationship is based on the
average number of lifts for the CMAA crane classifications. However, the
selection of the AISC Loading Condition to be used in Case 1 should be based
on not only the crane classification, but also the design life of the building.
25
C R A N E L O A D S
Case 2.
All dead and live loads, including roof live loads, plus maximum side thrust of
one crane or more than one crane if specific conditions warrant, longitudinal
traction from one crane, plus all eccentric effects and one of the following
vertical crane loadings:
1 . Vertical load from one crane including full impact.

2. Vertical load induced by as many cranes as may be positioned to affect the
member under consideration, not including impact.
“Full allowable stresses may be used with no reduction for fatigue”. This case
applies to all classes of building construction.
Case 3.
All dead and live loads including impact from one crane plus one of the
following:
a) Full wind with no side thrust but with one crane positioned for maximum
vertical load effects.
b) Fifty percent of full wind load with maximum side thrust and vertical load
effects from one crane.
c) Full wind with no live load or crane load.
d) Bumper impact at end of runway from one crane.
e) Seismic effects resulting from dead loads of all cranes parked in each aisle
positioned for maximum seismic effects.
For Case 3 allowable stresses may be increased 33.3 %. This case applies to all
classes of building construction.
Because the standard AISE building classifications were based upon the most
frequently encountered situations, they should be used with engineering
judgment. The engineer, in consultation with the owner, should establish the
specific criteria.
Deflection
The vertical deflection of top running crane runway beams with 100 percent of
the maximum wheel loads without vertical impact shall not exceed L/1000 of
the runway beam span for cranes with CMAA classifications E or F.
Fatigue
The same recommendation for fatigue given for CMAA crane classification A,
B and C also applies to crane classifications E and F.
26
C R A N E L O A D S
Detailing and Fabrication Considerations

Heavy-duty cycle crane applications require special attention to detailing and
fabrication. Specific recommendations are provided in the following sections.
a) Welding
The vast majority of stress risers that lead to crack propagation are weld
defects. Common weld defects are: lack of fusion or penetration, slag
inclusions, undercut, and porosity. Lack of fusion and penetration of welds or
cracks are severe stress risers. Slag inclusions and undercut are significant
defects in areas of relatively high stress. It should be noted that surface defects
are far more harmful than buried defects because greater stress riser effect
occurs from surface defects. Also, the orientation of the defects is important.
Planer defects normal to the line of applied force are more critical than defects
parallel to the line of force because defects normal to the line of force cause a
greater increase in stress as compared to defects parallel to the line of stress.
Visual inspection during fabrication is the most useful method of ensuring
adequate quality control of the fabricated elements. It should be noted that
visual inspection is mandatory (per AWS Dl .1) for both statically and
dynamically loaded structures.
The fabrication sequence should be controlled to limit restraint during

welding so as to reduce the residual stresses created by the welding process.
For example, when fabricating a plate girder, if the splices of the flange and
web plates are made before the flanges and web plates are welded together,
residual stresses may be better controlled.
b) Tie backs
Tie backs are provided at each end of the crane runway girders to transfer
lateral forces from the girder top flange into the supporting column and to
laterally restrain the compression flange of the girder at its support. The tie
backs must have adequate strength to transfer the lateral crane loads.
However, the tiebacks must also be flexible enough to allow for longitudinal
movement of the top of the girder as the girder end rotates under load. The
amount of longitudinal movement due to the end rotation of the girder can be
significant. The end rotation of a 12 m long girder that has deflected 20 mm
(span over 600) is about 0.005 radians (0.286°). For a 900 mm deep girder, this
results in 5.0 mm of horizontal movement at the top of the girder.
27
C R A N E L O A D S
The tie back must also allow for vertical movement due to axial shortening of
the crane column. This vertical movement can be in the range of 6.5 mm. In
general, the tie back should be attached directly to the top flange of the girder.
Attachment to the web of the girder with a diaphragm plate should be
avoided, since the lateral load path for this detail results in bending stresses in
the girder web perpendicular to the girder cross section. The diaphragm plate
also tends to resist movement due to the axial shortening of the crane column.
c) Bearing Stiffeners
Bearing stiffeners should be provided at the ends of the girders as required by
the AISC ASD Specification Paragraphs K1 .3 and K1.4. The AISE Technical
Report No. 13 requires that full penetration welds be used to connect the top
of the bearing stiffeners to the top flange of the girder. Fillet welds are
considered to be inadequate to transfer the concentrated wheel load stresses
into the bearing stiffener because the small gap between underside of flange
and top of stiffener would result in the wheel load reactive force being
transferred through the fillet welds. The bottom of the bearing stiffeners may
be fitted (preferred) or fillet welded to the bottom flange. All stiffener to girder
welds should be continuous. Cracks have been observed in the webs of crane
girders with partial height bearing stiffeners. The cracks start in the web
between the bearing stiffener and the top flange and run longitudinally along
the web of the girder. There are many possible causes for the propagation of
these cracks. An explanation of this phenomenon may be that when the rail is
eccentric to the girder web, transverse bending is induced in the girder flange
and web. The bending in the web results in high bending stresses in the critical
section of web between the underside of the top flange and the upper ends of
the partial height stiffeners.
d) Intermediate Stiffeners
When intermediate stiffeners are used, the AISE Technical Report No. 1 3
requires that the intermediate stiffeners be welded to the top flange with full
penetration welds. The stiffeners should be stopped short of the bottom flange.
The stiffeners should be terminated in accordance with paragraph G4 of the
AISC ASD Specification. The AISE Technical Report No. 13 additionally
requires continuous welds between stiffener and web for intermediate
stiffeners.
28
C R A N E L O A D S
e) Cap Channels
Channel caps or cap plates are frequently used atop wide flange members to
develop adequate top flange capacity for transfer of lateral loads to the
supporting columns. A common rule-of-thumb is that a wide flange reinforced
with a cap channel will be economical if the total section is 29.8 kg/m lighter
than a comparable un-reinforced wide flange member. The welds connecting
the channel cap to the top flange can be continuous or intermittent. However,
the AISC allowable stress for the base metal is reduced from that of Category B
for continuous welds to that of Category E for intermittent welds.
It should be noted that the cap channel or plate does not fit perfectly with
100% bearing on the top of the wide flange. The tolerances given in ASTM A6
allow the wide flange member to have some flange tilt along its length, or the
plate may be cupped or slightly warped, or the channel may have some twist
along its length. These conditions will leave small gaps between the top flange
of the girder and the underside of the top plate or channel. The passage of the
crane wheel over these gaps will tend to distress the channel or plate to top
flange welds. Because of this phenomenon, cap plates or channels should not
be used with class E or F cranes.
f) Column Cap Plates

The crane column cap plate should be detailed so as not to materially restrain
the end rotation of the girder. If the cap plate girder bolts are placed between
the column flanges, the girder end rotation is resisted by a force couple
between the column flange and the bolts. This detail has been known to cause
bolt failures. Preferably, the girder should be bolted to the cap plate outside of
the column flanges. The column cap plate should be extended outside of the
column flange with the bolts to the girder placed outside of the column
flanges. The column cap plate should not be made overly thick, as this detail
requires the cap plate to distort to allow for the end rotation of the girder. The
girder to cap plate bolts should be adequate to transfer the longitudinal
tractive or bumper forces to the longitudinal crane bracing. Consideration
should be given to using slotted holes perpendicular to the runway or oversize
holes to allow tolerance for aligning the girder webs with the webs of the
supporting column.
29
C R A N E L O A D S
g) Lacing
A horizontal truss can be used to resist the crane lateral forces. The truss is
designed to span between the crane columns. Typically, the top flange of the
girder acts as one chord of the truss while a parallel back up beam acts as the
other chord. The diagonal web members are typically angles. Preferably, the
angles should be bolted rather than welded. The crane girder will deflect
downward when the crane passes, the back up beam will not. The design of
the diagonal members should account for the end moments that will be
generated by this relative movement.
Walkways can be designed and detailed as a horizontal beam to transfer

lateral loads to the crane columns. The lacing design may be incorporated in
the walkway design. As with the crane lacing, the walkway connection to the
crane girder needs to account for the vertical deflection of the crane girder. If
the walkway is not intended to act as a beam, then the designer must isolate
the walkway from the crane girder.
The AISE Technical Report No. 13 requires that crane runway girders with
spans of 36 feet and over for building classifications A, B, and C or runway
girder spans 10.97 m and over in class D buildings shall have bottom flange
bracing. This bracing is to be designed for 2.5 percent of the maximum bottom
flange force, and is not to be welded to the bottom flange. Vertical cross braces
or diaphragms should not be added to this bracing so as to allow for the
deflection of the crane beam relative to the backup beam.
h) Sidesway Web Buckling

Crane runway girders should be checked to ensure adequate capacity to resist
sidesway web buckling. Equation K1-7 contained in the AISC ASD or LRFD
Specification should be used in this check. This criteria is likely to control the
base member size for crane runway girders with cap plates, welded girders
with larger top flanges and girders with braced compression flanges. It seems
likely that the foregoing AISE limitations on the length of unbraced tension
flanges were created to address the sidesway web buckling phenomena. The
sidesway web buckling criteria was introduced into the AISC ASD
Specification in the Ninth Edition. Runway girders designed prior to this time
would not have been checked for this criteria.
At present, the AISC criteria does not address the condition of multiple wheel
loads on a single span. Therefore, engineering judgment must be used when
applying Equation K1-7 for multiple wheel loads.
30
C R A N E L O A D S
i) Knee Braces or K Braces

The longitudinal crane forces are typically resisted by vertical X bracing in the
plane of the crane girder. The use of knee braces to create a rigid frame to
resist longitudinal crane forces should be avoided. The knee brace is subject to
the vertical wheel load each time the wheel passes over the brace. K braces are
subject to the same behavior. If a lacing system is used to resist lateral loads,
this same system could be used to transfer longitudinal forces to the plane of
the building columns. Then the crane vertical bracing could be incorporated
into the building bracing at the building columns.
j) Rail Attachments
In addition to the general information in Section 2.10.3 MBMA 2002 / 2006 on
rail attachments, the following applies specifically to heavy-duty crane
applications.
a. Hook bolts should not be used on CMAA Class E or F cranes.
b. The AISE Technical Report No. 13 requires that rail clips allow for
longitudinal float of the rail and that the clips restrict the lateral
movement to 6.35 mm inward or outward. When crane rails are
installed with resilient pads between the rail and the girder, the
amount of lateral movement should be restricted to 0.8 mm to
reduce the tendency of the pad to wear out from under the rail.
k) Specification of Crane Systems

Improper crane systems may cause excessive forces that adversely affect the
performance and durability of crane buildings. The End Customer should
ensure that cranes are designed, manufactured, and installed in accordance
with the following standards
1. ANSI B30. 1 1 --Monorails and Underhung Cranes
2. ANSI B30.17--Overhead and Gantry Cranes (Top Running, Bridge,
Single Girder, Underhung Hoist)
3. ANSI B30.2--Overhead and Gantry Cranes (Top Running Bridge,
Single or Multiple Girder, Top Running Trolley Hoist).
4. ANSI MH 27.1--Specifications for Underhung Cranes and Monorail
Systems
5. CMAA No.70--Specifications for Electric Overhead Traveling Cranes.
6. CMAA No.74--Specifications for Top Running and Under Running
Single Girder Electric Overhead Traveling Cranes.
31
C R A N E L O A D S
l) Erection
Special fabrication and erection tolerances are recommended for crane
buildings including runway beams. Improper erection may cause excessive
forces that adversely affect the performance and durability of the crane
building. See MBMA 2002 / 2006 Common Industry Practices, Sections 4, 6,
and 9 for recommended fabrication and erection tolerances.
m) Operation and Maintenance

Improper operation of crane systems or maintenance of cranes, rails, runway
beams, runway support or suspension systems, including fasteners, can cause
excessive forces that adversely affect the performance and durability of crane
buildings. The End Customer is responsible for ensuring proper operation,
inspection and maintenance of cranes.
32
C R A N E L O A D S
Guidelines
1. Crane runway beams may be provided with any of the 3 configuration
below,
a. Cap Channel + Top Flange + Web + Bottom Flange.

b. Cap Channel + Web + Bottom Flange.
c. Top Flange + Web + Bottom Flange. (with or with out surge girder as
required by design)
2. The default fatigue stress range is 20.70 kN/cm2. However for paper mills,
foundries and rolling mills a fatigue stress of 12.50 kN/cm2 is often
required for safety reasons. (The fatigue stresses considered in design
should be confirmed with the customer at estimation stage).
3. As a standard welding procedure,
a. For Crane beams with web thickness less than or equal to 8 mm

double side fillet welds are provided between top / bottom flange and
web.
b. For web thickness greater than 8 mm, CJP (Complete joint Penetration)
weld is provided between top flange and web only and double side
fillet weld between bottom flange and web, this should be considered
at estimate stage.
4. If crane lifting capacity is equal to or exceeds 20MT the portion of the

column below the crane runway beam should be double side weld.
5. For independent crane columns and stepped columns separate

longitudinal bracing system should be provided below the crane beam (in
the same plane as crane beam) in addition to the sidewall wind bracing.
The sidewall wind bracing may be Cable, Rod or Angle as required by
design.
6. Double side welding should be provided for stepped column below crane
beam and independent crane columns. The double side welding for crane
beams should be included in the estimate.
7. Cable or Rod bracing may be provided as crane bracing for buildings with
Crane capacity up to and including 10 MT.
8. Angle bracing should be provided as longitudinal bracing for buildings

with Crane capacity more than 10 MT.
33
C R A N E L O A D S
9. As per AISE Technical Report # 13 (Section 5.9.2), crane bracket should

not be used for vertical loads exceeding 220 kN. (At the discretion of the
designer it may be increased up to 250 kN)
10. MBMA recommendations are applicable for Crane classifications A

through D. The recommendations of MBMA are not applicable for cranes
classified with class E or F, for these class of cranes AISE Technical Report
# 13 “Guide for the Design and Construction of Mill Buildings” should
be referred.
11. Crane Beam deflections for special buildings
a. Refer chapter on serviceability
12. As AISE Technical Report # 13 (Section 5.8.9) Girders of spans greater

than 22.86 m shall be cambered for approximately dead load plus half of
the live load deflection, without impact. It should be ensured that the
message for camber is conveyed to production through shop drawings.
13. Mammut’s scope of supply for Monorail beam should be checked at

estimation stage, accordingly a Special Buyout request should be raised. If
Monorail beam is Mammut scope of supply hot rolled section should be
selected.
34
9
Chapter
L O A D C O M B I N A T I O N S
Load Combination
Keeping in pace with the latest available codes, Mammut standard load
combinations are compiled taking into consideration all the codes and releases
available at this moment without compromising on strength, serviceability and
economy.
MBMA 2006 remains the basis of the adopted standard load combinations, since
it refers to IBC 2006 and IBC 2006 refers to ASCE 7-05.
The notations used in the standard load combinations are listed below, these
notations are also used for combinations as per different codes in order to avoid
confusion.
D - Dead Load
Co - Collateral Load
Cr - Crane Load (Inclusive of Crane weight and lifted load)
Crv - Crane Vertical Load
Crh - Crane Horizontal Load
Lf - Floor Live Load (Mezzanine Live Load)
Lr - Roof Live Load
S - Snow Load
T - Temperature Load
W - Wind Load
E - Combined effect of Seismic induced forces
E = Eh ± Ev = (r QE) ± (0.2 SDS D)
Em - Seismic load effect including over-strength
Em = Emh ± Ev = (Ωo QE) ± (0.2 SDS D)
For values of ( r ) ( Ωo ) Refer chapter 6 on Seismic Loads
Most codes do not list the collateral load as a separate load case, but it has been
included in the following pages for load combinations as per various codes.
1
L O A D S C O M B I N A T I O N S
Note:-
Mammut Standard Load Combination reported in the earlier version of this

design manual, was derived conservatively, considering the best possible
combination of all the available codes at that time. Namely, MBMA 02, IBC 03,
IBC 06, ASCE 7-98, 7-02, 7-05.
MBMA 02 refers IBC 00 and IBC 00 refers to ASCE 7-98 for Load
Combinations. The possible line of modifications and corrections in IBC 00
and ASCE 7-98 was visible in IBC 06 and ASCE 7-05. Due to this fact the
earlier Mammut Standard Load Combinations had some difference when
compared with IBC 00 and ASCE 7-98.
The revised Mammut Standard Load Combination on the following pages are
mainly based on IBC 06 and ASCE 7-05. The Basic Load Combinations are
exactly the same as in IBC 06, but the Seismic Load Combinations are based on
ASCE 7-05.
IBC 06 section 1605.4 “Special Seismic Load Combination” states the use of
equations 16-22 and 16-23 in both LRFD and ASD Seismic Load Combination.
But this is not true in ASCE 7-05, the equations 16-22 and 16-23 are only used
for LRFD combination, and this seems more logical. Hence we have adopted
Seismic Load Combinations as per ASCE 7-05, where as all other load
combinations are as per IBC 06. There should not be any violations in doing
so, since the chapter on Seismic Design in IBC 06 is much reduced when
compared with earlier versions, and now has direct reference to ASCE 7-05.
A more detailed look at the current ASD Seismic Load Combinations reveals
that the Load Combinations 8, 9, 10 and 11, 12, 13 are similar except that (Eh) is
replaced with (Emh).
2
MBMA 2006
Mammut Standard – LRFD
Basic Load Combinations
1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co Eqn. 16-1
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 ( Lr or S ) + 1.2 T Eqn. 16-2
MBMA 06 3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 ( Lr or S ) + ( f1 Lf or 0.8 W ) Eqn. 16-3
Section 1.3.7 4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 ( Lr or S ) Eqn. 16-4
5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W Eqn. 16-6
Seismic Load Combinations
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + f2 S + Eh ± Ev Eqn. 16-5
7) 0.9 D + Eh ± Ev Eqn. 16-7
Special Seismic Load Combinations*
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1Lf + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-22
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-23
Crane Load Combinations
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + ( f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
1) f1 = 0.5 if Floor Live Load (Lf) <= 4.79 kN/m2
2) f1 = 1.0 if Floor Live Load (Lf) > 4.79 kN/m2
3) f2 = 0.7 for saw tooth configuration roof.
4) f2 = 0.2 for other roof configurations.
5) * - Denotes combination for frame connections, bracings, strut tube, eave
strut, strut purlins.
3
MBMA 2006
Mammut Standard – ASD
1) D + Co Eqn. 16-8
MBMA 06 2) D + Co + Lf + T Eqn. 16-9
Section 1.3.7 3) D + Co + ( Lr or S ) Eqn. 16-10
4) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 ( Lr or S ) + 0.75 T Eqn. 16-11
5) D + Co + W Eqn. 16-12
6) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 ( Lr or S ) + 0.75 W Eqn. 16-13
7) 0.6 D + W Eqn. 16-14
8) D + Co + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
9) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or f2 S) + 0.525 Eh ± 0.525 Ev
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Special Seismic Load Combinations* (Stress Increase =1.2)
11) D + Co + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
12) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or f2 S) + 0.525 Emh ± 0.525 Ev
13) 0.6 D + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
14) D + Co + Cr + T
15) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
16) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
17) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
18) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Note:-
1) Seismic Load Combinations are as per ASCE 7-05
2) f2 = 0.0 if Roof Snow Load (pf) < 1.44 kN/m2
3) f2 = 0.2 if Roof Snow Load (pf) >= 1.44 kN/m2
4) The Snow Load ‘S’ shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load (pf) or
the sloped roof snow load (ps)
6) Stress increase as per section 12.4.3.3 ASCE 7-05
7) Crane hook loads need not be combined with (Lr) Roof Live Load or with
more than (0.75 S) Snow Load or (0.5W) Wind Load (Foot note:- IBC 06 1605.3.1)
4
Mammut Standard -
Deflection
1) D
2) Lr or S
3) D + Co + (Lr or S)
4) D + Co + (Lr or S) + Lf (Only for frames with rigid mezzanine)
5) W
6) E = Eh
7) Cr
Note:-
1) The above combinations are for main frames only for individual
members refer chapter on serviceability.
5
MBMA 1996 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.6 Lf + 1.2 T
MBMA 96
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (0.5 Lf or 0.8 W)
Section 9.2
4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.3 W + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 0.5 Lf
5) 0.9 D ± 1.3 W
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 0.2 S ± E
7) 0.9 D ± E
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
9) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (0.5 Lf or 0.8 W)
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + E
Note:-
1) E - Seismic Load (Seismic Base Shear)
6
MBMA 1996 - ASD

1) D + Co
2) D + Co + (Lr or S) + Lf + T
MBMA 96
Section 9.1 3) D + W (Stress Increase = 1.33)
4) D + Co + W + Lf (Stress Increase = 1.33)
5) D + Co + S + 0.5 W + Lf (Stress Increase = 1.33)
6) D + Co + 0.5 S + W + Lf (Stress Increase = 1.33)
Seismic Load Combinations* (Stress Increase = 1.7Φ)
7) ( 1.1 + 0.5Av) D + Co + f3 Lf + f2 S + E
8) ( 0.9 - 0.5Av) D + E
9) D + Co + Cr + Lf + T
10) D + Co + f1 S + Cr + Lf
11) D + Co + 0.5 W + Cr + Lf (Stress Increase = 1.33)
12) D + Co + Crv + E
Note:-
1) f1 = 0.0 if Roof Snow load (pf) <= 0.624 kN/m2
2) f1 = 0.5 if 0.624 <= (pf) < 1.488 kN/m2
3) f2 = 0.0 if Roof Snow load (pf) < 1.44 kN/m2
4) f2 = 0.2 if Roof Snow load (pf) >= 1.44 kN/m2
7) Refer AISC Seismic Provision Part III for values of ‘Φ’
8) Av - Effective Peak Acceleration (See MBMA 96)
9) E - Seismic Load (Seismic Base Shear)
10) *Stress increase as per section AISC Seismic Provision 1997 Part III Section 4.2
7
UBC 1997 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co Eqn. 12-1
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T Eqn. 12-2
UBC 1997
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W) Eqn. 12-3
Section
1612.2.1 4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.3 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) Eqn. 12-4
5) 0.9 D + 1.3 W Eqn. 12-6
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + (f1 Lf + f2 S) + Eh ± Ev Eqn. 12-5
7) 0.9 D + Eh ± Ev Eqn. 12-6
8) 1.2 D + + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 12-17
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 12-18
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (f1Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
3) f2 = 0.7 for roof configurations (such as saw tooth)
4) f2 = 0.2 for other roof configuration
5) * - Denotes combination for connections, bracings, strut tube, eave strut, strut
purlins.
8
UBC 1997 - ASD (Alternative)

1) D + Co
2) D + Co + Lf + (Lr or S) + T Eqn. 12-12
UBC 1997
3) D + Co + Lf + W (Stress Increase = 1.33) Eqn. 12-13
Section
1612.3.2 4) D + Lf + W + 0.50 S (Stress Increase = 1.33) Eqn. 12.14
5) D + Co + Lf + S + 0.50 W (Stress Increase = 1.33) Eqn. 12-15
Seismic Load Combinations (Stress Increase = 1.33)
6) D + Co + Lf + 0.714 Eh Eqn. 12-13
7) D + Co + Lf + f2 S + 0.714 Eh Eqn. 12-16
8) 0.9 D + 0.714 Eh Eqn. 12-16-1
Special Seismic Load Combinations* (Stress Increase = 1.33)
9) 1.2 D + Co + f1 Lf + Emh Eqn. 12-17
10) 0.9 D + Emh Eqn. 12-18
11) D + Co + Cr + T
12) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
13) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
14) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W (Stress Increase = 1.33)
15) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh (Stress Increase = 1.33)
Note:-
3) f2 = 0.0 if Design Snow Load (Pf) <= 1.44 kN/m2
4) f2 = 0.25 if Design Snow Load (Pf) > 1.44 kN/m2
5) * - Denotes combination for connections, bracings, strut tube, eave strut, strut
purlins.
6) ‘0.714’ is ‘E/1.4’ in the code
7) Stress increase as per section 1612.3.3
8) Ev need not be used in ASD
9
ASCE 7-98 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T
ASCE 7-98
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
Section 2.3.2
4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S)
5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Eh ± Ev
7) 0.9 D + Eh ± Ev
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Emh ± Ev
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
10
ASCE 7-98 - ASD

1) D + Co
2) D + Co + Lf + T
ASCE 7-98
3) D + Co + (Lr or S)
Section 2.4.1
4) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.75 T
5) D + Co + W
6) D + Co + 0.75 W + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S)
7) 0.6 D + W
8) D + Co + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
9) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.70 Eh ± 0.70 Ev
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Special Seismic Load Combinations* (See Commentary)
11) D + Co + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
12) 0.6 D + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
13) D + Co + Cr + T
14) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
15) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
16) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
17) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Note:-
11
IBC 2000 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T
IBC 2000
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
Section
4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S)
1605.2.1
5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Eh ± Ev
7) 0.9 D + Eh ± Ev
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Emh ± Ev
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
12
IBC 2000 - ASD

1) D + Co
2) D + Co + Lf + T
IBC 2000
3) D + Co + (Lr or S)
Section
4) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.75 T
1605.3.1
5) D + Co + W
6) D + Co + 0.75 W + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S)
7) 0.6 D + W
8) D + Co + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
9) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.70 Eh ± 0.70 Ev
10) 0.6 D + 0.70 Eh ± 0.70 Ev
11) D + Co + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
12) 0.6 D + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
13) D + Co + Cr + T
14) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
15) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
16) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
17) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Note:-
13
MBMA 2002
MBMA 2002 Section 1.7 States
“Load Combinations are covered in IBC 2000, Section 1605. Two alternate sets of
allowable stress combinations are provided and one set of load and resistance
factor combinations is provided”
MBMA 02
Section 1.7
14
ASCE 7-02 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T
ASCE 7-02
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
Section 2.3.2
4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S)
5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Eh + Ev
7) 0.9 D + Eh + Ev
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Emh + Ev
9) 0.9 D + Emh + Ev
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (f1Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
15
ASCE 7-02 - ASD

1) D + Co
2) D + Co + Lf + T
ASCE 7-02
3) D + Co + (Lr or S)
Section 2.4.1
4) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.75 T
5) D + Co + W
6) D + Co + 0.75 W + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S)
7) 0.6 D + W
8) D + Co + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
9) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.525 Eh ± 0.525 Ev
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
11) D + Co + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
12) 0.6 D + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
13) D + Co + Cr + T
14) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
15) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
16) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
17) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Note:-
16
IBC 2003 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co Eqn. 16-1
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T Eqn. 16-2
IBC 2003 3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + (f1 Lf or 0.8 W) Eqn. 16-3
Section 4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) Eqn. 16-4
1605.2.1 5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W Eqn. 16-6
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + f2 S + Eh + Ev Eqn. 16-5
7) 0.9 D + Eh + Ev Eqn. 16-6
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + Emh + Ev Eqn. 16-19
9) 0.9 D + Emh + Ev Eqn. 16-20
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (0.5 Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
1) ‘f1’ is denoted as ‘l1’ in code, it is changed for clarity
4) f2 = 0.7 for roof configurations (such as saw tooth)
5) f2 = 0.2 for other roof configuration
17
IBC 2003 - ASD

1) D + Co Eqn. 16-7
2) D + Co + (Lf or Lr)+ T Eqn. 16-8
3) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.75 T Eqn. 16-9
IBC 2003 4) D + Co + 0.75 W + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) Eqn. 16-10
Section 5) 0.6 D + W Eqn. 16-11
1605.3.1 Seismic Load Combinations
6) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev Eqn. 16-10
7) 0.6 D + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev Eqn. 16-12
Special Seismic Load Combinations* (Stress Increase = 1.7)
8) 1.2 D + Co + f1 Lf + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-19
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-20
10) D + Co + Cr + T
11) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
12) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
13) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
14) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Exception:
1) ‘f1’ is denoted as ‘l1’ in code, it is changed for clarity
5) Stress increase as per section 1617.1.1.2
18
ASCE 7-05 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T
ASCE 7-05
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + ( f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
Section 2.3.2,
12.4.2.3 4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 (Lr or S)
5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Eh ± Ev
7) 0.9 D + Eh ± Ev
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + 0.2 S + Emh ± Ev
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + (0.5 Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
3) The Snow Load ‘S’ shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load (pf) or the
sloped roof snow load (ps)
19
ASCE 7-05 - ASD

1) D + Co
2) D + Co + Lf + T
ASCE 7-05
3) D + Co + (Lr or S)
Section 2.4.1,
4) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.75 T
12.4.2.3
5) D + Co + W
6) D + Co + 0.75 W + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S)
7) 0.6 D + W
8) D + Co + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
9) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.525 Eh ± 0.525 Ev
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Special Seismic Load Combinations* (Stress Increase =1.2)
11) D + Co + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
12) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 (Lr or S) + 0.525 Emh ± 0.525 Ev
13) 0.6 D + 0.7 Emh ± 0.7 Ev
14) D + Co + Cr + T
15) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
16) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
17) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
18) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Note:-
1) The Snow Load ‘S’ shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load (pf) or
the sloped roof snow load (ps)
3) Stress increase as per section 12.4.3.3
20
IBC 2006 - LRFD

1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co Eqn. 16-1
2) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Lf + 0.5 ( Lr or S ) + 1.2 T Eqn. 16-2
IBC 2006
3) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 ( Lr or S ) + ( f1 Lf or 0.8 W ) Eqn. 16-3
Section
1605.2.1 4) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 W + f1 Lf + 0.5 ( Lr or S ) Eqn. 16-4
5) 0.9 D + 1.6 W Eqn. 16-6
6) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1 Lf + f2 S + Eh ± Ev Eqn. 16-5
7) 0.9 D + Eh ± Ev Eqn. 16-7
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + f1Lf + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-22
9) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-23
10) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + 1.2 T
11) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.6 Cr + ( f1 Lf or 0.8 W)
12) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 S + 1.2 Cr
13) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Cr + 0.8 W
14) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 Crv + Eh ± Ev
Note:-
3) f2 = 0.7 for saw tooth configuration roof.
4) f2 = 0.2 for other roof configurations.
21
IBC 2006 - ASD

1) D + Co Eqn. 16-8
2) D + Co + Lf + T Eqn. 16-9
IBC 2006
3) D + Co + ( Lr or S ) Eqn. 16-10
Section
1605.3.1 4) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 ( Lr or S ) + 0.75 T Eqn. 16-11
5) D + Co + W Eqn. 16-12
6) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 ( Lr or S ) + 0.75 W Eqn. 16-13
7) 0.6 D + W Eqn. 16-14
8) D + Co + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev Eqn. 16-12
9) D + Co + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 ( Lr or f2 S ) + 0.525 Eh ± 0.525 Ev Eqn. 16-13
10) 0.6 D + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev Eqn. 16-15
11) 1.2 D + Co + f1 Lf + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-22
12) 0.9 D + Emh ± Ev Eqn. 16-23
13) D + Co + Cr + T
14) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.75 Lf + 0.75 T
15) D + Co + 0.75 S + 0.75 Cr
16) D + Co + 0.75 Cr + 0.5 W
17) D + Co + 0.75 Crv + 0.7 Eh ± 0.7 Ev
Note:-
3) f2 = 0.0 if Roof Snow Load (pf) < 1.44 kN/m2
4) f2 = 0.2 if Roof Snow Load (pf) >= 1.44 kN/m2
6) Crane hook loads need not be combined with (Lr) Roof Live Load or with
more than (0.75 S) Snow Load or (0.5W) Wind Load (Foot note:- IBC 06 1605.3.1)
22
BS 5950 - LRFD
1) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co
2) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co + 1.6 (Lr or S) + 1.2 T
BS 5950-1
3) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co + 1.4 (Lr or S) + 1.4 Lf + 1.2 T
2000
Section 2.4 4) 1.0 D + 1.0 Co + 1.4 (W or E)
5) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 (Lr or S) + 1.2 Lf + 1.2 (W or E)
6) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co + 1.6 Crv + 1.2 T
7) 1.4 D + 1.4 Co + 1.4 Crv + 1.4 Crh
8) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.4 (Lr or S) + 1.4 Lf + 1.4 Crv
9) 1.2 D + 1.2 Co + 1.2 (Lr or S) + 1.2 Lf + 1.2 Crv + 1.2 Crh
10) 1.0 D + 1.0 Co + 1.2 Crv + 1.2 Crh + 1.2 (W or E)
23
10
Chapter
S E R V I C E A B I L I T Y
Serviceability
 Serviceability as defined in the AISC Specification as “a state in which the
function of a building, its appearance, mainRRtainability, durability, and comfort
of its occupancies are preserved under normal usage”. Although serviceability
AISC
Design Guide issues have always been a design consideration, changes in codes and materials
Series 3 have added importance to these matters.
 The MBMA 2002 / 2006 states that the customer or his or her agent must identify
for the metal building engineer any and all criteria so that the metal building can
be designed to be “suitable for its specific conditions of use and compatible with
other materials used in the metal building system”. Nevertheless it also points
out the requirement for the active involvement of the customer in the design
stage of a structure and the need for informed discussion of standards and levels
of building performance. Likewise the AISC code of standard practice states that
in those instances where the fabricator has both the responsibility, the owner
must provide the “performance criteria for the structural steel frame”.
ASCE 7-02 addresses the serviceability issues as follows: “Structural systems, and
members thereof, shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit
deflections, lateral drift, vibration, or any other deformations that adversely
affect the intended use and performance of buildings and other structures.”
Many of the design criteria in the AISC design guide series 3 “Serviceability
Design Considerations for Steel Buildings” are based on the authors own
judgment and rules of the thumb from their own experience. It should be noted
that when applicable design codes mandate specific deflection limits the code
requirements supersede the recommendations of the Design guide.
1
Ponding
ASCE 7-05 section 8.4 states that roofs with a slope of at least 0.25 : 12 (θ = 1.19°)
need not be investigated for ponding stability.
Standard Deflection Limitations
Unless specified in the Project Information Form, all deflection limitations

prescribed in this chapter shall govern.
All the standard allowable deflection limits are within the provisions of MBMA
2002 / 2006 and are applicable for general cases. For special case with the
approval of manager or supervisor deflection limits in MBMA 2002 / 2006 may
be considered if required.
The wind speed (3 Second Gust) that is to be considered for horizontal deflection
should be based upon 10 year mean recurrence interval and in the absence of
data for a 10 year wind speed map the listed limit values in the tables below for
horizontal sway, deflection due to wind only, can be approximated by
multiplying by an approximate reduction factor =0.70.
This assumption may be disregarded if customer has stated specific deflection

criteria.
Maximum deflection for any members vertical or horizontal should not exceed
200 mm for practical reasons.
2
Table 10.1 Standard Allowable Deflections (MBMA 2002)
Sr. Standard Allowable

Structural Members Load Case
No. Deflection
Rigid Frame and Endwall Rafters Vertical Deflection
1 With fully sheeted walls
2 With blockwall and sheeting of equal heights
Span / 180* L or S or W
3 With full height blockwall
& &
4 With glazing & sheeting of equal heights
Span / 120 D + (L or S)
5 With full height glazing
6 With pendant operated crane
* - Denotes ‘Span / 200’ as per BS 5950-1:2000
Rigid Frame and Portal Frame Sway (Horizontal)
1 With fully sheeted walls EH / 50
2 With blockwall and sheeting of equal heights EH / 75
3 With full height blockwall or precast walls EH / 100
4 With glazing & sheeting of equal heights EH / 150 W or E or Cr
5 With full height glazing EH / 240
6 With pendant operated crane CBH / 100
7 Special Cranes, Service Class E & F category CBH / 240 <= 50 mm
8 Special Residential Buildings (JAFZA, DM) EH / 500* W or E
* - Denotes ‘EH / 300’ as per BS 5950-1:2000
Mezzanine, Jack Beams, Panels & Purlins, Grating, Chequered Plates
Beams & Joists Span / 240 (D + L) or (D + W)
1
Of Mezzanine, Roof Platform, walkway etc. Span / 360 L or S or W
Span / 240 (D + L) or (D + W)
2 Jack Beams
Span / 360 L or W
3 Roof Panel Span / 60 Total
Span / 150 L or S
4 Roof Purlins Span / 180 W
Span / 120 D+L
5 Grating, Chequered Plates Span / 150 D+L
Wall Panels & Girts, Wind Columns, Horizontal Beams

1 Wall Panels Span / 60 Total
2 Wall Girts with Metal Sheeting Span / 90
3 Wind Columns W
Span / 120
4 Blockwall Supporting lateral beams, etc
For cantilevers ‘L’ shall be taken as twice the length of cantilever
Legend
EH – Denotes Eave Height S – Denotes Snow Load
CBH – Denotes Crane Beam Height W – Denotes Wind Load
D – Denotes Dead Load E – Seismic Load
L – Denotes Live Load Cr – Crane Load
3
Table 10.2 Standard Allowable Deflections
Sr.
Structural Members Vertical Deflection Horizontal Deflection
No.
Top Running Crane Beams
1 CMAA Service Class A, B and C Span / 600
Span / 400*
2 CMAA Service Class D Span / 800
3 CMAA Service Class E & F Span / 1000 Span / 600
* - Denotes ‘Span / 500’ as per BS 5950-1:2000
Underhung & Monorail Beams
1 CMAA Service Class A, B and C Span / 450 Span / 400
2 CMAA Service Class D, E & F Check with Customer/ Consultant / End User
Relative Deflection of adjacent rafter with
3 Bay Spacing / 225 -
Underhung, Monorail Cranes
Jib Cranes
Jib Crane Boom Span / 225 -
Table 1.3.1(b) from MBMA 2006 is reproduced below for reference, and is
same as Table 1.1(b) in MBMA 2002
4
5
11
Chapter
M A T E R I A L S P E C I F I C A T I O N S
Material Specifications
Some of the more common materials frequently used in a Metal Building
System comprise of Built-up sections made from hot rolled plates, or hot-
rolled sections used at specific locations like fascia post, end wall columns &
rafters, crane beam etc. Then there are cold-formed sections, like purlins, girt
and roof & wall panels, connection bolts, fasteners etc.
Unless specified in customer specification or the Project Information Form, all

materials that are used as primary & secondary components of a metal
building shall comply as the table 11.1 below as a standard practice.
For special materails requirement in any job, prior information should be

conveyed to the supervisor or manager and purchasing.
Table 11.1 Material Specification (Click on the link below)
Material Specification.xls
1
M A T E R I A L S P E C I F I C A T I O N S
Table 11.2 Comparison of Structural Grades
BS EN 10025 : 1993 BS 4360 : 1986 DIN 17100 ASTM / SAE

Tensile Yield Tensile Yield Tensile Yield Tensile Yield
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Sr. No. Grade N/mm N/mm Grade N/mm N/mm Grade N/mm N/mm Grade N/mm N/mm
1 S185 290-510 185 - - - St 33 290-510 185 - - -
2 - - - - - - - - - SA 516 Gr. 50 414 221
3 S235 340-470 235 40A 340-500 235 St 37-1 340-470 235 - - -
4 S235JR 340-470 235 - - - St 37-2 340-470 235 - - -
5 S235JRG1 340-470 235 - - - USt 37-2 340-470 235 - - -
6 S235JRG2 340-470 235 40B 340-500 235 RSt 37-2 340-470 235 - - -
7 S235JO 340-470 235 40C 340-500 235 St 37-3U - - - - -
8 S235J2G3 340-470 235 40D 340-500 235 St 37-3N - - - - -
9 S235J2G4 340-470 235 40D 340-500 235 - - -
10 - - - - - - - - - A36 400 248
11 - - - - - - - - - SA 516 Gr. 70 483 262
12 S275 410-560 275 43A 430-580 275 - - - - - -
13 S275JR 410-560 275 43B 430-580 275 St 44-2 410-540 275 - - -
14 S275JO 410-560 275 43C 430-580 275 St 44-3U - - - - -
15 S275J2G3 410-560 275 43D 430-580 275 St 44-3N - - - - -
16 S275J2G4 410-560 275 43D 430-580 275 - - - - - -
17 - - - - - - - - - A572 Gr. 42 415 290
18 E295 470-510 295 - - - St 50-2 470-610 295 - - -
19 E335 570-710 335 - - - St 60-2 570-710 335 - - -
20 - - - - - - - - - A572 Gr. 50 450 345
21 S355 490-630 355 50A 490-640 355 St 52-3 490-630 355 - - -
22 S355JR 490-630 355 50B 490-640 355 - - - - - -
23 S355JO 490-630 355 50C 490-640 355 St 52-3U - - - - -
24 S355J2G3 490-630 355 50D 490-640 355 St 52-3N - - - - -
25 S355J2G4 490-630 355 50D 490-640 355 - - - - - -
26 S355K2G3 490-630 355 50DD 490-640 355 - - - - - -
27 S355K2G4 490-630 355 50DD 490-640 355 - - - - - -
28 - - - - - - St 70-2 670-830 365 - - -
29 E360 670-830 360 - - - - - - A572 Gr. 60 520 415
30 - - - - - - - - - A572 Gr. 65 550 450
2
12
Chapter
B O L T S A N D F A S T E N E R S
Bolts and Fasteners

Mainly there are 4 types of connection typically used in a metal building as
described below,
 1.
2.
3.
Anchor Bolts / Rods
Primary Connections
Secondary Connections
AISC 2005

4. Sheeting Screws, fasteners and pop rivets
This section will briefly describe the allowable stress / load calculation as per
AISC 2005 LRFD and ASD specification for steel design.
Anchor Bolts / Rods
Anchor bolts are more commonly called Anchor Rods as per AISC and ASTM
F1554 for the sake of consistency with the codes the same terminology is
adopted in this manual. Standard stock anchor rods are grade A36 or 4.6, the
yield strength F y and specified tensile strength F u for both are same. The
standard stock diameters and other dimensions are as listed in Table 12.1
below.
Some customers may request non-stock material such as Grade 8.8 or A325,
such variations should be clearly mentioned in the PIF and all concerned
should be informed in advance of release of anchor rod BOM. As far as design
is concerned appropriate F y and F u values should be used in the equations for
different grade of anchor rod. In the subsequent calculations and examples all
grade of anchor rod is assumed A36 / Gr. 4.6 and concrete is M25 mix. All
anchor rods in stock are hooked type. The calculation for pull out strength of
headed anchor rods is for information only, until it is adopted as a standard
stock item.
1
Anchor Rod
Table 12.1
Embedment
Diameter T E L X Lp Gross Area
Wt. (kgs) Length
(mm) (d) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (cm2) (Ag)
(mm) (Le)
16 100 275 375 120 75 0.86 420 2.01
20 150 300 450 175 100 1.69 525 3.14
24 150 375 525 205 100 3.07 630 4.52
30 200 550 750 265 125 6.13 890 7.07
36 200 850 1050 295 150 11.64 1195 10.18
Considering Considering
Max. Max. Maximum Tension Maximum Shear
Sr. Bond Pull Out
Dia. Axial Allowab
No Stress (Bond)
(mm) Tension le Shear Allow. Allow. Allow. Allow.
. (kN/cm2) (kN)
(kN) (kN) Tension Shear Tension Shear
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
(d) (T) (Vm) (Ta) (Va) (Ta) (Va) (u) (Tb)
1 16 26.54 13.67 26.54 4.47 9.97 13.67 0.138 29.13
2 20 41.47 21.36 41.47 6.98 15.58 21.36 0.126 41.73
3 24 59.72 30.76 59.72 10.05 22.44 30.76 0.105 50.07
4 30 93.31 48.07 93.31 15.71 35.06 48.07 0.084 70.73
5 36 134.36 69.22 134.36 22.62 50.49 69.22 0.070 94.97
2
Example
Example :- 12.1 Calculation of above tabulated values
Given Data:-
Grade of Anchor Rod = Grade 4.6 or A36
Grade of Concrete = M25
1. Allowable Stresses
a. Anchor Rod
Yield Stress Fy = 248 N/mm2
Tensile Strength Fu = 400 N/mm2
Table J3.2 AISC 05 Tensile Stress F nt = 0.75 F u = 300 N/mm2
Shear Stress F nv = 0.40 F u = 160 N/mm2
b. Concrete
Characteristic Compressive Strength fc’ for M25 concrete = 25 N/mm2
Allowable bond stress = [ 0.506 sqrt (fc’) ] / d <= 1.38 N/mm2
Where, d is the rod diameter in mm
Table 12.2
Rod Diameter Bond Stress 'u' u = 1.38,
mm N/mm2 if u > 1.38
16 1.580 1.380
20 1.265 1.265
24 1.054 1.054
30 0.843 0.843
36 0.703 0.703
3
2. Tensile Strength of Rod

Rn = Area of rod x Allowable Tensile Stress
Eqn. J3-1 Rn = Φ F nt x A b LRFD Φ = 0.75
Rn = Ω F nt x A b ASD Ω = 2.00
Table 12.3
Rod Diameter Area A b Maximum Tension kN
mm mm2 LRFD ASD
16 201.06 45.24 30.16
20 314.16 70.69 47.12
24 452.39 101.79 67.86
30 706.86 159.04 106.03
36 1017.88 229.02 152.68
3. Shear Strength of Rod

Rn = Area of rod x Allowable Shear Stress
Rn = Φ F nv x A b LRFD Φ = 0.75
Eqn. J3-1
Rn = Ω F nv x A b ASD Ω = 2.00
Table 12.4
Rod Diameter Area A b Tensile Strength kN
mm mm2 LRFD ASD
16 201.06 24.13 16.08
20 314.16 37.70 25.13
24 452.39 54.29 36.19
30 706.86 84.82 56.55
36 1017.88 122.15 81.43
The values in Table 12.1 are calculated based on AISC 89, where as the above
values are calculated as per AISC 2005, hence the difference.
4
4. Combined Shear & Tension

Eqn. J3-2
Rn = Φ F nt ’ x Ab LRFD Φ =
0.75
Rn = Ω F nt ’x A b ASD Ω = 2.00
Where F nt ’ is the allowable tensile stress with applied shear (Say = 15 kN)
Eqn. J3-3a F nt ’ = 1.3 F nt – f v (F nt / Φ F nv ) <= F nt LRFD Φ = 0.75

Eqn. J3-3b F nt ’ = 1.3 F nt – f v (Ω F nt / F nv ) <= F nt ASD Ω = 2.00
Table 12.5
Rod Diameter Area A b Shear Stress fv F nt ' <= 300 N/mm 2
mm mm2 N/mm2 LRFD ASD
16 201.06 74.60 203.49 110.24
20 314.16 47.74 270.63 210.95
24 452.39 33.15 307.11 265.66
30 706.86 21.22 336.95 310.42
36 1017.88 14.73 353.16 334.74
Note:- Above value is applicable for a shear force of 15 kN only
5. Pull Out (Hooked Anchor Rod)

Rn = Surface Area of rod x Allowable Bond Stress x Embedment Length
Rn = p x db x u x Le LRFD Φ = 1.50
Rn = p x db x u x Le ASD Ω = 1.00
Table 12.6
Rod Diameter Surface Area Bond Stress 'u' Em. Length Le Pull Out Strength kN
mm mm2 N/mm2 mm LRFD ASD
16 50.27 1.380 420 43.70 29.13
20 62.83 1.265 525 62.59 41.73
24 75.40 1.054 630 75.11 50.07
30 94.25 0.843 890 106.10 70.73
36 113.10 0.703 1195 142.46 94.97
5
6. Pull Out (Hooked Anchor Rod)

As per AISC Design Guide Series # 1 second edition, hooked anchor Rods are
generally not recommended but for small uplift loads. Reference is made to
Appendix D of ACI 318-02, which provides an equation for hooked anchor Rods
as follows,
= Φ Y 4 (0.90 f c ’ e h d o ) LRFD Φ = 0.70
= Y 4 (0.90 f c ’ e h d o ) / Ω ASD Ω =
2.15
Where,
Y4 = 1.00 if the anchor Rod is located in cracked portion of concrete,
otherwise = 1.40 (Take 1.00 conservatively)
eh = length of hook extension including radius = X mm
do = diameter of anchor Rod in mm
fc’ = characteristic compressive strength of concrete in N/mm2
Table 12.7
Rod Diameter Dim X = eh Pull Out Strength kN
mm mm LRFD ASD
16 120 30.24 20.09
20 175 55.13 36.63
24 205 77.49 51.49
30 265 125.21 83.20
36 295 167.27 111.14
7. Pull Out (Straight Anchor Rod)

Appendix D of ACI 318-02 addresses the anchoring to concrete of cast-in or post-
installed expansion or undercut anchors. The provisions include limit states for
concrete pull out, and breakout strength [concrete capacity design (CCD)
method]
6
Concrete Pullout Strength Method
ACI concrete pull out strength is based on the ACI appendix D provisions
(Section D5.3):
N p = Φ 0.70 Y 4 A brg 8 f c ’ LRFD Φ = 0.75

N p = 0.70 Y 4 A brg 8 f c ’ / Ω ASD Ω = 2.00
Where,
Np = is the nominal pull out strength
Y4 = 1.00 if the anchor Rod is located in cracked portion of concrete,
otherwise = 1.40 (Take 1.00 conservatively)
A brg = bearing area of anchor rod head or nut
fc’ = concrete strength = 25 N/mm2
Table 12.8
Nut Bearing
Diameter T E L Lp
Area
mm mm mm mm mm mm2
16 100 275 375 75 380
20 150 300 450 100 615
24 150 375 525 100 900
30 200 550 750 125 1520
36 200 850 1050 150 2120
Table 12.9
Diameter Nut Bearing Area Pull Out Strength kN
mm mm2 LRFD ASD

16 380 57.00 38.00
20 615 92.25 61.50
24 900 135.00 90.00
30 1520 228.00 152.00
36 2120 318.00 212.00
Appendix D of ACI 318-02 also lists criteria for anchor rods to prevent “failure
due to lateral bursting forces at the anchor head”. These lateral bursting forces
are associated with tension in the anchor rods. The failure plane or surface in this
case is assumed to be cone shaped and radiating from the anchor head to the
adjacent free edge or side of the concrete element.
7
Hence it is recommended to use a minimum side cover (C 1 ) of six times the

anchor rod diameter to avoid the side face breakout. As with the pull out stress
cones, overlapping of the stress cones as associated with these lateral bursting
forces is considered in Appendix D of ACI 318-02. Use of washer plates can be
beneficial by increasing the bearing area, which increases the side-face blow out
strength.
Minimum C 1 = 6 d b
Where, db = diameter of anchor rod in mm.
Note:- For use headed anchor rods on concrete pedestal column or thin slabs,
the size of concrete column or slab thickness should be know, in order to
determine the breakout cone overlap and failure conditions. See AISC design
guide series # 1 for more details.
8
Primary Connection Bolts

The primary connection bolts include the bolts used for connecting the main
frame members such as rafter, columns, mezzanine beams and joist, jack
beams, strut tube and also including the bolts used for connecting the cold
formed members, such as purlins, girts, eave struts, framed opening jambs &
headers. The available standard stock as are grade 8.8 and diameter as listed in
table 12.10. The procedure for different grades remains the same except for F y
and F u values.
Table 12.10 High Strength Bolts
Gross Area Single Shear Double Shear

Diameter (d) Tension (kN)
(mm2) (kN) (kN)
(mm) R nt
Ab R nv 2 Rn
12 113.10 18.10 36.19 33.93
16 201.06 32.17 64.34 60.32
20 314.16 50.27 100.53 94.25
24 452.39 72.38 144.76 135.72
27 572.56 91.61 183.22 171.77
30 706.86 113.10 226.19 212.06
33 855.30 136.85 273.70 256.59
36 1017.88 162.86 325.72 305.36
All standard stock bolts are fully threaded and hence the shear values for
‘threads in shear plane’ should be considered in design.
9
Example
Example :- 12.2 Calculation of above tabulated values
Given Data:-
Grade of Connection Bolt = Grade 8.8
1. Allowable Stresses
Yield Stress Fy = 248 N/mm2

Tensile Strength Fu = 400 N/mm2
Table J3.2 AISC 05 Tensile Stress F nt = 0.75 F u = 300 N/mm2
Shear Stress F nv = 0.40 F u = 160 N/mm2
Note:- For A307, A325, A490 bolts refer values for F nt and F nv directly from Table
J3.2 AISC 05, as given in table below
Table 12.11
Fu F nt F nv
Bolt Grade
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
A36 400 300 160
A307 413 310 165
A325 826 620 330
A490 1040 780 414
Grade 8.8 800 600 320
Grade 10.9 1040 780 416
10
2. Tensile Strength
Rn = Area of bolt x Allowable Tensile Stress

Eqn. J3-1 Rn = Φ F nt x A b LRFD Φ = 0.75
Rn = Ω F nt x A b ASD Ω = 2.00
Table 12.12
Allowable Tension in kN (LRFD)

F nt Bolt Diameter (mm)
Bolt Grade
N/mm2 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
Area Ab (mm2) 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 572.56 706.86 855.30 1017.88
A36 300 25.45 45.24 70.69 101.79 128.82 159.04 192.44 229.02
A307 310 26.27 46.71 72.98 105.10 133.01 164.21 198.70 236.47
A325 620 52.55 93.42 145.97 210.19 266.02 328.42 397.39 472.93
A490 780 66.16 117.62 183.78 264.65 334.94 413.51 500.35 595.46
Grade 8.8 600 50.89 90.48 141.37 203.58 257.65 318.09 384.88 458.04
Grade 10.9 780 66.16 117.62 183.78 264.65 334.94 413.51 500.35 595.46
Allowable Tension in kN (ASD)

Bolt Grade
N/mm2 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
Area Ab (mm2) 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 572.56 706.86 855.30 1017.88
A36 300 16.96 30.16 47.12 67.86 85.88 106.03 128.29 152.68
A307 310 17.52 31.14 48.66 70.06 88.67 109.47 132.46 157.64
A325 620 35.03 62.28 97.31 140.13 177.35 218.95 264.93 315.29
A490 780 44.11 78.41 122.52 176.43 223.30 275.67 333.57 396.97
Grade 8.8 600 33.93 60.32 94.25 135.72 171.77 212.06 256.59 305.36
Grade 10.9 780 44.11 78.41 122.52 176.43 223.30 275.67 333.57 396.97
11
3. Shear Strength
Rn = Area of Bolt x Allowable Shear Stress
Rn = Φ F nv x A b LRFD Φ = 0.75
Eqn. J3-1
Rn = Ω F nv x A b ASD Ω = 2.00
Table 12.13
Allowable Shear in kN (LRFD)

F nv Bolt Diameter (mm)
Bolt Grade
N/mm2 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
Area Ab (mm2) 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 572.56 706.86 855.30 1017.88
A36 160 13.57 24.13 37.70 54.29 68.71 84.82 102.64 122.15
A307 165 14.01 24.91 38.92 56.05 70.94 87.58 105.97 126.11
A325 330 28.03 49.82 77.85 112.10 141.88 175.16 211.94 252.23
A490 414 35.12 62.43 97.55 140.47 177.78 219.48 265.57 316.05
Grade 8.8 320 27.14 48.25 75.40 108.57 137.41 169.65 205.27 244.29
Grade 10.9 416 35.29 62.73 98.02 141.15 178.64 220.54 266.85 317.58
Allowable Shear in kN (ASD)

Bolt Grade
N/mm2 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
Area Ab (mm2) 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 572.56 706.86 855.30 1017.88
A36 160 9.05 16.08 25.13 36.19 45.80 56.55 68.42 81.43
A307 165 9.34 16.61 25.95 37.37 47.29 58.39 70.65 84.08
A325 330 18.68 33.22 51.90 74.73 94.59 116.77 141.30 168.15
A490 414 23.41 41.62 65.03 93.64 118.52 146.32 177.05 210.70
Grade 8.8 320 18.10 32.17 50.27 72.38 91.61 113.10 136.85 162.86
Grade 10.9 416 23.52 41.82 65.35 94.10 119.09 147.03 177.90 211.72
Note:- For Double Shear simply multiply the values in table 12.13 above by 2
12
4. Combined Shear & Tension

Eqn. J3-2
Rn = Φ F nt ’ x Ab LRFD Φ =
0.75
Rn = Ω F nt ’x A b ASD Ω = 2.00
Where F nt ’ is the allowable tensile stress with applied shear
Eqn. J3-3a F nt ’ = 1.3 F nt – f v (F nt / Φ F nv ) <= F nt LRFD Φ = 0.75

Eqn. J3-3b F nt ’ = 1.3 F nt – f v (Ω F nt / F nv ) <= F nt ASD Ω = 2.00
Considering Grade 8.8 bolt only,

F nt = 600 N/mm2
F nv = 320 N/mm2
Say the calculated shear force = 45 kN
Bolt diameter = 30 mm
Area of Bolt = 706.86 mm2
Therefore,
Calculated shear stress fv = Shear Force / Area of Bolt
= 45 x 1000 / 706.86 = 63.66 N/mm2
F nt ’ = 1.3 x 600 – 63.66 (600/0.75 x 320) LRFD
= 620.85 > 600 N/mm2 = 600.0 N/mm2
Therefore, Tensile Capacity = 0.75 x 600 x 706.86 / 1000 = 318.0 kN
F nt ’ = 1.3 x 600 – 63.66 (2 x 600/320) ASD

= 541.27 < 600 N/mm 2 = 541.3 N/mm2
Therefore, Tensile Capacity = 541.3 x 706.86 / 2000 = 191.3 kN
If we consider A325 bolts

F nt = 620 N/mm2
F nv = 330 N/mm2
Calculated shear stress fv = Shear Force / Area of Bolt
= 45 x 1000 / 706.86 = 63.66 N/mm2
F nt ’ = 1.3 x 620 – 63.66 (620/0.75 x 330) LRFD
= 646.53 > 620 N/mm2 = 620.0 N/mm2
Therefore, Tensile Capacity = 0.75 x 620 x 706.86/1000 = 328.7 kN
F nt ’ = 1.3 x 620 – 63.66 (2 x 620/330) ASD

= 566.79 < 620 N/mm2 = 566.8 N/mm2
Therefore, Tensile Capacity = 620 x 706.86/2000 = 219.1 kN
Note:-
1) The value of F nt ’ should not exceed F nt
2) If the value of F nt ’ is negative, bolts are probably insufficient in shear
13
Allowable shear for a given tension may also be back calculated using the
equation,
f v = (1.3 F nt – f t ) / (F nt / Φ F nv ) <= f nv LRFD Φ = 0.75

f v = (1.3 F nt – f t ) / (Ω F nt / F nv ) <= f nv ASD Ω = 2.00
Using grade 8.8 bolt again,

F nt = 600 N/mm2
F nv = 320 N/mm2
Say the calculated tension = 165 kN

Bolt diameter = 30 mm
Area of Bolt = 706.86 mm2
Therefore,
Calculated tensile stress f t = Tensile Force / Area of Bolt
= 165 x 1000 / 706.86 = 233.43 N/mm2
LRFD fv = (1.3 x 600 – 233.43) / [600 / (0.75 x 320)]
= 218.63 < 320 = 218.63 N/mm2
Therefore shear capacity = 0.75 x 218.63 x 706.86 / 1000 = 115.9 kN
ASD fv = (1.3 x 600 – 233.43) / [600 x 2 / 320]

= 145.75 < 320 = 145.75 N/mm2
Therefore shear capacity = 145.75 x 706.86 / 2000 = 51.51 kN
Now the capacity of bolts in shear can also be calculated for full tension capacity,
in other words how much shear can a bolt take along with full tension? Say for
grade 8.8 bolt
F nt = 600 N/mm2
F nv = 320 N/mm2
LRFD
fv = (1.3 x 600 – 600) / [600 / (0.75 x 320)]
= 72.0 < 320 = 72.0 N/mm2
Therefore shear capacity = 0.75 x 72.0 x 706.86 / 1000 = 38.16 kN
ASD
fv = (1.3 x 600 – 600) / [600 x 2 / 320]
= 48 < 320 = 48.0 N/mm2
Therefore shear capacity = 48.0 x 706.86 / 2000 = 16.96 kN
The values of allowable shear with full tension are as tabulated in table 12.14
14
Table 12.14
Allowable Shear with Full Tension in kN (LRFD)

F nt F nv Bolt Diameter (mm)
Bolt Grade
N/mm2 N/mm2 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
Area Ab (mm2) 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 572.56 706.86 855.30 1017.88
A36 300 160 3.05 5.43 8.48 12.21 15.46 19.09 23.09 27.48
A307 310 165 3.15 5.61 8.76 12.61 15.96 19.71 23.84 28.38
A325 620 330 6.31 11.21 17.52 25.22 31.92 39.41 47.69 56.75
A490 780 414 7.90 14.05 21.95 31.61 40.00 49.38 59.75 71.11
Grade 8.8 600 320 6.11 10.86 16.96 24.43 30.92 38.17 46.19 54.97
Grade 10.9 780 416 7.94 14.11 22.05 31.76 40.19 49.62 60.04 71.45
Allowable Shear with Full Tension in kN (ASD)

F nt F nv Bolt Diameter (mm)
Bolt Grade
N/mm2 N/mm2 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
Area Ab (mm2) 113.10 201.06 314.16 452.39 572.56 706.86 855.30 1017.88
A36 300 160 1.36 2.41 3.77 5.43 6.87 8.48 10.26 12.21
A307 310 165 1.40 2.49 3.89 5.61 7.09 8.76 10.60 12.61
A325 620 330 2.80 4.98 7.78 11.21 14.19 17.52 21.19 25.22
A490 780 414 3.51 6.24 9.75 14.05 17.78 21.95 26.56 31.61
Grade 8.8 600 320 2.71 4.83 7.54 10.86 13.74 16.96 20.53 24.43
Grade 10.9 780 416 3.53 6.27 9.80 14.11 17.86 22.05 26.69 31.76
15
5. Bearing Strength
a) For a bolt in a connection with standard, oversized, and short slotted

holes, independent of the direction of loading, or a long slotted hole
with the slot parallel to the direction of the bearing force.
i. When deformation of the hole at service load is a design

consideration.
Rn = Φ 1.2 L c t F u <= Φ 2.4 d t F u LRFD Φ = 0.75

Eqn. J3-6a Rn = 1.2 L c t F u / Ω <= Φ 2.4 d t F u / Ω ASD Ω = 2.00
ii. When deformation of the hole at service load is not a design

consideration.

Eqn. J3-6b Rn = 1.5 L c t F u / Ω <= Φ 3.0 d t F u / Ω ASD Ω = 2.00
STANDARD OR SHORT
SLOTTED HOLE LONG
SLOTTED
HOLE
P P P P
Lc
Lc Lc
16
b) For a bolt in a connection with long slotted hole with the slots
perpendicular to the direction of the bearing force.

Eqn. J3-6c
Rn = 1.0 L c t F u / Ω <= Φ 2.0 d t F u / Ω ASD Ω = 2.00
Where,
d = the bolt diameter in mm

Fu = the specified minimum tensile strength of plate or bolt material which
ever is lower N/mm2
Lc = is the clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of
the hole and the edge of adjacent hole, or the edge of material in mm. (See
sketch for illustration)
LONG
SLOTTED
HOLE
P P
Lc
Conservatively equations J3-6a is used for all standard and oversized holes and
is tabulated below in Table 12.15, if the specified minimum edge distance and
pitch are maintained the equation L c will generally not govern.
Note that unless low strength bolts are used (A36 and A307), the capacity is
independent of the bolt grade. That means, the tabulated values are applicable
for all grades of bolts with F u >= 450 N/mm2 (A325, A490, Gr. 8.8 & 10.9)
17
Table 12.15
Plate Bearing Strength in kN (LRFD) F u = 450 N/mm2

Thickness Bolt Diameter (mm)
mm 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
1.5 7.29 9.72 12.15 14.58 16.40 18.23 20.05 21.87
1.8 8.75 11.66 14.58 17.50 19.68 21.87 24.06 26.24
2.0 9.72 12.96 16.20 19.44 21.87 24.30 26.73 29.16
2.5 12.15 16.20 20.25 24.30 27.34 30.38 33.41 36.45
3 14.58 19.44 24.30 29.16 32.81 36.45 40.10 43.74
4 19.44 25.92 32.40 38.88 43.74 48.60 53.46 58.32
5 24.30 32.40 40.50 48.60 54.68 60.75 66.83 72.90
6 29.16 38.88 48.60 58.32 65.61 72.90 80.19 87.48
8 38.88 51.84 64.80 77.76 87.48 97.20 106.92 116.64
10 48.60 64.80 81.00 97.20 109.35 121.50 133.65 145.80
12 58.32 77.76 97.20 116.64 131.22 145.80 160.38 174.96
15 72.90 97.20 121.50 145.80 164.03 182.25 200.48 218.70
20 97.20 129.60 162.00 194.40 218.70 243.00 267.30 291.60
25 121.50 162.00 202.50 243.00 273.38 303.75 334.13 364.50
30 145.80 194.40 243.00 291.60 328.05 364.50 400.95 437.40
40 194.40 259.20 324.00 388.80 437.40 486.00 534.60 583.20
50 243.00 324.00 405.00 486.00 546.75 607.50 668.25 729.00
Plate Bearing Strength in kN (ASD) F u = 450 N/mm2
Thickness Bolt Diameter (mm)
mm 12 16 20 24 27 30 33 36
1.5 4.86 6.48 8.10 9.72 10.94 12.15 13.37 14.58
1.8 5.83 7.78 9.72 11.66 13.12 14.58 16.04 17.50
2.0 6.48 8.64 10.80 12.96 14.58 16.20 17.82 19.44
2.5 8.10 10.80 13.50 16.20 18.23 20.25 22.28 24.30
3 9.72 12.96 16.20 19.44 21.87 24.30 26.73 29.16
4 12.96 17.28 21.60 25.92 29.16 32.40 35.64 38.88
5 16.20 21.60 27.00 32.40 36.45 40.50 44.55 48.60
6 19.44 25.92 32.40 38.88 43.74 48.60 53.46 58.32
8 25.92 34.56 43.20 51.84 58.32 64.80 71.28 77.76
10 32.40 43.20 54.00 64.80 72.90 81.00 89.10 97.20
12 38.88 51.84 64.80 77.76 87.48 97.20 106.92 116.64
15 48.60 64.80 81.00 97.20 109.35 121.50 133.65 145.80
20 64.80 86.40 108.00 129.60 145.80 162.00 178.20 194.40
25 81.00 108.00 135.00 162.00 182.25 202.50 222.75 243.00
30 97.20 129.60 162.00 194.40 218.70 243.00 267.30 291.60
40 129.60 172.80 216.00 259.20 291.60 324.00 356.40 388.80
50 162.00 216.00 270.00 324.00 364.50 405.00 445.50 486.00
Note: - Due consideration should be given to edge distance ‘L c ’ before

referring the table above.
18
13
Chapter
W E L D S
Welds
This section provides some information on the weld design as per the latest
AISC 2005 structural steel specification.
 The provisions of AWS D1.1 apply to all specifications on weld in AISC 2005,
with some exceptions as listed in the table below,
AISC 2005

Table 13.1
AISC 2005 AWS D1.1
Section J1.6 Section 5.17.1
Section J2.2a Section 2.3.2
Table J2.2 Table 2.1
Table J2.5 Table 2.3
Appendix 3 Table A-3.1 Table 2.4
Section B3.9 & Appendix 3 Section 2 Part C
Section M2.2 Section 5.15.4.3 & 5.15.4.3
1. Groove Welds
Effective Area: - The effective area of groove welds shall be considered as the
length of the weld times the effective throat thickness t eff .
i. For a CJP (Complete Joint Penetration) Weld, the effective

throat thickness,
t eff = thickness of thinner part joined
ii. For a PJP (Partial Joint Penetration) Weld, the effective

throat thickness is as per table J2.1
iii. For a flare groove welds the effective throat thickness is as

per table J2.2
1
W E L D S
Table 13.2 (AISC 2005 Table J2.1)

Effective Throat of Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
Welding Groove Type

Welding Process Effective Throat
Position (AWS D1.1 Figure 3.3)
Shielded Metal Arc SMAW All

J or U Groove
Gas Metal Arc GMAW
All 60° V
Flux Cored Arc FCAW Depth of Groove
J or U Groove
Submerged Arc SAW F
60° Bevel or V
Gas Metal Arc GMAW
F, H 45° Bevel Depth of Groove
Flux Cored Arc FCAW
Depth of Groove
Shielded Metal Arc SMAW All 45° Bevel
Minus 3 mm
Gas Metal Arc GMAW
Depth of Groove
V, OH 45° Bevel
Flux Cored Arc FCAW Minus 3 mm
Welding Positions F – Flat H – Horizontal V – Vertical OH- Overhead

Effective Weld Sizes of Flare Groove Welds
Welding Process Flare Bevel Groove[a] Flare V Groove
GMAW and FCAW-G 15.8 R 19 R

SMAW and FCAW-S 8R 15.8 R
SAW 8R 12.7 R
[a] For Flare Bevel Groove with R < 10 mm use only reinforcing fillet weld on filled flush joint. General Note;
R = radius of joint surface (can be assumed to be 2t for HSS), (mm)

Minimum Effective Throat Thickness of Partial Penetration Groove Welds
Material Thickness of Thinner Part Joined, Minimum Effective Throat Thickness, [a]
(mm) (mm)
To (6) inclusive 3
Over (6) to (13) 5
Over (13) to (19) 6
Over (19) to (38) 8
Over (38) to (57) 10
Over (57) to (150) 13
Over (150) 16
[a] See Table J2.1
2
W E L D S
2. Fillet Welds
Effective Area: - The effective area of a fillet welds shall be considered as the
effective length multiplied by the effective throat. The effective throat of a fillet
weld shall be the shortest distance from the root to the face of the diagrammatic
weld. An increase in the effective throat weld is permitted if consistent penetration
can be demonstrated by tests using the production process and procedure
available. For fillet welds in holes and slots the effective length shall be the length
of centerline of the weld along the center of the plane through the throat.
In the case of overlapping fillets, the effective area shall not exceed the nominal
cross-sectional area of the hole or slot, in the plane of the faying surface.
The minimum size of fillet welds shall be not less than the size required to transmit
the calculated forces, nor the size as shown in Table J2.4. These do not apply to
fillet weld reinforcements of PJP or CJP groove welds.

Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
Material Thickness of
Minimum Effective Throat Thickness, [a] (mm)
Thinner Part Joined, (mm)
To (6) inclusive 3
Over (6) to (13) 5
Over (13) to (19) 6
Over (19) 8
[a] Leg dimension of fillet welds. Single pass welds must be used.
Note: See Section J2.2b for maximum size of fillet welds.
Maximum size of fillet weld

a) For thickness of material ‘tp’ < 6 mm = tp mm
b) For thickness of material ‘tp’ >= 6 mm = ( tp – 2 ) mm
c) Minimum Length of weld ‘Lw’ >= 4 x Nominal Size of weld
3
W E L D S
a) If longitudinal fillet welds are used alone in end connections of flat-bar tension
members, the length of each fillet weld shall be not less than the perpendicular
distance between the welds. (See figure below)
Minimum
Lw >= d
FLAT BAR
d P
WELDS
b) For end loaded fillet welds with a length up to 100 times the leg dimension, it
is permitted to take the effective length equal to the actual length. When the
length of the end loaded fillet weld exceeds 100 times the weld size, the
effective length shall be determined by multiplying the actual length by the
reduction factor β. (See figure above for length of weld)
a. For 100 <= L w < 300
β = 1.2 – 0.002 (L w / w) <= 1.00
b. For L w > 300
β = 0.60
Where,
Lw – is the length of weld in mm
w – is the weld leg size in mm
c) Intermittent fillet welds are permitted to be used to transfer calculated stress

across a joint or faying surfaces when the required strength is less than that
developed by a continuous fillet weld of the smallest permitted size, and to
join components of built up members. The effective length of any segment of
intermittent fillet weld shall not be less than four times the weld size, with a
minimum of 38 mm.
L wint >= 4 S w or 38 mm whichever is greater
Where,
L wint – is the length of intermittent weld in mm
Sw - Size of weld in mm
4
W E L D S
5
W E L D S
d) In lap joints, the minimum amount of lap shall be 5 times the thickness of
thinner part joined, but not less than 25 mm.
L wlap >= 5 t p or 25 mm whichever is greater

Where,
L wlap – Length of lap weld in mm
tp - thickness of thinner part in mm
3. Plug and Slot welds

Effective Area: - The effective shearing area of plug and slot welds shall be
considered as the nominal cross section area of the hole or slot in the plane of
the faying surface.
Plug and slot welds are permitted to be used,

a. to transmit shear in lap joints
b. or to prevent buckling of lapped parts
c. and to join components of built-up parts
The diameter of holes for a plug weld shall not be less than the thickness of the
part containing the hole + 8 mm, nor greater than the minimum diameter + (3 mm
or 2.25 times the thickness of the weld)
The minimum spacing of such plug holes shall be 4 times diameter of the hole.
The length of slot shall not exceed 10 times the thickness of the weld.
The width of the slot shall not be less than thickness of the part containing the slot
+ 8 mm, nor shall it be more than 2.25 times the thickness of the weld.
The minimum spacing of slot welds in the direction transverse to their length shall
be 4 times the width of the slot.
The minimum center to center spacing in a longitudinal direction on any line shall
be 2 times the length of the slot.
The thickness of the plug or slot weld shall be equal in thickness of the material for
materials equal to and less than 16 mm.
In thickness of material more than 16 mm, the thickness should be greater than t/2
or 16 mm whichever is greater.
6
W E L D S
7
W E L D S
8
W E L D S
4. Strength of Welds.
The design or allowable strength of welds shall be the lower value of the base
material and the weld metal strength determined according to the limit states
of tensile rupture, shear rupture or yielding as follows,
For base metal
Eqn. J2-2 Rn = Φ F BM x A BM LRFD

Rn = F BM x A BM / Ω ASD
For weld metal
Eqn. J2-3 Rn = Φ Fw x Aw LRFD

Rn = Fw x Aw / Ω ASD
Where,
F BM - nominal strength of the base metal per unit area in N/mm2
Fw - nominal strength of the weld metal per unit area in N/mm2
A BM - cross sectional area of the base metal in mm2
Aw - cross sectional area of the base metal in mm2
The values of Φ, Ω, F BM , F w and the limitations thereon are given in table J2.5
Alternatively, for fillet welds loaded in plane the design strength, Φ R n and the
allowable strength, R n / Ω of welds is permitted to be determined as follows,
LRFD ASD
0.75 2.00
a) For a linear weld group loaded in plane through the center of gravity,
Eqn. J2-4 Rn = Φ Fw x Aw LRFD

Rn = Fw x Aw / Ω ASD
Where,
Fw = 0.60 F EXX (1.0 + 0.50 Sin1.5 θ)
F EXX - electrode classification number, = 482.3 N/mm2 for E70XX
θ - angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis
Aw - cross sectional area of the base metal in mm2
Note:- A linear weld group is one in which all elements are in a line or are
parallel
9
W E L D S
10
W E L D S
P
?
LINEAR WELD
GROUP
11
W E L D S
b) For weld elements within a weld group that are loaded in-plane and
analyzed using an instantaneous center of rotation method, the components
of the nominal strength, R nx and R ny are permitted to determined as follows:
Eqn. J2-6 R nx = Σ F wix x A wi

R nx = Σ F wiy x A wi
Where,
A wi = effective area of weld throat of any ith weld element, in mm2
Eqn. J2-7 F wi = 0.60 F EXX (1.0 + 0.50 Sin1.5 θ) f (p)

Eqn. J2-8 fp = [ p ( 1.9 – 0.9 p ]0.3
F wi - nominal stress in any ith weld element in N/mm2

F wix - X – component of stress F wi
F wiy - Y – component of stress F wi
p - Di / Dm, ratio of element i deformation to its deformation at maximum
stress
w - weld leg size in mm
r crit - distance from instantaneous center of rotation to weld element with
minimum (Du / r i ) ratio in mm
Di - deformation of weld elements at intermediate stress levels, linearly
proportioned to the critical deformation based on distance from the
instantaneous center of rotation, r i in mm = r i Du / r crit
Dm - 0.209 ( θ + 2 )-0.32 w, deformation of weld elements at maximum stress
in mm
Du - 1.087 ( θ + 6 )-0.65 w <= 0.17 w, deformation of weld elements at
ultimate stress (fracture), usually in element farthest from the
instantaneous center of rotation in mm.
12
W E L D S
c) For filled weld groups concentrically loaded and consisting of elements that
are oriented both longitudinally and transversely to the direction of applied
load, the combined strength, R n , of the fillet weld group shall be determined
as the greater of:
Eqn. J2-9a Rn = R wl + R wt
OR
Eqn. J2-9b
Rn = 0.85 R wl + 1.5 R wt
Where,
R wl = the total nominal strength of longitudinally loaded fillet welds, as
determined in accordance with table J2.5 in kN
R wt = the total nominal strength of transversely loaded fillet welds, as
determined in accordance with table J2.5 in kN without the alternate in
equation J2.4 and J2.5 in kN.
5. Combination of Welds.
If two or more general types of welds (groove, fillet, plug, and slot) are
combined in a single joint, the strength of each shall be separately computed
with reference to the axis of the group in order to determine the strength of the
combination.
6. Filler Metal requirements.

The choice of electrode for use with CJP groove welds subject to tension
normal to the effective area shall comply with the requirements for matching
filler metals given in AWS D1.1
Table 13.6
Base Metal Matching Filler Metal
A36 < 19 mm E60 & E70 Electrodes
A36 > 19 mm, A572 (Gr. 50 & 55) SMAW E7015, E7016, E7018, E7028
A588*, A992 Other processes
A1011, A1018 E70 Electrodes
A913 (Gr. 60 & 65) E80 Electrodes
For corrosion resistance and color similar to the base metal see AWS D1.1 sect 3.7.3
Notes:-
1. Electrodes shall meet the requirements of AWS A5.1, A5.5, A5.17, A5.18, A5.20, A5.23, A5.28 & A5.29
2. In joints with base metals of different strengths use either a filler metal that matches the higher strength
base metal or a filler metal that matches the lower strength and produces a low hydrogen deposit.
13
W E L D S
Filler material with a specified Charpy V-Notch (CVN) toughness of 27 J at

4°C shall be used in the following joints:
1. CJP groove welded ‘T’ joints and corner joints with steel backing left in
place, subject to tension normal to the effective area, unless joints are
designed using the nominal strength and resistance factors or factor of
safety as applicable for a PJP weld.
2. CJP groove welded splices subject to tension normal to the effective
area in heavy sections as defined in A3.1c and A3.1d of AISC 2005
The manufacturer’s certificate of conformance shall be sufficient evidence of

compliance.
7. Mixed Weld Metal.

When Charpy V-Notch toughness is specified, the process consumables for all
weld metal, tack welds, root pass and subsequent passes deposited in a joint
shall be compatible to ensure notch tough composite weld metal.
14
14
Chapter
G U I D E L I N E F O R D E S I G N O F M E T A L B U I L D I N G
Guidelines for Design of

Metal Building
Planning and Organizing
Planning and organizing different building components is an extremely

important step for the designer before he proceeds with the design of
individual components. The impact of these has a snowball effect on all the
processes after design, namely, detailing, fabrication and erection. The
following parameters of the building configurations, significantly effect the
building efficiency and economy,
1. Main Frame configuration (orientation, type, roof slope , eave height)

2. Roof purlins (type, connection, lap & spacing)
3. Wall girts (type, connection, lap & spacing)
4. End wall system (type & spacing)
5. Expansion joints (number & location)
6. Bay spacing (optimum)
7. Bracing systems arrangement (number & location)
8. Mezzanine floor beams/columns (loading, type, orientation & spacing)
9. Crane systems (Service class, capacity)
Some of the above configurations are usually governed by customer

requirements stated in Project Information Form (PIF). In general, the optimal
configuration guide lines are outlined in this chapter.
The estimation engineer / designer should thoroughly study various

alternatives for above building configuration before he proceeds and finalize
the design process. In cases when considerable saving in building cost can be
achieved by changing some of the input configuration stated in (PIF) without
affecting the building end use it should be reported to the Estimation Manager
/ Supervisor.
1
Main Frame Configuration & Orientation
Main frames are the basic supporting component of Metal Building. The main
frames provide the vertical support for the whole building in addition to
providing lateral stability for the building in its plane, while longitudinal
stability in the other direction is usually achieved by sidewall bracing system.
Mostly the main frames span the shorter distance (width) of the building,
unless required for other reasons by the enduser, architects. This will result in
more number of light frames rather than less number of heavy frames, this
will also reduce the wind bracing forces resulting in lighter bracing system.
The width of the building is defined as the out-to-out dimensions between the
girt flanges. Eave height is the height measured from bottom of the column
base plate (or grout) to top of the eave purlin/strut.
Main frame members are built up of tapered sections, the most economical
profile is achieved when the shape of the bending moment diagram is
followed while deciding the depths of section at various location. Many a
times this is not practically possible because of section length criteria and
splice location, nevertheless bending moment and deflection profile should
remain as the main criteria for deciding the depths at a given section.
Pinned base columns are mostly tapered, with a minimum depth of ‘210’ mm
at base in order to accommodate a minimum of ( 2 ) anchor bolts. Fixed base
columns are mostly straight. Also the interior columns are always maintained
straight, but it can be tapered if significant savings can be achieved by fixing
the top.
2
Main frame types
There are many types of main frames used in a metal building, the choice of
the type of main frame to be used depends on,
1. Total width of the building.
2. The permitted spacing between columns in the transversal direction

according to customer requirements and the function of the building.
3. The existence of sub structure (RC or masonry )
4. The architectural requirements of the customer specially the shape of the

gable.
5. The type of rain drainage (internal drainage availability).
6. Any customer special requirements.
The available types of main frames are,

1. Clear span
2. Multi span
3. Lean-to
4. Mono-slope
5. Space saver
6. Roof system
7. Multi-gable
3
Clear Span
Clear Span frames are single gable frames providing full-width clear space
inside the building without any interior columns. This type of frame is
generally used when, an unobstructed working area is desired in diverse
applications such as auditoriums, gymnasiums, aircraft hangars, showrooms
and recreation facilities. The deepest part of the frame is the knee (the joint
between the rafter and the column) for small spans, and also at mid span for
large spans. A horizontal knee connection is more popular because it facilitates
erection, the other option being a vertical knee connection that is employed for
flush side-wall construction, parapet fascia, glazing etc. Clear Span rigid
frames are suitable and economical when,
i) Frame width is in the range 24 m-30 m.
ii) Headroom at the exterior walls is not critical.
RIDGE DISTANCE
RIDGE LINE
HORIZONTAL
LEFT EAVE HEIGHT KNEE RIGHT EAVE HEIGHT
CLEAR HT.
CLEAR WIDTH
CENTER TO CENTER
CENTER TO OUT
OUT TO CENTER
OUT TO OUT
CROSS SECTION
Horizontal Knee Perpendicular Knee Vertical Knee
4
Multi - Span
When clear space inside the building is not the crucial requirement then Multi-
Span rigid frames offer greater economy and theoretically unlimited building
size. Buildings wider than around 90m experience a build up of temperature
stresses and require temperature load analysis and design. Multi-span rigid
frames have straight interior columns, generally hot-rolled tube sections pin
connected at the top with the rafter. When lateral sway is critical, the interior
columns may be moment connected at the top with the rafter, and in such a
situation, built-up straight columns are more viable than hot-rolled tube
columns.
The bottom flange of the rafter at ridge should be horizontal when an interior
column is located at ridge to facilitate connection. Multi-Span rigid frames are
one of the more economical solutions, when the required width of the building
is large (width > 24m) and the intended use are as warehouses, logistics,
distribution centers, show rooms and factories. The most economical modular
width in multi-span buildings is in the range 18m-24m.
RIDGE DISTANCE
RIDGE LINE
LEFT EAVE HEIGHT RIGHT EAVE HEIGHT

CLEAR HT.
CLEAR WIDTH
CENTER TO CENTER
CENTER TO OUT
OUT TO CENTER
OUT TO OUT
CROSS SECTION
Some of the disadvantages of such a framing system are listed below,
1. The susceptibility to differential settlement of column supports.

2. The peak height is very high; in case of higher slopes, the q value for mean
height will be larger.
3. If fascia is required to cover the ridge, the fascia height is too large.
5
4. Locations of the interior columns are difficult to modify for future

expansions.
5. The un-braced lengths of interior columns are longer especially for very
wide buildings.
6. If bracing is at interior columns are not allowed, the longitudinal force
dissipation is longer, heavy eave strut and bracing may be required.
7. The roof drainage area is large, longer water travel may lead to leakages,
also requires closer downspout spacing to avoid gutter capacity.
Lean-To
Lean-to is not a self-supporting, stable framing system. It is an add-on to the

existing building with a single slope. For such structure, stability is achieved
by connection to an existing rigid framing. Usually column rafter connection at
knee is pinned type, which results in lighter columns. For spans less than 12 m
columns and rafters are straight except that rafters may be tapered for larger
widths (> 12m). For larger clear widths (> 18m), tapered columns with
moment resisting connections at the knee are more economical. Lean-To
framing is typically used for building additions, loading or sorting area,
parking shelters, equipment rooms and storage.
LEFT EAVE HEIGHT
WIDTH
CROSS SECTION
6
Mono-Slope or Single Slope
Mono-Slope or single-slope framing system is an alternative to gable type of

frame. These may be either a Clear Span or Multi-span profile. Mono-Slope
configuration are generally not a very economical solution when compared
with duo slope gable frame . For larger width requirement a multi-span
monoslope is a more economical solution.
Mono-Slope framing system are generally adopted for following reasons,
1. Rainwater needs to be drained away from the parking areas or from the
adjacent buildings.
2. Large headroom is required at one sidewall.
3. In order to avoid a valley gutter and internal drainage system requirement
when a new building is connected adjacent to an existing building.
4. Avoid imposition of additional loads on the existing columns and
foundations of an existing structure.
RIGHT EAVE HEIGHT
LEFT EAVE HEIGHT
WIDTH
CROSS SECTION
7
Space Saver
Space Saver framing system utilizes straight columns, keeping the rafter
bottom flange horizontal for accommodation ceiling applications with rigid
knee connection. Selection of Space Saver is appropriate for following,
1. The required frame width is between 6 to 18m and eave height does not
exceed 6m.
2. Straight columns are desired.
3. Roof slope of < 0.5:10 are acceptable.
4. Requirement of minimum air volume inside the building for cold storage
ware houses.
RIDGE DISTANCE
LEFT EAVE HEIGHT RIGHT EAVE HEIGHT

CLEAR HEIGHT
WIDTH
CROSS SECTION
8
Roof System
A Roof System framing ideally consists of beam (rafter) resting on top of a

concrete column of a new or an existing substructure. In order to avoid large
horizontal forces on top of these concrete columns and induce huge moments
at base the rafters are designed to induce vertical reactions only. This can be
achieved by prescribing a theoretical roller support condition at one end.
Hence any horizontal thrust is released by movement of the roller support.
The roller supports are provided at one end by means of roller rods. The other
option is to provide slotted holes at one end, in such cases some horizontal
force does exist, the a horizontal reaction H 2 has to be considered for the
design of supporting system. H 2 is calculated as below,
H 2 = mR
Where,
m= Coefficient of friction between steel and steel

R = Vertical reaction at that end.
A Roof System is generally not economical for spans greater than 12m
although it can span as large as 40 m. This is due to fact that the Roof System
as designed as simply supported and the maximum moment occur at the mid-
span.
9
Multi-Gable
Multi-Gable buildings are ideal framing configuration for very wide building
requirement. The advantage for such wide building is high eave heights can be
avoided, hence reduced height of interior columns. and temperature effects
can be controlled by dividing the frame into separate structural segments,
making these more economical when compared to multi-span buildings.
These are not recommended due to high maintenance requirement in valley

region, costly internal drainage and bracing requirement inside the building at
columns located at valley. Multi-Gable framing should is not a good solution,
especially in areas of snowfall.
Multi-Gable frames may be clear span or multi-span, the interior columns at

knee are rigidly connected to the rafters using a vertical connection. When
clear height requirement is a criteria, the clear height at interior columns will
usually govern. Also the stiffeners should be adequately provided at interior
column connection.
10
End Walls
The standard end wall are designed as bearing frame. That is all connections
are considered as pinned. The lateral stability is provided by the diaphragm
action in the absence of this shear diaphragm cross bracing are required. Cross
bracings should be provide in areas of high seismic zones.
Main frame ends are used in case it is required to consider provision for,
1. Future extension is intended or if stated clearly in the (P.I.F.), in such an

arrangement only wind columns are required.
2. Crane run length is full length of the building
3. Open for access condition prevails at the end wall such as hangar
buildings
4. X-bracing is required at end wall for stability, but it is not allowed by the
end-user.
11
Roof Slope
Building roof slopes play a major role in the behavior of a frame. Substantial
reduction in steel rigid frame weight can be achieved by using steeper slopes
for Clear Span frames of large widths. Table below gives a comparison of
frame weights for different slope,
Table 14.1
Sr. No. Roof Slope Frame Weight
1 0.5 : 10 3682
2 1.0 : 10 3466
3 1.5 : 10 3328
4 2.0 : 10 3240
For a Clear Span Frame of 42 m width and 6.00 m eave height.
Tips on Roof Slope

1. In case of Multi-Span frame, steep roof slopes may result in heavy frames
due to the fact the larger unbraced lengths of interior columns require
heavy wide flange columns.
2. Steep roof slopes help reduce the deflection in wide span buildings.
3. In the areas of high snowfall steep roof slopes (> 1:10) help reduce
accumulation of snow and the loads if snow load governs the design.
4. Steep roof slope are uneconomical when fascias are required, because the
height of fascia increases if it is required to cover the ridge line. This also
impacts on more horizontal forces at the eave of the frame and
consequently increases the frame weight.
5. Roof slope of 1.5:10 or greater necessitates sag rods provision between
purlins thus adding to the price of the building.
Table 14.2
Sr. No. Roof Slope Slope : 10
1 Clear Span up to 45 m 1.0 : 10
2 Clear Span up to 60 m 1.5 : 10
3 Clear Span > 60 m 2.0 to 3.0 : 10
4 Multi-Span up to 60 m 0.5 : 10
12
Eave Height
Eave height is a function of,
1. Clear height at eave.

2. Mezzanine clear heights below beam and above joist
3. Clearance above Crane beam / Crane hook height requirement.
A designer should minimize eave height to the bare minimum required, no

need to round off the values, say if a calculated eave height of 7396 mm is
required for a given clear height requirement of 6500 mm, provide 7396 mm,
no need to round it off to 7400 mm. Since the eave height affects the price of
the building due to following reasons,
1. Increase in sheeting lengths, number of girts and column height.

2. If columns are unbraced eave height affects the frame weight significantly.
3. Wind loads are directly proportional to eave height.
4. In order to control lateral deflection, fixed base may be required if the
height to width ratio is more than 0.75.
13
Roof Purlins
Roof purlins should be arranged according to the following guide lines or as

required by design,
1. Provide the first eave purlin at a distance of (+/-)80 mm

2. Standard interior purlin spacing is 1.5 m for M30-252 and 2.0 m for M45-
250, excluding the areas of local areas such as corners and edge.
3. Higher spacing may be provided for purlins supporting sandwich panels,
not exceeding 3.0 m.
4. Spacing less than 1.5 or 2.0 m may also be used if required by design.
5. If non-standard purlin spacings are used at estimate stage, it should be
specified in the estimate and the PIF.
6. Different lap distance may be used at end bay and interior bays for
optimization.
7. Nesting of purlins is not practical with our profiles and hence should be
avoided.
Table 14.3 Minimum thicknesses of members that are to be used in the design
Minimum Thickness or size used
Members
(other than Dubai jobs)
Z- Sections (200mm depth) 1.5 mm thick (345 Coil)
C- Sections ( 200mm depth) 1.5 mm thick (345 Coil), 2.0 & 2.5 (395 Coil)
M- Sections (356mm depth) (TMCP) 1.8 mm thick (540 Coil)
General Notes
1. Z- Sections 250 mm deep of 2.0 mm and 2.5 mm thickness can be rolled.

These are roll formed from 395 mm wide coil which is the same coil that
we use to produce the 200 mm deep C-sections. Thus the price per linear
meter of 250 mm deep Z section is the same as the 200 mm deep C-section.
2. Welding of cold formed galvanized sections should be avoided as far as

possible due to fabrication requirement. Small length of welding in
unavoidable case can be acceptable by factory.
3. We now have a resistance-welding machine for welding cold formed

sections. Welding of cold formed sections up to 2.5 mm thick is possible
with this welding machine.
14
Wall Girts
Our standard practice is to provide flush Endwall girts, that is flush with end
wall columns (end wall columns spacing is in range of 5m-6m), which
provides a diaphragm action for a bearing frame end wall, thus avoiding any
need for end wall bracing. The Sidewall girts are designed as continuous beam
bypassing the main frame columns this allows lapping of the girts and larger
main frames columns spacing can be used. If there are no special requirements
such as wall openings, block walls, etc. standard wall girt spacing should be
followed as below,
1. The first girt should be provided at 2250mm from finish floor level to allow
for recent or future erection of personal doors.
2. Standard interior purlin spacing is 1.5 m for M30-252 and 2.0 m for M45-
250, excluding the areas of local areas such as corners and edge.
3. Spacing less than 1.5 or 2.0 m may also be used if required by design.
4. Maximum spacing of girts for sandwich panels should not exceed 3.0 m.
5. If non-standard purlin spacings are used at estimate stage, it should be
specified in the estimate and the PIF.
6. Different lap distance may be used at end bay and interior bays for
optimization.
7. Nesting of girts is not practical with our profiles and hence should be
avoided.
Sag rods
1. A minimum 1 row of 12 mm diameter (min.) sag rods should be provided

for all purlins and girts for all bay spacing between 8.5 m and 9 m up to
and including 1.5:10 roof slopes.
2. For roof slopes greater than 1.5:10 sag rods may be required for all lengths
of bay spacing.
3. Minimum 2 rows of 12 mm diameter (min.) sag rods should be provided
for all purlins and girts for all bay spacing between 9 m and 10 m up to
and including 1.5:10 roof slopes. For roof slopes greater than 1.5:10 sag
rods may be required for all lengths of bay spacing.
4. Sag rods must be provided for 356 deep M-purlins sections (TMCP) for all
bay spacing lengths and all roof slopes. Number of rows of sag rods
required should be as required by design, with a minimum of 2 rows.
5. For JAFZA and other areas 16 mm diameter sag rod is required, see job
requirements for different areas.
15
Expansion Joints
The maximum length of the building without any expansion joint can be
calculated using following formula,
L = D max / KaD T
Where,
D max = Maximum Allowable Expansion in mm.
L = Length of building in mm.
a = Coefficient of linear expansion (0.0000117/ o C)
DT = Temp. Difference in o C
K = 1.00 for building without air-conditioning
= 0.70 for building with air-conditioning
= 0.55 for building with heating and air-conditioning
Example:
Calculate the maximum length when expansion joint is required for the
following locations: Abu Dhabi & Dubai. Considering a 30 -mm expansion
slot, which is derived from purlin expansion joint detail
Note: 2mm expansion per purlin connection.
Assuming 15 bays gives: 15 x 2 = 30 mm
Solution: Temperature difference in UAE:

Abu Dhabi = 35 oC
Based on "Engineer's Guide to Solar Energy" By Yvonne Howell & Justin A.
Bereny
Abu Dhabi Area

1. Building without air-conditioning (K = 1.0)
L = 30 / ( 1.00 x 35 x 0.0000117) = 73260 mm = 73.26 m
2. Building with air-conditioning (K = 0.70)
L = 30 / ( 0.70 x 35 x 0.0000117) = 104657 mm = 104.65 m
3. Building with air-conditioning (K = 0.55)
L = 30 / ( 0.55 x 35 x 0.0000117) = 133199 mm = 133.20 m
Expansion joint should be provided if the length of the building exceeds 120
meters, even if it is not required as per calculation above.
16
Bay Spacing
Bay Spacing is another important criterion that affects the overall economy of
the building. It is important to achieve a reasonable balance between the total
weight of purlin/girt and main frame. The information provided below are for
standard loads only, for non-standard loads the results may vary depending
upon other criteria.
The standard loads are,

Live Loads Roof = 0.96 kN/m2
Live Loads Frame = 0.57 kN/m2
Wind Load = 1.00 kN/m2
Table 14.4
Cold Formed
Bay Location Optimum Bay Spacing
Section Type
End Bays ±6.50 m
Z-Section
Interior Bays ±7.50 m
End Bays ±9.00 m
M-Section
Interior Bays ±12.0 m
Smaller end bays than interior bays will usually reduce the effect of higher
deflection and bending moment in end bays as compared to interior bays and
help reduce the weights of purlins/girts in the end bays. This will avoid the
need of nested purlins/girts in the end bays and result in uniform size of
purlin/girt sizes.
For non-standard loadings, the economical bay spacing may tend to decrease,
with the increase in the loads.
For buildings with heavy cranes ( > 10 MT) the economical bay spacing ranges
between 6.00 m and 7.50 m.
17
Working out Optimum Bay Spacing,

Unless the governed by architectural or customer requirements, optimum bay
spacing may be worked out as below,
Example-1.
Z-Section (Assuming End bays = 6.50 m)
Required Length of Building = 70 m
Interior Length = 70 – 2 x 6.50 = 57.0 m
No. of Interior bays = 57 / 7.50 = 7.6 ~ 7
Interior Bay Spacing = 57 / 7 = 8.143 m
Adjust the bay spacing by rounding off interior bay, say we use an interior bay
spacing of 8.0 m,
Then, end bay = (70 – 7 x 8.0) / 2 = 7.0 m
Therefore, Use a Bay Spacing = 7.0 + 7 @ 8.00 + 7.0 = 70.0 m
Example-2.
No. of Interior bays = 77 / 7.50 = 10.26~10.0
Example-3.
M-Section (Assuming Interior bays = 9.00 m)
No. of Interior bays = 52 / 12.0 = 4.33 ~ 5
(Since 12 meter is standard bay spacing for M-Section due to shipping
restriction, we use 12 meter interior bay and adjust the end bays)
Then, end bay = (70 – 4 x 12) / 2 = 11.0 m
Example-4.
No. of Interior bays = 72 / 12.0 =6
Interior Bay Spacing = 12.0 m
18
Bracing Systems
A building is subjected to lateral forces in many direction due to wind,

seismic, crane and other horizontal loads, for metal buildings these forces are
resolved in two orthogonal directions. The main frame resist these lateral
forces in the plane they are provided. In other direction a Bracings Systems is
provided, these may consist of cross bracing or portal frames. These loads are
eventually transferred to the foundations through a definite load path.
Following guide line should be followed when deciding upon the type of
bracing and their configuration,
Wind and Seismic load Bracing in longitudinal direction
1. A maximum of 5 bays may be provided between braced bays.

2. A braced bay should not be located in the end bay of a building if the end
wall system is a bearing frame end, unless it is required for many other
reasons. In such cases where a bracing cannot be avoided in the end bays,
the corner column may be either rotated or specially connection detail
should be provided. The end wall columns should be checked for loading
in all directions.
3. The bracing in roof and sidewall should be preferably in the same bays. If
due to some reason such as framed openings etc, the sidewall bracing may
be provided in one bay adjacent and proper load transfer should be
designed and detailed to transfer the load through the strut member to the
braced bay.
4. Roof bracing should be broken at the ridge line.
5. Cables / rods braces should preferably not exceed 15 m in length. If a cross
bracing contains pieces longer than 15m, then the bracing may be broken
to two sets of bracings with a strut member between them so that the
rod/cable lengths is not exceeding 15 m.
6. Bracing of any one type or material, such as cable, rod, angle or portal
bracing should be used in one wall. Mixing of different type of bracing, in
one wall should be avoided.
7. It is preferable to use only one type of wall bracing in the whole building
otherwise the lateral loads will have to be distributed as per the bracing
stiffness.
8. Minimum diameter for cable bracing is 12 mm and 20 mm for rod bracing.
9. The maximum length of cable, rod or angle bracing should preferably not
exceed 15 meters in length.
10. Use 75x75x6 double angles up to 12 meter and 100x100x8 double angles up
to 15 meters, unless required otherwise by design.
19
Wind and Seismic Bracing at Bearing Frame Endwalls
1. Endwall bracing is not required for a fully sheeted bearing frame end walls
with flush girt construction. If the girts are bypass type, bracing should be
provided for end wall stability. Some consultants insist on flat bar bracing
in flush end wall connection also.
2. Either flat bar, cable or rod bracing may be used at end walls. Preferably,
flat bar is used for flush girt connection and cable or rod bracing for bypass
type connection.
3. It is recommended to use flat bar bracing for end walls in areas of high
Seismic Zones for flush type girt connection.
4. If an end wall requires bracing, but it is not allowed to locate the bracing at
the end wall, it is recommended that the load in the plane of the end wall
is transferred to the first rigid frame through additional roof bracing in the
end bay.
5. In wide buildings, if end wall bracing is required, it shall be provided in
intervals not to exceed five end wall sections.
6. It is preferably to provide bracing in the first bay at end walls.
7. In case of full height blockwall, bracing may be avoided unless required by
the consultant / customer.
Crane Bracing
1. Cable or Rod bracing may be provided as crane bracing for buildings with
Crane capacity up to and including 10 MT.
2. Angle bracing should be provided as longitudinal bracing for buildings
with Crane capacity more than 10 MT.
3. For independent crane columns and stepped columns separate
longitudinal bracing system should be provided below the crane beam (in
the same plane as crane beam) in addition to the sidewall wind bracing.
The sidewall wind bracing may be Cable, Rod or Angle as required by
design.
4. Crane bracing should to be designed for longitudinal crane loads for top
running or under-hung cranes. The spacing of bracing should not exceed 5
bays.
5. Only one type & material of bracing should be used as longitudinal or
lateral bracing for top running, underhung or monorail cranes.
6. Longitudinal or lateral bracing for underhung cranes may be of any type,
cables, rods, or angles as required by design.
7. Cable, rod or angle bracing may be used above the crane beam when a
portal is required below the crane beam level.
20
Built-Up Sections
Members
Built-up members – Web 5 mm thick
Built-up members – Flange 6 mm thick
Hot rolled I-Section IPEA-200
Flange braces Angle 40x40x2.5
Hot rolled strut members Sq. tube 125x125x3.2
Diagonal Angle bracings 75x75x6 mm thick angles
Sag rods 12 mm diameter
Cable braces 12 mm diameter
Rod braces 22 mm diameter
Web tapering of rafter or columns in rigid frame:
1. The minimum difference between web taper should not be less than 100
mm.
2. The length of one segment in a welded piece should not be less than 3 m,
except at ends where the balance portion is less than 3.0 m and it is
unavoidable.
For example:- In 12 m long piece a maximum of 4 segments are allowed
and 5 segments in 15 m long piece and so on. This rule applies to rafter as
well as columns.
3. The number of different web thickness in any piece should not be more
than the number of segments, and within a segment of 3.0 m, the web
thickness should not vary.
For example: - In a 12 m long piece, we may have a maximum of 4
segments with a maximum of 4 different web thicknesses.
4. The angle of inclination should be less than 15° degrees.
5. 5, 6 and 8 mm thick webs are cut from 1500 mm wide coil.
6. Stiffeners should be used instead of increasing web thickness as far as

possible, at knee and valley locations of interior columns of multi-gable,
diagonal / horizontal stiffeners should be used.
21
Flange thickness of rafters or columns in rigid frames or wind columns:
1. In a welded piece the number of different flanges should not exceed the
number of segments.
For example: - In a 12 m long piece we may have a maximum of 4
segments and hence a maximum of 4 different top and bottom flanges.
2. The length of each welded part may vary as per design. For jobs being
shipped in containers the length should not exceed 11.8 m. And 12.0 m for
other means of transport. Very often for jobs within UAE, section length
greater than 12.0 m (maximum 24 .0 m) can be shipped, but all concerned
should be informed of such a requirement.
3. As far as possible the length of welded parts should be in multiples of 3, 6,

9 or 12 m long.
4. The difference in adjacent flange thickness in a welded part or spliced part

should not exceed 10 mm.
For example: - one segment has 20 mm thick flange and hence the
thickness of the flange of the adjoining segment should not be less than 10
mm.
Tapering of web of rigid frame rafter above interior column:
1. The rafter can be either of constant web depth or with varying web depth
as required by the roof slope at interior column locations.
2. It is not necessary for the bottom flange of the rafter to be horizontal above
an interior column other than at ridge.
Table 14.7 Standard Flat Bars

Standard Flat Bars
125 x 6 150 x 8 200 x 10 175 x 12 175 x 15 200 x 20 200 x 25
150 x 6 175 x 8 250 x 10 200 x 12 200 x 15 250 x 20 250 x 25
175 x 6 200 x 8 - 250 x 12 - - -
1. Standard thicknesses of flanges are 6, 8, 10, 15, 20 and 25 mm.
2. Other non-standard flanges such as 225 x 8, 250 x 8 can also be used to

achieve economy in a big project, as along as the flange width to thickness
ratio does not exceed limit (33). Note that these will be cut from plates.
22
TOTAL LENGTH = 11800 mm FOR SHIPPED IN CONTAINER

TOTAL LENGTH = 12000 mm FOR SHIPPED OVER LAND
BALANCE 3000 (MIN) 3000 (MIN) 3000 (MIN)
ONE SIDE ALWAYS STRAIGHT

10 mm
(TYP)
TF1 TF2 TF3 TF4
W1 W2 W3 W4
BUTT WELD
(TYP) 28° MAX
15° MAX
BF1 BF3 BF4
BF2
TF2-TF1 = TF2-TF3 = TF4-TF3 = 10 mm MAX.

BF2-BF1 = BF2-BF3 = BF4-BF3 = 10 mm MAX.
W2-W1 = W2-W3 = W4-W3 = 5 mm MAX.
MAIN FRAME COLUMN
DEPTH
RAFTER
CRANE BEAM
STRAIGHT LENGTH
MAIN FRAME RAFTER
COLUMN DEPTH
CRANE BRACKET
MAIN FRAME COLUMN 150 (MIN)

TAPERED
23
End connections for rigid frames:
1. End plate moment connections may be used with or without gusset

stiffeners.
2. The difference between the column depth and rafter depth at knee section
should preferably not exceed 200 mm
3. Purlin webs are connected to the frames by a welded clip. Weight of these
plates is considered in the below mentioned % of connection.
4. For main frame column with a crane bracket, constant depth should be
maintained at least for a distance of 150 mm from the bottom of bracket.
5. The weight of connections for pinned base frames for box buildings with
standard PEB loads can be taken as below while estimating,
a) 17% of the frame weights for clear span buildings pinned base.
b) 20% of the frame weights for clear span buildings fixed base.
c) 14% of frame weight for multi-span buildings with pinned base.
d) 18% of frame weight for multi-span buildings with fixed base.
e) For multi-storey frames, connections may be taken as 20 to 25% of
frame weight.
Table 14.6 Minimum Requirements for Connections

Sr. No. Item Minimum
1 Base Plate thickness 12 mm
2 Base Plate width 175 mm
3 Splice Plate thickness 10 mm
4 Splice Plate width 175 mm
5 Anchor Bolt 16 mm
6 Number of Anchor Bolt 2 Nos.
7 Connection Bolt 12 mm
8 Stiffener 10 mm
9 Welds 5 mm
24
Design & Fabrication Limitations for Built up members:
Table 14.8 Fabrication Limitations for Built up members

Sr.
Description Symbol Limits
No
1 Minimum web depth (dw min ) 210 mm
2 Maximum overall depth * (dw max ) 1550 mm
3 Maximum out to out depth (Inclusive of Endplates) $ 2200 mm
4 Minimum flange width (bf max ) 125 mm
5 Maximum flange width* (bf min ) 500 mm
6 Maximum web thickness (tf max ) 15 mm
7 Maximum Angle of flange inclination 15˚
* - Limitation due to automatic welding machine
$ - Limitation due to painting line
Note:-
The limitations above are for standard jobs and manufacturing on automatic
welding machine, other depth / widths of sections are possible and can be
fabricated offline, if required for any job.
Table 14.9 Design Limitations for Built up members
Sr. Non-
Description Compact Maximum
No Compact
AISC 1989
1 Web depth to thickness ratio (dw / tw) 90 138 180
2 Flange width to thickness ratio (bf / tf) 18.3 26.8 $ 33
3 Web depth to flange width ratio (dw / bf) - - 5
4 Flange thk. to web thk. ratio (tf / tw) 2.5
All limits are for grade 50 material (F y = 345 N/mm2)
$ - Using K = 1
c
AISC 2005
1 Web depth to thickness ratio (dw / tw) 90 137 180
2 Flange width to thickness ratio (bf / tf) 18.3 47 $ 33
3 Web depth to flange width ratio (dw / bf) - - 5
4 Flange thk. to web thk. ratio (tf / tw) 2.5
All limits are for grade 50 material (F y = 345 N/mm2)
$ - Using K = 0.76 and F = 0.7 F
c L y
All values noted above are for flanges and webs in flexure, see code for axial compression
Refer Table B5.1 from AISC 89 and Table B4.1 from AISC 05
25
Hot Rolled Sections
Standard stock of Hot Rolled Sections:
Table 14.10 Hot Rolled Sections

Angles Tubes Channels I Beams
40x40x4 @ 2.42 125x125x3.2 @ 12.0 260x75 @ 27.6 IPEA-200 @ 18.4
50x50x5 @ 3.77 150x150x4.5 @ 20.1 300x90 @ 41.2 UB203x133 @ 25.1
75x75x6 @ 6.85 200x200x6.0 @ 35.8 380x100 @ 54.5 -
100x100x8 @ 15.5 - - -
See material specification for grade of steel @ - Denotes kg/m
1. It is preferable to use hot rolled sections for small members, such as

fascia post, canopy, brackets, stub post, mezzanine joist etc.
2. Avoid using IPEa 200 columns as end wall columns if mezzanine

beams or joist are to be connected, try using UB203x133 instead.
3. Try to use 12 mm Ø connection bolts as far as possible with IPEa 200

sections, if higher bolt diameter is required opt for UB203x133.
26
Hot Dip Galvanizing
Hot Dip Galvanizing is the process of immersing clean, oxide-free iron or

steel into molten zinc in order to form a zinc coating that is metallurgically
bonded to the iron or steel's surface. The zinc coating protects the surface
against corrosion by providing protection to the iron or steel in two ways.
1. It shields the base metal from the atmosphere, because it is more

electronegative than iron or steel, the zinc gives cathodic or sacrificial
protection.
2. Even if the surface becomes scratched and the base metal is exposed, the
zinc is slowly consumed while the iron or steel remains protected from
corrosion.
The hot dip galvanizing process is adaptable to coating nearly all types of
fabricated and non-fabricated products such as wire, tanks, sheets, strip, pipes
and tubes, fittings, hardware, wire cloth, hollow-ware, and structural
assemblies.
All galvanizing consists of 4 fundamental processes as listed below,
1. Preparation, The preparation process consist of cleaning and pickling

operations that free the surface of dirt, grease, rust and scale.
2. Prefluxing, the preflux process serves to dissolve any oxide that may have
formed on the iron or steel surface after pickling and prevents further rust
from forming.
3. Galvanizing, clean, oxide-free work is galvanized by immersion into

molten zinc.
4. Finishing operations include quenching, removing excess zinc and

inspection.
27
Design Considerations
1. It is necessary to have double side weld for built-up members that will be
hot dip galvanized.
2. Thin and slender sections are prone to twisting and buckling because of
high temperature stresses while galvanizing.
3. Proper vent holes should be provided for hollow tube sections.
4. Proper consideration should be given to splice pate faying (contact)

surface. Some consultants prefer these surfaces free of galvanization, with
special friction paints.
5. All lapped joints or welding should be seal welded in order to avoid flow
of cleaning material and zinc into the welds.
6. Proper temporary bracing should be provided for thin members.
7. The limitations on overall size of the member are governed by the size of
the galvanizing tank.
Table 14.11 Design Limitations for Hot Dip Galvanized Built up members
Sr. Symbol
Description Limits
No
1 Web depth to thickness ratio (dw / tw) 130
2 Flange width to thickness ratio (bf / tf) 25
3 Web depth to flange width ratio (dw / bf) 5
4 Flange thickness to web thickness ratio (tf / tw) 2.0
28
Crane System
Detailed information on the crane system, supplier, capacity, service class,

wheel loads etc, are required to provide a realistic design and estimate at the
first instance. The price impact on the design and estimate due to any variation
is huge, hence proper attention should be paid to all aspects of design and
detailing for building with cranes. Some guidelines are provided below for
design of buildings with cranes.
1. Crane runway beams may be provided with any of the 3 configuration

below,
 Cap Channel + Top Flange + Web + Bottom Flange.
 Cap Channel + Web + Bottom Flange.
 Top Flange + Web + Bottom Flange. (with or with out surge girder
as required by design)
2. The default fatigue stress range is 20.70 kN/cm2. However for paper mills,
foundries and rolling mills a fatigue stress of 12.50 kN/cm2 is often
required for safety reasons. (The fatigue stresses considered in design
should be confirmed with the customer at estimation stage).
3. As a standard welding procedure,

 For Crane beams with web thickness less than or equal to 8 mm
double side fillet welds are provided between top / bottom flange
and web.
 For web thickness greater than 8 mm, CJP (Complete joint
Penetration) weld is provided between top flange and web only
and double side fillet weld between bottom flange and web, this
should be considered at estimate stage.
4. If crane lifting capacity is equal to or exceeds 20MT the portion of the main
frame column below the crane runway beam should be double side weld.
5. Double side welding should be provided for stepped column below crane
beam and independent crane columns. The double side welding for crane
beams should be included in the estimate.
6. Stepped columns are more economical than separate crane column

especially for larger eave height buildings.
29
7. Crane Beam deflections for special buildings Refer chapter on

serviceability.
8. Underhung crane capacity should be limited to 10 MT and under-hung

monorail crane capacity should not exceed 5 MT for an economical design
of frame.
9. Top running cranes are a more economical option when compared to

underhung or monorail cranes.
10. As per AISE Technical Report # 13 (Section 5.9.2), crane bracket should
not be used for vertical loads exceeding 220 kN. (At the discretion of the
designer it may be increased up to 250 kN)
11. MBMA recommendations are applicable for Crane classifications A

through D. The recommendations of MBMA are not applicable for cranes
classified with class E or F, for these class of cranes AISE Technical Report
# 13 “Guide for the Design and Construction of Mill Buildings” should be
referred.
12. As per AISE Technical Report # 13 (Section 5.8.9) Girders of spans greater
than 22.86 m shall be cambered for approximately dead load plus half of
the live load deflection, without impact. It should be ensured that the
message for camber is conveyed to production through shop drawings.
13. Mammut’s scope of supply for Monorail beam should be checked at

estimation stage, accordingly a Special Buyout request should be raised. If
Monorail beam is Mammut scope of supply hot rolled section should be
selected.
30
Q: What special considerations should be noted in crane-girder design?
A: The following special design considerations should be noted (contributed

by David T. Ricker, P.E.):
1. Adequate vertical and lateral stiffness are of primary importance.

2. Simple-span construction should be used.
3. The cross-section should be proportioned on the basis of its elastic flexural
strength.
4. Lateral stability should be provided at the bearing ends without inhibiting end
rotations.
5. Vertical and lateral impact loads should be considered.
6. Lateral forces due to trolley acceleration and braking, runway misalignment,
crane skew, and other sources should be considered.
7. Fatigue should be considered.
8. The class of service to which the crane will be subject should be considered.
9. The local strength of the web under crane wheel loads should be checked.
10. Biaxial bending of the top flange should be checked.
11. Bottom-flange bracing should be provided when required; bottom-flange
bracing is recommended for spans over 36 ft.
12. For built-up crane-girders, the weld between the top flange and the web
should be a CJP groove weld.
13. Suitable provision should be made for the crane-rail attachment system.
14. Suitable provision should be made for the electrification of the crane system.
31
Mezzanine
Buildings with mezzanines should be carefully designed and estimated,

various options for the flooring system should be explored depending upon
the loading, use and location of mezzanine. The impact on the overall
percentage of estimate due to any variation is huge. Following guide lines are
to be considered while planning mezzanine floor:-
1. Most economical mezzanine column spacing is around 6.0 m.
2. Whenever possible mezzanine columns should be aligned with main frame

column and wind column spacing for proper framing and connection.
3. Generally aligning joists along the shorter panel side of a mezzanine plan
will provide an economical framing.
4. Cold formed sections (double ‘C’ back to back) may be used as joist, if
allowed by consultants / customer. Otherwise hot-rolled or built-up
sections may be used.
5. Preferably use tube columns as mezzanine columns, tube columns may be

filled with concrete to increase the axial capacity.
6. Generally the anchor bolt pattern for tube column is parallel to the plane of
rigid frame, but if required for stability in other direction for minor lateral
loads, it may be rotated 90°.
7. In areas of high seismic zones, check with customer if bracings are allowed
below mezzanine.
8. Use hot-rolled or built-up columns if bracing is to be provided for

mezzanine.
9. Clear height above and below mezzanine beam must be maintained,

preferably between 2.5 m-3.0 m, or as required by the customer.
10. Top landing may or may not be required depending on the location of the
staircase with reference to mezzanine plan. If it is not required it should be
avoided.
11. Maximum number of ‘Riser’ in a single straight flight without mid-landing

should preferably not exceed 15. If exceeded then a mid-landing should be
provided.
32
12. The choice of single or double flight stair should be based on mezzanine
layout or as required by customer.
13. A stair ‘Riser’ ranges from 160 to 200 mm, standard rise of 175 mm should
be used, unless unavoidable.
14. A stair ‘Tread’ ranges from 220 to 250 mm, standard tread width of 230
mm should be used, unless unavoidable.
Table 14.12 Maximum Allowable Joist Spacing
Slab
Panel Thk. Maximum Number of
Thickness Deck Profile
(mm) Spacing (mm) Spans
(mm)
100 2250 3 or More
125 45-150 0.50 2000 3 or More
150 1750 3 or More
175 2250 3 or More
200 45-150 0.70 2000 3 or More
225 1750 3 or More
Slab thickness is inclusive of 45 mm deep rib
33
Hangar Buildings
1. The hangar door is not Mammut’s scope of supply.
2. The hangar doors are usually supported at the bottom and laterally
supported at the top, hence the lateral wind load transferred by the door to
the building framing should be considered in design.
3. For hangar buildings the vertical deflection of rigid frame rafters above the
door track area should be limited to 100 mm for live load only. (This
applies to the 2 end frames supporting the hanger door leaves).
4. Camber must be provided for the 2 end frame rafters supporting the door
equal to the dead load deflection only.
5. Estimates must include top track door guides. These door guide members
are vertical and are suspended (welded) from the bottom chord of the
member connecting the 2 end frames rafters. Door guide members are
often made of 300mm deep UB or UC sections.
6. Soffit panels and necessary flashings and purlins above the door, to
conceal the framing above the door, should be quoted as an option.
7. Wall panels and girts (on the inside of the 2nd interior frame), to conceal the
structural members above the door (between the 2 end frames), should be
quoted as an option.
8. Door cladding to be included as an add-on price.
9. Building should be designed as partially enclosed structure.
34
Optimizing
The following guideline will help in design and estimation for an economical
solution, keeping in consideration detailing ease, fabrication, shipping and
erection limitations.
1. Minimize the number of splice in columns and rafter by providing

maximum possible length of a section.
Example:- Clear Span building width is 28 meters, job is to be shipped in

containers, maximum length of section is limited to 11.8 m
Therefore, number of pieces = 28 / 11.8 = 2.37 ~ 3 pieces
If the ridge portion is flat 3 pieces maximum.
If splice is at ridge then 4 pieces maximum.
Example:- A 2-Multispan building width is 85 meters, job is to be shipped

overland, maximum length of section is limited to 12.0 m
Therefore, number of pieces = 85 / 12 = 7.08 ~ 8 pieces
If the ridge portion is flat, with column at ridge 9 pieces.
If interior column is not at ridge then 8 pieces.
In some cases, say for building width 24 to 26 m try to use vertical knee to
reduce the number of piece to two.
2. If possible try to locate the splices at the locations of minimum bending

moment or at locations of least depth.
3. Try to group frames of similar profile if the only difference is the bay
spacing and the difference in weight does not exceed 5%, also the
difference of weight of total number of frames is not exceeding 1000 kgs.
Example:- Representing above rule in equation

W1 = weight of frame for lower bay spacing in kgs.
N1 = number of frame of weight W 1
W2 = weight of frame for higher bay spacing in kgs.
N2 = number of frame of weight W 2
Equation-1 ( W2 / W1 ) <= 1.05

Equation-2 ( W2 N1 – W1 N1 ) <= 1000
35
4. For different frames as described above, maintain same section lengths,

splice location, web profile of the frame, adjust the web thickness, flange
width and thickness.
5. Minimize the number of different flange widths in a frame.
6. Maintain uniformity in following and try to group as much as possible

with an eye on total economy,
a. Base plate detail
b. Anchor bolt sizes and pattern
c. Splice connection detail and pattern.
7. Follow the bending moment diagram for the controlling load combination
while deciding the frame profile.
8. Check if all the allowable compressive stresses are as close as possible to

maximum allowable, if not adjust the brace points of compression flange
by properly locating the purlins and girts.
9. Avoid using very slender webs, this reduces the allowable stresses for
compression flange.
10. Interior columns may be considered braced if continuous strut tube is

allowed and is provided at internal bracing location, ideally at locations
where the internal bracing is broken.
11. Wide flange interior columns help reduce the slenderness ratio and overall
weight of frame.
12. Tapered interior column may be used if it is fixed at top to control lateral
sway.
13. In case of tall buildings with full height block walls, if allowed use
continuous strut tube at exterior columns close to outside flange and
provide a flange brace for bracing inside flange.
14. Consider brace point at locations of mezzanine beam and joist framing into
a main frame column.
15. Consider compression flange of joist to be fully braced at location decking

screws or with bolts for chequered plate & grating.
36
16. Both flanges may be considered braced if the section framing is connected
at the center or close to one flange, the distance between the extreme edge
of framing member and far side flange does not exceed 200 mm.
17. In case of joist framing into beams, always consider the top flange braced if
compression is top only. For other cases where the bottom flange may be
in compression , consider both the flanges braced if the joist or framing
member extends beyond half the web depth of beam. Other wise, provide
flange brace for bracing the far side flange.
18. Maintain the maximum stress ratios between 0.95 and 1.00, ensure that all
the sections are fully utilized.
19. If lateral deflection is governs the design
a. Check the Height / Width ratio if greater than 0.75 use fixed base.
b. For clear span frames, increase the depth of the column and then
increase the depth of the rafter.
c. For multi-span frames, try to increase the depth of column and rafter at
knee and interior column location, then try to fix the columns at top,
and then try fixing the base of interior columns. This may need built-
up section instead of tube columns.
20. If vertical deflection is governs the design, try increasing the rafter depth at
knee and then column depth at knee, slight increase in the depth at ridge
might help in case of clear span frames for less wide buildings.
21. Provide camber for very large width clear span frames.
22. For buildings with crane, both flanges of the columns can be considered
braced at level of crane beam.
23. Top flange of crane beam can be considered braced at location of

longitudinal bracing to column flange.
24. For independent crane columns, consider brace points at the tie member
connecting the independent crane column to main frame column.
37
Insulation
Table 14.15 Quantity of insulation in m2 that can be loaded in one 40 feet

long container:
Density 12 kg/m3 16 kg/m3 20 kg/ m3

Size FRK(FSK) WMSK(MB) FRK(FSK) WMSK(MB) FRK(FSK) WMSK(MB)
50 3960 3520 2530 2640 2530 2640
75 3000 2640 - 1760 2090 1760
100 - 1760 - 1320 - 1320
1. R11 translates into WMSK 50 mm thk.

2. R12 translates into WMSK 100mm thk 12 kg/m3.
3. R20 translates into WMSK 150mm thk 12 kg/m3.
4. R30 translates into 240 mm thick fiberglass insulation.
5. Facing width of FRK is 1.2 m width and WMSK is 1.1 m.
6. Covering width of FRK is 1.1 m width and WMSK is 1.0 m.
Table 14.16 ‘R’ Values

Expanded Extruded Polyurethene/
Name of Product Fiberglass
Polystrene Polystrene Polyisocyanurate
White Blueboard or Foil-faced OR
Description Blankets or batts
"Beadboard" Pinkboard Felt-faced
R11-R13 = 3.5"
R19 = 6.25"
R-value R4 = 1" R5 = 1" R6 = 1"
R21 = 5.25"
evaluation in R6 = 1.5" R7.5 = 1.5" R9 = 1.5"
R25 = 8.75"
inches R8 = 2" R10 = 2" R12 = 2"
R30 = 9.50"
R38 = 12”
[Where, R is the thermal resistance of the roofing material in ft2 h °F/Btu (°K m2/W)]
Examples:-
To covert R20 (ft2 h °F/Btu) value to U value in (W/m2 K)
U = 1 / (R / 5.678) = 1 / (20/5.678) = 0.28 (W/m2 K)
Similarly, to convert R30 (ft2 h °F/Btu) value to U value in (W/m2 K)
U = 1 / (R / 5.678) = 1 / (30/5.678) = 0.19 (W/m2 K)
R = Thickness (T) / k °K m2/W
U =1/R
38
Miscelleanous Guide Lines
1. As far as possible backup plates at bracing connection should be avoided

refer table below for web capacity of different thickness.
Table 14.17
Maximum Bracing Force
Sr. No. Web Thickness (mm)
(kN)
1 5 44.70
2 6 53.70
3 8 71.60
4 10 89.50
5 12 107.5
Refer mail from Eng. Mgr. dated 23-03-2004
2. For roof monitors of throat width exceeding 2.5 meters, provide one
continuous row of strut tube (minimum 150x150x4.5) at the ridge for the
full length of building.
39
15
Chapter
P A N E L & F A S T E N E R S D E S I G N
Panel & Fasteners Design

At Mammut Building Systems (MBS) there are 2 types of material and 3
profiles are used as Roof or Wall panel. These are listed in table below,
Table 15.1 Standard Single Skin Panels.
Thickness Cover
Material Profiles Coil Width
(mm) Width
Aluzinc 0.50 & 0.70 M30-252 1010 mm
M45-250 1219 mm 1000 mm
Aluminium 0.70 M45-150 900 mm
Table 15.2 Sandwich Panels
Exterior Skin Thickness PU Thickness Cover Width

Coil Width
Profile (mm) (mm) (mm)
M30-252 1000
M45-250 35, 50, 75, 100 1000
M45-150 0.50 900
Micro-ribbed and 1219 mm
Microwave 0.70
50, 75, 100 996
Stripped
Flat
Interior Skin Thickness
Coil Width
Profile / Material (mm)
Micro-ribbed
0.35
Microwave
and 1100 mm
Stripped
0.50
Flat
Other Materials
Fleece
Al. Foil
1
Panel thickness:
1. All thicknesses of roof and wall panels are TCTP “Total Coated Thickness
Painted”. They include the thickness of Aluzinc coating and paint. This
means a BMT “Base Metal Thickness” is lesser than the TCTP. (Refer
table below)
Table 15.3 TCTP and BMT

Sr. No. Panel Type & Finish Deductions
1 Aluzinc Mill Finish (Primer Coated) TCTP - 0.044 = BMT
2 Aluzinc Painted TCTP - 0.064 = BMT
3 Galvanized Mill Finish (AL+Zn Coated) TCTP – 0.032 = BMT
4 Aluminium Mill Finish TCTP = BMT
5 Aluminium Painted TCTP – 0.025 = BMT
Assumptions
(Aluminium +Zinc) Coating Thickness = 0.032 mm
Primer Thickness = 0.012 / 0.015 mm
Paint Thickness = 0.020 / 0.010 mm
Base metal thickness varies for different material and finish, For the purpose of
design the actual base metal thickness is used for calculation of section
properties.
2. If a customer specifies a different thickness please consult purchasing for

prices. However, approval of V.P. is required before quoting.
3. For panels requiring PVF2 (Poly Vinyl Fluoride 2) finish

a) V.P. approval is required.
b) Extended delivery time should be informed to the client.
c) When PVF2 panels are used, all fasteners should be “Stainless Steel”.
2
Table 15.4 ‘U & R’ Values for Protec Sandwich Panels
Coefficient of Heat Transmission (U-Value, W/(m²K))

Coefficient of Thermal Resistance (R-Value, (m²K)/W)
Based on the declared aged k-value of 0.024 W/mK for a PUR foam in a diffusion-closed panel
For Roof Panels
Nominal Panel Profile 30/252 Profile 45/250 Profile 45/150 Flat Panel
Thickness (mm) U R U R U R U R
35 0.584 1.502 0.541 1.635 0.468 1.923 n.a. n.a.
50 0.447 2.024 0.421 2.164 0.377 2.451 n.a. n.a.
75 0.329 2.830 0.315 2.964 0.291 3.219 n.a. n.a.
100 0.266 3.546 0.256 3.690 0.242 3.921 n.a. n.a.
For Wall Panels
35 0.596 1.464 0.552 1.598 0.476 1.892 n.a. n.a.
50 0.454 1.992 0.427 2.137 0.381 2.415 0.445 2.101
75 0.333 2.798 0.318 2.941 0.294 3.191 0.310 3.061
100 0.268 3.521 0.258 3.663 0.243 3.906 0.231 4.184
Table 15.5 ‘U & R’ Values for Ecosafe Sandwich Panels
Coefficient of Heat Transmission (U-Value, W/(m²K))

Coefficient of Thermal Resistance (R-Value, (m²K)/W)
Based on the declared aged k-value of 0.024 W/mK for a PUR foam in a diffusion-closed panel
For Roof Panels
Nominal Panel Profile 30/252 Profile 45/250 Profile 45/150 Flat Panel
Thickness (mm) U R U R U R U R
35 0.584 1.502 0.541 1.635 0.468 1.923 n.a. n.a.
50 0.447 2.024 0.421 2.164 0.377 2.451 n.a. n.a.
75 0.329 2.830 0.315 2.964 0.291 3.219 n.a. n.a.
100 0.266 3.546 0.256 3.690 0.242 3.921 n.a. n.a.
For Wall Panels
35 0.596 1.464 0.552 1.598 0.476 1.892 n.a. n.a.
50 0.454 1.992 0.427 2.137 0.381 2.415 0.445 2.101
75 0.333 2.798 0.318 2.941 0.294 3.191 0.310 3.061
100 0.268 3.521 0.258 3.663 0.243 3.906 0.231 4.184
3
Quantity of sandwich panels that can be accommodated in a container /

trailer:
Table 15.6
Number and Total Area of Panels that can be loaded in a 12 m Trailer
Mammut Sandwich Panel PU No. of No. of Panels

Total No. of Panel Average Total No. of
Core Pallets per Pallet in a
Panels in a 12m Width Length of Panels in a 12m
Thk. per 12m 12m
(m) Panel (m)
(mm) T or C
Exterior Interior
T C T C T C
High Rib 50 4 13 12 52 48 1 10.5 546 504
Flat Series
M30-252
MW - MR 75 4 10 9 40 36 1 10.5 420 378
M45-250
ST- FL
M45-150 100 4 8 7 32 28 1 10.5 336 294
High Rib 50 4 11 10 44 40 1 10.5 462 420
Flat Series
M30-252
MW - MR 75 4 9 8 36 32 1 10.5 378 336
M45-250
ST- FL
M45-150 100 4 7 6 28 24 1 10.5 294 252
High Rib 50 4 22 19 88 76 1 10.5 924 798
Flat Series
M30-252
MW - MR 75 4 14 13 56 52 1 10.5 588 546
M45-250
ST- FL
M45-150 100 4 11 9 44 36 1 10.5 462 378
T – Denotes Trailer , C – Denotes Container
The section properties can be calculated manual as per Section 3 of AISI 2001
Manual. The values tabulated in the load table for various panel profiles below
are calculated using RSG Software (CFS Version 4.14).
Based on these properties the allowable loads are calculated for any of the 3
case that is Moment, Shear or Deflection which governs.
4
Example 15.1
Let us consider a panel of 0.50 mm thk Aluzinc material and M45-250 profile.
The base metal thickness is taken as 0.425 mm
We know the equation and location for maximum moment for 1, 2 and 3 spans
beam for a uniform load are as given below,
Moment
1 Span M = WL2 / 8 Location at mid span
2 Span M = 0.07 WL2 Location at mid span
2 Span M = WL2 / 8 Location at support
3 Span M = 0.08 WL2 Location at midspan
3 Span M = WL2 / 10 Location at support
Shear
1 Span V = WL / 2 Location at support
2 Span V = 5 WL / 8 Location at support
3 Span V = 6 WL / 10 Location at support
Deflection
1 Span D = 0.013 WL4 / EI Location at midspan
Re-writing the above equation in terms of W as below,

Moment
1 Span W = 8 M / L2 Location at mid span
2 Span W = M / (0.07 L )
2 Location at support
2 Span W = 8 M / L2 Location at support
3 Span W = M / (0.08 L )
2 Location at support
3 Span W = 10 M / L2 Location at support
Shear
1 Span W=8V/L Location at support
2 Span W=8V/5L Location at support
3 Span W = 10 V / 6 L Location at support
Deflection
1 Span W = 76.9 DEI / L4 Location at midspan
2 Span W = 185 DEI / L4 Location at midspan
3 Span W = 145 DEI / L4 Location at midspan
5
We know, from panel load chart, the maximum allowable moment, shear and
deflection are as below,
Compression at top Max. Moment M atx = 0.74 kNm
Compression at bottom Max. Moment M abx = 0.99 kNm
Max. Shear Va = 4.02 kN
Max Deflection D = L / 60
Substituting the values of Max. Moment = M, Max. Shear = V, Maximum

deflection = L/60 and L = 2.00 m, E = 20000, I tx = 11.49, we get,
Moment
1 Span W = 8 x 0.74 / 22 = 1.48 kN/m2
2 Span W = 0.74 / (0.07 x 22) = 2.64 kN/m2
2 Span W = 8 x 0.99 / 22 = 1.98 kN/m2
3 Span W = 0.74 / (0.08 x 22) = 2.31 kN/m2
3 Span W = 10 x 0.99 / 22 = 2.48 kN/m2
Shear
1 Span W = 8 x 4.02 / 2 = 16.1 kN/m2
2 Span W = 8 x 4.02 / (5 x 2) = 3.22 kN/m2
3 Span W = 10 x 4.02 / (6 x 2) = 3.35 kN/m2
Deflection
1 Span W = 76.9 x 2 x 20000 x 11.49/(60 x 24 x 10000*)
= 3.68 kN/m2
2 Span W = 185 x 2 x 20000 x 11.49 /(60 x 24 x 10000*)
= 8.86 kN/m2
3 Span W = 145 x 2 x 20000 x 11.49 /(60 x 24 x 10000*)
= 6.94 kN/m2
(10000* is the conversion factor for different units cm to m)
Hence the minimum of all the above for D+L case

1 Span = 1.47 kN/m2
2 Span = 1.98 kN/m2
3 Span = 2.31 kN/m2
6
Similarly for Wind Pressure (WP) case, all the equations above remain same.
We see that deflection does not govern; hence we use the same allowable load
for Wind Pressure (WP) as for D+L case.
For wind suction, the equations are re-written with interchanging the values
for M abx instead of M atx , and also I bx is used instead of I tx for deflection, as
shown below,
Moment
1 Span W = 8 x 0.99 / 22 = 1.98 kN/m2
2 Span W = 0.99 / (0.07 x 22) = 3.53 kN/m2
2 Span W = 8 x 0.74 / 22 = 1.48 kN/m2
3 Span W = 0.99 / (0.08 x 22) = 3.09 kN/m2
3 Span W = 10 x 0.74 / 22 = 1.85 kN/m2
1 Span W = 76.9 x 2 x 20000 x 10.99/(60 x 24 x 10000*)

= 3.52 kN/m2
2 Span W = 185 x 2 x 20000 x 10.99 /(60 x 24 x 10000*)
= 8.48 kN/m2
3 Span W = 145 x 2 x 20000 x 10.99 /(60 x 2 x 10000*)
4
= 6.62 kN/m2
(10000* is the conversion factor for different units cm to m)
Hence the minimum of all the above for Wind Suction (WS) case
1 Span = 1.75 kN/m2
2 Span = 1.48 kN/m2
3 Span = 1.85 kN/m2
Example 15.2
Dead Load = 0.05 kN/m2

Live Load = 0.57 kN/ m2
Total Load = 0.62 kN/ m2
No. of Spans =2
Span = 2.5 m
Allowable load as per the table for 0.5 Aluzinc for 2 spans = 1.27 kN/ m2
Hence it is OK to use 2.5 meter span for above panel material, profile and
thickness.
Similarly, it should be checked for Wind Pressure and Wind Suction especially
in the corners and edge strips.
7
For Sandwich panels, the allowable capacities should be obtained by

performing full scale test. In the absence of such facility, rational conservative
theory is applied as follows.
 The contribution from the PU in sandwich panels is ignored.

 Only the effect of neutral axis being lowered due to the presence of
inner skin if metal.
 For non-metallic inner skin the panel is considered as single skin.
The same exercise as above for single skin can be applied to check the
allowable loads in the table for any given panel.
8
Mammut Standard Panel M45-250-Aluzinc

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
0.50 1000.00 4.315 5.18 15.60 20000.00 11.49 3.58 8.53 0.74 10.99 4.84 4.81 0.99 4.02
A luzinc
C o ated 0.70 1000.00 6.228 7.62 22.92 20000.00 20.28 6.80 12.72 1.40 17.71 7.34 8.19 1.52 12.80
Steel
1.00 1000.00 9.095 11.27 33.87 20000.00 33.53 11.75 19.13 2.43 28.54 11.16 13.93 2.30 33.33
Allowab le Uniform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56 0.48
1 WP 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.94 0.71 0.54 0.43 0.34
WS 7.94 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.76 1.24 0.90 0.68 0.52 0.41 0.33
D+L 6.43 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.99 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65
0.50 2 WP 6.43 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.99 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65
WS 5.92 3.79 2.63 1.93 1.48 1.17 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56 0.48
D+L 7.31 5.85 4.11 3.02 2.31 1.83 1.48 1.22 1.03 0.88 0.76
3 WP 7.31 5.85 4.11 3.02 2.31 1.83 1.48 1.22 1.03 0.81 0.65
WS 7.31 4.74 3.29 2.42 1.85 1.46 1.18 0.98 0.82 0.70 0.60
D+L 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.06 0.92
1 WP 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.66 1.25 0.96 0.76 0.61
WS 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 2.83 1.99 1.45 1.09 0.84 0.66 0.53
D+L 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.35 1.15 0.99
0.70 2 WP 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.35 1.15 0.99
WS 11.23 7.19 4.99 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.06 0.92
D+L 15.15 9.70 6.73 4.95 3.79 2.99 2.42 2.00 1.68 1.43 1.24
3 WP 15.15 9.70 6.73 4.95 3.79 2.99 2.42 2.00 1.68 1.43 1.14
WS 14.04 8.99 6.24 4.58 3.51 2.77 2.25 1.86 1.56 1.25 1.00
D+L 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.83 3.10 2.57 2.16 1.84 1.58
1 WP 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.77 2.75 2.06 1.59 1.25 1.00
WS 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.57 3.21 2.34 1.76 1.35 1.06 0.85
D+L 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.74 1.50
1.00 2 WP 18.42 11.79 8.19 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.74 1.50
WS 19.40 12.42 8.62 6.33 4.85 3.83 3.10 2.57 2.16 1.84 1.58
D+L 23.03 14.74 10.24 7.52 5.76 4.55 3.68 3.05 2.56 2.18 1.88
3 WP 23.03 14.74 10.24 7.52 5.76 4.55 3.68 3.05 2.56 2.18 1.88
WS 24.25 15.52 10.78 7.92 6.06 4.79 3.88 3.21 2.55 2.01 1.61

9
Mammut Standard Panel M45-250-Aluminium

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
0.50 1000.00 1.527 5.71 17.11 6998.00 12.58 3.91 9.35 0.34 11.85 5.26 5.14 0.45 1.85
0.70 1000.00 2.223 8.14 24.42 6998.00 21.28 7.08 13.53 0.61 18.47 7.73 8.43 0.67 5.38
1.00 1000.00 3.221 11.80 35.38 6998.00 34.73 12.11 19.92 1.05 29.07 11.52 13.93 1.00 13.89
Allo wable Uniform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Pane l
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 2.72 1.74 1.21 0.89 0.68 0.54 0.44 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.22
1 WP 2.72 1.74 1.21 0.89 0.68 0.49 0.36 0.27 0.21 0.16 0.13
WS 3.57 2.28 1.57 0.99 0.66 0.47 0.34 0.26 0.20 0.15 0.12
D+L 2.96 2.28 1.59 1.17 0.89 0.70 0.57 0.47 0.40 0.34 0.29
0.50 2 WP 2.96 2.28 1.59 1.17 0.89 0.70 0.57 0.47 0.40 0.34 0.29
WS 2.72 1.74 1.21 0.89 0.68 0.54 0.44 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.22
D+L 3.36 2.69 1.89 1.39 1.06 0.84 0.68 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.35
3 WP 3.36 2.69 1.89 1.39 1.06 0.84 0.68 0.51 0.39 0.31 0.25
WS 3.36 2.18 1.51 1.11 0.85 0.67 0.54 0.45 0.37 0.29 0.23
D+L 4.91 3.14 2.18 1.60 1.23 0.97 0.79 0.65 0.55 0.47 0.40
1 WP 4.91 3.14 2.18 1.60 1.19 0.84 0.61 0.46 0.35 0.28 0.22
WS 5.37 3.44 2.39 1.54 1.03 0.73 0.53 0.40 0.31 0.24 0.19
Aluminium
D+L 5.37 3.44 2.39 1.75 1.34 1.06 0.86 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.44
0.70 2 WP 5.37 3.44 2.39 1.75 1.34 1.06 0.86 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.44
WS 4.91 3.14 2.18 1.60 1.23 0.97 0.79 0.65 0.55 0.47 0.40
D+L 6.71 4.29 2.98 2.19 1.68 1.33 1.07 0.89 0.75 0.64 0.55
3 WP 6.71 4.29 2.98 2.19 1.68 1.33 1.07 0.86 0.67 0.52 0.42
WS 6.14 3.93 2.73 2.00 1.54 1.21 0.98 0.75 0.58 0.45 0.36
D+L 8.42 5.39 3.74 2.75 2.10 1.66 1.35 1.11 0.94 0.80 0.69
1 WP 8.42 5.39 3.74 2.75 1.94 1.37 1.00 0.75 0.58 0.45 0.36
WS 8.00 5.12 3.56 2.43 1.63 1.14 0.83 0.63 0.48 0.38 0.30
D+L 8.00 5.12 3.56 2.61 2.00 1.58 1.28 1.06 0.89 0.76 0.65
1.00 2 WP 8.00 5.12 3.56 2.61 2.00 1.58 1.28 1.06 0.89 0.76 0.65
WS 8.42 5.39 3.74 2.75 2.10 1.66 1.35 1.11 0.94 0.80 0.69
D+L 10.00 6.40 4.44 3.27 2.50 1.98 1.60 1.32 1.11 0.95 0.82
3 WP 10.00 6.40 4.44 3.27 2.50 1.98 1.60 1.32 1.09 0.86 0.68
WS 10.52 6.73 4.68 3.44 2.63 2.08 1.57 1.18 0.91 0.72 0.57

10
Mammut Standard Panel M45-250-Galvanized

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
B ase T h ic k ne s g Widt h a l A re a S x- S x- S x- S x-
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
( m m) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
0.50 1000.00 5.028 6.10 18.31 20000.00 14.58 4.68 10.08 0.97 13.48 5.76 6.07 1.19 6.55
0.70 1000.00 6.942 8.53 25.63 20000.00 23.87 8.19 14.31 1.69 20.30 8.27 9.54 1.71 17.99
1.00 1000.00 9.813 1.22 36.60 20000.00 36.60 12.86 20.72 2.65 31.38 12.12 15.50 2.50 38.95
Allowab le Uniform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 7.73 4.95 3.43 2.52 1.93 1.53 1.24 1.02 0.86 0.73 0.63
1 WP 7.73 4.95 3.43 2.52 1.93 1.53 1.19 0.90 0.69 0.54 0.44
WS 9.50 6.08 4.22 3.10 2.16 1.51 1.10 0.83 0.64 0.50 0.40
D+L 9.50 6.08 4.22 3.10 2.38 1.88 1.52 1.26 1.06 0.90 0.78
0.50 2 WP 9.50 6.08 4.22 3.10 2.38 1.88 1.52 1.26 1.06 0.90 0.78
WS 7.73 4.95 3.43 2.52 1.93 1.53 1.24 1.02 0.86 0.73 0.63
D+L 11.88 7.60 5.28 3.88 2.97 2.35 1.90 1.57 1.32 1.12 0.97
3 WP 11.88 7.60 5.28 3.88 2.97 2.35 1.90 1.57 1.30 1.03 0.82
WS 9.66 6.18 4.29 3.15 2.42 1.91 1.55 1.28 1.07 0.91 0.76
D+L 13.52 8.65 6.01 4.41 3.38 2.67 2.16 1.79 1.50 1.28 1.10
1 WP 13.52 8.65 6.01 4.41 3.38 2.67 1.96 1.47 1.13 0.89 0.71
WS 13.66 8.74 6.07 4.46 3.25 2.28 1.66 1.25 0.96 0.76 0.61
Galvanized
D+L 13.66 8.74 6.07 4.46 3.41 2.70 2.18 1.81 1.52 1.29 1.11
0.70 2 WP 13.66 8.74 6.07 4.46 3.41 2.70 2.18 1.81 1.52 1.29 1.11
WS 13.52 8.65 6.01 4.41 3.38 2.67 2.16 1.79 1.50 1.28 1.10
D+L 17.07 10.92 7.59 5.57 4.27 3.37 2.73 2.26 1.90 1.62 1.39
3 WP 17.07 10.92 7.59 5.57 4.27 3.37 2.73 2.26 1.90 1.62 1.34
WS 16.90 10.82 7.51 5.52 4.23 3.34 2.70 2.23 1.82 1.43 1.14
D+L 21.23 13.59 9.44 6.93 5.31 4.19 3.40 2.81 2.36 2.01 1.73
1 WP 21.23 13.59 9.44 6.93 5.31 4.11 3.00 2.25 1.74 1.36 1.09
WS 20.02 12.82 8.90 6.54 5.01 3.53 2.57 1.93 1.49 1.17 0.94
D+L 20.02 12.82 8.90 6.54 5.01 3.96 3.20 2.65 2.22 1.90 1.63
1.00 2 WP 20.02 12.82 8.90 6.54 5.01 3.96 3.20 2.65 2.22 1.90 1.63
WS 21.23 13.59 9.44 6.93 5.31 4.19 3.40 2.81 2.36 2.01 1.73
D+L 25.03 16.02 11.12 8.17 6.26 4.94 4.00 3.31 2.78 2.37 2.04
3 WP 25.03 16.02 11.12 8.17 6.26 4.94 4.00 3.31 2.78 2.37 2.04
WS 26.54 16.99 11.80 8.67 6.64 5.24 4.25 3.51 2.81 2.21 1.77

11
Mammut Standard Panel M30-252 - Aluzinc

1010
252.5 252.5 252.5 252.5
15
25
31.4
.2
4
2.8
30
5
79
29.5 34.3 37 33 37 34.3 30 34 37 33 37 34
175.6 79.5 173 79.5 173 79.5 173

We b
P a nel
N o m in Ix T o p in C o m pre s sio n B o t t o m in C o m pre s s io n S hea
al ( F ull E r
B ase T hick ne s g Widt h a l A re a S x- S x- S x- S x-
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) ( kN / c m
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2) (cm 4 ) (cm 4) (cm 3) ( cm 3) (kN m) ( cm 4) (cm 3) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (kN )
2)
0.50 1010 4.315 5.13 6.70 20000 5.21 2.24 7.29 0.46 3.57 2.53 2.09 0.45 8.01
A luzinc
C o ated 0.70 1010 6.228 7.54 9.84 20000 9.17 4.15 10.80 0.86 5.72 3.81 3.68 0.76 17.33
Steel
1.00 1010 9.095 11.16 14.57 20000 14.57 6.68 16.08 1.38 9.59 5.84 6.63 1.21 25.97

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 3.71 2.37 1.65 1.21 0.93 0.73 0.59 0.49 0.41 0.35 0.30
1 WP 3.71 2.37 1.65 1.21 0.83 0.59 0.43 0.32 0.25 0.19 0.16
WS 3.63 2.32 1.35 0.85 0.57 0.40 0.29 0.22 0.17 0.13 0.11
D+L 3.63 2.32 1.61 1.18 0.91 0.72 0.58 0.48 0.40 0.34 0.30
0.50 2 WP 3.63 2.32 1.61 1.18 0.91 0.72 0.58 0.48 0.40 0.34 0.30
WS 3.71 2.37 1.65 1.21 0.93 0.73 0.59 0.49 0.41 0.32 0.26
D+L 4.53 2.90 2.02 1.48 1.13 0.90 0.73 0.60 0.50 0.43 0.37
3 WP 4.53 2.90 2.02 1.48 1.13 0.90 0.73 0.60 0.47 0.37 0.29
WS 4.63 2.97 2.06 1.51 1.08 0.76 0.55 0.41 0.32 0.25 0.20
D+L 6.86 4.39 3.05 2.24 1.71 1.35 1.10 0.91 0.76 0.65 0.55
1 WP 6.86 4.39 3.05 2.19 1.47 1.03 0.75 0.56 0.43 0.34 0.27
WS 6.08 3.75 2.17 1.37 0.92 0.64 0.47 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.17
D+L 6.08 3.89 2.70 1.98 1.52 1.20 0.97 0.80 0.68 0.58 0.50
0.70 2 WP 6.08 3.89 2.70 1.98 1.52 1.20 0.97 0.80 0.68 0.58 0.50
WS 6.86 4.39 3.05 2.24 1.71 1.35 1.10 0.85 0.65 0.51 0.41
D+L 7.59 4.86 3.38 2.48 1.90 1.50 1.22 1.00 0.84 0.72 0.62
3 WP 7.59 4.86 3.38 2.48 1.90 1.50 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.64 0.52
WS 8.57 5.49 3.81 2.58 1.73 1.21 0.88 0.66 0.51 0.40 0.32
D+L 11.03 7.06 4.90 3.60 2.76 2.18 1.77 1.46 1.23 1.04 0.87
1 WP 11.03 7.06 4.90 3.48 2.33 1.64 1.19 0.90 0.69 0.54 0.43
WS 9.65 6.17 3.64 2.29 1.53 1.08 0.79 0.59 0.45 0.36 0.29
D+L 9.65 6.17 4.29 3.15 2.41 1.91 1.54 1.28 1.07 0.91 0.79
1.00 2 WP 9.65 6.17 4.29 3.15 2.41 1.91 1.54 1.28 1.07 0.91 0.79
WS 11.03 7.06 4.90 3.60 2.76 2.18 1.77 1.42 1.09 0.86 0.69
D+L 12.06 7.72 5.36 3.94 3.01 2.38 1.93 1.59 1.34 1.14 0.98
3 WP 12.06 7.72 5.36 3.94 3.01 2.38 1.93 1.59 1.30 1.03 0.82
WS 13.79 8.83 6.13 4.32 2.90 2.03 1.48 1.11 0.86 0.67 0.54
A llow a ble loa ds for w in d a r e w it h ou t t h e 3 3 % in cr ea se

12
Mammut Standard Panel M30-252 - Aluminium

1010
252.5 252.5 252.5 252.5
15
25
31.4
.2
4
2.8
30
5
79
29.5 34.3 37 33 37 34.3 30 34 37 33 37 34
175.6 79.5 173 79.5 173 79.5 173

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
Aluminium
0.50 1010 1.527 5.65 7.37 6998 5.73 2.46 8.01 0.21 3.89 2.76 2.38 0.21 5.56
0.70 1010 2.223 8.06 10.52 6998 9.72 4.39 11.48 0.38 6.01 4.04 3.82 0.33 8.98
1.00 1010 3.221 11.68 15.25 6998 15.25 6.99 16.79 0.61 9.76 6.05 6.61 0.52 12.95
Al lowable Uniform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 1.71 1.09 0.76 0.56 0.43 0.34 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.15 0.12
1 WP 1.71 1.09 0.76 0.48 0.32 0.23 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.07 0.06
WS 1.65 0.89 0.52 0.32 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.04
D+L 1.65 1.05 0.73 0.54 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13
0.50 2 WP 1.65 1.05 0.73 0.54 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13
WS 1.71 1.09 0.76 0.56 0.43 0.34 0.27 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.10
D+L 2.06 1.32 0.92 0.67 0.51 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.17
3 WP 2.06 1.32 0.92 0.67 0.51 0.41 0.31 0.23 0.18 0.14 0.11
WS 2.14 1.37 0.95 0.61 0.41 0.29 0.21 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.08
D+L 3.05 1.95 1.36 1.00 0.76 0.60 0.49 0.40 0.32 0.25 0.20
1 WP 3.05 1.95 1.29 0.81 0.54 0.38 0.28 0.21 0.16 0.13 0.10
WS 2.65 1.38 0.80 0.50 0.34 0.24 0.17 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.06
Aluminium
D+L 2.65 1.70 1.18 0.87 0.66 0.52 0.42 0.35 0.29 0.25 0.22
0.70 2 WP 2.65 1.70 1.18 0.87 0.66 0.52 0.42 0.35 0.29 0.25 0.22
WS 3.05 1.95 1.36 1.00 0.76 0.57 0.41 0.31 0.24 0.19 0.15
D+L 3.32 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.66 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27
3 WP 3.32 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.66 0.53 0.40 0.30 0.24 0.19
WS 3.81 2.44 1.51 0.95 0.64 0.45 0.33 0.24 0.19 0.15 0.12
D+L 4.86 3.11 2.16 1.59 1.21 0.96 0.78 0.64 0.51 0.40 0.32
1 WP 4.86 3.11 2.02 1.27 0.85 0.60 0.44 0.33 0.25 0.20 0.16
WS 4.20 2.24 1.29 0.82 0.55 0.38 0.28 0.21 0.16 0.13 0.10
D+L 4.20 2.69 1.87 1.37 1.05 0.83 0.67 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.34
1.00 2 WP 4.20 2.69 1.87 1.37 1.05 0.83 0.67 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.34
WS 4.86 3.11 2.16 1.59 1.21 0.92 0.67 0.50 0.39 0.31 0.24
D+L 5.25 3.36 2.33 1.71 1.31 1.04 0.84 0.69 0.58 0.50 0.43
3 WP 5.25 3.36 2.33 1.71 1.31 1.04 0.82 0.62 0.48 0.38 0.30
WS 6.07 3.88 2.44 1.54 1.03 0.72 0.53 0.40 0.31 0.24 0.19

13
Mammut Standard Panel M30-252 - Galvanized

1010
252.5 252.5 252.5 252.5
15
25
31.4
.2
4
2.8
30
5
79
29.5 34.3 37 33 37 34.3 30 34 37 33 37 34
175.6 79.5 173 79.5 173 79.5 173

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
Galvanized
0.50 1010 5.028 6.04 7.87 20000 6.70 2.96 8.59 0.61 4.35 3.00 2.72 0.56 11.20
0.70 1010 6.942 8.45 11.02 20000 10.55 4.81 12.15 0.99 6.60 4.30 4.30 0.89 19.91
1.00 1010 9.813 9.72 15.75 20000 15.75 7.21 17.31 1.49 10.67 6.37 7.52 1.31 28.33

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 4.89 3.13 2.17 1.60 1.22 0.97 0.78 0.65 0.54 0.46 0.40
1 WP 4.89 3.13 2.17 1.60 1.07 0.75 0.55 0.41 0.32 0.25 0.20
WS 4.50 2.85 1.65 1.04 0.70 0.49 0.36 0.27 0.21 0.16 0.13
D+L 4.50 2.88 2.00 1.47 1.12 0.89 0.72 0.59 0.50 0.43 0.37
0.50 2 WP 4.50 2.88 2.00 1.47 1.12 0.89 0.72 0.59 0.50 0.43 0.37
WS 4.89 3.13 2.17 1.60 1.22 0.97 0.78 0.64 0.50 0.39 0.31
D+L 5.62 3.60 2.50 1.84 1.41 1.11 0.90 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46
3 WP 5.62 3.60 2.50 1.84 1.41 1.11 0.90 0.74 0.60 0.47 0.38
WS 6.11 3.91 2.72 1.96 1.31 0.92 0.67 0.51 0.39 0.31 0.24
D+L 7.94 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.98 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.63
1 WP 7.94 5.08 3.53 2.52 1.69 1.19 0.86 0.65 0.50 0.39 0.32
WS 7.10 4.32 2.50 1.58 1.06 0.74 0.54 0.41 0.31 0.25 0.20
Galvanized
D+L 7.10 4.55 3.16 2.32 1.78 1.40 1.14 0.94 0.79 0.67 0.58
0.70 2 WP 7.10 4.55 3.16 2.32 1.78 1.40 1.14 0.94 0.79 0.67 0.58
WS 7.94 5.08 3.53 2.59 1.98 1.57 1.27 0.98 0.75 0.59 0.47
D+L 8.88 5.68 3.95 2.90 2.22 1.75 1.42 1.17 0.99 0.84 0.72
3 WP 8.88 5.68 3.95 2.90 2.22 1.75 1.42 1.17 0.94 0.74 0.59
WS 9.92 6.35 4.41 2.97 1.99 1.40 1.02 0.77 0.59 0.46 0.37
D+L 11.90 7.62 5.29 3.89 2.98 2.35 1.90 1.57 1.32 1.13 0.94
1 WP 11.90 7.62 5.29 3.76 2.52 1.77 1.29 0.97 0.75 0.59 0.47
WS 10.52 6.73 4.04 2.55 1.71 1.20 0.87 0.66 0.51 0.40 0.32
D+L 10.52 6.73 4.68 3.43 2.63 2.08 1.68 1.39 1.17 1.00 0.86
1.00 2 WP 10.52 6.73 4.68 3.43 2.63 2.08 1.68 1.39 1.17 1.00 0.86
WS 11.90 7.62 5.29 3.89 2.98 2.35 1.90 1.57 1.21 0.96 0.76
D+L 13.15 8.42 5.84 4.29 3.29 2.60 2.10 1.74 1.46 1.24 1.07
3 WP 13.15 8.42 5.84 4.29 3.29 2.60 2.10 1.74 1.41 1.11 0.89
WS 14.88 9.52 6.61 4.81 3.22 2.26 1.65 1.24 0.95 0.75 0.60

14
Mammut Standard Panel M45-150-Aluzinc
100

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
0.50 900.00 4.315 5.76 17.35 20000.00 15.78 5.41 7.64 1.12 16.29 6.12 7.03 1.26 7.61
A luzin c
C o ated 0.70 900.00 6.228 8.47 25.51 20000.00 25.15 8.94 11.51 1.84 25.51 9.12 11.58 1.88 24.22
Steel
1.00 900.00 9.095 12.53 37.76 20000.00 37.63 13.37 17.00 2.76 37.76 13.43 17.02 2.77 57.10
Allo wable Uniform Loads (kN/m 2 ):

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 8.94 5.72 3.97 2.92 2.24 1.77 1.43 1.18 0.99 0.85 0.73
1 WP 8.94 5.72 3.97 2.92 2.24 1.77 1.29 0.97 0.75 0.59 0.47
WS 10.11 6.47 4.49 3.30 2.53 1.83 1.33 1.00 0.77 0.61 0.49
D+L 10.11 6.47 4.49 3.30 2.53 2.00 1.62 1.34 1.12 0.96 0.83
0.50 2 WP 10.11 6.47 4.49 3.30 2.53 2.00 1.62 1.34 1.12 0.96 0.83
WS 8.94 5.72 3.97 2.92 2.24 1.77 1.43 1.18 0.99 0.85 0.73
D+L 12.63 8.09 5.61 4.13 3.16 2.50 2.02 1.67 1.40 1.20 1.03
3 WP 12.63 8.09 5.61 4.13 3.16 2.50 2.02 1.67 1.40 1.11 0.89
WS 11.18 7.15 4.97 3.65 2.79 2.21 1.79 1.48 1.24 1.06 0.91
D+L 14.76 9.44 6.56 4.82 3.69 2.91 2.36 1.95 1.64 1.40 1.20
1 WP 14.76 9.44 6.56 4.82 3.69 2.83 2.06 1.55 1.19 0.94 0.75
WS 15.07 9.64 6.70 4.92 3.77 2.87 2.09 1.57 1.21 0.95 0.76
D+L 15.07 9.64 6.70 4.92 3.77 2.98 2.41 1.99 1.67 1.43 1.23
0.70 2 WP 15.07 9.64 6.70 4.92 3.77 2.98 2.41 1.99 1.67 1.43 1.23
WS 14.76 9.44 6.56 4.82 3.69 2.91 2.36 1.95 1.64 1.40 1.20
D+L 18.83 12.05 8.37 6.15 4.71 3.72 3.01 2.49 2.09 1.78 1.54
3 WP 18.83 12.05 8.37 6.15 4.71 3.72 3.01 2.49 2.09 1.77 1.42
WS 18.44 11.80 8.20 6.02 4.61 3.64 2.95 2.44 2.05 1.75 1.44
D+L 22.08 14.13 9.81 7.21 5.52 4.36 3.53 2.92 2.45 2.09 1.80
1 WP 22.08 14.13 9.81 7.21 5.52 4.23 3.08 2.32 1.78 1.40 1.12
WS 22.19 14.20 9.86 7.24 5.55 4.24 3.09 2.32 1.79 1.41 1.13
D+L 22.19 14.20 9.86 7.24 5.55 4.38 3.55 2.93 2.47 2.10 1.81
1.00 2 WP 22.19 14.20 9.86 7.24 5.55 4.38 3.55 2.93 2.47 2.10 1.81
WS 22.08 14.13 9.81 7.21 5.52 4.36 3.53 2.92 2.45 2.09 1.80
D+L 27.73 17.75 12.33 9.06 6.93 5.48 4.44 3.67 3.08 2.63 2.26
3 WP 27.73 17.75 12.33 9.06 6.93 5.48 4.44 3.67 3.08 2.63 2.12
WS 27.60 17.66 12.27 9.01 6.90 5.45 4.42 3.65 3.07 2.61 2.13

15
Mammut Standard Panel M45-150-Aluminium
100

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2) (cm 4 ) (cm 4) (cm 3) (cm 3) (kN m) (cm 4) (cm 3) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (kN )
2)
0.50 900.00 1.527 6.34 19.11 6998 17.31 5.93 8.40 0.51 17.68 6.70 7.55 0.58 3.49
0.70 900.00 2.223 9.05 27.27 6998 26.71 9.46 12.25 0.82 27.26 9.75 12.36 0.85 10.15
1.00 900.00 3.221 13.11 39.51 6998 39.33 13.96 17.76 1.21 39.51 14.05 17.80 1.22 23.73

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Me tal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 4.12 2.63 1.83 1.34 1.03 0.81 0.66 0.54 0.46 0.39 0.34
1 WP 4.12 2.63 1.83 1.34 0.97 0.68 0.50 0.37 0.29 0.23 0.18
WS 4.65 2.98 2.07 1.48 0.99 0.70 0.51 0.38 0.29 0.23 0.18
D+L 4.65 2.98 2.07 1.52 1.16 0.92 0.74 0.61 0.52 0.44 0.38
0.50 2 WP 4.65 2.98 2.07 1.52 1.16 0.92 0.74 0.61 0.52 0.44 0.38
WS 4.12 2.63 1.83 1.34 1.03 0.81 0.66 0.54 0.46 0.39 0.34
D+L 5.81 3.72 2.58 1.90 1.45 1.15 0.93 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.47
3 WP 5.81 3.72 2.58 1.90 1.45 1.15 0.93 0.70 0.54 0.43 0.34
WS 5.14 3.29 2.29 1.68 1.29 1.02 0.82 0.68 0.55 0.44 0.35
D+L 6.57 4.20 2.92 2.14 1.64 1.30 1.05 0.87 0.73 0.62 0.54
1 WP 6.57 4.20 2.92 2.14 1.50 1.05 0.77 0.58 0.44 0.35 0.28
WS 6.77 4.33 3.01 2.21 1.53 1.07 0.78 0.59 0.45 0.36 0.28
Aluminium
D+L 6.77 4.33 3.01 2.21 1.69 1.34 1.08 0.90 0.75 0.64 0.55
0.70 2 WP 6.77 4.33 3.01 2.21 1.69 1.34 1.08 0.90 0.75 0.64 0.55
WS 6.57 4.20 2.92 2.14 1.64 1.30 1.05 0.87 0.73 0.62 0.54
D+L 8.47 5.42 3.76 2.76 2.12 1.67 1.35 1.12 0.94 0.80 0.69
3 WP 8.47 5.42 3.76 2.76 2.12 1.67 1.35 1.09 0.84 0.66 0.53
WS 8.21 5.26 3.65 2.68 2.05 1.62 1.31 1.09 0.85 0.67 0.54
D+L 9.70 6.21 4.31 3.17 2.42 1.92 1.55 1.28 1.08 0.92 0.79
1 WP 9.70 6.21 4.31 3.17 2.20 1.55 1.13 0.85 0.65 0.51 0.41
WS 9.76 6.25 4.34 3.19 2.21 1.55 1.13 0.85 0.66 0.52 0.41
D+L 9.76 6.25 4.34 3.19 2.44 1.93 1.56 1.29 1.08 0.92 0.80
1.00 2 WP 9.76 6.25 4.34 3.19 2.44 1.93 1.56 1.29 1.08 0.92 0.80
WS 9.70 6.21 4.31 3.17 2.42 1.92 1.55 1.28 1.08 0.92 0.79
D+L 12.20 7.81 5.42 3.98 3.05 2.41 1.95 1.61 1.36 1.16 1.00
3 WP 12.20 7.81 5.42 3.98 3.05 2.41 1.95 1.60 1.23 0.97 0.78
WS 12.12 7.76 5.39 3.96 3.03 2.39 1.94 1.60 1.24 0.97 0.78

16
Mammut Standard Panel M45-150-Galvanized
100

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
2)
0.50 900.00 5.028 6.77 20.42 20000.00 19.42 6.82 9.09 1.41 19.90 7.27 8.85 1.50 12.35
0.70 900.00 6.942 9.48 28.58 20000.00 28.33 10.08 12.90 2.08 28.58 10.21 12.95 2.11 32.63
1.00 900.00 9.813 13.54 40.82 20000.00 40.74 14.46 18.35 2.99 40.82 14.50 18.37 2.99 66.55

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Me tal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 11.25 7.20 5.00 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.07 0.92
1 WP 11.25 7.20 5.00 3.67 2.81 2.18 1.59 1.20 0.92 0.72 0.58
WS 12.01 7.69 5.34 3.92 3.00 2.24 1.63 1.23 0.94 0.74 0.59
D+L 12.01 7.69 5.34 3.92 3.00 2.37 1.92 1.59 1.33 1.14 0.98
0.50 2 WP 12.01 7.69 5.34 3.92 3.00 2.37 1.92 1.59 1.33 1.14 0.98
WS 11.25 7.20 5.00 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.49 1.25 1.07 0.92
D+L 15.01 9.61 6.67 4.90 3.75 2.97 2.40 1.98 1.67 1.42 1.23
3 WP 15.01 9.61 6.67 4.90 3.75 2.97 2.40 1.98 1.67 1.37 1.09
WS 14.07 9.00 6.25 4.59 3.52 2.78 2.25 1.86 1.56 1.33 1.12
D+L 16.65 10.66 7.40 5.44 4.16 3.29 2.66 2.20 1.85 1.58 1.36
1 WP 16.65 10.66 7.40 5.44 4.16 3.18 2.32 1.74 1.34 1.06 0.85
WS 16.86 10.79 7.49 5.51 4.22 3.21 2.34 1.76 1.35 1.07 0.85
Galvanized
D+L 16.86 10.79 7.49 5.51 4.22 3.33 2.70 2.23 1.87 1.60 1.38
0.70 2 WP 16.86 10.79 7.49 5.51 4.22 3.33 2.70 2.23 1.87 1.60 1.38
WS 16.65 10.66 7.40 5.44 4.16 3.29 2.66 2.20 1.85 1.58 1.36
D+L 21.08 13.49 9.37 6.88 5.27 4.16 3.37 2.79 2.34 2.00 1.72
3 WP 21.08 13.49 9.37 6.88 5.27 4.16 3.37 2.79 2.34 1.99 1.60
WS 20.81 13.32 9.25 6.80 5.20 4.11 3.33 2.75 2.31 1.97 1.61
D+L 23.88 15.29 10.62 7.80 5.97 4.72 3.82 3.16 2.65 2.26 1.95
1 WP 23.88 15.29 10.62 7.80 5.97 4.58 3.34 2.51 1.93 1.52 1.22
WS 23.95 15.33 10.64 7.82 5.99 4.59 3.34 2.51 1.93 1.52 1.22
D+L 23.95 15.33 10.64 7.82 5.99 4.73 3.83 3.17 2.66 2.27 1.95
1.00 2 WP 23.95 15.33 10.64 7.82 5.99 4.73 3.83 3.17 2.66 2.27 1.95
WS 23.88 15.29 10.62 7.80 5.97 4.72 3.82 3.16 2.65 2.26 1.95
D+L 29.93 19.16 13.30 9.77 7.48 5.91 4.79 3.96 3.33 2.83 2.44
3 WP 29.93 19.16 13.30 9.77 7.48 5.91 4.79 3.96 3.33 2.83 2.29
WS 29.86 19.11 13.27 9.75 7.46 5.90 4.78 3.95 3.32 2.83 2.30

17
Mammut Sandwich Panel M45/250-35 thk.

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 10.160 10.17 70.44 20000.00 48.53 8.66 25.66 1.79 38.78 10.74 9.99 2.06 3.59
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 13.800 14.95 103.58 20000.00 83.78 15.67 38.67 3.23 70.38 17.32 20.40 3.58 11.43
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 6.181 14.96 103.95 6998.00 80.86 14.95 38.44 1.30 66.79 16.97 18.66 1.47 3.93

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.58 2.83 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.35 1.17
1 WP 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.58 2.83 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.35 1.17
WS 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.64 2.18 1.83 1.45 1.16
D+L 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.83 1.56 1.35
0.50 2 WP 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.83 1.56 1.35
WS 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.35 1.17
D+L 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 1.95 1.68
3 WP 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 1.95 1.68
WS 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.36 1.99 1.69 1.46
D+L 22.86 16.56 11.50 8.45 6.47 5.11 4.14 3.42 2.87 2.45 2.11
1 WP 22.86 16.56 11.50 8.45 6.47 5.11 4.14 3.42 2.87 2.45 2.11
WS 22.86 18.29 12.71 9.34 7.15 5.65 4.58 3.78 3.18 2.62 2.10
D+L 18.29 14.63 12.19 9.34 7.15 5.65 4.58 3.78 3.18 2.71 2.34
0.70 2 WP 18.29 14.63 12.19 9.34 7.15 5.65 4.58 3.78 3.18 2.71 2.34
WS 18.29 14.63 11.50 8.45 6.47 5.11 4.14 3.42 2.87 2.45 2.11
D+L 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.68 8.94 7.06 5.72 4.73 3.97 3.39 2.92
3 WP 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.68 8.94 7.06 5.72 4.73 3.97 3.39 2.92
WS 20.78 16.63 13.85 10.56 8.09 6.39 5.17 4.28 3.59 3.06 2.64
D+L 7.86 6.29 4.62 3.39 2.60 2.05 1.66 1.37 1.15 0.98 0.85
1 WP 7.86 6.29 4.62 3.39 2.60 2.05 1.66 1.37 1.15 0.98 0.84
Aluminium
WS 7.86 6.29 5.24 3.85 2.95 2.33 1.89 1.44 1.11 0.87 0.70
D+L 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 2.95 2.33 1.89 1.56 1.31 1.12 0.96
0.70 2 WP 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 2.95 2.33 1.89 1.56 1.31 1.12 0.96
WS 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.39 2.60 2.05 1.66 1.37 1.15 0.98 0.85
D+L 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 2.91 2.36 1.95 1.64 1.40 1.20
3 WP 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 2.91 2.36 1.95 1.64 1.40 1.20
WS 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.25 2.56 2.08 1.72 1.44 1.23 1.06

A llow a ble Deflection = Spa n / 6 0
18

We b
P a ne l
N o min Ix T o p in C o m pre s s io n B o t t o m in C o m pre s s io n S he a
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
( mm ) ( mm ) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2) (cm 4 ) (cm 4) (cm 3) (cm 3) (kN m) (cm 4) (cm 3) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (kN )
2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 10.760 10.30 111.34 20000.00 77.23 11.79 31.58 2.44 56.74 14.23 11.33 2.34 3.59
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 14.400 15.15 163.72 20000.00 132.79 21.47 46.92 4.43 101.88 23.06 22.17 4.58 11.43
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 6.781 15.15 163.72 6998.00 127.89 20.37 46.78 1.77 96.85 22.46 20.60 1.79 3.93

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.58 2.16 1.84 1.59
1 WP 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.58 2.16 1.84 1.59
WS 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.47 2.08 1.77 1.53
D+L 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.53
0.50 2 WP 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.53
WS 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.59
D+L 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
3 WP 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
WS 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
D+L 22.86 18.29 15.24 11.58 8.87 7.01 5.67 4.69 3.94 3.36 2.90
1 WP 22.86 18.29 15.24 11.58 8.87 7.01 5.67 4.69 3.94 3.36 2.90
WS 22.86 18.29 15.24 11.95 9.15 7.23 5.86 4.84 4.07 3.47 2.99
D+L 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 7.23 5.86 4.84 4.07 3.47 2.99
0.70 2 WP 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 7.23 5.86 4.84 4.07 3.47 2.99
WS 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 8.87 7.01 5.67 4.69 3.94 3.36 2.90
D+L 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.04 7.32 6.05 5.08 4.33 3.74
3 WP 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.04 7.32 6.05 5.08 4.33 3.74
WS 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 8.76 7.09 5.86 4.93 4.20 3.62
D+L 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.54 2.79 2.26 1.87 1.57 1.34 1.15
1 WP 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.54 2.79 2.26 1.87 1.57 1.34 1.15
Aluminium
WS 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.58 2.83 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.26 1.01
D+L 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.35 1.17
0.70 2 WP 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.35 1.17
WS 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.26 1.87 1.57 1.34 1.15
D+L 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.36 1.99 1.69 1.46
3 WP 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.36 1.99 1.69 1.46
WS 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.83 2.34 1.96 1.67 1.44

19

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 11.760 10.51 204.51 20000.00 141.53 17.38 42.27 3.59 96.23 21.30 13.80 2.85 3.59
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 15.400 15.45 300.71 20000.00 242.40 31.74 62.54 6.55 177.35 35.03 27.49 5.68 11.43
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 7.781 15.45 300.71 6998.00 233.57 30.05 62.43 2.61 167.49 34.07 25.39 2.20 3.93

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+ L 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.61 2.39 2.21 2.05
1 WP 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.61 2.39 2.21 2.05
WS 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.61 2.39 2.16 1.86
D+ L 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.64
0.50 2 WP 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.64
WS 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.64
D+ L 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
3 WP 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
WS 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
D+ L 22.86 18.29 15.24 13.06 11.43 10.16 8.39 6.93 5.82 4.96 4.28
1 WP 22.86 18.29 15.24 13.06 11.43 10.16 8.39 6.93 5.82 4.96 4.28
WS 22.86 18.29 15.24 13.06 11.35 8.97 7.26 6.00 5.04 4.30 3.71
D+ L 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 8.13 7.26 6.00 5.04 4.30 3.71
0.70 2 WP 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 8.13 7.26 6.00 5.04 4.30 3.71
WS 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 8.13 7.32 6.65 5.82 4.96 4.28
D+ L 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.24 8.31 7.50 6.31 5.37 4.63
3 WP 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.24 8.31 7.50 6.31 5.37 4.63
WS 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.24 8.31 7.56 6.93 6.20 5.35
D+ L 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.93 3.49 3.14 2.76 2.32 1.98 1.70
1 WP 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.93 3.49 3.14 2.76 2.32 1.98 1.70
Aluminium
WS 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.93 3.48 2.82 2.33 1.96 1.67 1.44
D+ L 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.52 2.29 1.96 1.67 1.44
0.70 2 WP 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.52 2.29 1.96 1.67 1.44
WS 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.52 2.29 2.10 1.93 1.70
D+ L 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.60 2.38 2.09 1.80
3 WP 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.60 2.38 2.09 1.80
WS 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.60 2.38 2.20 2.04

20

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 12.760 10.73 330.93 20000.00 226.81 23.21 53.72 4.79 149.20 29.80 16.60 3.43 3.59
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 16.400 15.77 486.60 20000.00 388.27 42.57 79.36 8.79 279.05 48.97 33.56 6.93 11.43
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 8.781 15.77 486.60 6998.00 374.16 40.26 79.26 3.50 262.65 47.66 30.89 2.68 3.93

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.61 2.39 2.21 2.05
1 WP 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.61 2.39 2.21 2.05
WS 7.18 5.74 4.79 4.10 3.59 3.19 2.87 2.61 2.39 2.21 2.05
D+L 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.64
0.50 2 WP 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.64
WS 5.74 4.60 3.83 3.28 2.87 2.55 2.30 2.09 1.91 1.77 1.64
D+L 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
3 WP 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
WS 6.53 5.22 4.35 3.73 3.26 2.90 2.61 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.86
D+L 22.86 18.29 15.24 13.06 11.43 10.16 9.14 8.31 7.62 6.66 5.74
1 WP 22.86 18.29 15.24 13.06 11.43 10.16 9.14 8.31 7.62 6.66 5.74
WS 22.86 18.29 15.24 13.06 11.43 10.16 8.87 7.33 6.16 5.25 4.52
D+L 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 8.13 7.32 6.65 6.10 5.25 4.52
0.70 2 WP 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 8.13 7.32 6.65 6.10 5.25 4.52
WS 18.29 14.63 12.19 10.45 9.14 8.13 7.32 6.65 6.10 5.63 5.23
D+L 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.24 8.31 7.56 6.93 6.39 5.66
3 WP 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.24 8.31 7.56 6.93 6.39 5.66
WS 20.78 16.63 13.85 11.88 10.39 9.24 8.31 7.56 6.93 6.39 5.94
D+L 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.93 3.49 3.14 2.86 2.62 2.42 2.25
1 WP 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.93 3.49 3.14 2.86 2.62 2.42 2.25
Aluminium
WS 7.86 6.29 5.24 4.49 3.93 3.49 3.14 2.84 2.38 2.03 1.75
D+L 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.52 2.29 2.10 1.93 1.75
0.70 2 WP 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.52 2.29 2.10 1.93 1.75
WS 6.29 5.03 4.19 3.59 3.14 2.79 2.52 2.29 2.10 1.93 1.80
D+L 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.60 2.38 2.20 2.04
3 WP 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.60 2.38 2.20 2.04
WS 7.15 5.72 4.76 4.08 3.57 3.18 2.86 2.60 2.38 2.20 2.04

21
Mammut Sandwich Panel Flat-50 thk.

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 10.21 8.93 53.66 20000.00 4.10 0.84 12.88 0.17 5.97 14.29 1.25 0.26 2.64
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 13.85 13.13 78.90 20000.00 8.15 1.70 19.71 0.35 11.83 21.79 2.53 0.52 5.76
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 6.23 13.13 78.90 6998.00 7.45 1.55 19.30 0.13 10.88 21.43 2.31 0.20 2.19

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 1.39 0.89 0.62 0.45 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11
1 WP 1.39 0.89 0.62 0.45 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11
WS 2.07 1.32 0.92 0.67 0.52 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.17
D+L 2.07 1.32 0.92 0.67 0.52 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.17
0.50 2 WP 2.07 1.32 0.92 0.67 0.52 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.17
WS 1.39 0.89 0.62 0.45 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11
D+L 2.17 1.39 0.96 0.71 0.54 0.43 0.35 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.18
3 WP 2.17 1.39 0.96 0.71 0.54 0.43 0.35 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.18
WS 1.74 1.11 0.77 0.57 0.43 0.34 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14
D+L 2.80 1.79 1.24 0.91 0.70 0.55 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.27 0.23
1 WP 2.80 1.79 1.24 0.91 0.70 0.55 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.27 0.23
WS 4.18 2.68 1.86 1.37 1.05 0.83 0.67 0.55 0.46 0.40 0.34
D+L 4.18 2.68 1.86 1.37 1.05 0.83 0.67 0.55 0.46 0.40 0.34
0.70 2 WP 4.18 2.68 1.86 1.37 1.05 0.83 0.67 0.55 0.46 0.40 0.34
WS 2.80 1.79 1.24 0.91 0.70 0.55 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.27 0.23
D+L 4.38 2.80 1.94 1.43 1.09 0.86 0.70 0.58 0.49 0.41 0.36
3 WP 4.38 2.80 1.94 1.43 1.09 0.86 0.70 0.58 0.49 0.41 0.36
WS 3.50 2.24 1.56 1.14 0.88 0.69 0.56 0.46 0.39 0.33 0.29
D+L 1.07 0.69 0.48 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09
1 WP 1.07 0.69 0.48 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08
Aluminium
WS 1.61 1.03 0.71 0.52 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.14 0.11
D+L 1.61 1.03 0.71 0.52 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13
0.70 2 WP 1.61 1.03 0.71 0.52 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13
WS 1.07 0.69 0.48 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09
D+L 1.68 1.07 0.75 0.55 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.14
3 WP 1.68 1.07 0.75 0.55 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.14
WS 1.34 0.86 0.60 0.44 0.34 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11

22

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
We ight S e c tio It x Ma Ibx Ma Va
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2) (cm 4 ) ( cm 4) (cm 3) ( cm 3) (kN m) (c m 4) (cm 3) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (kN )
2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 11.210 9.14 121.99 20000.00 9.33 1.28 22.04 0.26 13.58 23.94 1.91 0.39 2.64
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 14.850 13.44 179.36 20000.00 18.59 2.60 33.07 0.54 26.90 35.85 3.86 0.80 5.76
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 7.229 13.44 179.36 6998.00 17.01 2.37 32.66 0.21 24.75 35.51 3.53 0.31 2.19
A ll of t h e a bov e v a lu es a r e for on e m eter of pa n el w idt h .

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 2.12 1.36 0.94 0.69 0.53 0.42 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.20 0.17
1 WP 2.12 1.36 0.94 0.69 0.53 0.42 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.20 0.17
WS 3.15 2.02 1.40 1.03 0.79 0.62 0.50 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.26
D+L 3.15 2.02 1.40 1.03 0.79 0.62 0.50 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.26
0.50 2 WP 3.15 2.02 1.40 1.03 0.79 0.62 0.50 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.26
WS 2.12 1.36 0.94 0.69 0.53 0.42 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.20 0.17
D+L 3.31 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.65 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27
3 WP 3.31 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.65 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27
WS 2.65 1.69 1.18 0.86 0.66 0.52 0.42 0.35 0.29 0.25 0.22
D+L 4.30 2.75 1.91 1.40 1.07 0.85 0.69 0.57 0.48 0.41 0.35
1 WP 4.30 2.75 1.91 1.40 1.07 0.85 0.69 0.57 0.48 0.41 0.35
WS 6.38 4.08 2.83 2.08 1.59 1.26 1.02 0.84 0.71 0.60 0.52
D+L 6.38 4.08 2.83 2.08 1.59 1.26 1.02 0.84 0.71 0.60 0.52
0.70 2 WP 6.38 4.08 2.83 2.08 1.59 1.26 1.02 0.84 0.71 0.60 0.52
WS 4.30 2.75 1.91 1.40 1.07 0.85 0.69 0.57 0.48 0.41 0.35
D+L 6.71 4.30 2.98 2.19 1.68 1.33 1.07 0.89 0.75 0.64 0.55
3 WP 6.71 4.30 2.98 2.19 1.68 1.33 1.07 0.89 0.75 0.64 0.55
WS 5.37 3.44 2.39 1.75 1.34 1.06 0.86 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.44
D+L 1.64 1.05 0.73 0.54 0.41 0.32 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13
1 WP 1.64 1.05 0.73 0.54 0.41 0.32 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13
Aluminium
WS 2.45 1.57 1.09 0.80 0.61 0.48 0.39 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20
D+L 2.45 1.57 1.09 0.80 0.61 0.48 0.39 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20
0.70 2 WP 2.45 1.57 1.09 0.80 0.61 0.48 0.39 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20
WS 1.64 1.05 0.73 0.54 0.41 0.32 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13
D+L 2.57 1.64 1.14 0.84 0.64 0.51 0.41 0.34 0.29 0.24 0.21
3 WP 2.57 1.64 1.14 0.84 0.64 0.51 0.41 0.34 0.29 0.24 0.21
WS 2.05 1.31 0.91 0.67 0.51 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.17
Th e A llow a ble loa ds for w in d a r e w it h ou t t h e 3 3 % in cr ea se

23

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 12.208 9.35 218.89 20000.00 16.74 1.73 31.77 0.36 24.35 34.03 2.57 0.53 2.64
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 15.848 13.75 321.82 20000.00 33.43 3.52 47.27 0.73 48.24 50.59 5.21 1.08 5.76
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 8.229 13.75 321.82 6998.00 30.59 3.20 46.87 0.28 44.41 50.28 4.76 0.41 2.19

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 2.86 1.83 1.27 0.93 0.72 0.56 0.46 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.23
1 WP 2.86 1.83 1.27 0.93 0.72 0.56 0.46 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.23
WS 4.24 2.72 1.89 1.39 1.06 0.84 0.68 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.35
D+L 4.22 2.72 1.89 1.39 1.06 0.84 0.68 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.35
0.50 2 WP 4.22 2.72 1.89 1.39 1.06 0.84 0.68 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.35
WS 2.86 1.83 1.27 0.93 0.72 0.56 0.46 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.23
D+L 4.47 2.86 1.99 1.46 1.12 0.88 0.72 0.59 0.50 0.42 0.36
3 WP 4.47 2.86 1.99 1.46 1.12 0.88 0.72 0.59 0.50 0.42 0.36
WS 3.58 2.29 1.59 1.17 0.89 0.71 0.57 0.47 0.40 0.34 0.29
D+L 5.81 3.72 2.58 1.90 1.45 1.15 0.93 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.47
1 WP 5.81 3.72 2.58 1.90 1.45 1.15 0.93 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.47
WS 8.61 5.51 3.83 2.81 2.15 1.70 1.38 1.14 0.96 0.81 0.70
D+L 8.61 5.51 3.83 2.81 2.15 1.70 1.38 1.14 0.96 0.81 0.70
0.70 2 WP 8.61 5.51 3.83 2.81 2.15 1.70 1.38 1.14 0.96 0.81 0.70
WS 5.81 3.72 2.58 1.90 1.45 1.15 0.93 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.47
D+L 9.08 5.81 4.03 2.96 2.27 1.79 1.45 1.20 1.01 0.86 0.74
3 WP 9.08 5.81 4.03 2.96 2.27 1.79 1.45 1.20 1.01 0.86 0.74
WS 7.26 4.65 3.23 2.37 1.82 1.43 1.16 0.96 0.81 0.69 0.59
D+L 2.22 1.42 0.99 0.73 0.56 0.44 0.36 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18
1 WP 2.22 1.42 0.99 0.73 0.56 0.44 0.36 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18
Aluminium
WS 3.31 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.65 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27
D+L 3.31 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.65 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27
0.70 2 WP 3.31 2.12 1.47 1.08 0.83 0.65 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27
WS 2.22 1.42 0.99 0.73 0.56 0.44 0.36 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18
D+L 3.47 2.22 1.54 1.13 0.87 0.69 0.56 0.46 0.39 0.33 0.28
3 WP 3.47 2.22 1.54 1.13 0.87 0.69 0.56 0.46 0.39 0.33 0.28
WS 2.78 1.78 1.23 0.91 0.69 0.55 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.23

24

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 9.848 10.09 52.72 20000.00 29.35 5.50 25.48 1.14 26.23 8.71 7.54 1.56 7.77
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 13.488 14.83 77.53 20000.00 49.91 9.69 36.70 2.00 49.08 14.71 15.47 3.04 17.88
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 5.869 14.83 77.53 6998.00 47.65 9.13 36.96 0.79 46.16 14.20 14.16 1.23 6.80

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 9.08 5.81 4.04 2.96 2.27 1.79 1.45 1.20 1.01 0.86 0.74
1 WP 9.08 5.81 4.04 2.96 2.27 1.79 1.45 1.20 1.01 0.86 0.74
WS 12.46 7.97 5.54 4.07 3.11 2.46 1.99 1.61 1.24 0.98 0.78
D+L 12.43 7.97 5.54 4.07 3.11 2.46 1.99 1.65 1.38 1.18 1.02
0.50 2 WP 12.43 7.97 5.54 4.07 3.11 2.46 1.99 1.65 1.38 1.18 1.02
WS 9.08 5.81 4.04 2.96 2.27 1.79 1.45 1.20 1.01 0.86 0.74
D+L 14.13 9.08 6.31 4.63 3.55 2.80 2.27 1.88 1.58 1.34 1.16
3 WP 14.13 9.08 6.31 4.63 3.55 2.80 2.27 1.88 1.58 1.34 1.16
WS 11.35 7.26 5.04 3.71 2.84 2.24 1.82 1.50 1.26 1.07 0.93
D+L 16.01 10.25 7.11 5.23 4.00 3.16 2.56 2.12 1.78 1.52 1.31
1 WP 16.01 10.25 7.11 5.23 4.00 3.16 2.56 2.12 1.78 1.52 1.31
WS 24.30 15.55 10.80 7.93 6.07 4.80 3.89 3.02 2.33 1.83 1.47
D+L 24.30 15.55 10.80 7.93 6.07 4.80 3.89 3.21 2.70 2.30 1.98
0.70 2 WP 24.30 15.55 10.80 7.93 6.07 4.80 3.89 3.21 2.70 2.30 1.98
WS 16.01 10.25 7.11 5.23 4.00 3.16 2.56 2.12 1.78 1.52 1.31
D+L 25.01 16.01 11.12 8.17 6.25 4.94 4.00 3.31 2.78 2.37 2.04
3 WP 25.01 16.01 11.12 8.17 6.25 4.94 4.00 3.31 2.78 2.37 2.04
WS 20.01 12.81 8.89 6.53 5.00 3.95 3.20 2.65 2.22 1.89 1.63
D+L 6.34 4.06 2.82 2.07 1.59 1.25 1.02 0.84 0.70 0.60 0.52
1 WP 6.34 4.06 2.82 2.07 1.59 1.25 1.02 0.84 0.70 0.60 0.50
Aluminium
WS 9.84 6.30 4.37 3.21 2.46 1.81 1.32 0.99 0.77 0.60 0.48
D+L 9.84 6.30 4.37 3.21 2.46 1.94 1.57 1.30 1.09 0.93 0.80
0.70 2 WP 9.84 6.30 4.37 3.21 2.46 1.94 1.57 1.30 1.09 0.93 0.80
WS 6.34 4.06 2.82 2.07 1.59 1.25 1.02 0.84 0.70 0.60 0.52
D+L 9.91 6.34 4.41 3.24 2.48 1.96 1.59 1.31 1.10 0.94 0.81
3 WP 9.91 6.34 4.41 3.24 2.48 1.96 1.59 1.31 1.10 0.94 0.81
WS 7.93 5.08 3.52 2.59 1.98 1.57 1.27 1.05 0.88 0.75 0.65

25

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 10.450 10.22 92.03 20000.00 46.31 7.04 31.65 1.45 42.92 12.92 9.10 1.88 7.77
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 14.090 15.02 135.32 20000.00 79.66 12.61 45.71 2.60 81.66 21.79 18.93 3.91 17.88
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 6.470 15.02 135.32 6998.00 75.72 11.80 45.97 1.03 77.17 21.16 17.48 1.52 6.80

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+ L 11.62 7.44 5.17 3.80 2.91 2.30 1.86 1.54 1.29 1.10 0.95
1 WP 11.62 7.44 5.17 3.80 2.91 2.30 1.86 1.54 1.29 1.10 0.95
WS 15.02 9.62 6.68 4.91 3.76 2.97 2.40 1.99 1.67 1.42 1.23
D+ L 12.43 9.62 6.68 4.91 3.76 2.97 2.40 1.99 1.67 1.42 1.23
0.50 2 WP 12.43 9.62 6.68 4.91 3.76 2.97 2.40 1.99 1.67 1.42 1.23
WS 11.62 7.44 5.17 3.80 2.91 2.30 1.86 1.54 1.29 1.10 0.95
D+ L 14.13 11.30 8.07 5.93 4.54 3.59 2.91 2.40 2.02 1.72 1.48
3 WP 14.13 11.30 8.07 5.93 4.54 3.59 2.91 2.40 2.02 1.72 1.48
WS 14.13 9.30 6.46 4.74 3.63 2.87 2.32 1.92 1.61 1.38 1.19
D+ L 20.82 13.32 9.25 6.80 5.20 4.11 3.33 2.75 2.31 1.97 1.70
1 WP 20.82 13.32 9.25 6.80 5.20 4.11 3.33 2.75 2.31 1.97 1.70
WS 31.26 20.00 13.89 10.21 7.81 6.17 5.00 4.13 3.47 2.96 2.44
D+ L 28.61 20.00 13.89 10.21 7.81 6.17 5.00 4.13 3.47 2.96 2.55
0.70 2 WP 28.61 20.00 13.89 10.21 7.81 6.17 5.00 4.13 3.47 2.96 2.55
WS 20.82 13.32 9.25 6.80 5.20 4.11 3.33 2.75 2.31 1.97 1.70
D+ L 32.51 20.82 14.46 10.62 8.13 6.42 5.20 4.30 3.61 3.08 2.66
3 WP 32.51 20.82 14.46 10.62 8.13 6.42 5.20 4.30 3.61 3.08 2.66
WS 26.02 16.65 11.56 8.50 6.51 5.14 4.16 3.44 2.89 2.46 2.12
D+ L 8.20 5.25 3.64 2.68 2.05 1.62 1.31 1.08 0.91 0.78 0.67
1 WP 8.20 5.25 3.64 2.68 2.05 1.62 1.31 1.08 0.91 0.78 0.67
Aluminium
WS 12.14 7.77 5.40 3.97 3.04 2.40 1.94 1.61 1.28 1.01 0.81
D+ L 10.88 7.77 5.40 3.97 3.04 2.40 1.94 1.61 1.35 1.15 0.99
0.70 2 WP 10.88 7.77 5.40 3.97 3.04 2.40 1.94 1.61 1.35 1.15 0.99
WS 8.20 5.25 3.64 2.68 2.05 1.62 1.31 1.08 0.91 0.78 0.67
D+ L 12.36 8.20 5.69 4.18 3.20 2.53 2.05 1.69 1.42 1.21 1.05
3 WP 12.36 8.20 5.69 4.18 3.20 2.53 2.05 1.69 1.42 1.21 1.05
WS 10.25 6.56 4.56 3.35 2.56 2.02 1.64 1.36 1.14 0.97 0.84

26

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 11.448 10.43 181.20 20000.00 82.97 9.67 42.34 2.00 80.67 21.03 12.01 2.48 7.77
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 15.088 15.34 266.43 20000.00 143.68 17.46 61.53 3.61 156.24 35.34 25.47 5.26 17.88
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 7.469 15.34 266.43 6998.00 136.18 16.30 61.76 1.42 147.20 34.38 23.44 2.04 6.80

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 15.54 10.22 7.10 5.21 3.99 3.15 2.55 2.11 1.77 1.51 1.30
1 WP 15.54 10.22 7.10 5.21 3.99 3.15 2.55 2.11 1.77 1.51 1.30
WS 15.54 12.43 8.82 6.48 4.96 3.92 3.17 2.62 2.20 1.88 1.62
D+L 12.43 9.95 8.29 6.48 4.96 3.92 3.17 2.62 2.20 1.88 1.62
0.50 2 WP 12.43 9.95 8.29 6.48 4.96 3.92 3.17 2.62 2.20 1.88 1.62
WS 12.43 9.95 7.10 5.21 3.99 3.15 2.55 2.11 1.77 1.51 1.30
D+L 14.13 11.30 9.42 8.07 6.20 4.90 3.97 3.28 2.76 2.35 2.02
3 WP 14.13 11.30 9.42 8.07 6.20 4.90 3.97 3.28 2.76 2.35 2.02
WS 14.13 11.30 8.87 6.52 4.99 3.94 3.19 2.64 2.22 1.89 1.63
D+L 28.84 18.46 12.82 9.42 7.21 5.70 4.61 3.81 3.20 2.73 2.35
1 WP 28.84 18.46 12.82 9.42 7.21 5.70 4.61 3.81 3.20 2.73 2.35
WS 35.76 26.92 18.70 13.74 10.52 8.31 6.73 5.56 4.67 3.98 3.43
D+L 28.61 22.89 18.70 13.74 10.52 8.31 6.73 5.56 4.67 3.98 3.43
0.70 2 WP 28.61 22.89 18.70 13.74 10.52 8.31 6.73 5.56 4.67 3.98 3.43
WS 28.61 18.46 12.82 9.42 7.21 5.70 4.61 3.81 3.20 2.73 2.35
D+L 32.51 26.01 20.03 14.71 11.27 8.90 7.21 5.96 5.01 4.27 3.68
3 WP 32.51 26.01 20.03 14.71 11.27 8.90 7.21 5.96 5.01 4.27 3.68
WS 32.51 23.07 16.02 11.77 9.01 7.12 5.77 4.77 4.01 3.41 2.94
D+L 11.32 7.24 5.03 3.70 2.83 2.24 1.81 1.50 1.26 1.07 0.92
1 WP 11.32 7.24 5.03 3.70 2.83 2.24 1.81 1.50 1.26 1.07 0.92
Aluminium
WS 13.60 10.42 7.24 5.32 4.07 3.22 2.60 2.15 1.81 1.54 1.33
D+L 10.88 8.70 7.24 5.32 4.07 3.22 2.60 2.15 1.81 1.54 1.33
0.70 2 WP 10.88 8.70 7.24 5.32 4.07 3.22 2.60 2.15 1.81 1.54 1.33
WS 10.88 7.24 5.03 3.70 2.83 2.24 1.81 1.50 1.26 1.07 0.92
D+L 12.36 9.89 7.86 5.78 4.42 3.49 2.83 2.34 1.97 1.67 1.44
3 WP 12.36 9.89 7.86 5.78 4.42 3.49 2.83 2.34 1.97 1.67 1.44
WS 12.36 9.06 6.29 4.62 3.54 2.80 2.26 1.87 1.57 1.34 1.16

27

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
2)
A luzinc 0.50 1000.00 12.490 10.60 275.89 20000.00 120.63 11.84 51.26 2.44 120.48 28.50 14.49 2.99 7.77
C o ated
Steel 0.70 1000.00 16.090 15.59 405.67 20000.00 209.52 21.47 74.73 4.43 235.16 47.41 30.39 6.39 17.88
Aluminium 0.70 1000.00 8.470 15.59 405.67 6998.00 198.35 20.00 74.93 1.74 221.09 46.21 28.43 2.47 6.80

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 15.54 12.43 8.69 6.38 4.89 3.86 3.13 2.59 2.17 1.85 1.60
1 WP 15.54 12.43 8.69 6.38 4.89 3.86 3.13 2.59 2.17 1.85 1.60
WS 15.54 12.43 10.36 7.81 5.98 4.73 3.83 3.16 2.66 2.27 1.95
D+L 12.43 9.95 8.29 7.10 5.98 4.73 3.83 3.16 2.66 2.27 1.95
0.50 2 WP 12.43 9.95 8.29 7.10 5.98 4.73 3.83 3.16 2.66 2.27 1.95
WS 12.43 9.95 8.29 6.38 4.89 3.86 3.13 2.59 2.17 1.85 1.60
D+L 14.13 11.30 9.42 8.07 7.06 5.91 4.79 3.96 3.32 2.83 2.44
3 WP 14.13 11.30 9.42 8.07 7.06 5.91 4.79 3.96 3.32 2.83 2.44
WS 14.13 11.30 9.42 7.98 6.11 4.83 3.91 3.23 2.72 2.31 2.00
D+L 35.46 22.69 15.76 11.58 8.86 7.00 5.67 4.69 3.94 3.36 2.89
1 WP 35.46 22.69 15.76 11.58 8.86 7.00 5.67 4.69 3.94 3.36 2.89
WS 35.76 28.61 22.71 16.68 12.77 10.09 8.17 6.76 5.68 4.84 4.17
D+L 28.61 22.89 19.07 16.35 12.77 10.09 8.17 6.76 5.68 4.84 4.17
0.70 2 WP 28.61 22.89 19.07 16.35 12.77 10.09 8.17 6.76 5.68 4.84 4.17
WS 28.61 22.69 15.76 11.58 8.86 7.00 5.67 4.69 3.94 3.36 2.89
D+L 32.51 26.01 21.67 18.09 13.85 10.94 8.86 7.33 6.16 5.24 4.52
3 WP 32.51 26.01 21.67 18.09 13.85 10.94 8.86 7.33 6.16 5.24 4.52
WS 32.51 26.01 19.70 14.47 11.08 8.75 7.09 5.86 4.92 4.20 3.62
D+L 13.60 8.89 6.18 4.54 3.47 2.74 2.22 1.84 1.54 1.32 1.13
1 WP 13.60 8.89 6.18 4.54 3.47 2.74 2.22 1.84 1.54 1.32 1.13
Aluminium
WS 13.60 10.88 8.78 6.45 4.94 3.90 3.16 2.61 2.19 1.87 1.61
D+L 10.88 8.70 7.25 6.22 4.94 3.90 3.16 2.61 2.19 1.87 1.61
0.70 2 WP 10.88 8.70 7.25 6.22 4.94 3.90 3.16 2.61 2.19 1.87 1.61
WS 10.88 8.70 6.18 4.54 3.47 2.74 2.22 1.84 1.54 1.32 1.13
D+L 12.36 9.89 8.24 7.06 5.43 4.29 3.47 2.87 2.41 2.06 1.77
3 WP 12.36 9.89 8.24 7.06 5.43 4.29 3.47 2.87 2.41 2.06 1.77
WS 12.36 9.89 7.72 5.67 4.34 3.43 2.78 2.30 1.93 1.64 1.42

28

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
A luzinc 0.50 900.00 10.099 10.73 89.07 20000.00 66.67 12.19 28.42 2.52 46.92 13.55 10.78 2.23 8.21
C o ated
Steel 0.70 900.00 13.739 15.76 130.67 20000.00 112.48 21.70 42.45 4.48 84.19 22.06 20.96 4.33 26.16
Aluminium 0.70 900.00 6.120 15.88 132.27 6998.00 110.37 21.01 42.76 1.82 80.88 21.76 19.65 1.71 9.00

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 16.42 12.89 8.95 6.57 5.03 3.98 3.22 2.66 2.24 1.91 1.64
1 WP 16.42 12.89 8.95 6.57 5.03 3.98 3.22 2.66 2.24 1.91 1.64
WS 16.42 11.39 7.91 5.81 4.45 3.52 2.85 2.35 1.98 1.69 1.40
D+L 13.14 10.51 7.91 5.81 4.45 3.52 2.85 2.35 1.98 1.69 1.45
0.50 2 WP 13.14 10.51 7.91 5.81 4.45 3.52 2.85 2.35 1.98 1.69 1.45
WS 13.14 10.51 8.76 6.57 5.03 3.98 3.22 2.66 2.24 1.91 1.64
D+L 14.93 11.94 9.89 7.27 5.56 4.40 3.56 2.94 2.47 2.11 1.82
3 WP 14.93 11.94 9.89 7.27 5.56 4.40 3.56 2.94 2.47 2.11 1.82
WS 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.22 6.29 4.97 4.03 3.33 2.80 2.38 2.05
D+L 35.83 22.93 15.92 11.70 8.96 7.08 5.73 4.74 3.98 3.39 2.92
1 WP 35.83 22.93 15.92 11.70 8.96 7.08 5.73 4.74 3.98 3.39 2.92
WS 34.61 22.15 15.38 11.30 8.65 6.84 5.54 4.58 3.85 3.14 2.51
D+L 34.61 22.15 15.38 11.30 8.65 6.84 5.54 4.58 3.85 3.28 2.83
0.70 2 WP 34.61 22.15 15.38 11.30 8.65 6.84 5.54 4.58 3.85 3.28 2.83
WS 35.83 22.93 15.92 11.70 8.96 7.08 5.73 4.74 3.98 3.39 2.92
D+L 43.27 27.69 19.23 14.13 10.82 8.55 6.92 5.72 4.81 4.10 3.53
3 WP 43.27 27.69 19.23 14.13 10.82 8.55 6.92 5.72 4.81 4.10 3.53
WS 44.79 28.66 19.91 14.62 11.20 8.85 7.17 5.92 4.98 4.24 3.66
D+L 14.60 9.34 6.49 4.77 3.65 2.88 2.34 1.93 1.62 1.38 1.19
1 WP 14.60 9.34 6.49 4.77 3.65 2.88 2.34 1.93 1.62 1.38 1.15
Aluminium
WS 13.64 8.73 6.06 4.46 3.41 2.70 2.18 1.74 1.34 1.06 0.84
D+L 13.64 8.73 6.06 4.46 3.41 2.70 2.18 1.80 1.52 1.29 1.11
0.70 2 WP 13.64 8.73 6.06 4.46 3.41 2.70 2.18 1.80 1.52 1.29 1.11
WS 14.40 9.34 6.49 4.77 3.65 2.88 2.34 1.93 1.62 1.38 1.19
D+L 16.36 10.92 7.58 5.57 4.26 3.37 2.73 2.26 1.90 1.61 1.39
3 WP 16.36 10.92 7.58 5.57 4.26 3.37 2.73 2.26 1.90 1.61 1.39
WS 16.36 11.68 8.11 5.96 4.56 3.60 2.92 2.41 2.03 1.73 1.49

29

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
2)
A luzinc 0.50 900.00 10.639 10.87 136.09 20000.00 102.55 16.27 34.05 3.36 66.37 17.75 11.90 2.46 8.21
C o ated
Steel 0.70 900.00 14.279 15.96 199.73 20000.00 171.49 28.80 50.75 5.95 122.62 29.28 23.83 4.92 26.16
Aluminium 0.70 900.00 6.660 16.08 201.75 6998.00 167.97 27.78 51.10 2.41 116.72 28.73 22.15 1.92 9.00

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+ L 16.42 13.14 10.95 8.77 6.72 5.31 4.30 3.55 2.99 2.54 2.19
1 WP 16.42 13.14 10.95 8.77 6.72 5.31 4.30 3.55 2.99 2.54 2.19
WS 16.42 12.58 8.74 6.42 4.92 3.88 3.15 2.60 2.18 1.86 1.61
D+ L 13.14 10.51 8.74 6.42 4.92 3.88 3.15 2.60 2.18 1.86 1.61
0.50 2 WP 13.14 10.51 8.74 6.42 4.92 3.88 3.15 2.60 2.18 1.86 1.61
WS 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.57 5.31 4.30 3.55 2.99 2.54 2.19
D+ L 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.03 6.14 4.85 3.93 3.25 2.73 2.33 2.01
3 WP 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.03 6.14 4.85 3.93 3.25 2.73 2.33 2.01
WS 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.09 4.94 4.08 3.43 2.92 2.52
D+ L 47.56 30.44 21.14 15.53 11.89 9.40 7.61 6.29 5.28 4.50 3.88
1 WP 47.56 30.44 21.14 15.53 11.89 9.40 7.61 6.29 5.28 4.50 3.88
WS 39.35 25.18 17.49 12.85 9.84 7.77 6.30 5.20 4.37 3.73 3.21
D+ L 39.35 25.18 17.49 12.85 9.84 7.77 6.30 5.20 4.37 3.73 3.21
0.70 2 WP 39.35 25.18 17.49 12.85 9.84 7.77 6.30 5.20 4.37 3.73 3.21
WS 41.85 30.44 21.14 15.53 11.89 9.40 7.61 6.29 5.28 4.50 3.88
D+ L 47.56 31.48 21.86 16.06 12.30 9.72 7.87 6.50 5.47 4.66 4.02
3 WP 47.56 31.48 21.86 16.06 12.30 9.72 7.87 6.50 5.47 4.66 4.02
WS 47.56 38.04 26.42 19.41 14.86 11.74 9.51 7.86 6.61 5.63 4.85
D+ L 18.00 12.35 8.58 6.30 4.82 3.81 3.09 2.55 2.14 1.83 1.58
1 WP 18.00 12.35 8.58 6.30 4.82 3.81 3.09 2.55 2.14 1.83 1.58
Aluminium
WS 15.38 9.84 6.83 5.02 3.84 3.04 2.46 2.03 1.71 1.46 1.22
D+ L 14.40 9.84 6.83 5.02 3.84 3.04 2.46 2.03 1.71 1.46 1.26
0.70 2 WP 14.40 9.84 6.83 5.02 3.84 3.04 2.46 2.03 1.71 1.46 1.26
WS 14.40 11.52 8.58 6.30 4.82 3.81 3.09 2.55 2.14 1.83 1.58
D+ L 16.36 12.30 8.54 6.28 4.81 3.80 3.08 2.54 2.14 1.82 1.57
3 WP 16.36 12.30 8.54 6.28 4.81 3.80 3.08 2.54 2.14 1.82 1.57
WS 16.36 13.09 10.72 7.88 6.03 4.76 3.86 3.19 2.68 2.28 1.97

30

We b
P a ne l
al ( F ull E r
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) (kN / cm
2)
A luzinc 0.50 900.00 11.540 11.11 241.53 20000.00 182.36 23.60 44.64 4.87 111.94 26.44 14.77 3.05 8.21
C o ated
Steel 0.70 900.00 15.180 16.42 357.91 20000.00 305.68 42.03 67.02 8.68 209.02 43.69 29.65 6.12 26.16
Aluminium 0.70 900.00 7.560 16.42 357.91 6998.00 296.49 40.09 66.81 3.48 196.97 42.52 27.35 2.37 9.00

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 16.42 13.14 10.95 9.38 8.21 7.30 6.24 5.15 4.33 3.69 3.18
1 WP 16.42 13.14 10.95 9.38 8.21 7.30 6.24 5.15 4.33 3.69 3.18
WS 16.42 13.14 10.84 7.96 6.10 4.82 3.90 3.22 2.71 2.31 1.99
D+L 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.10 4.82 3.90 3.22 2.71 2.31 1.99
0.50 2 WP 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.10 4.82 3.90 3.22 2.71 2.31 1.99
WS 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.57 5.84 5.26 4.78 4.33 3.69 3.18
D+L 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.02 4.88 4.03 3.39 2.89 2.49
3 WP 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.02 4.88 4.03 3.39 2.89 2.49
WS 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.64 5.97 5.06 4.25 3.62 3.12
D+L 52.31 41.85 30.85 22.67 17.35 13.71 11.11 9.18 7.71 6.57 5.67
1 WP 52.31 41.85 30.85 22.67 17.35 13.71 11.11 9.18 7.71 6.57 5.67
WS 48.97 31.34 21.76 15.99 12.24 9.67 7.84 6.48 5.44 4.64 4.00
D+L 41.85 31.34 21.76 15.99 12.24 9.67 7.84 6.48 5.44 4.64 4.00
0.70 2 WP 41.85 31.34 21.76 15.99 12.24 9.67 7.84 6.48 5.44 4.64 4.00
WS 41.85 33.48 27.90 22.67 17.35 13.71 11.11 9.18 7.71 6.57 5.67
D+L 47.56 38.04 27.20 19.99 15.30 12.09 9.79 8.09 6.80 5.80 5.00
3 WP 47.56 38.04 27.20 19.99 15.30 12.09 9.79 8.09 6.80 5.80 5.00
WS 47.56 38.04 31.70 25.08 19.20 15.17 12.29 10.16 8.54 7.27 6.27
D+L 18.00 14.40 12.00 9.09 6.96 5.50 4.46 3.68 3.09 2.64 2.27
1 WP 18.00 14.40 12.00 9.09 6.96 5.50 4.46 3.68 3.09 2.64 2.27
Aluminium
WS 18.00 12.16 8.44 6.20 4.75 3.75 3.04 2.51 2.11 1.80 1.55
D+L 14.40 11.52 8.44 6.20 4.75 3.75 3.04 2.51 2.11 1.80 1.55
0.70 2 WP 14.40 11.52 8.44 6.20 4.75 3.75 3.04 2.51 2.11 1.80 1.55
WS 14.40 11.52 9.60 8.23 6.96 5.50 4.46 3.68 3.09 2.64 2.27
D+L 16.36 13.09 10.55 7.75 5.94 4.69 3.80 3.14 2.64 2.25 1.94
3 WP 16.36 13.09 10.55 7.75 5.94 4.69 3.80 3.14 2.64 2.25 1.94
WS 16.36 13.09 10.91 9.35 7.45 5.89 4.77 3.94 3.31 2.82 2.43

31
Mammut Sandwich Panel M45/150-100

We b
P a nel
N o m in Ix T o p in C o m pre s sio n B o t t o m in C o m pre s s io n S hea
al ( F ull E r
B ase T hick ne s g Widt h a l A re a S x- S x- S x- S x-
M etal s Top Bot tx
Top Bot bx
n) ( kN / c m
(mm) (mm) ( k g/ m ) (cm 2 ) (cm 4 ) 2)
(cm 4 ) (cm 3 ) ( cm 3 ) (kN m) ( cm 4 ) (cm 3 ) (cm 3 ) (kN m) (kN )
A luzinc 0.50 900.00 12.439 11.37 382.26 20000.00 288.23 31.40 56.13 6.48 170.45 36.31 17.72 3.66 8.21
C o ated
Steel 0.70 900.00 16.079 16.77 564.76 20000.00 479.49 55.65 83.86 11.49 321.77 59.71 35.97 7.43 26.16
Aluminium 0.70 900.00 8.460 16.77 564.76 6998.00 465.52 53.09 83.64 4.61 302.35 58.17 33.10 2.87 9.00

Panel
Panel
Base
Thickne Spans Case
Metal
(m m ) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
D+L 16.42 13.14 10.95 9.38 8.21 7.30 6.57 5.97 5.47 4.91 4.23
1 WP 16.42 13.14 10.95 9.38 8.21 7.30 6.57 5.97 5.47 4.91 4.23
WS 16.42 13.14 10.95 9.38 7.32 5.78 4.68 3.87 3.25 2.77 2.39
D+L 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.57 5.78 4.68 3.87 3.25 2.77 2.39
0.50 2 WP 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.57 5.78 4.68 3.87 3.25 2.77 2.39
WS 13.14 10.51 8.76 7.51 6.57 5.84 5.26 4.78 4.38 4.04 3.75
D+L 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.64 5.85 4.84 4.06 3.46 2.99
3 WP 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.64 5.85 4.84 4.06 3.46 2.99
WS 14.93 11.94 9.95 8.53 7.46 6.64 5.97 5.43 4.98 4.35 3.75
D+L 52.31 41.85 34.87 29.89 22.98 18.15 14.70 12.15 10.21 8.70 7.50
1 WP 52.31 41.85 34.87 29.89 22.98 18.15 14.70 12.15 10.21 8.70 7.50
WS 52.31 38.02 26.40 19.40 14.85 11.73 9.50 7.86 6.60 5.62 4.85
D+L 41.85 33.48 26.40 19.40 14.85 11.73 9.50 7.86 6.60 5.62 4.85
0.70 2 WP 41.85 33.48 26.40 19.40 14.85 11.73 9.50 7.86 6.60 5.62 4.85
WS 41.85 33.48 27.90 23.91 20.92 18.15 14.70 12.15 10.21 8.70 7.50
D+L 47.56 38.04 31.70 24.25 18.56 14.67 11.88 9.82 8.25 7.03 6.06
3 WP 47.56 38.04 31.70 24.25 18.56 14.67 11.88 9.82 8.25 7.03 6.06
WS 47.56 38.04 31.70 27.17 23.30 18.41 14.91 12.32 10.35 8.82 7.61
D+L 18.00 14.40 12.00 10.28 9.00 7.28 5.90 4.88 4.10 3.49 3.01
1 WP 18.00 14.40 12.00 10.28 9.00 7.28 5.90 4.88 4.10 3.49 3.01
Aluminium
WS 18.00 14.40 10.22 7.51 5.75 4.54 3.68 3.04 2.55 2.18 1.88
D+L 14.40 11.52 9.60 7.51 5.75 4.54 3.68 3.04 2.55 2.18 1.88
0.70 2 WP 14.40 11.52 9.60 7.51 5.75 4.54 3.68 3.04 2.55 2.18 1.88
WS 14.40 11.52 9.60 8.23 7.20 6.40 5.76 4.88 4.10 3.49 3.01
D+L 16.36 13.09 10.91 9.35 7.18 5.68 4.60 3.80 3.19 2.72 2.35
3 WP 16.36 13.09 10.91 9.35 7.18 5.68 4.60 3.80 3.19 2.72 2.35
WS 16.36 13.09 10.91 9.35 8.18 7.12 5.77 4.77 4.01 3.41 2.94

32
Sheeting Screws
The strength calculations for sheeting screws /fasteners are governed by
AISI’s North American Specification for the Design of Cold Formed Structural
Members 2001 edition section E4.
Sheeting Screws and Fasteners include Self Drilling, Self Tapping screws.
The provisions of section E4 of AISI are applicable for all screws of diameter
more than 2.03 mm, but not greater than 6.35 mm.
Standard stock screws are of 4.8, 5.5, and 6.3 mm diameters. Generally the
length of the screw does not influence the design strength as long as 3 threads
project beyond the holding material, but it does affect the driving torque.
Longer the screws more torque required and hence more strength or diameter
of screw is required.
The screws are stocked in two material, carbon steel and stainless steel (Bi-
Metal). Stainless steel is used with aluminum panels. The drill bit of stainless
screw is made of carbon steel; hence these are also called bi-metal screws.
These screws are drawn from wire rods of various grades of steel; the threads
are either cut or rolled.
Table 15.7
Material Grade F u (N/mm2)

Carbon Steel A510 625
Stainless Steel (Bi-Metal) A304 540
Table 15.8
Screw Number Diameter in mm

# 10 4.8
# 12 5.5
# 14 6.3
The following factor of safety or resistance factor is applicable for this section
Table 15.9
LRFD Φ ASD Ω
0.50 3.00
33
General
1. As a standard for Single Skin Sheeting fasteners are always provided at the
valleys only (i.e. trough), not at the peak (crown). Unless specified in the
PIF.
2. If the fasteners are required at the crown for Single Skin Sheeting, these
should always be provided with saddle washers, this should be
accordingly priced in the estimate.
3. As a standard for Sandwich panel, fasteners are provided at crown

without saddle washers at roof only, in the walls fasteners are provided at
the valley.
a) Shear
1. Shear Strength Limited by Tilting and Bearing
a. For t 2 / t 1 <= 1.00 P ns is the least of following,
Eqn. E 4.3.1-1 P ns = 4.2 [(t 2 )3 d]0.5 F u2

Eqn. E 4.3.1-2 P ns = 2.7 t 1 d F u1
Eqn. E 4.3.1-3 P ns = 2.7 t 2 d F u2
b. For t 2 / t 1 >= 2.5 P ns is the least of following,
Eqn. E 4.3.1-4 P ns = 2.7 t 1 d F u1

Eqn. E 4.3.1-4 P ns = 2.7 t 2 d F u2
c. For 1.0 < t 2 / t 1 < 2.5 P ns shall be determined by interpolation.
Where,
d = nominal screw diameter in mm
t1 = thickness of material in contact with screw head, (panel)
t2 = thickness of material not in contact with screw head, (purlin/girt)
F u1 = Tensile strength of the material in contact with screw head, (panel)
F u2 = Tensile strength of the material not in contact with screw head,
(purlin/girt)
34
2. Shear Strength Limited by End Distance
P ns = 2.7 t e F u
Where,
t = thickness of the connected part
e = edge distance from center of hole to nearest end of connected part
Fu = Tensile strength of the connected material. (panel)
3. Shear Strength of Screws
P ns = 0.80 P ss
Where,
P ss = Shear strength or resistance of screw reported by the manufacturer.
The values for all cases above are tabulated in Table 12.18 for common screws
diameters, purlins and panel thickness.
35
b) Tension
For screws which carry tension, the head of the screw or washer, if a washer is
provided, shall be a diameter d w not less than 7.94 mm and at least 1.27 mm
thick. 3 modes of failure govern the design, Pull-Out, Pull-Over and Tension in
screws.
1. Pull-Out (of Screw from Purlin or Girt)
P not = 0.85 t c d F u2
2. Pull-Over (of Panel through the washer)
P not = 1.5 t 1 d w F u1
3. Tension in Screws
P not = 0.80 P ts
Where,
d = nominal screw diameter in mm
dw = washer diameter, should not be greater than 12.7 mm
t1 = thickness of material in contact with screw head, (panel)
tc = lesser of depth of penetration or t 2 (t c = t 2 )
F u1 = Tensile strength of the material in contact with screw head, (panel)
F u2 = Tensile strength of the material not in contact with screw head,
(purlin/girt)
P ts = Tensile strength or resistance of screw reported by the manufacturer.
The values for all cases above are tabulated in Table 12.19 for common screws
diameters, purlins and panel thickness.
36
Table 15.10
Tensile Strength (LRFD)

P not = Φ 0.85 t c d F u2
Screw Diameter Purlin Thickness in mm (F u2 = 450 N/mm2)
Failure Mode
mm 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.00 2.50
4.8 1.10 1.38 1.65 1.84 2.30
Pull-Out 5.5 1.26 1.58 1.89 2.10 2.63
6.3 1.45 1.81 2.17 2.41 3.01
P not = Φ 1.5 t 1 d w F u1
Panel Thickness in mm 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00
4.8
Steel Panel
5.5 1.29 1.71 2.14 3.00 4.29
Pull-Over
6.3
4.8
Aluminium Panel
5.5 0.49 0.65 0.81 1.13 1.62
Pull-Over
6.3
P ns = Φ 0.80 P ts
Carbon Steel Screws
4.8 P ts = 11.41 kN 4.56 kN
Tension 5.5 P ts = 18.50 kN 7.40 kN
6.3 P ts = 20.10 kN 8.04 kN
Stainless Steel Screws
4.8 P ts = 7.05 kN 2.82 kN
6.3 P ts = 16.10 kN 6.44 kN
F u2 = 450 N/mm2 Steel Panel F u1 = 450 N/mm2 Aluminium Panel F u1 = 170 N/mm2
37
Table 15.11
Tensile Strength (ASD)

P not = 0.85 t c d F u2 / Ω
Purlin Thickness in mm (F u2 = 450
Screw Diameter
Failure Mode N/mm2)
mm 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.00 2.50
4.8 1.10 1.38 1.65 1.84 2.30
Pull-Out 5.5 1.26 1.58 1.89 2.10 2.63
6.3 1.45 1.81 2.17 2.41 3.01
P not = Φ 1.5 t 1 d w F u1 / Ω
Panel Thickness in mm 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00
4.8
Steel Panel
5.5 1.29 1.71 2.14 3.00 4.29
Pull-Over
6.3
4.8
Aluminium Panel
5.5 0.49 0.65 0.81 1.13 1.62
Pull-Over
6.3
P ns = Φ 0.80 P ts / Ω
Carbon Steel Screws
4.8 P ts = 11.41 kN 4.56 kN
6.3 P ts = 20.10 kN 8.04 kN
4.8 P ts = 7.05 kN 2.82 kN
6.3 P ts = 16.10 kN 6.44 kN
F u2 = 450 N/mm2 Steel Panel F u1 = 450 N/mm2 Aluminium Panel F u1 = 170 N/mm2
38
Table 15.12
Shear Strength (LRFD)

Screw Diameter P ns = Φ 4.2 [(t 2 )3 d] 0.5 F u2
Purlin Thk. 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5
4.8 2.72 3.80 5.00 5.86 8.18
5.5 2.91 4.07 5.35 6.27 8.76
6.3 3.12 4.36 5.73 6.71 9.38
Screw Diameter P ns = Φ 2.7 t 1 d F u1
Panel Thk. 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00
4.8 0.87 1.17 1.46 2.04 2.92
5.5 1.00 1.34 1.67 2.34 3.34
6.3 1.15 1.53 1.91 2.68 3.83
Screw Diameter P ns = Φ 2.7 t 2 d F u2
Purlin Thk. 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5
4.8 3.50 4.37 5.25 5.83 7.29
5.5 4.01 5.01 6.01 6.68 8.35
6.3 4.59 5.74 6.89 7.65 9.57
Screw Diameter P ns = Φ 2.7 t e F u
Panel Thk. 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00
4.8 1.31 1.75 2.19 3.06 4.37
5.5 1.50 2.00 2.51 3.51 5.01
6.3 1.72 2.30 2.87 4.02 5.74
P ns = Φ 0.80 P ss
Carbon Steel Screws
4.8 P ss = 5.98 2.39 kN
Shear 5.5 P ss = 10.80 4.32 kN
6.3 P ss = 12.15 4.86 kN
4.8 P ss = 5.10 2.04 kN
Shear 5.5 P ss = 8.40 3.36 kN
6.3 P ss = 11.20 4.48 kN
39
Table 15.13
Shear Strength (ASD)

Screw Diameter P ns = 4.2 [(t 2 )3 d] 0.5 F u2 / Ω
Purlin Thk. 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5
4.8 1.81 2.54 3.33 3.90 5.46
5.5 1.94 2.71 3.57 4.18 5.84
6.3 2.08 2.90 3.82 4.47 6.25
Screw Diameter P ns = 2.7 t 1 d F u1 / Ω
Panel Thk. 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00
4.8 0.58 0.78 0.97 1.36 1.94
5.5 0.67 0.89 1.11 1.56 2.23
6.3 0.77 1.02 1.28 1.79 2.55
Screw Diameter P ns = 2.7 t 2 d F u2 / Ω
Purlin Thk. 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5
4.8 2.33 2.92 3.50 3.89 4.86
5.5 2.67 3.34 4.01 4.45 5.57
6.3 3.06 3.83 4.59 5.10 6.38
Screw Diameter P ns = 2.7 t e F u / Ω
Panel Thk. 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00
4.8 0.87 1.17 1.46 2.04 2.92
5.5 1.00 1.34 1.67 2.34 3.34
6.3 1.15 1.53 1.91 2.68 3.83
P ns = 0.80 P ss / Ω
Carbon Steel Screws
4.8 P ss = 5.98 1.59 kN
Shear 5.5 P ss = 10.80 2.88 kN
6.3 P ss = 12.15 3.24 kN
4.8 P ss = 5.10 1.36 kN
Shear 5.5 P ss = 8.40 2.24 kN
6.3 P ss = 11.20 2.99 kN
40
16
Chapter
P U R L I N S & G I R T S D E S I G N
Purlins & Girts Design

This section provides some information on the design of structural members
that are cold-formed to cross section shape from sheet steels. Cold-formed
steel members include products such as purlins and girts for the construction
of metal buildings. These products have enjoyed significant growth in recent
years and are frequently utilized in some shape or form in many projects
today. Attributes such as strength, light weight, versatility, non-
combustibility, and ease of production, make them cost effective in many
applications.
Design Codes
As a standard practice latest AISI code should be used for design of cold
formed sections, currently at MBS AISI 2001 (NAS) is in use for design of cold
formed sections. AISI-1996 may be used for jobs which are received for
revision. Use of AISI-1980 is discontinued.
Members
C- Sections (200mm depth) 1.5 mm thick (345 Coil), 2.0 & 2.5 (395 Coil)
M- Sections (356mm depth) (TMCP) 1.8 mm thick (540 Coil)
1
Design concept for Cold Formed Sections
As the name suggests, the cross section of a cold-formed member is achieved

by a bending operation at room temperature, rather than the hot rolling
process used for the heavier structural steel shapes. The dominant cold
forming process is known as roll-forming. In this process, a coil of steel is fed
through a series of rolls, each of which bends the sheet progressively until the
final shape is reached at the last roll stand. The number of roll stands may vary
from 6 to 20, depending upon the complexity of the shape. The process can
achieve speeds up to about 100 m/min and is well suited for large quantity
production. Small quantities may be produced on a press-brake, particularly if
the shape is simple, such as an angle or channel cross section. In its simplest
form, a press brake consists of a male die which presses the steel sheet into a
matching female die.
In general, the cold-forming operation is beneficial in that it increases the yield

strength of the material in the regions of the bend. The flat material between
bends may also show an increase due to squeezing or stretching during roll
forming. This increase in strength is attributable to cold working and strain
aging effects. The strength increase, which may be small for sections with few
bends, can be conservatively neglected. Alternatively, subject to certain
limitations, the AISI Specification includes provisions for using a section-
average design yield stress that includes the strength increase from cold
forming. Either full section tension tests, full section stub column tests, or an
analytical method can be employed. Important parameters include the tensile-
strength-to-yield-stress ratio of the virgin steel and the radius-to-thickness
ratio of the bends. The forming operation may also induce residual stresses in
the member but these effects are accounted for in the equations for member
design.
Because of the flexibility of the manufacturing method and the variety of

shapes that can be manufactured, properties of cold-formed sections often
must be calculated for a particular configuration of interest rather than relying
on tables of standard values. Because the cross section of a cold-formed section
is generally of a single thickness of steel, computation of section properties
may be simplified by using the linear method. With this method, the material
is considered concentrated along the centerline of the steel sheet and area
elements are replaced by straight or curved line elements. Section properties
are calculated for the assembly of line elements and then multiplied by the
thickness ‘t’.
2
Thus,
Cross section area ‘A’ = L x t
Moment of inertia of the section ‘I’ = I’ x t
Section Modulus of the section ‘S’ = I / y
Where,
L = the total length of all line elements.
I’ = the moment of inertia determined for the line elements
y = distance of extreme fiber edge from the neutral axis
(not the distance to center line of extreme element).
Most sections can be divided into straight lines and circular arcs. The moments
of inertia and centroid location of such elements are defined by equations from
fundamental theory as presented below.
3
The design of cold-formed steel differs from hot rolled or built-up sections in
that the, elements of cold formed members typically have large width-to-
thickness (w/t) ratios and are thus subject to local buckling. Figure above
illustrates local buckling in beams and columns. Flat elements in compression
that have both edges parallel to the direction of stress stiffened by a web,
flange, lip or stiffener are referred to as stiffened elements.
In order to account for the effect of local buckling in design, the concept of
effective width is employed for elements in compression. The background for
this concept can be explained as follows.
Unlike a column, a plate does not usually attain its maximum load carrying
capacity at the buckling load, but usually shows significant post buckling
strength. This behavior is illustrated in figure below, where longitudinal and
transverse bars represent a plate that is simply supported along all edges. As
the uniformly distributed end load is gradually increased, the longitudinal
bars are equally stressed and reach their buckling load simultaneously.
However, as the longitudinal bars buckle, the transverse bars develop tension
in restraining the lateral deflection of the longitudinal bars. Thus, the
longitudinal bars do not collapse when they reach their buckling load but are
able to carry additional load because of the transverse restraint.
4
The longitudinal bars nearest the center can deflect more than the bars near
the edge, and therefore, the edge bars carry higher loads after buckling than
do the center bars. The post buckling behavior of a simply supported plate is
similar to that of the grid model. However, the ability of a plate to resist shear
strains that develop during buckling also contributes to its post buckling
strength. Although the grid shown in Fig. ‘a’ buckled into only one
longitudinal half-wave, a longer plate may buckle into several waves as
illustrated in Fig. ‘b’. For long plates, the half-wave length approaches the
width ‘b’.
5
After a simply supported plate buckles, the compressive stress will vary from
a maximum near the supported edges to a minimum at the mid-width of the
plate as shown by line 1 of Fig. ‘c’. As the load is increased the edge stresses
will increase, but the stress in the mid- width of the plate may decrease
slightly. The maximum load is reached and collapse is initiated when the edge
stress reaches the yield stress—a condition indicated by line 2 of Fig. ‘c’.
The post buckling strength of a plate element can be considered by assuming

that after buckling, the total load is carried by strips adjacent to the supported
edges which are at a uniform stress equal to the actual maximum edge stress.
These strips are indicated by the dashed lines in Fig. ’c’. The total width of the
strips, which represents the effective width of the element ‘b’, is defined so
that the product of ‘b’ and the maximum edge stress equals the actual stresses
integrated over the entire width. The effective width decreases as the applied
stress increases. At maximum load, the stress on the effective width is the
yield stress.
Thus, an element with a small enough (w/t) will be able to reach the yield
point and will be fully effective. Elements with larger ratios will have an
effective width that is less than the full width, and that reduced width will be
used in section property calculations.
The behavior of elements with other edge-support conditions is generally

similar to that discussed above. However, an element supported along only
one edge will develop only one effective strip.
Equations for calculating effective widths of elements are given in AISI

Specification. These equations are based on theoretical elastic buckling theory
but modified to reflect the results of extensive physical testing. See AISI 2001
Specification for more details.
6
Beams (C or Z Section) Having One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck or

Sheathing
If the tension flange of a beam is screwed to deck or sheathing and the
compression flange is unbraced, such as a roof purlin or wall girt subjected to
wind suction, the bending strength lies between that for a fully braced
member and an unbraced member. This is due to the rotational restraint
provided by the spaced connections. Therefore, based on numerous tests, the
AISI Specification section C3.1.3 provides the nominal strength in terms of a
reduction factor R applied to the nominal strength for the fully braced
condition,
Mn = R SeFy Eq. C3.1.3-1

Mn = R SeFy / Ωb (ASD) Ω b = 1.67
Mn = Φb R SeFy (LRFD) Φ b = 0.90
Where,
Mn = Nominal Flexural Strength (Resistance)
Se = Elastic Section Modulus of effective section at extreme fiber.
Fy = Yield Stress
For continuous spans,
R = 0.60 for C-sections,
R = 0.70 for Z-sections.
For simple spans, R is given in Table below,
Depth (mm) Profile R
<= 165 C or Z 0.70
165 < D <= 216 C or Z 0.65
216 < D <= 292 Z 0.50
216 < D <= 292 C 0.40
There are 15 conditions that should be satisfied in order to apply the above
clause, See AISI Specification section C3.1.3 for more information.
Beams (C or Z Section) Having One Flange Fastened to a Standing Seam

Roof System
If the flange of a supporting beam is fastened to a standing seam roof system,
the bending strength generally lies between that for a fully braced member
and an unbraced member. The strength depends on the details of the system,
as well as whether the loading is gravity or uplift, and cannot be readily
calculated. Therefore, the AISI 2001Specification allows the nominal strength
to be calculated by Eq. C3.1.3-1, but with the reduction factor R shall be
determined by representative tests of the system. Test specimens and
procedures are detailed in the “Base Test Method” given in the AISI Manual.
Alternatively, the strength may be determined using the discrete point bracing
and the provisions of section C3.1.2.1
7
Design of Roof Purlins
The major advantages of using a ‘Z’ Section as purlin and girts is that these
can be lapped (nested) at supports to provide continuity and stiffness at
support. This arrangement also helps in controlling the deflection at mid span.
Purlins are cold formed secondary members supporting the roof panels,
sections used for roof purlins are Z-sections and M-Sections. Roof Purlins are
expected to carry the following loads,
1. Gravity loads [ Dead , Live , Collateral (if any) , Snow (if any)]
2. Wind loads [uplift (suction) , pressure]
3. Axial force due to the longitudinal wind loads, in strut purlins
Top flanges of Purlin are assumed to be restrained against lateral buckling by

the roof panels. The performance and allowable stresses depends on the
loading conditions,
1. Under gravity loads
Gravity loads are always acting perpendicular to ground, thus these can be
resolved in two components, one perpendicular to the sheeting and other
parallel to the sheeting. The perpendicular component is carried by roof
purlins in major axis bending and the lateral component is carried by shear
diaphragm consisting of sheeting and purlins. For cases of non symmetrical
pitched roof about ridge (geometry & loading), loads are transferred from
purlin top flange to support point. AISI 2001 (section D3.2.1) states that
‘provision shall be made so that the maximum lateral displacement with
respect to the purlin reaction support points do not exceed (Span/360). The
specification requires anchored braces to be connected to only one line of
purlins in each purlin bay of each roof slope if provision is made to transmit
forces from other purlin lines through the roof sheeting and its fastening
system. This bracing system reduces the lateral displacement thus ensures that
the purlin top flange is fully restraint and able to transmit the lateral forces to
the rafter’s top flange plane. Braces at supports, mid span or one third points
are suggested by specifications. The welded plate at support provides
sufficient anchorage for each purlin to satisfy the above requirement. However
for greater slopes more than 2:10, brace points may be required at mid-span or
one third points using sag rods.
The force in the anchorage can be calculated using the formula’s provided in
section D3.2.1 of AISI 2001
8
2. Under wind loads
Wind Load Pressure, the design concept is same as gravity except that the load
is perpendicular to the sheeting surface. The load is resisted by major axis
bending in the roof purlin.
Wind Load Suction, in this case the bottom is under compression at mid span
and is unrestraint, hence has a tendency to buckle. The code allows a
reduction in fully restrained section capacity for one flange fastened to
sheeting. The reduction factors are as described above, See AISI Specification
section C3.1.3 for more information.
3. Axial loads
The wind loads from the wind columns at end walls are transferred to the
closed purlins on either side of the wind column. The roof bracing is also
broken at this location. Thus these purlins also known as strut purlin act as
roof bracing truss member, the allowable axial stress is then calculated as per
Section C4 of AISI 2001 Manual and combined stresses to be checked as per
section C5 of AISI 2001 Manual. For the cases when strut purlins at braced
bays fails under axial and bending try one of the following,
1. Add strut purlin at distance of 200 mm from original purlin, the axial
force now is divided between the original purlin and the strut purlin,
the original purlin is checked under combined bending moment and
half axial loads, The strut purlin is to be connected to original purlins
using short tie members connected to the web to ensure that strut
purlin is laterally restraint.
2. Add strut tube to act as a compression member, the entire axial loads
are assumed to be carried by the strut tube and purlins are designed
only for bending moment.
MBS Software, ‘Special’ ‘C-Check’ can be used to check the combined affects of
all loads, bending, , axial loads, web crippling and shear loads.
The section and the connection capacities should be checked for combined
axial and bending for controlling load combination.
9
TIE MEMBER
PURLIN WITH SDS
2-12 mm Ø 4-12 mm Ø
HSB HSB
6 mm THK. PL.
RAFTER
TOP FLANGE 3 mm WELD
144 mm LG.
200
DETAIL # 01 DETAIL # 02 DETAIL # 03

CAPACITY = 19 kN CAPACITY = 38 kN CAPACITY = 77 kN
Check Connection Capacity
Bolt Grade = Grade 8.8

Bolt Size = 12 mm Φ
No. of Bolts = 2 for Detail 01
= 4 for Detail 02 & 03
Weld Size = 3 mm
Allowable Stress in weld E70XX = 144.69 N/mm2
Length of plate = 150 mm
Thickness of Plate = 6 mm
Length of Weld = 150 – 3 x 2 = 144 mm
Capacity of 2 x 12 mm Φ in shear = 2 x 18.10 = 36.20 kN

Capacity of 3 mm Weld = 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 144 / 1000

= 44.19 kN
Bearing cap. on the purlin (1.5 thk) = 9.72 x 2 = 19.44 kN

Bearing cap. on the plate (6 thk) = 38.88 x 4 = 155.5 kN
Hence Minimum of above = 19.44 kN for Detail # 01

= 38.88 kN for Detail # 02
10
Table 16.2 Framing

Sr. No. Location Framing Type
1 Roof Continuous Bypass, can be simply supported Flush
2 Sidewall Continuous Bypass, can be simply supported Flush
3 Endwall Simply supported Flush, can be Continuous Bypass
Table 16.3 Type of Laps

Lap on each Design Bay
Sr. Total Lap
Type side Lap* Spacing
No. (mm)
(mm) (mm) Range (m)
1 Short 95 mm 190 mm 100 mm <6
2 Continuous 375 mm 750 mm 660 mm 6 to 8
3 Long 705 mm 1410 mm 1320 mm >8
Design Lap* = Total Lap – 2 x 45
Connection Bolts
All bolts used for connection of purlin at the lap and to welded plate on the
rafter / column are 12 mm diameter HSB Gr. 8.8. Grade of bolt is subject to
change based on availability and management decision.
11
Design of Wall Girts
Girts are spanning horizontally between the bay spacing and end wall column
spacing to support the wall sheeting and thus transfer the wind loads to the
main frame or end wall columns. It is our standard practice is to use Z-sections
or M-Section as by-pass type construction for sidewall girts for small to
medium and large spans respectively. Z or C-sections are used as end wall
girts connected flush with the end wall column outside flange in order to use
diaphragm action effectively.
Wall Girts are basically subjected to Wind Loads (Suction & Pressure) in the
major axis direction and self-weight load in the minor axis. The self weight is
only a concern until the sheeting or sag rods are erected.
The outside flange of the girts are connected to sheeting and are assumed to be
restrained against lateral buckling by the wall panels. For the case of wind
pressure the outside flange is in compression and is restrained by sheeting,
hence full section capacity is used. For the case of wind suction inside flange is
in compression and is unrestraint, therefore the full section capacity is reduced
using a reduction factor as per section C3.1.3 AISI 2001 described above.
DETAIL # 01
DETAIL # 03
DETAIL # 02
FLUSH TYPE CONNECTION BYPASS TYPE CONNECTION
12
Design of Eave Purlin
The design of eave purlin is similar to that of roof purlin, except for following,
 In addition to the loads in the major axis from roof, it is also subjected
to some load in the minor axis from sidewall, hence it is necessary that,
the distance between the last girt and eave point (500 mm) and also the
distance between the eave point and second purlin (900 mm) is small,
in order to minimize both the major and minor axis load on the eave
purlin. Some portion of the vertical and horizontal loads is also
transferred to the wall and roof sheeting respectively.
 In braced bays the eave purlin also acts as strut member in bracing
truss for accumulated roof bracing loads and transfer these to sidewall
bracing.
Eave purlin may be considered laterally restraint and fully supported by roof
sheeting, and partially restrained by the wall sheeting through the eave angle
connection. The wall sheeting is considered to provide full support for eave
purlin against vertical deflections in the following cases,
 Fully sheeted walls, where the wall sheeting is resting on ground slab
or beam
 Partially sheeted walls with block wall underneath where the bottom
girt or base angle is resting on the block wall.
For portion of framed opening width, not exceed half the bay spacing, in fully
sheeted walls, eave purlin may be considered as supported.
For other cases where the walls are partially sheeted from eave to some height
above ground and open for access, adequate proper sag rod arrangement shall
be provide with flayed sag rods at the top to carry the weight of the sheeting.
Section Properties and Capacities
The section properties and capacities of all available cold formed Sections are
tabulated in the following tables. These may be calculated manually as per
AISI Manual 2001 Section 3, the properties and capacities in the tables are
calculated using RSG Software (CFS Version 4.14).
13
Z Section Properties
Design Mode = ASD

Ωv = 1.60 Ωc = 1.80
Ωb = 1.67 Ωt = 1.67
Material= A653 Grade 50

2
Fy = 345 N/mm
200 Z 15
| | |
Depth Section thickness
Section Data
Section Depth WTp=WBt Thk Lip Rad Angle Area Wt Yd Coil Width
mm mm mm mm mm deg cm 2 kg/m mm mm
200Z15 200 60 1.5 18.494 6 60 5.175 4.06 100 345
200Z18 200 60 1.8 19.048 6 60 6.210 4.87 100 345
200Z20 200 60 2.0 19.417 6 60 6.900 5.42 100 345
200Z25 200 60 2.5 20.340 6 60 8.625 6.77 100 345
250Z20 250 60 2.0 18.917 6 60 7.880 6.19 125 394
250Z25 250 60 2.5 19.840 6 60 9.850 7.73 125 394
About X-X Axis About Y-Y Axis Torsional Constants

Section Ixx SxTop=Bot Rxx IycTop=Bot Syy Ryy Cw J Ro
4 3 4 3 6
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 4 mm
200Z15 3.06E+06 30598 76.89 2.07E+05 6035 28.26 3.02E+09 388.14 81.92
200Z18 3.66E+06 36591 76.76 2.49E+05 7268 28.34 3.64E+09 670.70 81.83
200Z20 4.06E+06 40562 76.67 2.78E+05 8095 28.39 4.05E+09 920.03 81.76
200Z25 5.04E+06 50403 76.45 3.51E+05 10178 28.52 5.11E+09 1796.94 81.59
250Z20 6.89E+06 55109 93.50 2.74E+05 7991 26.35 6.51E+09 1050.70 97.14
250Z25 8.57E+06 68587 93.30 3.45E+05 10049 26.47 8.20E+09 2052.14 96.98
Allowable Shear Force Allowable Bending Moment

Allowable Axial Force (kN)
Section (kN) ( kNm )
Vay Vax Maxo Maxo1* Maxo2 Mayo Pao Ta

200Z15 11.19 18.68 5.68 3.98 3.70 1.10 55.83 106.83
200Z18 19.40 22.20 7.25 5.07 4.71 1.50 76.41 128.20
200Z20 26.68 24.50 8.23 5.76 5.35 1.67 90.66 142.44
200Z25 45.35 30.12 10.41 7.28 6.76 2.10 125.18 178.05
250Z20 20.98 24.50 10.33 7.23 5.17 1.65 90.36 162.67
250Z25 41.14 30.12 13.80 9.66 6.90 2.08 126.34 203.34
* Based on a reduction factor of 0.70 for continuous spans

(Applicable only if the span of the longest member is not more than 20% longer than the shortest span).
For simple spans see values under Maxo2
14
M-Sections (TMCP)
M-Sections are latest addition to Mammut range of cold formed sections.

These sections are basically ‘C’ shaped 356 mm deep, with large stiffened
openings in the webs along the length of the sections and longitudinal ribs in
the web and flanges for stiffening. These are referred as ‘360M’ section in
order to keep the steel line as a rounded value of 360 mm from outside flange
face. These may be used as purlins or girts for long bay spacings (more than 10
meters). Coil width of 540 mm is required to roll these ‘M’ sections.
Table 16.5 Framing

Sr. No. Location Framing Type
1 Roof Continuous# Bypass, can be simply supported Flush
2 Sidewall Continuous# Bypass, can be simply supported Flush
Currently we are unable to fabricate TMCP Section, Hence this sections is not-
3 Endwall* Simply supported Flush, can be Continuous Bypass
applicable
* - Not used at end walls very often, Z-sections are used instead.
# - Continuity is achieved by using a connector section back to back.
Table 16.6 Type of Laps

Lap on each Design Bay
Sr. Total Lap
Type side Lap* Spacing
No. (mm)
(mm) (mm) Range (m)
1 Continuous 405 mm 810 mm 720 mm <= 10
2 Long 710 mm 1420 mm 1330 mm 10 to 12
3 Big 1015 mm 2030 mm 1940 mm > 12
Design Lap* = Total Lap – 2 x 45
Continuity is achieved using a single piece of similar ‘M’ section connected

back to back with the 2 pieces of purlins spanning the bay, and the welded
plate is sandwiched in between the purlin and connector. There are 3 standard
connectors SCN-1XX, SCN-2XX, SCN-3XX for Continuous, Long and Big lap
respectively, in different thicknesses.
15
The punching pattern of the M-Purlin is so programmed that the first 3 oval
holes are always spaced at a distance of 305 mm from either ends, and the
balance is equally divided depending upon the length.
Example:-
If, L = is the bay spacing between which ‘M’ purlin will span.
Then,
No. of spacing of holes = (L – 2 x 965) / 305 (Rounded to lower side)
Where, 965 is the sum of (5 + 45 + 3 x 305)

5 = the distance of purlin end from bay center line
45 = the distance of first 18 dia hole from purlin edge.
305 = the spacing between the first 3 holes.
Hence the minimum length = 965 x 2 = 1930 mm.
applicable
Say bay spacing ‘L’ = 11890 mm
Then no. of holes = (11890 – 2 x 965) / 305 = 32.65 ~ 32
Spacing of holes = (11890 – 2 x 965) / 32 = 311.25 mm
Therefore,
Total number of holes = 32 + 3 x 2 = 38 Oval holes
Spacing of holes = 45 + 3 @ 305 + 32 @ 311.25 + 3 @ 305 + 45
= 11880 + 5 + 5 = 11890 mm
16
Connection Bolts
All bolts used for connection of purlin at the lap and to welded plate on the
rafter / column are 16 mm diameter HSB Gr. 8.8. Grade of bolt is subject to
change based on availability and management decision.
applicable
General
‘M’ sections of any dimension can be produced on the TMCP machine, with
following limitations, but these will require coils of different widths.
Table 16.4 Section Profile on TMCP Machine

Dimension Minimum (mm) Maximum (mm)
Web depth 92 356
Flange width 41 76
Lip length NA 25
Thickness 0.8 3.0
Minimum Length = 1930 mm
NA - Denotes that the sections may be without lip (Open C or Stud)
‘M’ Sections when used as Jambs and Headers for framed opening can be
rolled with out the large holes.
17
200
TIE MEMBER
WITH SDS
PURLIN
2-16 mm Ø 2-16 mm Ø
HSB HSB
6 mm THK. PL.
RAFTER
TOP FLANGE 3 mm WELD
169 mm LG.
DETAIL # 01 DETAIL # 02 DETAIL # 03

CAPACITY = 31 kN CAPACITY = 51 kN CAPACITY = 82 kN
Check Connection Capacity
applicable
Bolt Grade = Grade 8.8
Bolt Size = 16 mm Φ
No. of Bolts = 2 for Detail 01 (Single Shear)
= 2 for Detail 02 (Double Shear)
Weld Size = 3 mm
Allowable Stress in weld E70XX = 144.69 N/mm2
Length of plate = 175 mm
Thickness of Plate = 6 mm
Length of Weld = 175 – 3 x 2 = 169 mm

Capacity of 2 x 16 mm Φ in shear = 2 x 32.17 x 2 = 128.7 kN
Capacity of 3 mm Weld = 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 169 / 1000

= 51.86 kN

Bearing cap. on the purlin (1.8 thk) = 15.55 x 2 x 2 = 62.20 kN
Bearing cap. on the plate (6 thk) = 51.84 x 2 = 103.68 kN
Hence Minimum of above = 31.10 kN for Detail # 01

Capacity for Detail 03 is sum of Detail 01 and 02, hence
31.10 + 51.86 = 82.96 kN for Detail # 03
18
M Section Properties (Solid)
WTp
Design Mode = ASD Y
Ωv = 1.60 Ωc = 1.80 Lip
Rad
Ωb = 1.67 Ωt = 1.67
Yd
Depth X X
Material= A653 Grade 50 S.C C.G
2
Fy = 345 N/mm Thk.
360 M 18 Lip
Y
| | | WBp
Section Data
360M18 356 76 1.8 22.429 2.39 90 9.720 7.63 178 540
360M20 356 76 2.0 22.915 2.39 90 10.800 8.48 178 540

mm 4 mm 3 mm mm 4 mm 3 mm mm 6 mm 4 mm
360M18 1.70E+07 95647 131.76 3.03E+05 10073 24.88 1.47E+10 1058 140.47
360M20 1.93E+07 108548 153.14 3.26E+05 10330 28.14 1.83E+10 1440 141.31


360M18 15.46 17.82 16.83 10.10 6.73 1.73 73.99 217.17
360M20 21.21 19.64 19.33 11.60 7.73 1.94 87.10 242.14

19
Example 1
Consider a building with 8 bays; spaced at 6500 + 6 @ 7500 + 6500

Loads are as listed below,

Live Load = 0.60 kN/m2
Wind pressure = 0.90 kN/m2
Purlin Spacing = 2.00 meters.
Hence the uniformly distributed load due to Dead + Live (DL+LL) is,
= Purlin Spacing x (Dead Load + Live Load)
For ASD = 2.00 x (0.10 + 0.60) = 1.40 kN/m
Currently For
we LRFD
are unable to fabricate
= 2.00TMCP
x (1.20Section,
x 0.10 + Hence this sections
1.6 x 0.60) = 2.16iskN/m
not-
applicable
Similarly, the uniformly distributed load due to Dead + Wind (DL+WL) is,
= Purlin Spacing x (Dead Load - Wind Load)
Where, wind load = wind pressure x coefficient,
As per MBMA 2002 the coefficients are as below,
End Zone = 1.28
Interior Zone = 1.08
Therefore the loads are,
End Zone or spans
For ASD = 2.00 x (0.60 x 0.10 - 0.90 x 1.28) = -2.18 kN/m
For LRFD = 2.00 x (0.90 x 0.10 – 1.6 x 0.9 x 1.28) = -3.51 kN/m
Interior Zone or spans
For ASD = 2.00 x (0.60 x 0.10 - 0.90 x 1.08) = -1.82 kN/m
For LRFD = 2.00 x (0.90 x 0.10 – 1.6 x 0.9 x 1.08) = -2.93 kN/m
The spans, lap length, loading, shear force, shear at lap location, bending
moments at mid span and lap location and reactions for both gravity and wind
load is as shown below, note that only ASD loading and forces are shown.
Let us use a trail section 200Z25 at end bays and 200Z18 in interior bays.
Only the first and last laps are long laps, other laps are continuous.
20
1.40 kN/m
DL+LL
(TYPICAL)
LAP LENGTH 705 375 375 375 375 705
SPANS 6500 7500 7500 7500 7500 7500 7500 6500
5.31 5.23 5.26 5.24 5.27 5.19 5.61

3.49
SHEAR FORCE
DIAGRAM
3.49
Currently we are unable to fabricate
5.61 TMCP
5.19 Section,
5.27 Hence
5.24this sections
5.26 is5.23
not- 5.31
applicable
4.39 4.31 4.33 4.32 4.34 4.27 4.69

0.00
SHEAR FORCE
AT LAP LOCATION
0.00
-4.69 -4.27 -4.34 -4.32 -4.33 -4.31 -4.39
REACTIONS
3.49 10.92 10.42 10.52 10.49 10.52 10.42 10.92 3.49
SUPPORT MOMENT
-6.91 -6.47 -6.59 -6.55 -6.47 -6.91 -6.91

BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM
4.34 3.15 3.31 3.27 3.27 3.31 3.15 4.34
MIDSPAN MOMENT
RIGHT LAP MOMENT

-3.71 -3.32 -3.43 -3.39 -3.42 -3.35 -3.51
MOMENTS AT
LOCATIONS
-3.51 -3.35 -3.42 -3.39 -3.43 -3.32 -3.71
LEFT LAP MOMENT
21
Section Capacities.
Referring the properties table for ‘Z’ section,
Sections Shear (kN) Moment (kNm) I xx (mm4)

200Z18 19.40 7.25 3.66 x 106
200Z25 45.35 10.41 5.04 x 106
Design Checks for DL+LL case. (Moving from left to right)

First Span
Shear at left Support = 3.490 kN
Shear capacity for Z25 = 45.35 kN
Stress Ratio = 3.49 / 45.35 = 0.0769 = 0.08
Currently Moment at midto

we are unable span = 4.340Hence
fabricate TMCP Section, kNm this sections is not-
Moment Capacity for Z25applicable = 10.41 kNm
(Compression flange fully braced)
Stress Ratio = 4.34 / 10.41 = 0.417 = 0.42
Shear at right lap = 4.690 kN

Stress Ratio = 4.69 / 45.35 = 0.103 = 0.10
Moment at right lap = 3.510 kNm
Moment capacity for Z25 = 10.41 kNm
Stress Ratio = 3.51 / 10.41 = 0.337 = 0.34
Combined Shear and Moment Interaction at right lap

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.10)2 + (0.34)2 = 0.13
[The capacities reported above are (M n /Ω b ) for moment and (V n /Ω v ) for
shear]
Reporting the maximum of above stress ratio [max(0.10,0.34,0.13)] = 0.34
Shear at left of right support = 5.610 kN

Shear capacity for Z25+Z18 = 45.35 + 19.40 = 64.75 kN
Stress Ratio = 5.610 / 64.75 = 0.0866 = 0.09
Moment at right support = 6.910 kNm
Moment cap apacity for Z25+Z18 = 10.41 + 7.25 = 17.6 kNm
Stress Ratio = 6.91 / 17.60 = 0.391 = 0.39

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.09)2 + (0.39)2 = 0.16
22
23
Second Span
Shear at right of left support = 5.310 kN
Stress Ratio = 5.310 / 64.75 = 0.0866 = 0.08
Moment at left support = 6.910 kNm
Moment capacity for Z25+Z18 = 10.41 + 7.25 = 17.6 kNm
Stress Ratio = 6.91 / 17.60 = 0.391 = 0.39

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.08)2 + (0.39)2 = 0.16
Currently we are unable

Shear to fabricate
at left lap TMCP Section,=Hence this sections is not-
4.39 kN
applicable
Stress Ratio = 4.39 / 19.40 = 0.226 = 0.23
Moment at left lap = 3.71 kNm
Stress Ratio = 3.71 / 7.25 = 0.511 = 0.51

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.23)2 + (0.51)2 = 0.31
Moment at mid span = 3.150 kNm

Moment Capacity for Z18 = 7.250 kNm
Stress Ratio = 3.15 / 7.25 = 0.434 = 0.43

Stress Ratio = 4.27 / 19.40 = 0.220 = 0.22
Stress Ratio = 3.35 / 7.25 = 0.462 = 0.46

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.22)2 + (0.46)2 = 0.26
Similarly for other spans….
24
DL+WL -2.18 kN/m -1.82 kN/m -2.18 kN/m
(TYPICAL)
LAP LENGTH 705 375 375 375 375 705
SPANS 6500 7500 7500 7500 7500 7500 7500 6500
8.59 6.61 6.88 6.81 6.84 6.77 7.04

5.58
SHEAR FORCE
DIAGRAM
-5.58
-7.04applicable
-6.77 -6.84 -6.81 -6.88 -6.61 -8.59
7.15 6.01 6.28 6.21 6.24 6.17 5.84

5.58
SHEAR FORCE
AT LAP LOCATION
-5.58
-5.84 -6.17 -6.24 -6.21 -6.28 -6.01 -7.15
REACTIONS
-5.58 -15.63 -13.38 -13.73 -13.61 -13.73 -13.38 -15.63 -5.58
MIDSPAN MOMENT
-7.14 -3.82 -4.39 -4.24 -4.24 -4.39 -3.82 -7.14

BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM
9.79 8.19 8.63 8.48 8.63 8.19 9.79
SUPPORT MOMENT
RIGHT LAP MOMENT
4.59 6.11 6.46 6.34 6.47 6.06 5.54

MOMENTS AT
LOCATIONS
5.54 6.06 6.47 6.34 6.46 6.11 4.59

LEFT LAP MOMENT
25
Design Checks for DL+WL case. (Moving from left to right)

First Span
Stress Ratio = 5.58 / 45.35 = 0.123 = 0.12

(Compression flange un-braced, hence using a reduction factor = 0.70)
Stress Ratio = 7.14 / (0.7 x 10.41) = 0.979 = 0.98

Stress Ratio = 7.15 / 45.35 = 0.157 = 0.16
Currently we areStress
unable to fabricate TMCP Section, =
Ratio Hence
4.59 /this sections
10.41 is not-
= 0.440 = 0.44
applicable
(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.16)2 + (0.44)2 = 0.22
shear]

Stress Ratio = 8.59 / 64.75 = 0.133 = 0.13
Stress Ratio = 9.79 / 17.60 = 0.556 = 0.55

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.13)2 + (0.55)2 = 0.32
26
Second Span
Stress Ratio = 7.04 / 64.75 = 0.108 = 0.10
Stress Ratio = 9.79 / 17.60 = 0.522 = 0.55

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.10)2 + (0.55)2 = 0.31
Shear at left lap = 5.84 kN

Stress Ratio = 5.84 / 19.40 = 0.301 = 0.30
applicable
Stress Ratio = 5.54 / 7.25 = 0.76 = 0.76

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.30)2 + (0.76)2 = 0.66

(Compression flange un-braced, hence using a reduction factor = 0.70)
Stress Ratio = 3.82 / (0.7 x 7.25)= 0.752 = 0.75

Stress Ratio = 6.01 / 19.40 = 0.309 = 0.31
Stress Ratio = 6.11 / 7.25 = 0.843 = 0.84

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.31)2 + (0.84)2 = 0.74
27
Note:- If sag rods are used and the allowable un braced length of a given
section is more than the actual un braced length, then full section capacity is
used. Otherwise the reduction factor as below are used,
If, Lc <= 0.75 R = 0.70

0.75 < Lc <= 1.00 R = 0.85
Lc > 1.00 R = 1.00
Where, Lc = L u / Sag Rod Spacing

Lu = Allowable un braced length
Calculation of L u (AISI 2001 Manual page II-19)

For members bent about the centrodial axis perpendicular to the web,
calculation of lateral buckling strength is unnecessary when the un braced
length is less than 'L u ’, which results in a critical elastic flexural stress F e , that is
2.78 F y . ‘L u ’ may be calculated as below,
1. For singly, doubly and point symmetric sections:
L u = { G J / 2 C 1 + [ C 2 / C 1 + ( G J / 2 C 1 ) 2 ] 0.5} 0.5
C 1 = 7.72 [ K y F y S f / Capplicable
b π r y ] / AE
2
C 2 = π2 E C w / k t 2
C b = 1.67 , K t = 0.70
Sr. No. Section Allowable Unbraced Length ‘L u ’ (m)

1 200Z15 1.78
2 200Z18 1.78
3 200Z20 1.78
4 200Z25 1.78
5 250Z20 1.64
6 250Z25 1.63
Deflections
First Span
DL+LL = Span / 180 = 6500 / 180 = 36.11 mm = 3.61 cm
Actual = 1.38 cm
DL+WL = Span / 120 = 6500 / 120 = 54.16 mm = 5.42 cm
Actual = 2.39 cm
Second Span
DL+LL = Span / 180 = 7500 / 180 = 41.67 mm = 4.17 cm
Actual = 1.41 cm
DL+WL = Span / 120 = 7500 / 120 = 62.50 mm = 6.25 cm
Actual = 1.56 cm
28
Sag Rods No 12 Total Weight 342.14 Kgs.

3 Liner No Deflection Limit (Gravity Loads) 180
Welded Plate Yes Design ASD Deflection Limit (Wind Load) 120
Design Calculation Sheet for Zee Purlins
Spans m 6.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 6.50
DL+ LL kN/m 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
DL+WL kN/m -2.18 -1.82 -1.82 -1.82 -1.82 -1.82 -1.82 -2.18
The above values are calculated by adding the loads and multiplying by the purlin spacing.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Purlin Sizes 200Z25 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z25
Purlin Lap L C C C C C L
C= Continous lap 375 mm each side. L= Long lap 705 mm each side.
Wind Increase 1.00
By Structrural analysis using Stiffness Matrix Analysis the following Internal Forces are obtained
** DL+LL
Moment-Left Support kN.m 0.00 -6.91 -6.47 -6.59 -6.55 -6.59 -6.47 -6.91 0.00 0.00
Moment-Left Lap kN.m 0.00 -3.71 -4.82 -4.93 -4.89 -4.93 -4.83 -3.51 0.00 0.00
Moment-Mid Span kN.m 4.34 3.15 3.31 3.27 3.27 3.31 3.15 4.34 0.00 0.00
Moment-Right Lap kN.m -3.51 -4.83 -4.93 -4.89 -4.93 -4.82 -3.71 0.00 0.00 0.00
Shear-Left Lap kN 3.49 4.39 4.77 4.79 4.78 4.80 4.73 4.69 0.00 0.00
Shear-Right Lap kN -4.69 -4.73 -4.80 -4.78 -4.79 -4.77 -4.39 -3.49 0.00 0.00
** DL+WL
Moment-Left Support kN.m 0.00 9.79 8.19 8.63 8.48 8.63 8.19 9.79 0.00 0.00
Moment-Left Lap kN.m 0.00 5.54 6.06 6.47 6.34 6.46 6.11 4.59 0.00 0.00
Moment-Mid Span kN.m -7.14 -3.82 -4.39 -4.24 -4.24 -4.39 -3.82 -7.14 0.00 0.00
Moment-Right Lap kN.m 4.59 6.11 6.46 6.34 6.47 6.06 5.54 0.00 0.00 0.00
Shear-Left Lap kN -5.58 -5.84 -6.17 -6.24 -6.21 -6.28 -6.01 -7.15 0.00 0.00
Shear-Right Lap kN 7.15 6.01 6.28 6.21 6.24 6.17 5.84 5.58 0.00 0.00
By checking the stresses as per AISI 2001 NAS

the following Stress Ratios ( Actual Stress / Allowable Stress ) are obtained
Shear strength as per section C3.2

Bending strength as per section C3.1
Web Crippling strength as per section C3.4 The Maximum Value of these Stress Ratios are reported below
Combined Bending & Shear strength as per section C3.3
Combined Bending & Web Crippling as per section C3.5
** DL+LL
Left Support 0.08 0.39 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.39 0.08
Left Lap 0.08 0.51 0.66 0.68 0.67 0.68 0.67 0.34
Mid Span 0.42 0.43 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.43 0.42
Right Lap 0.34 0.67 0.68 0.67 0.68 0.66 0.51 0.08
Deflection Cm 1.38 1.41 1.56 1.52 1.52 1.56 1.41 1.38 0.00 0.00
Allowable Cm 3.61 4.17 4.17 4.17 4.17 4.17 4.17 3.61
** DL+WL
Left Support 0.12 0.55 0.56 0.59 0.58 0.59 0.56 0.55 0.12
Left Lap 0.12 0.76 0.83 0.90 0.87 0.90 0.84 0.44
Mid Span 0.98 0.75 0.86 0.83 0.83 0.86 0.75 0.98
Right Lap 0.44 0.84 0.90 0.87 0.90 0.83 0.76 0.12
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Deflection Cm -Ve 2.39 1.56 2.10 1.97 1.97 2.10 1.56 2.39 0.00 0.00
Allowable Cm -Ve 5.42 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 5.42
All Stress Ratios as per above are less than 1.0 - Use Sizes as given above.
Last Revised on 29-Jul-2007
29
Minor Axis Bending

For roof with steep slope, sag rods must be provided to act as support points
for minor axis bending of purlins. Let us consider a case with roof slope of 26°,
and other data same as in example 1.
Since the wind load is always acting perpendicular to the roof surface, there is
no minor axis bending due to wind load, only gravity loads will induce minor
axis bending in the purlin section between sag rods if provided, other wise for
full span. Ignoring the roof diaphragm action.
DL+LL = 1.40 kN/m
N/ m 26 °
. 26k
= 1
26
os
0 xc
1.4
/m
kN
.6 1
6 =0
s in 2
0x
1.4
The UDL due to DL+LL is resolved parallel purlin web and along the slope as
shown above. The value parallel to purlin web should be entered in the purlin
design sheet. (See purlin design sheet on the following page).
Since there are no sag rods, minor axis bending is applicable for full span.
Maximum Mid span moment due to vertical (major axis load)
End Span = 3.91 kNm
Interior Span = 2.98 kNm
Hence the moments due to minor axis load can be calculated as below,
End Span = 3.91 x 0.61 / 1.26 = 1.89 kNm
Interior Span = 2.98 x 0.61 / 1.26 = 1.44 kNm
30
Sag Rods No 12 Total Weight 342.14 Kgs.

3 Liner No Deflection Limit (Gravity Loads) 180
Design Calculation Sheet for Zee Purlins
Spans m 6.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 6.50
DL+LL kN/m 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26
DL+WL kN/m -2.01 -1.74 -1.74 -1.74 -1.74 -1.74 -1.74 -2.01
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Purlin Sizes 200Z25 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z18 200Z25
Purlin Lap L C C C C C L
C= Continous lap 375 mm each side. L= Long lap 705 mm each side.
Wind Increase 1.00
** DL+LL
Moment-Left Support kN.m 0.00 -6.22 -5.82 -5.93 -5.89 -5.93 -5.82 -6.22 0.00 0.00
Moment-Left Lap kN.m 0.00 -3.34 -4.34 -4.44 -4.41 -4.44 -4.35 -3.16 0.00 0.00
Moment-Mid Span kN.m 3.91 2.84 2.98 2.95 2.95 2.98 2.84 3.91 0.00 0.00
Moment-Right Lap kN.m -3.16 -4.35 -4.44 -4.41 -4.44 -4.34 -3.34 0.00 0.00 0.00
Shear-Left Lap kN 3.14 3.95 4.29 4.31 4.30 4.32 4.26 4.22 0.00 0.00
Shear-Right Lap kN -4.22 -4.26 -4.32 -4.30 -4.31 -4.29 -3.95 -3.14 0.00 0.00
** DL+WL
Moment-Left Support kN.m 0.00 9.19 7.88 8.24 8.12 8.24 7.88 9.19 0.00 0.00
Moment-Left Lap kN.m 0.00 5.15 5.83 6.17 6.06 6.16 5.88 4.38 0.00 0.00
Moment-Mid Span kN.m -6.52 -3.71 -4.18 -4.06 -4.06 -4.18 -3.71 -6.52 0.00 0.00
Moment-Right Lap kN.m 4.38 5.88 6.16 6.06 6.17 5.83 5.15 0.00 0.00 0.00
Shear-Left Lap kN -5.12 -5.55 -5.90 -5.97 -5.93 -6.00 -5.78 -6.62 0.00 0.00
Shear-Right Lap kN 6.62 5.78 6.00 5.93 5.97 5.90 5.55 5.12 0.00 0.00


Bending strength as per section C3.1
Combined Bending & Shear strength as per section C3.3
Combined Bending & Web Crippling as per section C3.5
** DL+LL
Left Support 0.07 0.35 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.40 0.35 0.07
Left Lap 0.07 0.46 0.60 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.30
Mid Span 0.37 0.39 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.39 0.37
Right Lap 0.30 0.60 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.46 0.07
Deflection Cm 1.24 1.27 1.41 1.37 1.37 1.41 1.27 1.24 0.00 0.00
Allowable Cm 3.61 4.17 4.17 4.17 4.17 4.17 4.17 3.61
** DL+WL
Left Support 0.11 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.56 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.11
Left Lap 0.11 0.71 0.80 0.85 0.84 0.85 0.81 0.42
Mid Span 0.89 0.73 0.82 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.73 0.89
Right Lap 0.42 0.81 0.85 0.84 0.85 0.80 0.71 0.11
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Deflection Cm -Ve 2.16 1.55 1.99 1.88 1.88 1.99 1.55 2.16 0.00 0.00
Allowable Cm -Ve 5.42 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25 5.42
All Stress Ratios as per above are less than 1.0 - Use Sizes as given above.
Last Revised on 29-Jul-2007
31
Since the top flange is attached to sheeting at every +/- 250 mm or so, it can be
considered as fully braced and use the full section capacity for minor axis
bending.
Referring to property table for ‘Z’ Section we can see the allowable moment
capacities in minor axis direction are,
200Z18 = 1.50 kNm
200Z25 = 2.10 kNm
Therefore, the stress ratios are,

End Span = 1.89 / 2.10 = 0.90
Interior Span = 1.44 / 1.50 = 0.96
Referring the major axis stress ratios from purlin design sheet we know,
End Span = 0.37
Interior Span = 0.39
Hence the combined stress ratio is,

End Span = 0.90 + 0.37 = 1.270 > 1.00 Hence Not Good
Interior Span = 0.96 + 0.39 = 1.350 > 1.00 Hence Not Good
Since the combined ratios are exceeding unity, the following alternatives can
be checked with,
1. Reduced purlin spacing.
2. Increase purlin section.
3. Add sag rod.
We will add 2 rows of sag rods in each bay, conservatively assuming minor
axis moment as (wl2/10), where, ‘l’ is the span of purlin between the sag rods,
therefore the minor axis moment,
End Span = 0.61 x (6.5/3)2 / 10 = 0.286
Interior Span = 0.61 x (7.5/3)2 / 10 = 0.381
Therefore, the stress ratios are,

End Span = 0.286 / 2.10 = 0.136
Interior Span = 0.381 / 1.50 = 0.254
Hence the combined stress ratio is,

End Span = 0.14 + 0.37 = 0.51 < 1.00 Hence OK
Interior Span = 0.25 + 0.39 = 0.64 < 1.00 Hence OK
32
RAFTER RAFTER
SUPPORT SUPPORT
MINOR AXIS BENDING
WITHOUT SAG ROD
SAGROD
SUPPORT
(TYP)
RAFTER RAFTER
SUPPORT SUPPORT
MINOR AXIS BENDING

WITH SAG ROD
The sagrod is acting as support for minor axis bending; hence there is a
reaction force in the sag rod. In the example above the reaction can be
conservatively calculated as below,
End Span = 0.61 x (6.50 / 3) = 1.32 kN
Interior Span = 0.61 x (7.50 / 3) = 1.52 kN
Say if we have 8 rows of purlins, and assuming each sag rod reaction force as
above, although it will vary with the tributary load.
Then the total force in the sag rod at ridge,

End Span ΣT = 1.32 x 8 = 10.56 kN
Interior Span ΣT = 1.52 x 8 = 12.48 kN
If the roof is symmetrical about the ridge, the total force ΣT is taken as tension
in the ridge sag rod. Say if we are using 12 mm diameter sag rod A36 material
the capacity of this sag rod is calculated as,
= 0.75 F u A g / Ω
= 0.75 x 400 x (122 x p / 4) / 2
= 16.96 kN > 12.48 kN Hence OK
33
If the number of purlins is large or in other words the total force in sag rod ΣT
is greater than the sag rod capacity, flayed or bent sag rod may be provided up
to the location where the sag rod capacity is less than or equal to ΣT. Similarly
for mono slope buildings flayed or bent sag rods may be provided to transfer
the force in sag rod to main frame rafter.
RIDGE LINE
T T
T T7 T7 T
T6 T6 PURLINS
(TYP)
SAG RODS
T5 T5
(TYP)
T4 T4
T3 T3
SUPPORT
SUPPORT
RAFTER
RAFTER
T2 T2
T1 T1
EAVE LINE
ROOF PLAN SHOWING

SUMMATION OF SAG ROD FORCES
RIDGE LINE
T T
T T
PURLINS
(TYP)
T T
SAG RODS
(TYP)
SUPPORT
SUPPORT
RAFTER
RAFTER
EAVE LINE
ROOF PLAN SHOWING

SUMMATION OF SAG ROD FORCES
34
After deciding the purlin section, the next step is to design the connections.
Connection Design.
Example:- 1
DL+LL
Maximum Reaction at support = 10.92 kN
DL+WL (V u )
The gravity loads are transferred by bolts bearing on the welded plate, we
know that there are 2 sections at the support (Z18+Z18), hence the total
bearing thickness available = 1.8 + 1.8 = 3.6 mm
Strength in Bearing (ASD) = n ( 2.4 F u d b t p / Ω )
Where,
n = number of bolts = 2
Fu = Ultimate tensile stress of the purlin material = 450 N/mm2
db = Diameter of the connection bolts = 12 mm
tp = total purlin thickness = 3.6 mm
= 2 x [ 2.4 x 450 x 12 x 3.6 / ( 2 x 1000 ) ]

= 46.66 kN > 10.92 and 15.63 kN
Vu
Va
WELD PURLIN / GIRT
RAFTER / COLUMN
35
Strength in Shear (ASD) = n ( Fv p db2 / 4 Ω )
Where,
Fv = Allowable shear stress in bolt = 0.40 F u
= 0.40 x 800 = 320 N/mm2
= [ 2 ( 320 x p x 122 / ( 4 x 2 x 1000 ) ]
= 36.19 kN > 10.92 and 15.63 kN
Check one side weld between rafter flange and welded plate (SWC001)
Length of weld L w = length of plate

= 150 mm
Size of weld S w = 3 mm
Allowable Stress in weld F w = 0.60 F EXX / Ω

= 0.6 x 700 x 0.689 / 2 (E70 XX Electrode)
= 144.69 N/mm2
Strength of weld = 0.707 S w x F w x L w x 1.5*

= 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 150 x 1.5* / 1000
= 46.03 kN > 10.92 and 15.63 kN
If axial load (V a ) is present, then the shear and welds should be checked for
the resultant force.
Say, Axial Load (V a ) = 35 kN

Therefore, Resultant = sqrt (V u 2 + V a 2)
= sqrt (15.632 + 352) = 38.33 kN
Inclination of Resultant (θ) = tan-1 (15.63 / 35) = 24.06°
Strength of weld = 0.707 S w x F w x L w x (1.0 + 0.5 Sin1.5 θ)

= 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 150 x (1.0 + 0.5 Sin1.5 24.06°)
= 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 150 x 1.13 / 1000
= 52.01 kN
Hence we see that the welds are ok, but the shear capacity of 2 bolts is
insufficient, therefore we should provide a 4 bolt connection using SWC002
plate.
Note:- * - Directional Increase with θ = 90°, See equation J2-5 of AISC 05
36
Design of connection for moment at support
DL+LL (M u )
Maximum Moment at support = 6.91 kNm
DL+WL (M u )
Lap Length = 375 x 2 = 750 mm

Edge Distance = 45
Lever Arm = Lap Length – 2 x Edge Distance
= 750 – 2 x 45 = 660 mm
Force (V b ) in each row of bolt = 6.91 / 0.66 = 10.47 kN

= 9.79 / 0.66 = 14.83 kN (Governs)
We know shear strength for 2 bolts,

= 36.19 kN > 14.83 kN Hence OK.
We know bearing strength for 2 bolts,
= 46.66 kN > 14.83 kN Hence OK.
LEVER ARM
Vb
WELD Mu
Vb
PURLIN / GIRT
RAFTER / COLUMN
37
Example 2
Consider a building with 8 bays; spaced at 9000 + 6 @ 12000 + 9000

Loads are as listed below,

Wind pressure = 0.90 kN/m2
Purlin Spacing = 2.00 meters.
Hence the uniformly distributed load due to Dead + Live (DL+LL) is,
= Purlin Spacing x (Dead Load + Live Load)
For ASD = 2.00 x (0.10 + 0.60) = 1.40 kN/m
For LRFD = 2.00 x (1.20 x 0.10 + 1.6 x 0.60) = 2.16 kN/m
Similarly, the uniformly distributed load due to Dead + Wind (DL+WL) is,
= Purlin Spacing x (Dead Load - Wind Load)
Where, wind load = wind pressure x coefficient,
As per MBMA 2002 the coefficients are as below,
End Zone = 1.28
Interior Zone = 1.08
Therefore the loads are,
End Zone or spans
For ASD = 2.00 x (0.60 x 0.10 - 0.90 x 1.28) = -2.18 kN/m
For LRFD = 2.00 x (0.90 x 0.10 – 1.6 x 0.9 x 1.28) = -3.51 kN/m
Interior Zone or spans
For ASD = 2.00 x (0.60 x 0.10 - 0.90 x 1.08) = -1.82 kN/m
For LRFD = 2.00 x (0.90 x 0.10 – 1.6 x 0.9 x 1.08) = -2.93 kN/m
The spans, lap length, loading, shear force, shear at lap location, bending
moments at mid span and lap location and reactions for both gravity and wind
load is as shown below, note that only ASD loading and forces are shown.
Let us use a trail section 360M20 at end bays and 360M18 in interior bays.
All laps are long lap 710 mm.
38
1.40 kN/m
DL+LL
(TYPICAL)
LAP LENGTH 710 710
SPANS 9000 12000 12000 12000 12000 12000 12000 9000
8.28 8.43 8.39 8.41 8.37 8.52 8.04

4.56
SHEAR FORCE
DIAGRAM
4.56
8.04 8.52 8.37 8.41 8.39 8.43 8.28
7.35 7.51 7.46 7.49 7.44 7.60 7.11

0.00
SHEAR FORCE
AT LAP LOCATION
0.00
-7.11 -7.60 -7.44 -7.49 -7.46 -7.51 -7.35
REACTIONS
4.56 16.33 16.95 16.76 16.82 16.76 16.95 16.33 4.56
SUPPORT MOMENT
-15.65 -17.10 -16.71 -16.84 -16.71 -17.10 -15.65

BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM
7.43 8.83 8.29 8.42 8.42 8.29 8.83 7.43
MIDSPAN MOMENT
RIGHT LAP MOMENT
-10.49 -11.85 -11.48 -11.60 -11.49 -11.79 -10.65
MOMENTS AT
LOCATIONS
-10.65 -11.79 -11.49 -11.60 -11.48 -11.85 -10.49
LEFT LAP MOMENT
39
Section Capacities.
Referring the properties table for ‘M’ section,
Sections Shear (kN) Moment (kNm) I xx (mm4)

360M18 22.42 18.53 17.45 x 106
360M20 28.96 21.48 19.30 x 106
Design Checks for DL+LL case. (Moving from left to right)

First Span
Shear capacity for M20 = 28.96 kN
Stress Ratio = 4.556 / 28.96 = 0.157 = 0.16
Currently we Moment at mid

are unable span TMCP Section,
to fabricate = 7.430
HencekNm
this sections is not-
Moment Capacity forapplicable
M20 = 21.48 kNm
Stress Ratio = 7.43 / 21.48 = 0.346 = 0.35

Stress Ratio = 7.11 / 28.96 = 0.245 = 0.25
Moment capacity for M20 = 21.48 kNm
Stress Ratio = 10.65 /21.48 = 0.496 = 0.50

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.25)2 + (0.50)2 = 0.31
shear]

Shear capacity for M20+M18 = 28.96+22.42 = 51.38 kN
Stress Ratio = 8.04 / 51.38 = 0.156 = 0.16
Moment capacity for M20+M18 = 21.48+18.53 = 40.01kNm
Stress Ratio = 15.65 / 40.01 = 0.391 = 0.39

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.16)2 + (0.39)2 = 0.18
40
41
Second Span
Shear capacity for M20+M18 = 28.96+22.42 = 51.38 kN
Stress Ratio = 8.04 / 51.38 = 0.156 = 0.16
Moment capacity for M20+M18 = 21.48+18.53 = 40.01kNm
Stress Ratio = 15.65 / 40.01 = 0.391 = 0.39

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.16)2 + (0.39)2 = 0.18

Currently we are unable to fabricate TMCP Section,=Hence
Shear capacity for M18 22.42 kN
this sections is not-
Stress Ratio applicable = 7.35 / 22.42 = 0.328 = 0.33
Stress Ratio = 10.49 /18.53 = 0.566 = 0.57

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.33)2 + (0.57)2 = 0.43

Moment Capacity for M18 = 18.53 kNm
Stress Ratio = 8.83 / 18.53 = 0.476 = 0.48

Stress Ratio = 7.60 / 22.42 = 0.338 = 0.34
Stress Ratio = 11.79 /18.53 = 0.636 = 0.64

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.34)2 + (0.64)2 = 0.52
42
DL+WL -2.18 kN/m -1.82 kN/m -2.18 kN/m
(TYPICAL)
LAP LENGTH 710 710
SPANS 9000 12000 12000 12000 12000 12000 12000 9000
12.26 11.04 11.04 11.04 11.04 11.04 -11.04

7.36
Currently we are uSHEAR
nableFORCE
to fabricate TMCP Section, Hence this sections is not-
DIAGRAM
-7.36 applicable
-11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -12.26
10.82 9.83 9.83 9.83 9.83 9.83 9.83

7.36
SHEAR FORCE
AT LAP LOCATION
-7.36
-9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -10.82
REACTIONS
-7.36 -23.30 -22.08 -22.08 -22.08 -22.08 -22.08 -23.30 -7.36
MIDSPAN MOMENT
-12.41 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -12.41

BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM
22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08
SUPPORT MOMENT
RIGHT LAP MOMENT
14.46 15.20 15.19 15.19 15.19 15.20 15.19

MOMENTS AT
LOCATIONS
15.19 15.20 15.19 15.19 15.19 15.20 14.46

LEFT LAP MOMENT
43
Design Checks for DL+WL case. (Moving from left to right)

First Span
Stress Ratio = 7.36 / 28.96 = 0.254 = 0.25

Moment Capacity for M20 = 21.48 kNm
Calculate Reduction Factor since the compression flange is un braced.
Length of End Bay = 9000 mm

Support Moment Ms = 22.08 kNm
UDL = 2.18 kN/m
Shear Rb = 12.26 kN
applicable
Therefore dimension ‘x’ in sketch below is calculated as,
UNBRACED d
COMPRESSION FLANGE
POINT OF
CONTRAFLEXURE Ms
9000
Ra Rb
Taking moments about point of contra-flexure, since we know the net moment
at this point = 0
Rb x d + Ms = 2.18 d2 / 2
-2.18 d2 / 2 + 12.26 d + 22.08 = 0
+1.09 d2 + 12.26 d + 22.08 = 0
Solving the above quadratic equation, we get, d = 2.25 m = 2250 mm

Therefore the unbraced length ‘Lb’ = 9000 – 2250 = 6750 mm
44
Since there are 2 rows of sag rods, the un braced length is divided into 3
segments, by the 2 sag rods ‘L u ’ = 6750 / 3 = 2250 mm
The allowable un braced length ‘Lu’ as per table below for 360M20= 2250 mm
Therefore L c = L u / L b = 2250 / 2250 = 1.00,
Since, 0.75 < L c <= 1.00 Hence R = 0.75 (See explanation below)
If, Lc <= 0.75 R = 0.60

0.75 < Lc <= 1.00 R = 0.75
Lc > 1.00 R = 1.00
Where, Lc = L u / Sag Rod Spacing

Currently we are unable toLfabricate
u = TMC P Section,un
Allowable Hence thislength
braced sections is not-
applicable
Calculation of L u (AISI 2001 Manual page II-19)
For members bent about the centrodial axis perpendicular to the web,
calculation of lateral buckling strength is unnecessary when the un braced
length is less than 'L u ’, which results in a critical elastic flexural stress F e , that is
2.78 F y . ‘L u ’ may be calculated as below,
1. For singly, doubly and point symmetric sections:
L u = { G J / 2 C 1 + [ C 2 / C 1 + ( G J / 2 C 1 ) 2 ] 0.5} 0.5
C 1 = 7.72 [ K y F y S f / C b π r y ] 2 / AE
C 2 = π2 E C w / k t 2
C b = 1.67 , K t = 0.70
Sr. No. Section Allowable Un braced Length ‘L u ’ (m)

1 360M10 2.24
2 360M12 2.24
3 360M15 2.25
4 360M18 2.25
5 360M20 2.25
6 360M25 2.25
45
Hence using R = 0.75

Stress Ratio = 12.41 / (0.75 x 21.48) = 0.77 = 0.77

Stress Ratio = 10.82 / 28.96 = 0.373 = 0.37
Stress Ratio = 14.46 / 21.48 = 0.673 = 0.67

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.37)2 + (0.67)2 = 0.59
shear]
applicable

Shear capacity for M20+M18 = 28.96 + 22.42 = 51.38 kN
Stress Ratio = 12.26 / 51.38 = 0.238 = 0.23
Moment capacity for M20+M18 = 21.48 + 18.53 = 40.0 kNm
Stress Ratio = 22.08 / 40.0 = 0.552 = 0.55

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.23)2 + (0.55)2 = 0.35
Second Span
Shear capacity for M20+M18 = 28.96 + 22.42 = 51.38 kN
Stress Ratio = 11.03 / 51.38 = 0.215 = 0.21
Moment capacity for M20+M18 = 21.48 + 18.53 = 40.0 kNm
Stress Ratio = 22.08 / 40.0 = 0.552 = 0.55

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.21)2 + (0.55)2 = 0.34
46

Stress Ratio = 9.83/ 22.42 = 0.438 = 0.44
Stress Ratio = 15.19 / 18.53 = 0.819 = 0.82

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.44)2 + (0.82)2 = 0.86

Moment Capacity for M18 =
Currently we are unable to fabricate TMCP Section,18.53 kNmthis sections is not-
Hence
(Compression flange un-braced,
applicablehence using a reduction factor = 0.75)
Stress Ratio = 11.04 / (0.75 x 18.53)= 0.794 = 0.79

Stress Ratio = 9.83 / 22.42 = 0.438 = 0.43
Stress Ratio = 15.20 / 18.53 = 0.820 = 0.82

(Ω b M/M n )2 + (Ω v V/V n )2 = (0.43)2 + (0.82)2 = 0.86
Deflections
First Span
DL+LL = Span / 180 = 9000 / 180 = 50.00 mm = 5.00 cm
Actual = 1.02 cm
DL+WL = Span / 120 = 9000 / 120 = 75.00 mm = 7.50 cm
Actual = 1.87 cm
Second Span
DL+LL = Span / 180 = 12000 / 180 = 66.67 mm = 6.67 cm
Actual = 2.31 cm
DL+WL = Span / 120 = 12000 / 120 = 100.0 mm = 10.0 cm
Actual = 2.76 cm
47
Sag Rods Yes Diameter 12 mm Total Weight 779.47 Kgs.

No. of Rows 2 Liner No Deflection Limit (Gravity Loads) 180
Design Calculation Sheet for M Purlins
Spans m 9.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 9.00
DL+LL kN/m 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
DL+WL kN/m -2.18 -1.84 -1.84 -1.84 -1.84 -1.84 -1.84 -2.18
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Purlin Sizes 360M20 360M18 360M18 360M18 360M18 360M18 360M18 360M20
Purlin Lap L L L L L L L L
L= Long lap 710 mm each side.
Wind Increase 1.00
** DL+LL
Moment-Left Support kN.m -15.65 -17.11 -16.71 -16.84 -16.71 -17.11 -15.65
Moment-Left Lap kN.m -10.49 -11.85 -11.48 -11.60 -11.49 -11.79 -10.65
Moment-Mid Span kN.m 7.43 8.83 8.29 8.42 8.42 8.29 8.83 7.43
Moment-Right Lap kN.m -10.65 -11.79 -11.49 -11.60 -11.48 -11.85 -10.49
Currently
Shear-Left Lap
we are
kN
unable
4.56
to7.35fabricate
7.51
TMCP
7.46
Section,
7.49 7.44
Hence
7.60
this7.11sections is not-
Shear-Right Lap kN -7.11 -7.60 -7.44applicable
-7.49 -7.46 -7.51 -7.35 -4.56
** DL+ WL
Moment-Left Support kN.m 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08 22.08
Moment-Left Lap kN.m 15.19 15.20 15.19 15.19 15.19 15.20 14.46
Moment-Mid Sp an kN.m -12.41 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -11.04 -12.41
Moment-Right Lap kN.m 14.46 15.20 15.19 15.19 15.19 15.20 15.19
Shear-Left Lap kN -7.36 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -9.83 -10.82
Shear-Right Lap kN 10.82 9.83 9.83 9.83 9.83 9.83 9.83 7.36


Bending stre ngth as per section C3.1
Combined Bend ing & Shear strength as per section C3.3
Combined Bending & Web Crippling as per sectio n C3.5
** DL+LL
Left Support 0.16 0.39 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.39 0.16
Left Lap 0.16 0.57 0.64 0.62 0.63 0.62 0.64 0.50
Mid Span 0.35 0.48 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.48 0.35
Right Lap 0.50 0.64 0.62 0.63 0.62 0.64 0.57 0.16
Deflection Cm 1.02 2.31 2.05 2.11 2.11 2.05 2.31 1.02

Allowable Cm 5.00 6.67 6.67 6.67 6.67 6.67 6.67 5.00
** DL+WL
Left Support 0.25 0.55 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.25
Left Lap 0.25 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.67
Mid Span 0.77 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.77
Right Lap 0.67 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.25
Deflection Cm -Ve 1.87 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 1.87
Allowable Cm -Ve 7.50 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 7.50
All Stress Ratios as per above are less than 1.0 - Use Size s as given abo ve.
Last Revised on 21-Jan-2007
48
Minor Axis Bending

For minor Axis Bending, see example 1 and follow similar procedure for ‘M’
purlins.
After deciding the purlin section, the next step is to design the connections.
Connection Design.
Example:- 2
DL+LL
DL+WL (V u )
The gravity loads are transferred by bolts bearing on the welded plate, we
applicable
know that there are 2 sections at the support (M18+M18), hence the total
bearing thickness available = 1.8 + 1.8 = 3.6 mm
Strength in Bearing (ASD) = n ( 2.4 F u d b t p / Ω )
Where,
n = number of bolts = 4
Fu = Ultimate tensile stress of the purlin material = 450 N/mm2
db = Diameter of the connection bolts = 16 mm
tp = total purlin thickness = 3.6 mm
= 4 x [ 2.4 x 450 x 16 x 3.6 / ( 2 x 1000 ) ]

= 124.42 kN > 16.95 and 23.30 kN
Strength in Shear (ASD) = n ( Fv p db2 / 4 Ω )
Where,
Fv = Allowable shear stress in bolt = 0.40 F u
= 0.40 x 800 = 320 N/mm2
= [ 4 ( 320 x p x 162 / ( 4 x 2 x 1000 ) ]
= 128.68 kN > 16.95 and 23.30kN
49
Vu
Va
WELD PURLIN / GIRT
RAFTER / COLUMN
applicable
Check one side weld between rafter flange and welded plate (SWC008)
Length of weld L w = length of plate

= 175 mm
Size of weld S w = 3 mm
Allowable Stress in weld F w = 0.60 F EXX / Ω

= 0.6 x 700 x 0.689 / 2 (E70 XX Electrode)
= 144.69 N/mm2
Strength of weld = 0.707 S w x F w x L w x 1.5*

= 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 175 x 1.5* / 1000
= 80.55 kN > 16.95 and 23.30kN
If axial load (V a ) is present, then the shear and welds should be checked for
the resultant force.
Say, Axial Load (V a ) = 50 kN

Therefore, Resultant = sqrt (V u 2 + V a 2)
= sqrt (22.242 + 502) = 54.72 kN
Inclination of Resultant (θ) = tan-1 (22.24 / 50) = 23.98°
Strength of weld = 0.707 S w x F w x L w x (1.0 + 0.5 Sin1.5 θ)
50
= 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 175 x (1.0 + 0.5 Sin1.5 23.98°)

= 0.707 x 3 x 144.69 x 175 x 1.25 / 1000
= 67.13 kN
Hence we see that the welds and the bolts are ok, for combined vertical and
axial loads.
Note:- * - Directional Increase with θ = 90°, See equation J2-5 of AISC 05
Design of connection for moment at support
DL+LL (M u )
DL+WL (M ) applicable
u
Lap Length = 710 x 2 = 1420 mm

Edge Distance = 45
Lever Arm = Lap Length – 2 x Edge Distance
= 1420 – 2 x 45 = 1330 mm
Force (V b ) in each row of bolt = 15.65 / 1.33 = 11.76 kN

= 22.08 / 1.33 = 16.60 kN (Governs)
We know shear strength for 2 bolts,

= 64.34 kN > 16.60 kN Hence OK.
LEVER ARM
Vb
WELD Mu
Vb
PURLIN / GIRT
RAFTER / COLUMN
51
C-Sections
These sections are generally used as framed opening jambs and headers. As
required by design single or double C back to back may be used. These are
also used as top and bottom girt in secondary framing of fascias. Single or
double C-sections can also be used as end wall rafters and columns, but at
MBS these are not used due to various municipality requirements of minimum
thickness of primary framing members. 120 mm deep sections are used as
framing members of sliding doors.
Framing
Most commonly simply supported flush connection.
Connection Bolts
All bolts used for connection are 12 mm diameter HSB Gr. 8.8. Grade of bolt is
subject to change based on availability and management decision.
General
1. We are now using the TMCP roll forming machine to produce 200 & 250
mm deep ‘C’ sections. We are using 2 coil widths for fabricating C-sections,
345 mm coil for 200C15, and 394 mm coil for 200C20, 200C25, 250C20 &
250C25. The flanges and webs of this ‘C’ section are stiffened with
longitudinal ribs. 200C15 may be used for small framed openings for
windows, louvers etc up to a maximum of 3000 mm long.
2. 250 mm deep C-Sections may be used for framed openings for jambs and
header, when the purlin or girt sections are 250 mm deep. A 394 mm coil is
also used to produce 250 mm deep Z-Sections.
3. ‘C’ sections of any profile can be produced on the TMCP machine, with
following limitations, but these will require stocks of different coil widths.
Table 16.4 Section Profile on TMCP Machine

Dimension Minimum (mm) Maximum (mm)
Web depth 92 356
Flange width 41 76
Lip length NA 25
Thickness 0.8 2.5
Minimum length = 900 mm
NA - Denotes that sections may be without lip (Open C or Stud)
52
Cee Section Properties
Y
Design Mode = ASD
Ωv = 1.60 Ωc = 1.80
Ωb = 1.67 Ωt = 1.67
S.C C.G
X X
Material= A653 Grade 50
2
Fy = 345 N/mm
200 C 20
| | | Y
Section Data
120C20 120 60 2.0 16.379 2.390 90 5.10 4.00 60 255
200C15 200 65 1.5 13.479 2.390 90 5.18 4.06 100 345
200C20 200 80 2.0 23.059 2.390 90 7.88 6.19 100 394
200C25 200 80 2.5 24.920 2.390 90 9.85 7.73 100 394
250C20 250 60 2.0 18.060 2.390 90 7.88 6.19 125 394
250C25 250 60 2.5 19.919 2.390 90 9.85 7.73 125 394

4 3 4 3 6
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 4 mm
120C20 1.19E+06 19816 48.28 1.20E+05 5902 21.65 6.65E+08 680.00 69.98
200C15 3.08E+06 30768 77.11 1.21E+05 4885 21.59 1.76E+09 388.00 89.03
200C20 4.95E+06 49523 79.27 3.25E+05 11493 28.71 5.00E+09 1050.70 101.58
200C25 6.15E+06 61487 79.01 4.08E+05 14556 28.79 6.35E+09 2052.00 101.68
250C20 6.87E+06 54942 93.36 1.51E+05 6457 19.56 3.48E+09 1050.07 101.09
250C25 8.55E+06 68373 93.15 1.90E+05 8226 19.66 4.42E+09 2052.00 101.06


120C20 28.78 17.47 4.54 2.72 3.18 1.20 84.04 112.98
200C15 22.01 11.10 5.51 3.30 3.58 0.88 46.59 112.98
200C20 37.77 22.78 9.00 5.40 5.85 2.11 85.44 177.30
200C25 46.59 27.91 11.93 7.16 7.75 2.75 122.29 221.62
250C20 35.88 12.43 11.08 6.65 4.43 1.19 78.17 177.30
250C25 55.97 14.97 16.09 9.65 6.44 1.57 108.29 221.62

53
Example 3
Design of Framed Opening Header and Jambs

Given:- (Refer sketch below)
Framed Opening Size = 6000 x 6000
Wind Pressure = 1.00 kN/m2
Solution:-
Design of Header
Calculate the effective wind load area, is the greater of,
tributary area of Header = 0.5 x 6.0 = 3.00 m2
Span x Span / 3 = 6.0 x 6.0 / 3 = 12.0 m2
Hence effective wind load area = 12.0 m2
Considering an enclosed building and roof slope less than 10°, referring table
1.4.6 (a) of MBMA 02, GCp for interior zone is given by,
Inward Pressure ( Pressure) = -0.159 Log A + 1.08

= -0.159 Log 12 + 1.08 = 0.91
Outward Pressure (Suction) = 0.159 Log A - 1.16

= 0.159 Log 12 – 1.16 = -0.99
Wind Load Pressure = 1.00 x 0.91 x 0.5 = 0.46 kN/m

Wind Load Suction = 1.00 x -0.99 x 0.5 = -0.50 kN/m
Moment Pressure = 0.46 x 6.02 / 8 = 2.07 kNm
Shear Pressure = 0.46 x 6.0 / 2 = 1.38 kN
Moment Suction = 0.50 x 6.02 / 8 = 2.25 kNm
Shear Suction = 0.50 x 6.0 / 2 = 1.50 kN
The compression flange is considered laterally braced by the sheeting under

wind pressure loading, hence full moment capacity can be used. Where are for
wind suction loading, the full moment capacity is reduced by applying the
reduction factor R = 0.65
The moment and shear capacities for 200C15 are,

Maxo = 5.51 kNm (Pressure)
Maxo2 = 5.51 x 0.65 = 3.58 kNm (Suction)
Vay = 22.01 kN
54
Therefore the stress ratios are,
Pressure M / Maxo2 = 2.07 / 5.51 = 0.37 OK

V / Vay = 1.38 / 22.01 = 0.06 OK
Suction M / Maxo = 2.25 / 3.58 = 0.63 OK

V / Vay = 1.50 / 22.01 = 0.06 OK
Check Deflection,
Ixx = 3.08 x 106 mm4

Calculated deflection, suction
= 5 x 0.50 x 1000 x 60004 /(384 x 205000 x 3.08 x 106 x 1000)
= 13.36 mm
Allowable deflection = span / 90 = 6000 / 90

= 66.67 mm OK
500
BAY SPACING
1500
500
1500
1500
9000
FRAMED OPENING
1500
6000 X 6000
2500
500 6000 500

500 500
8000
55
Design of Jambs
For the design of jambs it is important to note the connection detail of the
opening purpose, such as roll up door, sliding door or open for access.
The tributary width in all cases will be different,
Tributary width for Roll Up Door

= (Framed Opening Width / 2 + 0.5)
= (6 / 2 + 0.5) = 3.5 m
Tributary width for Sliding Door or open for access = 0.5 m
a) Considering, the opening for a Roll-Up Door

Effective wind load area is the greater of,
Tributary area = 3.5 x 7 = 24.5 m2
Span x Span / 3 =7x7/3 = 16.3 m2

= -0.159 Log 24.5 + 1.08 = 0.86

= 0.159 Log 24.5 – 1.16 = -0.94

Jamb is also supporting the header hence we need to consider the reactions
from the header = 1.38 Pressure
= 1.50 Suction
Loading diagram is as below,
SUCTION 3.29 kN/m

1.50 kN
1.38 kN
PRESSURE 3.01 kN/m
Ra 10.63 kN 500 Rb 11.82 kN

7000
Ra 11.63 kN Rb 12.91 kN
56
Location of maximum bending moment pressure = 10.63 / 3.01 = 3.53 m

Location of maximum bending moment suction = 11.63 / 3.29 = 3.53 m
Maximum Moment Pressure = 10.63 x 3.53 = 37.52 kNm

Maximum Moment Suction = 11.63 x 3.53 = 41.05 kNm
The moment and shear capacities for 200C25 and, 2x200C25 are,
Maxo = 11.93 kNm = 23.86 kNm (Pressure)
Maxo2 = 11.93 x 0.65 = 7.75 kNm = 15.50 kNm (Suction)
Vay = 46.59 kN = 93.18 kN
We see the capacities are much below required, even for double ‘C’ section,
hence hot-rolled or built-up section may be used as jambs for above case.
b) Considering, the opening for a Sliding Door

Designing the door leaf members of size 3 x 6
1) DSD Inner Stile, Span = 1.50 m, Width = 1.50 m
Span x Span / 3 = 1.5 x 1.5 / 3 = 0.75 m2

= -0.159 Log 2.25 + 1.08 = 1.02

= 0.159 Log 2.25 – 1.16 = -1.10
Moment Pressure = 1.53 x 1.52 / 8 = 0.43 kNm
Shear Pressure = 1.53 x 1.5 / 2 = 1.15 kN
Moment Suction = 1.65 x 1.5 / 8
2 = 0.46 kNm
Shear Suction = 1.65 x 1.5 / 2 = 1.24 kN
The compression flange is considered laterally braced by the sheeting under

wind pressure loading, hence full moment capacity can be used. Where are for
wind suction loading, the full moment capacity is reduced by applying the
reduction factor R = 0.70
57

Maxo = 4.54 kNm (Pressure)
Maxo2 = 4.54 x 0.70 = 3.18 kNm (Suction)
Vay = 28.78 kN

V / Vay = 1.15 / 28.78 = 0.04 OK
Suction M / Maxo = 0.46 / 3.18 = 0.15 OK

V / Vay = 1.24 / 26.89 = 0.05 OK
Check Deflection,
Ixx = 1.19 x 106 mm4
= 5 x 1.65 x 1000 x 15004 /(384 x 205000 x 1.19 x 106 x 1000)
= 0.45 mm

= 16.67 mm OK
2) DSD Central Stile, Span = 6.0 m, Width = 1.50 m

The loads on the center stile is twice the reaction from inner stile, as shown
below,
SUCTION 2.48 kN 2.48 kN 2.48 kN
PRESSURE 2.30 kN 2.30 kN 2.30 kN
Ra 3.45 kN 1500 1500 1500 1500 Rb 3.45 kN
6000
Ra 3.72 kN Rb 3.72 kN
58
Moment Pressure = 3.45 x 3.00 – 2.30 x 1.5 = 6.90 kNm

Shear Pressure = 3.45 kN
Moment Suction = 3.72 x 3.00 – 2.48 x 1.5 = 7.44 kNm
Shear Suction = 3.72 kN
The compression flange is considered laterally braced by the inner stile

framing under both loading wind pressure and suction loading, hence full
moment capacity can be used.
The moment and shear capacities for 2x120C20 are,

Maxo = 4.54 x 2 = 9.08 kNm (Pressure & Suction)
Vay = 28.78 x 2 = 57.56 kN

V / Vay = 3.45 / 57.56 = 0.06 OK
Suction M / Maxo = 7.44 / 9.08 = 0.82 OK

V / Vay = 3.72 / 57.56 = 0.06 OK
Check Deflection,
Ixx = 2 x 1.19 x 106 mm4
= 0.0495 x 2.48 x 1000 x 60003 /( 205000 x 2 x 1.19 x 106)
= 54.34 mm

= 66.67 mm OK
Edge Stile will be similarly designed for half the load of center stile.
59
3) DSD Bottom Stile, Span = 3.00 m, Width = 0.75 m

Span x Span / 3 = 3.0 x 3.0 / 3 = 3.00 m2

= -0.159 Log 3.0 + 1.08 = 1.00

= 0.159 Log 3.0 – 1.16 = -1.08
Moment Pressure = 0.75 x 3.02 / 8 + 3.45 x 3.0 / 4
= 3.43 kNm
Shear Pressure = 0.75 x 3.0 / 2 + 3.45 / 2 = 2.85 kN
Moment Suction = 0.81 x 3.02 / 8 + 3.72 x 3.0 / 4
= 3.71 kNm
Shear Suction = 0.81 x 3.0 / 2 + 3.75 / 2 = 3.09 kN
The compression flange is considered laterally braced by the inner stile

framing under both loading wind pressure and suction loading, hence full
moment capacity can be used.

Maxo = 4.54 kNm (Pressure & Suction)
Vay = 28.78 kN
0.81 kN/m
SUCTION 3.72 kN
PRESSURE 3.45 kN
0.75 kN/m
Ra 2.85 kN 1500 1500 Rb 2.85 kN
3000
Ra 3.08 kN Rb 3.08 kN
60

V / Vay = 3.43 / 28.78 = 0.12 OK
Suction M / Maxo = 3.09 / 4.54 = 0.68 OK

V / Vay = 3.71 / 28.78 = 0.13 OK
Check Deflection,
Ixx = 1.19 x 106 mm4 P P P

= 5 x 0.81 x 1000 x 30004 /(384 x 205000 x 1.19 x 106 x 1000)
P P P P
+ 3.72 x 1000 x 30003 /(48 x 205000 x 1.19 x 106)

P P P P
= 3.50 + 8.58 = 12.08 mm

= 33.33 mm OK
Similar check can be made for 250C20 and 250C25 when the girts are 250 mm
deep. And 360M20 for 360 deep girts, note that the jambs and header for 360
deep sections are without the large oval holes.
61
17
Chapter
M E Z Z A N I N E
Mezzanine
“Mezzanine” literally means an intermediate floor between main floors of a
building. These may be built in steel or concrete or a combination of both.
Generally, joists are cold formed or hot rolled sections, unless built-up sections
are required for heavy loading. The direction of framing (Joist & beams) is
selected based on the most economical solution, usually, the joist span the
shortest direction and beam the other. The beams or joist are connected to the
main frame columns for lateral stability.
If the beams are in the same plane as the main frame, the beams may be rigidly
connected to the main frames for sway control and economical frame. The
beams and joist are designed as simply supported for single story. In case of a
multi-story building the rigidly connected beam is a better and economical
option.
The mezzanine columns may be square tube, hot rolled or built-up section, hot
rolled tube columns are better in all direction and preferred due to
architectural reasons. Tube columns may also be filled with concrete to
increase the axial load bearing capacity.
The floor may consist of metal decking panels filled with concrete or hollow
core slabs or Mammut planks. Joists are not required when Mammut planks
are used. The metal deck panels are galvanized and not designed to carry any
live loads, except the dead weight of concrete during pouring and a working
load of 50 kg/m2. The concrete slab must be designed to carry the service live
loads. Grating and Chequered plates are also used as flooring in industrial
applications.
The clearances above and below the mezzanine should be checked

accurately during estimation stage and end-user informed. It is very
important since any alteration after the final design may affect the overall
economy of the structure compared to quote price.
1
M E Z Z A N I N E
Some of the possible analytical models are as shown in the sketch below.
Table 17.1 Weights of Deck Panel

Sr. No. Deck Panel Thickness (mm) Weight ( kN/m2)
1 0.50 0.050
2 0.70 0.069
3 1.00 0.098
Table 17.2 Weights of Concrete Slab

Slab Thickness Enclosed Area (mm2) Weight (kN/m2)
100 73301 2.04
125 95801 2.66
150 118301 3.29
175 140801 3.91
200 163301 4.54
225 185801 5.16
250 208301 5.79
2
M E Z Z A N I N E
Deck Panel
The total load on the deck panel includes the self weight of the panel, weight
of concrete slab plus 50 kg/m2 working load.
Notes for Table 17.2:-
1. Density of concrete = 25 kN/m3
2. “Area” denotes the area enclosed by a given slab thickness and standard 45-
150 deck panel. See figure on previous page,
3. Width of deck panel = 900 mm
Example
The weight of 100 mm thk. Slab is calculated as,

Area enclosed x Density of Concrete / (width of deck panel x 10002 )
= 73301 x 25 / ( 0.9 x 10002 )
= 2.04 kN/m2
Similarly,
the weight of 175 mm thk. Slab is calculated as,

Area enclosed x Density of Concrete / (width of deck panel x 10002 )
= 140801 x 25 / ( 0.9 x 10002 )
= 3.91 kN/m2
3
M E Z Z A N I N E
Example
Given Data:-
Mezzanine Deck Panel = 0.7 mm thk. Galvanized
Concrete Slab = 125 mm thk.
Floor Finish = 20 mm thk. Ceramic tiles
Spacing of Joist = 1750 mm
Calculate the Dead Load on the Deck Panel & Joist:

+ Weight of Concrete slab
+ Working load (50 kg/m2 = 0.05 kN/m2)
Refer Table 17.1 weight of 0.5 mm thk. Galvanized panel

= 0.069 kN/m2
Refer Table 17.2 weight of 125 mm thk. Concrete slab

= 2.66 kN/m2
Therefore,
Total load on Deck panels = 0.069 + 2.66 + 0.05
= 2.779 kN/m2
2) Dead Load on Joist = Self weight of Joist (Assuming 15 kgs/m2)

+ Total Load on Deck panels
Therefore,
Total Dead Load on Joist = 0.15 + 2.779

= 2.929 kN/m2
Therefore,
UDL on Joist = Joist spacing x Load (kN/m2)
= 1.75 x 2.929
= 5.126 kN/m
(UDL – Denotes Uniformly Distributed Load in kN/m
4
M E Z Z A N I N E
Table 17.3 Allowable Loads in kN/m2 for 45-150 Galvanized Deck Panel
Panel
Panel S p a n I n M e t e r s
Nominal No. of Load
Base (Based on Allowable Deflection of Span / 120)
Thickness Spans Case
Metal
(mm) 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
1 D+L 11.25 7.20 5.00 3.67 2.81 2.18 1.59 1.20 0.92 0.72 0.58
0.50 2 D+L 12.01 7.69 5.34 3.92 3.00 2.37 1.92 1.59 1.33 1.14 0.98
3 D+L 15.01 9.61 6.67 4.90 3.75 2.97 2.40 1.98 1.67 1.37 1.09
Galvanized
1 D+L 16.65 10.66 7.40 5.44 4.16 3.18 2.32 1.74 1.34 1.06 0.85
0.70 2 D+L 16.86 10.79 7.49 5.51 4.22 3.33 2.70 2.23 1.87 1.60 1.38
3 D+L 21.08 13.49 9.37 6.88 5.27 4.16 3.37 2.79 2.34 1.99 1.60
1 D+L 23.88 15.29 10.62 7.80 5.97 4.58 3.34 2.51 1.93 1.52 1.22
1.00 2 D+L 23.95 15.33 10.64 7.82 5.99 4.73 3.83 3.17 2.66 2.27 1.95
3 D+L 29.93 19.16 13.30 9.77 7.48 5.91 4.79 3.96 3.33 2.83 2.29
Table 17.4 Maximum Allowable Joist Spacing
Slab
Panel Thk. Maximum Number of
Thickness Deck Profile
(mm) Spacing (mm) Spans
(mm)
100 2250 3 or More
125 45-150 0.50 2000 3 or More
150 1750 3 or More
175 2250 3 or More
200 45-150 0.70 2000 3 or More
225 1750 3 or More
Slab thickness is inclusive of 45 mm deep rib
5
M E Z Z A N I N E
Chequered Plates
Chequered plates are available in various thicknesses and pattern in the

market; only 5.0 mm thick Chequered plates are a standard stock item; other
thicknesses are procured on a job to job basis. Commonly used thicknesses are
5.0, 6.0, and 8.0 mm and tear drop pattern. The grades are A36 or S275JR. Table
below provides allowable loads in various thicknesses for A36 grade.
Table 17.5 Allowable loads on Chequered plate
Allowable loads in kN/m2

Thickness Weight No. of
Span (mm)
(mm) (kg/m2) Spans
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
1 7.09 4.10 2.58 1.73 1.22 0.89 0.67 0.51 0.40 0.32 0.26
5.00 39.25 2 13.15 9.13 6.21 4.16 2.92 2.13 1.60 1.23 0.97 0.78 0.63
3 13.37 7.74 4.87 3.27 2.29 1.67 1.26 0.97 0.76 0.61 0.50
The loads are based on extreme fiber allowable stress of 0.45 F y and deflection
of Span / 150.
Example:- (Validating the above table)
We know the maximum values for single span as below,
Bending moment = wl2 / 8 = 0.125 wl2

Shear = wl / 2 = 0.50 wl
Deflection = 5 wl4 / 384 EI = 0.013 wl4/EI
The thickness includes the pattern; hence the effective thickness as verified for
5.0 mm thk is 4.7 mm, properties are calculated as below,
Grade = A36
Fy = 248 N/mm2
t = 4.70 mm
A = 4.70 mm2
I xx = bd3/12 = 1.00 x 4.73 / 12 = 8.65 mm4 / mm
S xx = 2 I xx / t = 2 x 8.65 / 4.70 = 3.68 mm3 / mm
6
M E Z Z A N I N E
We also know that calculated bending stress,
fb = M / S xx = 0.125 wl2 / 3.68
equating the maximum allowable bending stress to calculated bending stress

and l = 500 mm, we get,
0.45 x 248 = 0.125 w x 5002 / 3.68
Therefore,
w = 0.45 x 248 x 3.68 / ( 0.125 x 5002 ) = 0.0131 N/mm2

w = 0.0131 = 13.14 kN/m2
Similarly, we calculate the allowable load for shear
fv =V/A = 0.5 wl / 4.70
0.40 x 248 = 0.50 w x 500 / 4.70
Therefore,
w = 0.40 x 248 x 4.70 / ( 0.50 x 500 ) = 1.865 N/mm2

w = 1.865 = 1865 kN/m2
Similarly, for deflection
d = 0.013 wl4/EI = 0.013 wl4 / ( 200000 x 8.65 )
500 / 150 = 0.013 w x 5004 / ( 200000 x 8.65 )
Therefore,
w = 500 x 200000 x 8.65 / ( 150 x 0.013 x 5004 )

= 7.09 x 10-3 N/mm2 = 7.09 kN/m2
Minimum of ( 13.14, 1865, 7.09 ) = 7.09 kN/m2
Similarly, the allowable loads are calculated for different span and number of
spans.
7
M E Z Z A N I N E
Grating
Standard stock size of grating is 30 x 3 @ 41 mm c/c. Which denotes 30 x 3 mm

serrated flat bars spaced at 41 mm c/c and tied along the length by 5.0 mm
square twisted rods at a spacing of 100 mm c/c. The available grades are
S275JR or A36 material.
Table 17.6 Allowable loads on Grating
Allowable loads in kN/m2

Weight No. of
Size
(kg/m) Spans
Span (mm)
500
1 44.55
30 x 3 17.66 2 44.55
3 55.69
The loads are based on extreme fiber allowable stress of 0.45 F y and deflection
of Span / 150.
Example:- (Validating the above table)
We know the maximum values for single span as below,
Bending moment = wl2 / 8 = 0.125 wl2

Shear = wl / 2 = 0.50 wl
Deflection = 5 wl4 / 384 EI = 0.013 wl4/EI
The thickness includes the pattern; hence the effective thickness as verified for
5.0 mm thk is 4.7 mm, properties are calculated as below,
Grade = S275JR
Fy = 275 N/mm2
b = 3 mm d = 30 mm
n = number of bars / per meter width = 987 / 41 = 24.07~25
A = nbd = 25 x 30 x 3 = 2250 mm2 / m
I xx = nbd3/12 = 25 x 3.0 x 303 / 12 = 1.68 x 105 mm4 / m
S xx = 2 I xx / d = 2 x 1.68 x 105 / 30 = 1.12 x 104 mm3 / m
8
M E Z Z A N I N E
We also know that calculated bending stress,
fb = M / S xx = 0.125 wl2 / 1.12 x 104
equating the maximum allowable bending stress to calculated bending stress

and l = 500 mm, we get,
0.45 x 275 = 0.125 w x 5002 / 1.12 x 104
Therefore,
w = 0.45 x 275 x 1.12 x 104 / ( 0.125 x 5002 ) = 44.35 kN/m2
Similarly, we calculate the allowable load for shear
fv =V/A = 0.5 wl / 2250
0.40 x 275 = 0.50 w x 500 / 2250
Therefore,
w = 0.40 x 275 x 2250 / ( 0.50 x 500 ) = 990 kN/m2
Similarly, for deflection
d = 0.013 wl4/EI = 0.013 wl4 / ( 200000 x 1.68 x 105 )
500 / 150 = 0.013 w x 5004 / ( 200000 x 1.68 x 105)
Therefore,
w = 500 x 200000 x 1.68 x 105 / ( 150 x 0.013 x 5004 )

= 137.8 kN/m2
Minimum of ( 44.35, 990, 137.8 ) = 44.35 kN/m2
Similarly, the allowable loads are calculated for different span and number of
spans.
9
M E Z Z A N I N E
Mammut Planks
Mammut Planks may be used as alternative flooring for mezzanines; the

characteristic are as below,
1. These are 65 mm thick precast slabs with truss type reinforcement in the
direction of the span.
2. These are always spanning in one direction.
3. The width is up to 2.4 m, and these planks need one prop at every 3.5 m,
until the balance concrete and reinforcement are cast in situ to provide
total thickness of slab.
4. Minimum bearing length of 50 mm is required.
5. Provide standard fin plate SWC-110 at 1200 mm c/c spacing in direction

parallel to the web of the beam. The plate is welded on the top flange of
the beam.
6. The top flange can be considered braced at 1200 mm spacing due the clips,
after the balance concrete is set.
7. Two rods of 10 mm diameter are inserted through the holes of the clip and
may tack welded to hold in position (by erector).
8. The mezzanine beam should be checked for strength with maximum

unbraced length between the strut tube spacing with dead load of 65 mm
thick planks (1.8 kN/m2)
9. The mezzanine beams and joist may also be designed as composite beams
if shear studs are used. This is an economical solution for large loads and
long spans. This may not be advantageous for beams rigidly connected to
main frame columns where negative moment controls the design.
10. The standard shear studs are 2 types, 12 mm dia. x 50 mm long and 19 mm
dia. and 100 mm long.
10
M E Z Z A N I N E
WIDTH AS REQUIRED
WELDED CLIP MAMMUT PLANKS

1200 1200
@ 1200 mm c/c
T
65
±150
MEZZANINE BEAM
ELEVATION
GROUT
WELDED CLIP
MAMMUT PLANKS
@ 1200 mm c/c
10 mm Ø ROD
MEZZANINE BEAM
DETAIL AT INTERIOR BEAM
GROUT
WELDED CLIP
MAMMUT PLANKS
@ 1200 mm c/c
EDGE ANGLE
MEZZANINE BEAM
DETAIL AT END BEAM
11
M E Z Z A N I N E
Table 17.7 Allowable Spans for Mammut Planks
Total Slab
Sr. Mammut Plank Weight
Span * (mm) thickness
No. Thickness (mm) (kN/m2)
(mm)
1 L<= 3500 130 3.25
2 4000 160 4.00
3 4500 160 4.00
4 5000 180 4.50
5 5500 200 5.00
6 6000 220 5.50
65
7 6500 220 6.00
8 7000 240 6.00
9 7500 260 6.50
10 8000 280 7.00
11 8500 300 7.50
12 9000 300 7.50
* - For a Maximum Live Load = 5.00 kN/m2
Example:-
Given:-
Mezzanine Col. Spacing = 4 @ 8750 mm
Solution:- Alternative 1
Let us span the planks in the shorter direction
i.e. bay spacing = 7500 mm
Hence the total slab thickness required = 260 mm
Hence Dead Load of the slab = 6.50 kN/m2
Working load of 50 kg/m2 = 0.50 kN/m2
Therefore, Total Dead Load = 7.00 kN/m2
DL+LL = 12.0 kN/m2
Total UDL on interior beam = Bay Spacing x Total Load

= 7.50 x 12.0
= 90.0 kN/m
12
M E Z Z A N I N E
Total UDL on exterior beam = 45.0 kN/m
Use an interior beam 780 x 10 Web + 250 x 15 Flanges @ 120.11 kg/m

Also check the beam for full unbraced length of 8750 mm with a UDL
= 1.8 x 7.5 = 13.5 kN/m

= 1.8 x 3.75 = 6.75 kN/m
Solution:- Alternative 2
Let us span the planks in the longer direction with one joist in center,
i.e. half mezzanine column spacing = 4375 mm
DL+LL = 10.0 kN/m2
Total UDL on Joist = Bay Spacing x Total Load

= 4.375 x 10.0
= 43.75 kN/m
Use a joist 500 x 6 Web + 250 x 10 Flanges @ 62.5 kg/m
Also check the joist for full unbraced length of 7500 mm with a UDL
= 7.88 kN/m
Next design the beam with a point load. (consider the beam braced at 4.375 m)
Exterior Beam =167 kN at 4.375 m
Interior Beam =334 kN at 4.375 m

Use an exterior beam 630 x 6 Web + 250 x 10 Flanges @ 68.91 kg/m
13
M E Z Z A N I N E
Hollow Core Slabs
Hollow core slabs are very commonly used as flooring system for mezzanines,
due to speed in erection. The dead weight is about 40 to 50% less when
compared to solid slab of same thickness.
1. Provide standard fin plate SWC-110 at 1200 mm c/c spacing in direction

parallel to the web of the beam. The plate is welded on the top flange of
the beam.
2. The top flange can be considered braced at 1200 mm spacing due the clips,
after the grout is set.
3. Minimum bearing length of 60 mm is required, preferably 80 mm for

tolerances.
4. Two rods of 10 mm diameter are inserted through the holes of the clip and
may be tack welded to hold in position. (by Erector)
5. Provide 125 x 125 x 3.2 strut tube for bracing the beam at ±150 mm below
top flange of the beam in order to reduce the unbraced length, the spacing
should be such that the unbraced length does not exceed 6.0 meters in
order to avoid buckling and twisting during erection.
6. The mezzanine beam should be checked for strength with maximum

unbraced length between the strut tube spacing with dead load and 5%
impact.
Table 17.8 Dead Weight of Hollow Core Slabs
Sr.
Thickness (mm) Weight * (kN/m2)
No.
1 150 2.36
2 200 3.06
3 265 3.94
4 320 4.27
5 400 4.95
6 500 7.07
* - Data from UPC product manual
14
M E Z Z A N I N E
HOLLOW CORE SLAB

WELDED CLIP
1200 1200 @ 1200 mm c/c
±150
MEZZANINE BEAM
ELEVATION
GROUT
WELDED CLIP
HOLLOW CORE SLAB
@ 1200 mm c/c
10 mm Ø ROD
MEZZANINE BEAM
STRUT TUBE
125 X 125 X 3.2
DETAIL AT INTERIOR BEAM
GROUT
WELDED CLIP
HOLLOW CORE SLAB
@ 1200 mm c/c
EDGE ANGLE
MEZZANINE BEAM
STRUT TUBE
125 X 125 X 3.2
DETAIL AT END BEAM
15
M E Z Z A N I N E
16
M E Z Z A N I N E
Example:-
Given:-
Mezzanine Col. Spacing = 4 @ 8750 mm
Solution:-
Let us span the planks in the shorter direction
i.e. bay spacing = 7500 mm
DL+LL = 9.44 kN/m2
Total UDL on interior beam = Bay Spacing x Total Load

= 7.50 x 9.44
= 70.8 kN/m
Total UDL on exterior beam = 35.4 kN/m

= 4.44 x 7.5 = 33.3 kN/m
The selected beam does not work, hence a strut tube is required as brace at
center of the span = 4.375 m.

= 4.44 x 3.75 = 16.7 kN/m
The selected beam does not work, hence a strut tube is required as brace at
center of the span = 4.375 m.
17
M E Z Z A N I N E
Design of Joist
Mezzanine Joist are designed as simply supported beams with the

compression flange assumed to fully braced by screws attached to the decking
panel at 300 mm spacing c/c. The connections mainly consist of a fin plate
connection for light loads and clip connections for heavy loads. All bolts are
High Strength Bolts (HSB) grade 8.8. Refer excel sheet for allowable loads on
different cold formed sections, for hot rolled and built-up joist refer table
below. The table below may also be used for mezzanine beams if the spacing
of joist is not going to exceed 1.50 meters.
Table 17.9 Allowable loads in kN/m for Mezzanine Beams and Joist.
Section (mm) Length (m)
Weight
Web x Thk. 3 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
kg/m
+ Flg. Thk. Allowable Loads in kN/m
IPEA-200 18.40 26.58 14.87 10.99 7.96 5.94 4.53 3.52 2.78 2.23 1.80 1.47 1.21
UB203x133 25.10 37.89 21.20 16.18 11.73 8.75 6.68 5.20 4.12 3.30 2.67 2.19 1.80
250 4 125 6 19.63 37.46 20.99 16.54 13.36 11.01 8.63 6.75 5.36 4.32 3.53 2.91 2.42
250 5 125 6 21.59 39.09 21.89 17.25 13.93 11.48 9.00 7.03 5.59 4.50 3.67 3.02 2.51
250 4 150 6 21.98 43.65 24.46 19.28 15.57 12.83 10.06 7.87 6.26 5.05 4.12 3.40 2.83
250 6 125 6 23.55 40.71 22.80 17.96 14.51 11.95 9.36 7.31 5.81 4.68 3.81 3.14 2.61
250 5 150 6 23.94 45.28 25.36 19.99 16.15 13.30 10.43 8.15 6.48 5.22 4.26 3.51 2.92
250 6 150 6 25.91 46.90 26.27 20.70 16.72 13.77 10.80 8.44 6.70 5.40 4.40 3.63 3.02
250 4 150 8 26.69 55.96 31.36 24.72 19.98 16.46 13.11 10.26 8.16 6.58 5.38 4.44 3.70
250 5 150 8 28.65 57.56 32.25 25.42 20.54 16.93 13.48 10.54 8.38 6.76 5.52 4.56 3.79
250 6 150 8 30.62 59.17 33.15 26.13 21.10 17.39 13.85 10.82 8.61 6.94 5.66 4.67 3.89
18
M E Z Z A N I N E
Section (mm) Length (m)

Weight
Web x Thk. 3 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
kg/m
+ Flg. Thk. Allowable Loads in kN/m
300 4 125 6 21.20 46.62 26.13 20.60 16.65 13.72 11.50 9.76 8.02 6.48 5.30 4.39 3.66
300 5 125 6 23.55 48.99 27.45 21.64 17.48 14.41 12.07 10.25 8.42 6.80 5.56 4.60 3.84
300 4 150 6 23.55 54.05 30.30 23.89 19.31 15.92 13.34 11.33 9.31 7.52 6.16 5.09 4.25
300 6 125 6 25.91 51.35 28.77 22.68 18.32 15.10 12.64 10.73 8.81 7.12 5.82 4.81 4.01
300 5 150 6 25.91 56.42 31.62 24.93 20.14 16.60 13.91 11.81 9.70 7.84 6.41 5.31 4.43
300 6 150 6 28.26 58.78 32.94 25.97 20.98 17.29 14.48 12.30 10.10 8.16 6.67 5.52 4.60
300 4 150 8 28.26 68.82 38.59 30.43 24.59 20.28 16.99 14.44 12.02 9.72 7.96 6.59 5.51
300 5 150 8 30.62 71.15 39.89 31.45 25.42 20.95 17.56 14.92 12.42 10.04 8.22 6.80 5.68
300 6 150 8 32.97 73.49 41.19 32.48 26.25 21.63 18.13 15.40 12.81 10.35 8.47 7.01 5.85
350 4 125 6 22.77 56.33 31.59 24.91 20.13 16.60 13.91 11.82 10.16 8.82 7.50 6.22 5.20
350 4 150 6 25.12 65.01 36.46 28.75 23.24 19.16 16.06 13.65 11.74 10.19 8.66 7.18 6.01
350 5 125 6 25.51 59.58 33.40 26.34 21.28 17.55 14.70 12.49 10.73 9.32 7.92 6.56 5.49
350 5 150 6 27.87 68.25 38.27 30.18 24.39 20.11 16.85 14.32 12.31 10.69 9.08 7.53 6.30
350 6 125 6 28.26 62.82 35.21 27.76 22.43 18.49 15.49 13.16 11.31 9.81 8.34 6.90 5.77
350 4 150 8 29.83 68.04 46.13 36.38 29.41 24.26 20.33 17.28 14.86 12.91 11.10 9.21 7.71
350 6 150 6 30.62 71.49 40.08 31.60 25.54 21.06 17.64 14.99 12.88 11.18 9.50 7.87 6.58
350 5 150 8 32.58 85.44 47.92 37.79 30.55 25.19 21.12 17.94 15.43 13.40 11.52 9.55 7.99
350 6 150 8 35.33 88.64 49.71 39.20 31.69 26.13 21.90 18.60 15.99 13.89 11.94 9.90 8.28
400 4 125 6 24.34 59.55 37.36 29.47 23.82 19.64 16.47 14.00 12.03 10.45 9.16 8.08 7.06
400 4 150 6 26.69 59.53 42.92 33.86 27.37 22.58 18.93 16.09 13.84 12.02 10.53 9.30 8.12
400 5 125 6 27.48 70.86 39.74 31.34 25.33 20.89 17.51 14.88 12.79 11.11 9.73 8.59 7.49
400 4 175 6 29.05 59.50 44.55 38.25 30.93 25.51 21.39 18.18 15.64 13.59 11.90 10.51 9.18
400 5 150 6 29.83 80.77 45.30 35.73 28.89 23.82 19.97 16.97 14.59 12.67 11.10 9.80 8.56
400 6 125 6 30.62 75.11 42.12 33.21 26.84 22.13 18.55 15.76 13.55 11.76 10.30 9.09 7.93
400 4 150 8 31.40 59.48 44.53 39.55 34.43 28.40 23.81 20.25 17.41 15.13 13.26 11.71 10.33
400 5 175 6 32.19 90.69 50.87 40.13 32.44 26.76 22.43 19.06 16.39 14.24 12.48 11.01 9.62
400 6 150 6 32.97 85.03 47.68 37.61 30.40 25.07 21.01 17.85 15.35 13.33 11.67 10.30 8.99
400 5 150 8 34.54 100.41 56.33 44.44 35.93 29.63 24.84 21.12 18.16 15.78 13.82 12.21 10.77
400 5 200 6 34.54 100.60 56.44 44.52 36.00 29.69 24.89 21.16 18.20 15.81 13.85 12.23 10.68
400 6 175 6 35.33 94.94 53.25 42.00 33.95 28.00 23.47 19.95 17.15 14.89 13.05 11.52 10.05
400 6 150 8 37.68 104.63 58.69 46.29 37.43 30.86 25.87 21.99 18.91 16.42 14.39 12.70 11.20
400 5 175 8 37.68 113.64 63.76 50.30 40.67 33.54 28.13 23.91 20.56 17.87 15.66 13.83 12.20
400 6 200 6 37.68 104.86 58.82 46.39 37.51 30.93 25.93 22.04 18.95 16.46 14.42 12.73 11.12
400 6 175 8 40.82 117.85 66.11 52.15 42.17 34.78 29.16 24.78 21.31 18.51 16.22 14.32 12.63
19
M E Z Z A N I N E
Length (meters)
Section (mm) Weight
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Web x Thk. Flg. Thk. kg/m Allowable Uniformly Distributed Load in kN/m
400 4 125 6 24.34 16.47 14.00 12.03 10.45 9.16 8.08 7.06 5.96 5.08 4.35 3.75 3.26 2.84
400 4 150 6 26.69 18.93 16.09 13.84 12.02 10.53 9.30 8.12 6.86 5.85 5.01 4.33 3.75 3.27
400 5 125 6 27.48 17.51 14.88 12.79 11.11 9.73 8.59 7.49 6.33 5.39 4.62 3.98 3.45 3.00
400 4 175 6 29.05 21.39 18.18 15.64 13.59 11.90 10.51 9.18 7.76 6.61 5.67 4.90 4.25 3.71
400 5 150 6 29.83 19.97 16.97 14.59 12.67 11.10 9.80 8.56 7.23 6.16 5.28 4.55 3.95 3.44
400 6 125 6 30.62 18.55 15.76 13.55 11.76 10.30 9.09 7.93 6.70 5.70 4.88 4.21 3.64 3.17
400 4 150 8 31.40 23.81 20.25 17.41 15.13 13.26 11.71 10.33 8.73 7.44 6.39 5.51 4.79 4.18
400 5 175 6 32.19 22.43 19.06 16.39 14.24 12.48 11.01 9.62 8.13 6.92 5.94 5.12 4.44 3.87
400 6 150 6 32.97 21.01 17.85 15.35 13.33 11.67 10.30 8.99 7.60 6.47 5.54 4.78 4.14 3.60
400 5 150 8 34.54 24.84 21.12 18.16 15.78 13.82 12.21 10.77 9.10 7.75 6.65 5.74 4.98 4.34
400 5 200 6 34.54 24.89 21.16 18.20 15.81 13.85 12.23 10.68 9.03 7.69 6.60 5.69 4.94 4.31
400 6 175 6 35.33 23.47 19.95 17.15 14.89 13.05 11.52 10.05 8.50 7.23 6.20 5.35 4.64 4.04
400 6 150 8 37.68 25.87 21.99 18.91 16.42 14.39 12.70 11.20 9.47 8.06 6.91 5.97 5.17 4.51
400 5 175 8 37.68 28.13 23.91 20.56 17.87 15.66 13.83 12.20 10.31 8.79 7.54 6.51 5.65 4.93
400 6 200 6 37.68 25.93 22.04 18.95 16.46 14.42 12.73 11.12 9.40 8.00 6.86 5.92 5.13 4.47
400 6 175 8 40.82 29.16 24.78 21.31 18.51 16.22 14.32 12.63 10.68 9.10 7.80 6.73 5.84 5.09
450 4 175 6 30.62 24.70 21.00 18.07 15.70 13.76 12.16 10.81 9.67 8.62 7.41 6.40 5.57 4.86
450 5 150 6 31.79 23.26 19.77 17.00 14.77 12.94 11.43 10.16 9.09 8.10 6.95 6.01 5.22 4.55
450 5 175 6 34.15 26.03 22.13 19.03 16.54 14.49 12.80 11.38 10.18 9.08 7.79 6.73 5.85 5.11
450 6 150 6 35.33 24.58 20.89 17.97 15.61 13.67 12.07 10.73 9.59 8.55 7.34 6.34 5.50 4.80
450 5 150 8 36.50 28.75 24.44 21.02 18.27 16.01 14.14 12.57 11.25 10.12 8.69 7.51 6.53 5.70
450 5 200 6 36.50 28.80 24.49 21.06 18.30 16.04 14.17 12.60 11.27 10.05 8.63 7.46 6.48 5.66
450 6 175 6 37.68 27.35 23.25 20.00 17.37 15.22 13.44 11.95 10.69 9.53 8.18 7.06 6.13 5.35
450 5 175 8 39.64 32.44 27.58 23.73 20.62 18.08 15.97 14.20 12.70 11.43 9.82 8.49 7.38 6.45
450 6 150 8 40.04 30.06 25.55 21.98 19.09 16.73 14.78 13.14 11.75 10.57 9.08 7.84 6.81 5.95
450 6 200 6 40.04 30.13 25.61 22.03 19.14 16.77 14.81 13.17 11.78 10.50 9.02 7.79 6.77 5.91
450 6 175 8 43.18 33.76 28.70 24.69 21.45 18.80 16.60 14.76 13.21 11.88 10.21 8.82 7.67 6.69
20
M E Z Z A N I N E
Length (meters)
Section (mm) Weight
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Web x
Flg. Thk. kg/m Allowable Uniformly Distributed Load in kN/m
Thk.
500 4 175 6 32.19 23.60 21.76 20.18 17.90 15.70 13.87 12.33 11.04 9.93 8.98 8.15 7.09 6.20
500 5 150 6 33.76 26.72 22.72 19.54 16.98 14.88 13.14 11.69 10.46 9.40 8.50 7.71 6.70 5.86
500 5 175 6 36.11 29.80 25.34 21.80 18.94 16.60 14.67 13.04 11.67 10.50 9.49 8.61 7.49 6.55
500 6 150 6 37.68 28.36 24.11 20.74 18.02 15.79 13.94 12.40 11.09 9.97 9.01 8.17 7.10 6.21
500 5 150 8 38.47 32.82 27.91 24.01 20.87 18.29 16.16 14.37 12.86 11.57 10.46 9.49 8.32 7.28
500 5 200 6 38.47 32.88 27.96 24.06 20.91 18.33 16.19 14.40 12.89 11.59 10.48 9.51 8.27 7.23
500 6 175 6 40.04 31.45 26.74 23.00 19.98 17.51 15.47 13.75 12.30 11.06 10.00 9.07 7.89 6.89
500 5 175 8 41.61 36.93 31.41 27.02 23.49 20.59 18.19 16.18 14.48 13.03 11.78 10.70 9.38 8.20
500 6 150 8 42.39 34.45 29.29 25.20 21.90 19.19 16.95 15.08 13.49 12.13 10.96 9.95 8.72 7.63
500 6 200 6 42.39 34.53 29.36 25.26 21.95 19.24 16.99 15.11 13.52 12.16 10.99 9.97 8.67 7.58
500 6 175 8 45.53 38.56 32.79 28.21 24.52 21.49 18.99 16.89 15.11 13.59 12.29 11.15 9.78 8.55
500 6 200 8 48.67 42.67 36.29 31.22 27.14 23.79 21.02 18.70 16.73 15.05 13.61 12.35 10.83 9.48
500 6 200 10 54.95 50.82 43.22 37.19 32.33 28.35 25.05 22.28 19.94 17.94 16.23 14.74 13.03 11.40
500 6 220 10 58.09 54.93 46.72 40.21 34.95 30.65 27.08 24.09 21.56 19.40 17.55 15.94 14.09 12.33
500 6 200 12 61.23 58.98 50.16 43.17 37.53 32.91 29.08 25.87 23.16 20.84 18.85 17.12 15.26 13.36
500 6 250 10 62.80 61.10 51.97 44.72 38.88 34.09 30.13 26.81 23.99 21.59 19.53 17.74 15.69 13.73
500 6 220 12 65.00 63.91 54.36 46.78 40.67 35.67 31.52 28.05 25.10 22.59 20.43 18.56 16.54 14.48
500 6 250 12 70.65 71.31 60.66 52.21 45.39 39.81 35.18 31.30 28.02 25.22 22.81 20.72 18.47 16.17
500 6 200 16 73.79 75.31 64.06 55.14 47.94 42.04 37.16 33.06 29.60 26.64 24.10 21.89 19.82 17.36
500 6 220 16 78.81 79.93 69.67 59.96 52.13 45.72 40.41 35.96 32.19 28.98 26.21 23.81 21.57 18.89
500 6 250 16 86.35 79.86 73.65 67.19 58.42 51.24 45.29 40.31 36.09 32.48 29.38 26.70 24.18 21.18
550 4 175 6 33.76 21.41 19.73 18.30 17.06 15.97 15.01 13.92 12.46 11.21 10.14 9.21 8.40 7.68
550 5 175 6 38.07 33.74 28.70 24.69 21.46 18.81 16.62 14.79 13.23 11.90 10.76 9.77 8.91 8.15
550 5 200 6 40.43 37.14 31.58 27.18 23.62 20.71 18.30 16.28 14.57 13.11 11.85 10.77 9.82 8.98
550 6 175 6 42.39 35.74 30.39 26.15 22.72 19.92 17.60 15.65 14.00 12.60 11.39 10.34 9.42 8.62
550 5 175 8 43.57 41.59 35.38 30.44 26.46 23.21 20.51 18.24 16.33 14.69 13.29 12.07 11.00 10.07
550 6 200 6 44.75 39.14 33.28 28.63 24.89 21.82 19.28 17.15 15.34 13.80 12.48 11.33 10.33 9.45
550 6 175 8 47.89 43.58 37.06 31.89 27.72 24.30 21.47 19.10 17.09 15.38 13.91 12.63 11.51 10.54
550 6 200 8 51.03 48.10 40.91 35.20 30.60 26.83 23.71 21.09 18.88 16.99 15.36 13.95 12.72 11.64
550 6 200 10 57.31 57.07 48.54 41.78 36.32 31.85 28.15 25.05 22.42 20.18 18.25 16.58 15.12 13.84
550 6 220 10 60.45 61.59 52.39 45.09 39.20 34.38 30.39 27.04 24.21 21.79 19.71 17.90 16.33 14.95
550 6 200 12 63.59 66.05 56.18 48.35 42.04 36.87 32.59 29.00 25.96 23.37 21.14 19.20 17.52 16.03
550 6 250 10 65.16 68.38 58.17 50.07 43.53 38.18 33.75 30.03 26.89 24.20 21.89 19.89 18.14 16.61
550 6 220 12 67.35 71.48 60.80 52.33 45.50 39.91 35.28 31.39 28.11 25.30 22.89 20.79 18.97 17.36
550 6 250 12 73.01 72.65 67.01 58.30 50.69 44.47 39.31 34.98 31.32 28.20 25.51 23.18 21.14 19.36
550 6 200 16 76.15 72.62 66.98 61.52 53.50 46.93 41.48 36.92 33.06 29.76 26.92 24.46 22.32 20.43
550 6 220 16 81.17 72.57 66.93 62.09 57.89 50.98 45.06 40.11 35.91 32.33 29.25 26.58 24.25 22.21
550 6 250 16 88.71 72.49 66.85 62.01 57.82 54.15 50.44 44.90 40.20 36.20 32.75 29.76 27.15 24.87
21
M E Z Z A N I N E
Length (meters)
Section (mm) Weight
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
600 4 175 6 35.33 19.58 18.04 16.73 15.59 14.59 13.72 12.93 12.23 11.61 11.04 10.31 9.40 8.60
600 5 175 6 40.04 37.86 32.20 27.71 24.09 21.12 18.66 16.60 14.86 13.37 12.09 10.98 10.01 9.17
600 5 200 6 42.39 38.50 35.35 30.42 26.45 23.19 20.50 18.24 16.32 14.69 13.29 12.07 11.01 10.07
600 6 175 6 44.75 40.25 34.23 29.45 25.60 22.44 19.83 17.64 15.79 14.20 12.84 11.66 10.63 9.73
600 5 175 8 45.53 38.47 35.48 32.91 29.55 25.92 22.90 20.38 18.25 16.42 14.85 13.49 12.31 11.27
600 6 200 6 47.10 43.95 37.38 32.17 27.96 24.52 21.66 19.27 17.25 15.52 14.03 12.75 11.62 10.63
600 6 175 8 50.24 48.80 41.51 35.72 31.05 27.23 24.06 21.41 19.16 17.25 15.60 14.17 12.92 11.82
600 6 200 8 53.38 53.74 45.71 39.34 34.20 29.99 26.51 23.59 21.11 19.00 17.19 15.61 14.24 13.03
600 6 200 10 59.66 63.52 54.04 46.51 40.44 35.47 31.35 27.90 24.98 22.49 20.34 18.48 16.86 15.43
600 6 220 10 62.80 66.64 58.24 50.13 43.59 38.24 33.80 30.08 26.93 24.24 21.93 19.93 18.18 16.64
600 6 200 12 65.94 66.61 61.43 53.69 46.69 40.95 36.20 32.22 28.85 25.97 23.50 21.35 19.48 17.83
600 6 250 10 67.51 66.59 61.42 55.56 48.31 42.38 37.47 33.35 29.86 26.88 24.32 22.10 20.16 18.46
600 6 220 12 69.71 66.57 61.40 56.96 50.47 44.27 39.14 34.83 31.19 28.08 25.41 23.09 21.06 19.29
600 8 220 10 72.22 73.18 62.24 53.57 46.57 40.85 36.10 32.12 28.76 25.88 23.41 21.26 19.39 17.75
600 8 200 12 75.36 78.00 66.35 57.11 49.65 43.55 38.49 34.25 30.66 27.60 24.96 22.68 20.68 18.93
600 6 250 12 75.36 66.51 61.34 56.90 53.06 49.25 43.54 38.75 34.70 31.25 28.27 25.69 23.44 21.47
600 8 250 10 76.93 80.58 68.55 59.00 51.30 44.99 39.77 35.39 31.68 28.52 25.80 23.43 21.38 19.57
600 6 200 16 78.50 66.48 61.31 56.87 53.03 49.66 45.91 40.86 36.59 32.95 29.81 27.10 24.72 22.64
600 8 220 12 79.13 83.93 71.40 61.45 53.43 46.86 41.42 36.86 33.00 29.71 26.87 24.41 22.27 20.39
600 6 220 16 83.52 66.43 61.26 56.82 52.98 49.61 46.65 44.01 39.72 35.76 32.36 29.41 26.84 24.58
600 8 250 12 84.78 92.82 78.96 67.97 59.10 51.84 45.82 40.78 36.51 32.87 29.74 27.02 24.65 22.57
600 8 200 16 87.92 97.55 82.99 71.43 62.11 54.49 48.16 42.87 38.38 34.55 31.26 28.40 25.91 23.73
600 6 250 16 91.06 66.36 61.18 56.75 52.90 49.54 46.57 43.93 41.57 39.45 36.18 32.89 30.01 27.49
600 8 220 16 92.94 105.45 89.72 77.23 67.15 58.91 52.08 46.35 41.51 37.37 33.81 30.72 28.03 25.67
600 8 250 16 100.48 117.31 99.81 85.92 74.72 65.55 57.95 51.58 46.19 41.59 37.63 34.20 31.20 28.57
22
M E Z Z A N I N E
Length (meters)
Section (mm) Weight
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
650 6 200 8 55.74 59.58 50.68 43.62 37.93 33.27 29.41 26.17 23.43 21.09 19.08 17.33 15.81 14.48
650 6 200 10 62.02 61.47 56.70 51.40 44.70 39.21 34.66 30.85 27.62 24.87 22.50 20.45 18.65 17.08
650 6 220 10 65.16 61.44 56.66 52.57 48.11 42.21 37.31 33.21 29.74 26.78 24.23 22.02 20.09 18.40
650 6 200 12 68.30 61.41 56.63 52.54 48.99 45.15 39.92 35.53 31.82 28.65 25.92 23.56 21.50 19.69
650 6 250 10 69.87 61.39 56.62 52.52 48.98 45.87 41.29 36.75 32.91 29.64 26.82 24.37 22.24 20.37
650 6 220 12 72.06 61.37 56.60 52.50 48.95 45.85 43.10 38.36 34.36 30.94 28.00 25.44 23.22 21.26
650 8 220 10 75.36 81.09 68.98 59.38 51.63 45.28 40.03 35.62 31.89 28.71 25.97 23.60 21.53 19.71
650 6 250 12 77.72 61.31 56.54 52.44 48.90 45.79 43.05 40.62 38.17 34.37 31.10 28.27 25.80 23.63
650 8 200 12 78.50 86.32 73.43 63.21 54.96 48.21 42.62 37.93 33.96 30.57 27.66 25.13 22.93 20.99
650 8 250 10 80.07 89.12 75.82 65.26 56.75 49.78 44.00 39.16 35.07 31.57 28.56 25.95 23.68 21.68
650 6 200 16 80.86 61.28 56.51 52.41 48.87 45.76 43.02 40.59 38.41 36.22 32.77 29.79 27.19 24.90
650 8 220 12 82.27 92.74 78.90 67.92 59.06 51.81 45.80 40.76 36.50 32.86 29.73 27.01 24.65 22.57
650 6 220 16 85.88 61.23 56.46 52.36 48.81 45.71 42.97 40.54 38.36 36.40 34.62 32.30 29.48 27.01
650 8 250 12 87.92 102.38 87.10 74.98 65.21 57.20 50.57 45.01 40.31 36.29 32.84 29.84 27.23 24.94
650 8 200 16 91.06 107.50 91.46 78.73 68.47 60.07 53.10 47.27 42.33 38.12 34.49 31.34 28.60 26.19
650 6 250 16 93.42 61.16 56.38 52.29 48.74 45.63 42.90 40.46 38.28 36.32 34.55 32.93 31.46 30.11
650 8 220 16 96.08 116.06 98.75 85.02 73.93 64.87 57.35 51.05 45.72 41.17 37.25 33.86 30.89 28.30
650 8 250 16 103.62 128.91 109.69 94.44 82.13 72.06 63.71 56.72 50.80 45.75 41.40 37.63 34.34 31.45
700 6 200 8 58.09 57.08 52.64 48.06 41.79 36.66 32.41 28.85 25.83 23.25 21.04 19.12 17.44 15.97
700 6 200 10 64.37 57.01 52.58 48.78 45.48 42.60 38.07 33.89 30.35 27.33 24.73 22.47 20.51 18.78
700 6 220 10 67.51 56.98 52.55 48.75 45.45 42.57 40.02 36.43 32.63 29.38 26.59 24.17 22.05 20.20
700 6 200 12 70.65 56.95 52.52 48.71 45.42 42.54 39.99 37.73 34.87 31.40 28.42 25.83 23.57 21.59
700 6 250 10 72.22 56.93 52.50 48.70 45.40 42.52 39.98 37.72 35.69 32.47 29.38 26.71 24.37 22.33
700 6 220 12 74.42 56.91 52.48 48.68 45.38 42.50 39.95 37.69 35.67 33.85 30.65 27.86 25.43 23.29
700 8 220 10 78.50 89.28 75.96 65.39 56.86 49.88 44.09 39.25 35.14 31.64 28.63 26.01 23.73 21.73
700 6 250 12 80.07 56.86 52.42 48.62 45.32 42.44 39.90 37.64 35.61 33.79 32.15 30.65 28.21 25.85
700 8 200 12 81.64 94.91 80.75 69.52 60.45 53.03 46.88 41.73 37.37 33.65 30.44 27.67 25.24 23.12
700 6 200 16 83.21 56.82 52.39 48.59 45.29 42.41 39.87 37.61 35.58 33.76 32.11 30.62 29.25 27.22
700 8 250 10 83.21 97.93 83.32 71.73 62.38 54.72 48.38 43.06 38.56 34.72 31.42 28.55 26.05 23.86
700 8 220 12 85.41 101.83 86.64 74.59 64.87 56.91 50.31 44.78 40.11 36.11 32.68 29.70 27.10 24.82
700 6 220 16 88.23 56.77 52.34 48.54 45.24 42.36 39.82 37.56 35.53 33.71 32.06 30.57 29.20 27.95
700 8 250 12 91.06 112.21 95.48 82.20 71.49 62.72 55.46 49.37 44.21 39.81 36.03 32.75 29.88 27.37
700 8 200 16 94.20 117.72 100.17 86.24 75.00 65.81 58.18 51.80 46.39 41.78 37.81 34.36 31.36 28.72
700 6 250 16 95.77 56.70 52.26 48.46 45.17 42.29 39.74 37.48 35.46 33.64 31.99 30.49 29.12 27.87
700 8 220 16 99.22 126.95 108.02 93.01 80.89 70.98 62.76 55.87 50.04 45.07 40.79 37.07 33.84 30.99
700 8 250 16 106.76 135.60 119.81 103.16 89.72 78.73 69.62 61.98 55.52 50.00 45.25 41.14 37.55 34.40
23
M E Z Z A N I N E
Length (meters)
Section (mm) Weight
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
750 6 200 8 60.45 53.21 49.07 45.52 42.45 39.76 35.51 31.61 28.31 25.49 23.07 20.96 19.13 17.52
750 6 200 10 66.73 53.15 49.01 45.46 42.38 39.69 37.32 35.21 33.16 29.86 27.02 24.56 22.42 20.53
750 6 220 10 69.87 53.11 48.98 45.43 42.35 39.66 37.29 35.18 33.29 31.59 29.02 26.38 24.07 22.05
750 6 200 12 73.01 53.08 48.94 45.40 42.32 39.63 37.26 35.15 33.26 31.56 30.02 28.16 25.70 23.55
750 6 250 10 74.58 53.07 48.93 45.38 42.30 39.61 37.24 35.13 33.24 31.54 30.00 28.61 26.56 24.34
750 6 220 12 76.77 53.05 48.91 45.36 42.28 39.59 37.22 35.11 33.22 31.52 29.98 28.58 27.31 25.37
750 8 220 10 81.64 97.75 83.17 71.60 62.27 54.63 48.30 42.99 38.50 34.67 31.37 28.51 26.02 23.83
750 6 250 12 82.43 52.99 48.85 45.30 42.23 39.54 37.16 35.05 33.16 31.46 29.93 28.53 27.25 26.08
750 8 200 12 84.78 103.78 88.31 76.02 66.12 58.01 51.29 45.66 40.89 36.82 33.32 30.28 27.63 25.31
750 6 200 16 85.57 52.96 48.82 45.27 42.19 39.50 37.13 35.02 33.13 31.43 29.89 28.50 27.22 26.05
750 8 220 12 88.55 111.20 94.62 81.46 70.85 62.16 54.96 48.93 43.82 39.47 35.71 32.46 29.63 27.14
750 8 250 10 86.35 107.02 91.06 78.40 68.18 59.82 52.89 47.09 42.17 37.98 34.36 31.23 28.50 26.11
750 6 220 16 90.59 52.91 48.77 45.22 42.14 39.45 37.08 34.97 33.08 31.38 29.84 28.45 27.17 26.00
750 8 250 12 94.20 122.33 104.09 89.62 77.95 68.40 60.48 53.84 48.23 43.43 39.31 35.73 32.61 29.88
750 8 200 16 97.34 126.58 109.11 93.95 81.71 71.70 63.40 56.45 50.56 45.54 41.21 37.47 34.20 31.33
750 6 250 16 98.13 52.83 48.69 45.14 42.07 39.38 37.00 34.89 33.01 31.31 29.77 28.37 27.10 25.93
750 8 220 16 102.36 126.53 116.72 101.20 88.03 77.24 68.31 60.82 54.48 49.07 44.41 40.37 36.85 33.76
750 8 250 16 109.90 126.46 116.65 108.24 97.49 85.56 75.66 67.37 60.35 54.36 49.20 44.73 40.84 37.41
800 6 200 12 75.36 49.70 45.82 42.49 39.61 37.08 34.86 32.88 31.11 29.52 28.07 26.76 25.57 24.47
800 6 220 12 79.13 49.66 45.78 42.45 39.57 37.05 34.82 32.84 31.07 29.48 28.04 26.73 25.53 24.43
800 8 220 10 84.78 106.50 90.62 78.02 67.85 59.53 52.64 46.86 41.97 37.80 34.20 31.09 28.37 25.99
800 6 250 12 84.78 49.60 45.72 42.39 39.51 36.99 34.76 32.79 31.02 29.42 27.98 26.67 25.47 24.38
800 6 200 16 87.92 49.57 45.69 42.36 39.48 36.96 34.73 32.75 30.98 29.39 27.95 26.64 25.44 24.35
800 8 200 12 87.92 112.93 96.10 82.74 71.96 63.14 55.83 49.70 44.52 40.09 36.28 32.98 30.10 27.57
800 8 220 12 91.69 118.67 102.83 88.54 77.01 67.57 59.75 53.20 47.65 42.92 38.84 35.31 32.23 29.52
800 6 220 16 92.94 49.52 45.64 42.31 39.43 36.91 34.68 32.70 30.93 29.34 27.90 26.59 25.39 24.30
800 8 250 12 97.34 118.61 109.41 97.25 84.59 74.23 65.64 58.44 52.35 47.15 42.68 38.80 35.42 32.45
800 6 250 16 100.48 49.45 45.56 42.24 39.36 36.83 34.61 32.63 30.86 29.27 27.82 26.51 25.32 24.22
800 8 200 16 100.48 118.58 109.38 101.50 88.60 77.75 68.76 61.22 54.84 49.40 44.71 40.65 37.11 34.00
800 8 220 16 105.50 118.53 109.33 101.45 94.61 83.66 73.99 65.88 59.02 53.17 48.12 43.75 39.94 36.60
800 8 250 16 113.04 118.45 109.26 101.37 94.54 88.56 81.84 72.88 65.29 58.82 53.24 48.41 44.20 40.50
24
M E Z Z A N I N E
Length (meters)
Section (mm) Weight
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Web x
Flg. Thk. kg/m Allowable Uniformly Distributed Load in kN/m
Thk.
850 6 200 12 77.72 46.71 43.05 39.92 37.21 34.83 32.74 30.88 29.21 27.71 26.36 25.12 24.00 22.96
850 6 220 12 81.48 46.67 43.01 39.88 37.17 34.80 32.70 30.84 29.17 27.67 26.32 25.08 23.96 22.93
850 8 220 10 87.92 111.67 98.30 84.64 73.61 64.59 57.12 50.85 45.55 41.02 37.13 33.75 30.81 28.22
850 6 200 16 90.28 46.58 42.93 39.80 37.08 34.71 32.61 30.75 29.09 27.59 26.23 25.00 23.87 22.84
850 8 200 12 91.06 111.64 102.98 89.65 77.98 68.43 60.51 53.87 48.26 43.46 39.34 35.76 32.64 29.91
850 8 220 12 94.83 111.60 102.94 95.52 83.35 73.14 64.68 57.59 51.59 46.47 42.06 38.24 34.91 31.98
850 6 220 16 95.30 46.53 42.88 39.75 37.03 34.66 32.56 30.70 29.04 27.54 26.18 24.95 23.82 22.79
850 6 250 12 87.14 46.61 42.96 39.83 37.11 34.74 32.65 30.78 29.12 27.62 26.26 25.03 23.90 22.87
850 8 250 12 100.48 111.55 102.89 95.47 89.04 80.21 70.94 63.17 56.59 50.97 46.14 41.95 38.30 35.09
850 6 250 16 102.84 46.45 42.80 39.67 36.96 34.58 32.49 30.63 28.96 27.46 26.10 24.87 23.74 22.71
850 8 200 16 103.62 111.51 102.86 95.44 89.00 83.38 74.25 66.12 59.23 53.36 48.30 43.92 40.09 36.74
850 8 220 16 108.64 111.46 102.81 95.39 88.95 83.33 78.36 71.07 63.68 57.36 51.93 47.22 43.11 39.50
850 8 250 16 116.18 111.39 102.73 95.31 88.88 83.25 78.29 73.87 69.92 63.37 57.37 52.17 47.63 43.65
Notes for Table 17.5:-

1. Compression Flange of Beams or joist are considered to be fully braced.
2. Maximum Allowable Deflection considered is Span / 240.
3. The allowable uniformly distributed loads are inclusive of self weight.
4. Material Grade is A572 Gr. 50 (Fu=450 N/mm2 and Fy=345 N/mm2)
25
M E Z Z A N I N E
Table 17.10 Allowable loads in kN for Standard Joist and Beam Connection.
Min. Supporting
Min. Capacity (kN)
Connection Web Flange or Bolt
Web Thk. Type
Code Depth Web Pattern
(mm) ASD LRFD
(mm) Thk. (mm)
MZC-J01 N/A
MZC-J02 183 4 4 64 96 2-16 Ø Fin Plate
4 4 62 93
MZC-J03 175 5 4 77 117 4-16 Ø End Plate
6 4 93 140
MZC-J04 N/A
MZC-J05 N/A
MZC-J06 180 4 4 64 96 2-16 Ø Coped
MZC-J07 N/A
MZC-J08 263 4 4 96 145 3-16 Ø Fin Plate
4 4 89 133
MZC-J09 250 5 4 111 167 6-16 Ø End Plate
6 4 133 200
4 4 103 155
Clip
MZC-J10 220 5 4 128 193 7-16 Ø
Conn.
6 4 128 193
MZC-J11 N/A
MZC-J12 265 4 4 96 145 3-16 Ø Coped
MZC-J13 N/A
MZC-J14 343 4 4 128 193 4-16 Ø Fin Plate
4 138 207
Clip
MZC-J15 300 5 4 172 259 10-16 Ø
Conn.
6 193 289
MZC-J16 N/A
MZC-J17 345 4 4 128 193 4-16 Ø Coped
MZC-J18 180 4 4 64 96 2-16 Ø Tube
MZC-J19 265 4 4 96 145 3-16 Ø Tube
MZC-J20 345 4 4 128 193 4-16 Ø Tube
Notes:-
1. All connection bolts are Grade 8.8
2. Material Grade is A572 Gr. 50 (Fu=450 N/mm2 and Fy=345 N/mm2)
26
M E Z Z A N I N E
Min. Supporting Capacity (kN)

Min.
Web Thk. Type
(mm) ASD LRFD
(mm) Thk. (mm)
4 4 89 133
5 4 111 167
6 4 133 200
8 4 153 230
MZC-B01 250 8 5 178 267 4-20 Ø End Plate
8 6 178 267
10 4 153 230
10 5 192 288
10 6 201 301
4 4 99 149
5 4 133 200
6 4 160 241
8 4 213 321
MZC-B02 300 8 5 213 321 6-20 Ø End Plate
8 6 213 321
10 4 230 345
10 5 267 401
10 6 267 401
4 4 91 137
5 4 155 233
6 4 203 305
8 4 270 407
MZC-B03 380 8 5 270 407 8-20 Ø End Plate
8 6 270 407
10 4 307 460
10 5 338 508
10 6 338 508
4 4 75 113
5 4 147 221
6 4 224 336
8 4 327 492
MZC-B04 460 8 5 327 492 10-20 Ø End Plate
8 6 327 492
10 4 384 576
10 5 409 616
10 6 409 616
27
M E Z Z A N I N E

Min.
Web Thk. Type
(mm) ASD LRFD
(mm) Thk. (mm)
4 4 73 109
5 4 142 214
6 4 224 336
8 4 338 508
8 5 338 508
8 6 338 508
MZC-B05 475 8-24 Ø End Plate
10 4 368 552
10 5 423 636
10 6 423 636
12 5 460 691
12 6 476 714
12 8 476 714
4 4 60 90
5 4 117 177
6 4 203 306
8 4 398 598
8 5 398 598
8 6 398 598
MZC-B06 575 10-24 Ø End Plate
10 4 460 691
10 5 512 770
10 6 512 770
12 5 576 864
12 6 578 867
12 8 578 867
4 4 129 194
5 4 162 243
6 4 172 259
8 4 172 259
MZC-B07 230 8 5 201 301 7-20 Ø Clip Conn.
8 6 201 301
10 4 172 259
10 5 201 301
10 6 201 301
28
M E Z Z A N I N E

Min.
Web Thk. Type
(mm) ASD LRFD
(mm) Thk. (mm)
4 4 172 259
5 4 216 324
6 4 259 388
8 4 259 388
MZC-B08 310 8 5 301 452 10-20 Ø Clip Conn.
8 6 301 452
10 4 259 388
10 5 301 452
10 6 301 452
4 4 216 324
5 4 270 405
6 4 324 486
8 4 345 518
MZC-B09 390 8 5 402 603 13-20 Ø Clip Conn.
8 6 402 603
10 4 345 518
10 5 402 603
10 6 402 603
4 4 259 388
5 4 324 486
6 4 388 583
8 4 432 648
MZC-B10 470 8 5 502 753 16-20 Ø Clip Conn.
8 6 502 753
10 4 432 648
10 5 502 753
10 6 502 753
4 4 259 388
5 4 324 486
6 4 388 583
8 4 414 622
MZC-B11 490 8 5 518 777 13-24 Ø Clip Conn.
8 6 518 777
10 4 414 622
10 5 518 777
10 6 579 868
29
M E Z Z A N I N E

Min.
Web Thk. Type
(mm) ASD LRFD
(mm) Thk. (mm)
4 4 311 466
5 4 388 583
6 4 466 699
8 4 518 777
MZC-B12 590 8 5 622 933 16-24 Ø Clip Conn.
8 6 622 933
10 4 518 777
10 5 648 972
10 6 723 1085
4 4 107 161
MZC-B13 265 5 4 134 201 3-20 Ø Tube
6 4 150 226
4 4 157 236
MZC-B14 380 5 4 197 295 4-20 Ø Tube
6 4 201 301
4 4 189 283
5 4 236 354
MZC-B15 460 5-20 Ø Tube
6 4 251 376
8 4 251 376
4 4 220 330
5 4 275 413
MZC-B16 540 6-20 Ø Tube
6 4 301 452
8 4 301 452
4 4 237 356
5 4 297 445
MZC-B17 570 4 Tube
6 4 356 534
8 4 361 542
5 4 346 520
MZC-B18 670 6 4 416 624 6-24 Ø Tube
8 4 434 651
30
18
Chapter
B R A C I N G
Bracing
Buildings are subjected to lateral forces in all directions, metal buildings
simplify the design approach by resolving the force into two orthogonal
directions. One along the main frames and the other normal to the main
frames. The main frames offer no lateral resistance normal to their plane in the
longitudinal direction, unless the columns are fixed at the base, which is not a
practical and economical solution. Thus stability in longitudinal direction is
achieved by providing bracing at roof and sidewall provided in some bays of
the building. The lateral forces are subsequently transferred to column bases
and then to the foundations. The main purpose of a bracing system is the
transfer the lateral forces due to following,
1. Longitudinal Wind Load Bracing

The wind load acting on the end wall is transmitted to the wind columns by
sheeting and girts. This force is transferred equally to the column base and the
top end of the column. The force transmitted to building roof is assumed to
travel in the roof through diaphragm action and the nearest purlins,
instantaneously gets divided equally in the braced bays, and is eventually
transferred to the sidewall bracing of the building and down into the
foundations. A simple roof bracing system with load path is shown in the
sketch below for illustration,
In the sketch below, the cable/rods shown in heavy lines are in tension,
resisting the wind acting in the direction shown, the other cable/rod is in
compression and is hence inactive. When the wind load is in other direction
the other cable/rods, shown dashed, will be in tension and the heavy lines will
be in compression and hence inactive. Note the cable/rods between grid line C
& D are assumed to take no load for whichever direction the wind is acting in.
These cable/rods would have been active if there was a column at ridge.
1
B R A C I N G
All strut (compression) members and their connections, in the end bays and
braced bays, shall be designed for the axial load as shown. The first option is
to check if the purlin alone with standard connection is capable of taking the
combined bending and axial loads, next a strut purlin may be added and then
a strut tube or beam
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LENGTH
BAY SPACING BAY SPACING BAY SPACING BAY SPACING BAY SPACING BAY SPACING BAY SPACING
P1+P2+P3 P1+P2+P3
P3 P3
F
P2 P2
E
P1+P2 P1+P2
P1 P1
D
P1 P1
WIDTH
RIDGE LINE
P1 P1 P1 P1
C
P2 P1+P2 P1+P2 P2
B
P3 P3
A
P1+P2+P3 P1+P2+P3
PLAN SHOWING BRACING LOAD PATH AND DISTRIBUTION
P1+P2+P3 P1+P2+P3
P P
EAVE HT.
ELEVATION SHOWING SIDEWALL BRACING AND LOAD PATH
A building should have the following minimum quantity of bays based on the
required number of braced bays from Table below..
Minimum Number of Braced Bays Minimum Total Bays

1 2
2 5
3 7
4 9
5 11
2
B R A C I N G
Note:-
1. A braced bay should be provided between a maximum of 5 un-braced
bays.
2. The table is based upon Occupancy Category II, as defined in MBMA
Manual.
3. The letter (B) or (C) refers to the wind exposure category. The table should
not be used for structures located within a hurricane zone.
4. Additional bracing may be needed for relatively long buildings. Also at
least one braced bay must be provided on each side of expansion joints.
2. Transverse Wind Load Bracing

Transverse wind bracing is some times provided at bearing frame end in the
absence of diaphragm action or high wind and seismic zones. These are also
required at bearing frame end walls with by-pass girts. Bracing is designed for
the portion of wind force acting on the sidewall on half end bay width with
end zone wind coefficients. The lateral load is transferred to the end wall rafter
as axial force and then to the bracing and subsequently to the end wall column
foundations as shown in the figure below.
RIDGE LINE
5. crane,
P P
6. seismic, etc.
T T
There are 3 basic type of bracing system as below,
H
7. Diagonal Bracing
8. Portal Bracing
9.P Minor AxisS Bracing S
V V V V
WIDTH
ENDWALL ELEVATION SHOWING BRACING
Where,
V=PH/S
T = [ P x sqrt ( H2 – S2 ) ] / S
The dashed line are inactive cable/rod/ flat bars in compression
3
B R A C I N G
3. Seismic Longitudinal Bracing

As for wind the seismic loads are also applied in the longitudinal direction of
the building. The loads are calculated as per the standard MBMA code or as
required by the customer/consultants. The forces at roof are calculated for the
wind column influence area. The distribution of seismic forces in the roof
bracing is exactly the same as shown for wind.
4. Sidewall Cross bracing

In the absence of mezzanine floors, only accumulated roof bracing loads at
eave are to be transferred to the wall bracing in a manner similar to wind
bracing.
Reactions are,
Horizontal Reaction H r = P (Total force at eave)
Vertical Reaction V=PxH/S
Tension T = P x Cable Length / S
For buildings with mezzanine, seismic forces at mezzanine floor levels should
be added. Strut members may not be required due to the presence of
mezzanine beam/joist, provided these are designed for additional axial loads.
Cross bracings, is also be required at interior mezzanine column locations in

some bays to resist the seismic forces for influencing tributary area of that
mezzanine column in longitudinal direction.
P P P1 P1
T1
h1
P2 P2
P1+P2 P2
T
H
H
h2
h2
T2 T2
Hr Hr Hr
S S S
V V V V V V
SIDEWALL CROSS BRACING INTERIOR CROSS BRACING
Hence the reactions are,

Horizontal Reaction Hr = P1 + P2
Vertical Reaction V = [ P 1 x ( h 1 +h 2 ) + P 2 x h 2 ] / S
Tension T 1 = P 1 x Cable Length / S
Tension T 2 = ( P 1 + P 2 ) x Cable Length / S
4
B R A C I N G
5. Sidewall Portal Bracing.

In many cases cross bracings may not be allowed at sidewall by the customer
due to required opening for access etc., in such case portal bracing is provided.
Reactions without mezzanine are,

Horizontal Reaction Hr = P / 2
Vertical Reaction V=PxH/S
Reactions with mezzanine are,

Horizontal Reaction Hr = ( P 1 + P 2 ) / 2
P P P1 P
h1
P1+P2 P P
P2
H
h2
Hr Hr Hr h2 Hr Hr Hr
S S S
V V V V V V
SIDEWALL PORTAL BRACING INTERIOR PORTAL BRACING
Similar to cross bracings, portal bracing is also be required at interior

mezzanine column locations in some bays to resist the seismic forces for
influencing tributary area of that mezzanine column in longitudinal direction.
5
B R A C I N G
6. Top Running Crane Bracing

The longitudinal load due to crane is assumed to travel through the runway
beam to a braced bay. And then it is transferred through a diagonal angle
connected to the top channel or flange, from the angle the loads are then
transferred to the vertical bracing system comprised of cables, rods, angles or
portal frames. The crane beam is assumed to act as a strut beam, this
eliminates the need for a strut beam. The following sketches illustrate the
arrangement.
The lower cables/rods/angles/portal are designed for longitudinal crane

force per braced bay in addition to the accumulated wind force combination
carried over from the roof.
The reactions are calculated as,

Horizontal Reaction Hr = P1 + P2
Tension T 1 = P 1 x Cable Length / S
Tension T 2 = ( P 1 + P 2 ) x Cable Length / S
Where,
P1 - is the accumulated wind load from roof
P2 - is the longitudinal crane load
6
B R A C I N G
In case a portal bracing is required below the crane beam level, the inside of
the top flange of the portal rafter should be at the same level as the crane
beam for proper transfer of longitudinal load to vertical bracing system. These
longitudinal angles are provided at every rigid frame column to prevent
buckling of column at these locations.
If the distance from eave to top of crane beam is less than or equal to 1000 mm
provide kicker angle otherwise cross bracing may be provided above the crane
level.
In case of crane beam supported on a separate crane column or stepped

column, angles should be provide in the plane of the runway beam thus
avoiding eccentric load transfer and eliminating the need of the diagonal angle
mentioned above. The wind bracing below the crane beam can be in the same
plane as the bracing above the crane level.
7
B R A C I N G
7. Underhung Crane Bracing

The longitudinal load in a runway beam of an underhung crane is transmitted
through vertical (see sketch below) cables rods or angles in the braced bays to
the roof bracing of the building. Once the load reaches the roof, it is carried to
the sidewall bracing and subsequently to the foundations.
8
B R A C I N G
Notes: -
1. L b = Bracket Depth
2. If L b < 500 mm No Lateral Brace required.
3. If 500 < L b < 1000 mm use 50 x 50 x 5 angle
4. If 1000 < L b > 2000 mm use 75 x 75 x 6 angle
5. If L b  200 mm – Provide flange stay at adjacent purlins
6. If L b > 200 mm – Provide cable or rod brace and flange stay at adjacent
purlins
When the lateral brace is not provided the forces induced in the rafter are,
Horizontal Force ‘H’ and Moment ‘M = He’
On the other hand, when the underhung crane bracket is equal to or more than
500 mm in length, angles are used to transmit the lateral crane load to the
frame rafter. Note that two loads (each equal to H) shall be applied to the
frame rafter as shown when designing the frame. And the lateral brace should
be designed for both compression and tension.
9
B R A C I N G
Diagonal-bracing
This is the most common and simple bracing system commonly used in metal
buildings at roof and sidewalls. The commonly used materials are galvanized
cable strands, rods, and angles. Flat bars are generally used at end walls.
1. Cable Bracing
Cable bracings are made from Zinc Coated Extra High Strength Grade Cables
conforming to ASTM A 475 Class A.
The Maximum Breaking Strength P ult = 119 kN

The Factor of Safety Φ = 0.60 LRFD
Ω = 2.50 ASD
Hence the capacity is R n = Φ P ult LRFD

R n = 0.60 x 119 = 71.4 kN
R n = P ult / Ω ASD
R n = 119 / 2.50 = 47.6 kN
2. Rod Bracing
Rod bracings can be ASTM A36, Din 933 Grade 4.6 or ASTM A307 material.
For all the 3 grades,
Yield strength, F y = 248 N/mm2

Tensile strength, F u = 400 N/mm2
As per AISC 89 the allowable tensile stress in rod = 0.33 F u

Hence the capacity of a 22 mm Φ rod = p x 222 x 0.33 x 400 / 4000
= 50.17 kN
As per AISC 05 the allowable tensile stress in rod = 0.75 F u
Hence the capacity of a 22 mm Φ rod = p x 222 x 0.75 x 400 / 4000

Hence the capacity is R n = Φ x 0.75 F u A g LRFD
R n = 0.90 x 0.75 x 400 x p x 222 / 4000
R n = 102.63 kN
R n = Φ x 0.75 F u A g ASD
R n = 0.75 x 400 x p x 222 / (2 x 4000)
R n = 57.02 kN
10
B R A C I N G
Table 18.1
Capacity (kN)
Diameter (mm) AISC 89 AISC 05
ASD ASD LRFD
12 14.93 16.96 30.54
16 26.54 30.16 54.29
20 41.47 47.12 84.82
22 50.18 57.02 102.64
25 64.80 73.63 132.54
30 93.31 106.03 190.85
32 106.16 120.64 217.15
36 134.36 152.68 274.83
3. Flat Bar Bracing

Flat bar bracings are generally used at end walls. The standard section is 50x5
mm thk, and the material is A572 Grade 50.

Hence gross area A g = 50 x 5 = 250 mm2

Net area A n , assuming (1) 12 mm Φ HSB
= 250 – 15 x 5 = 175 mm2
Hence capacity in tension = 0.6 F y A g
= 0.6 x 345 x 250 / 1000
= 51.75 kN
Or = 0.5 F u A n
= 0.5 x 450 x 175 / 1000
= 39.37 kN
Shear strength of (1) 12 mm Φ HSB = 18.10 kN
Hence use (2) bolts on either side of the flange in order to fully utilize the
section capacity, therefore capacity = 18.10 x 2 = 36.2 kN
11
B R A C I N G
4. Angle Bracing
Angle bracings are generally used at side walls. The standard section are as
listed in the table below, and the material is A572 Grade 50.

Section Bolt Φ (mm) Hole Φ (mm) Plate thk. (mm) Capacity (kN)
75x75x6 20 22 10 200.07
100x100x8 24 26 12 267.30
Let us calculate tensile strength for (2) x 75x75x6 connection,
Area gross A g = 2 x 873 = 1746 mm2

Net Area A n = 1746 – 2 x 22 x 6 = 1482 mm2
Section capacity in tension is minimum of

Based on Gross Area = 0.6 F y A g
= 0.6 x 345 x 1746 / 1000
= 361.42 kN
Based on Effective Net Area = 0.5 F u U A n
= 0.5 x 450 x 0.60 x 1482 / 1000
= 200.07 kN
Check angle leg for Block shear
Av = 2 x 6 [(35+80) – 1.5 x 22]
= 984 mm2
At = 2 x 6 [(37.5 – 0.5 x 22)]
= 318 mm2
= 0.3 A v F u + 0.5 A t F u
= 450 (0.3 x 984 + 0.5 x 318) / 1000
= 204.39 kN
Hence section capacity in tension = 200.07 kN
12
B R A C I N G
Check for capacity for (2) 20 mm Φ HSB in double shear,

= 100.53 x 2 = 201.06 kN
Check for capacity for (2) 20 mm Φ HSB in bearing on 10 mm thk pl.,
= 108.00 x 2 = 216.00 kN
Check for capacity for (2) 20 mm Φ HSB in bearing on 6 mm thk angle.,
= 64.8 x 2 x 2 = 259.2 kN
Check capacity for connection plate at center (SBP-103),

Area gross A g = 125 x 10 = 1250 mm2
Net Area A n = 1250 – 22 x 10 = 1030 mm2
Plate section capacity in tension is minimum of

= 0.6 F y A g
= 0.6 x 345 x 1250 / 1000
= 258.75 kN
= 0.5 F u A n
= 0.5 x 450 x 1030 / 1000
= 231.75 kN
The strength of the gusset plate and weld will depend upon the angle of
bracing with the horizontal, the net effective width in the direction
perpendicular to the angle bracing and the size of weld.
The width of the plate at this section, and the size of weld should be adjusted
so that the capacity of the plate is not less than the minimum capacity.
Hence minimum of all capacities = 200.07 kN
13
B R A C I N G
Similarly, let us calculate tensile strength for (2) x 100x100x8 connection,
Area gross A g = 2 x 1551 = 3102 mm2

Net Area A n = 3102 – 2 x 26 x 8 = 2686 mm2
Section capacity in tension is minimum of

= 0.6 F y A g
= 0.6 x 345 x 3102 / 1000
= 642.11 kN
= 0.5 F u U A n
= 0.5 x 450 x 0.60 x 2686 / 1000
= 362.61 kN
Check angle leg for Block shear
Av = 2 x 8 [(45+80) – 1.5 x 26]
= 1376 mm2
At = 2 x 8 [(50 – 0.5 x 26)]
= 592 mm2
= 0.3 A v F u + 0.5 A t F u
= 450 (0.3 x 1376 + 0.5 x 592) / 1000
= 318.96 kN
Check for capacity for (2) 24 mm Φ HSB in double shear,

= 144.76 x 2 = 289.52 kN
Check for capacity for (2) 24 mm Φ HSB in bearing on 12 mm thk pl.,
= 155.52 x 2 = 311.04 kN
Check for capacity for (2) 24 mm Φ HSB in bearing on 8 mm thk angle,
= 103.68 x 4 = 414.72 kN
14
B R A C I N G
Check capacity for connection plate at center (SBP-111),

Area gross A g = 125 x 12 = 1500 mm2
Net Area A n = 1250 – 26 x 12 = 1188 mm2
Plate section capacity in tension is minimum of

= 0.6 F y A g
= 0.6 x 345 x 1500 / 1000
= 310.50 kN
= 0.5 F u A n
= 0.5 x 450 x 1188 / 1000
= 267.30 kN
The strength of the gusset plate and weld will depend upon the angle of
bracing with the horizontal, the net effective width in the direction
perpendicular to the angle bracing and the size of weld.
The width of the plate at this section, and the size of weld should be adjusted
so that the capacity of the plate is not less than the minimum capacity.
Hence minimum of all capacities = 267.30 kN
Note that the excel sheet for angle design does not check for center connection
plates SBP-103 and SBP-111 used in angle bracing.
15
A
Appendix
A P P E N D I X - A
Reference
This section compiles some reference materials from various books on structural steel design,
and codes. The intention is provide a one source reference material.
Any other reference material that can be thought of being useful and needs to be included can
be sent to PRD department for inclusion.
1
A P P E N D I X - A
2
A P P E N D I X - A
3
A P P E N D I X - A
4
A P P E N D I X - A
Imperial Gauge Metric Sheet mm Imperial Gauge Metric Sheet mm

10 3.00 21 0.80
11 2.80 22 0.70
12 2.50 23 0.60
13 2.30 24 0.55
14 2.00 25 0.50
15 1.80 26 0.45
16 1.50 27 0.42
17 1.40 28 0.37
18 1.20 29 0.35
19 1.00 30 0.30
20 0.90 33 0.25
- - 35 0.20
- - 38 0.15
- - 42 0.10
5
A P P E N D I X - A
6
A P P E N D I X - A
7
A P P E N D I X - A
8
A P P E N D I X - A
9
A P P E N D I X - A
10
A P P E N D I X - A
11
A P P E N D I X - A
12
A P P E N D I X - A
13
A P P E N D I X - A
14
A P P E N D I X - A
15
A P P E N D I X - A
16
A P P E N D I X - A
17
A P P E N D I X - A
18
A P P E N D I X - A
19
A P P E N D I X - A
20
A P P E N D I X - A
21
A P P E N D I X - A
22
A P P E N D I X - A
23
A P P E N D I X - A
24
A P P E N D I X - A
25
A P P E N D I X - A
26
A P P E N D I X - A
27
A P P E N D I X - A
28
A P P E N D I X - A
29
A P P E N D I X - A
30
A P P E N D I X - A
31
A P P E N D I X - A
32
A P P E N D I X - A
33
A P P E N D I X - A
34
A P P E N D I X - A
35
A P P E N D I X - A
36
A P P E N D I X - A
37
A P P E N D I X - A
38
A P P E N D I X - A
39
A P P E N D I X - A
40
A P P E N D I X - A
41
A P P E N D I X - A
42
A P P E N D I X - A
43
A P P E N D I X - A
44
A P P E N D I X - A
45
A P P E N D I X - A
46
A P P E N D I X - A
47
A P P E N D I X - A
48
A P P E N D I X - A
49
A P P E N D I X - A
50
A P P E N D I X - A
51
A P P E N D I X - A
52
A P P E N D I X - A
Buckling may sometimes occur in the form of wrinkles in thin elements such as webs, flanges,
cover plates, and other parts that make up a section. This phenomenon is called “Local
Buckling”. The critical buckling stress Fcr in rectangular plates with various types of edge
support and edge loading in the plane of plates is given by,
Fcr = k π2 E / [ 12( 1-μ2 )( b/t )2 ]

Where,
k - is as per table below
E - modulus of elasticity
μ - poisson’s ratio
b - length of loaded edge of plate, or when the plate is subjected to shearing
forces,
the smaller lateral dimension.
t - plate thickness
Values of k for Buckling Stress in Thin Plates
53
A P P E N D I X - A
Safety Factors and Resistance Factors Adopted by the AISI Specification
54
B
Appendix
F A B R I C A T I O N & E R E C T I O N T O L E R A N C E S
Fabrication and Erection

Tolerances
The Fabrication and Erection Tolerances in this section are extracts from
MBMA 2002 Section 9.
These are applicable to cold-formed sections, built-up structural sections. See

table B1.1 to B1.3
For Hot-rolled sections the tolerance shall be in accordance with ‘Specification

for Design, Fabrication, and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings’
published by AISC.
In the second half of this section, some fabrication and erection tolerance as
per BS-5950 Part 2 are also listed for information see table B1.4 and table B1.5.
1
Cold Formed Sections

Refer table B1.1 for values of fabrication tolerance in figure below,
Table B1.1 Cold Formed Sections

Tolerances (mm)
Description Dimensions
+ -
D&B 4.762 4.762
D 9.525 9.525
Geometry
θ1 3° 3°
θ2 5° 5°
E1 E2 E3 3.175 3.175
Hole Location S1 S2 1.587 1.587
F&P 3.175 3.175
Length ‘L’ 3.175 3.175
Camber ‘C’ 2.08 x 10-3 x L
Minimum Thickness ‘t’ 0.95 Design ‘t’
2
Built-Up Sections
Refer table B1.2 for values of fabrication tolerance in figure below,
3
4
Table B1.2 Built Up Sections
Tolerances (mm)
Description Dimensions
+ -
a 3° - 6.35 Max 3° - 6.35 Max
b 6.35 6.35
d 4.762 4.762
Geometry
e 3.175 3.175
c D / 72
f D / 72
E1 E2 E3 3.175 3.175
Hole Location S1 S2 1.587 1.587
F 3.175 3.175
Length ‘L’ 3.175 3.175
Runway Beams ( 1.04 x 10 x L )
-3
Sweep ‘S’
All other beams ( 2.08 x 10-3 x L )
Camber ‘C’ 2.08 x 10-3 x L
N1 3.175 3.175
N2 4.762 4.762
G1 1.587 1.587
G2 1.587 1.587
Splice Plates
Up to 609 mm 3.175 3.175
H 609 to 1219 mm 4.762 4.762
Over 1219 mm 6.35 6.35
J 6.35 6.35
5
Crane Runway Beam Erection

Table B1.3
6
Tolerances as per AISC 2005
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Tolerances as per BS-5950

Table B1.4 Fabrication
14
15
16
17
18
19
Table B1.5 Erection
20
21
22
23
24
C
Appendix
A R E A J O B R E Q U I R E M E N T
Area Job Requirements

This section compiles the requirements of different areas in the UAE and
abroad with regard to design and detailing practice, minimum loading and
section requirements.
Some of the area include are listed below,

1. Abu Dhabi
2. DMW - Directorate of Military works
3. Dubai
4. Sharjah
5. Northern Emirates
6. Jebel Ali Free Zone (JAFZA)
7. Hamriyah Free Zone (HFZ)
8. Sharjah Airport Free Zone (SAIF)
1
A R E A R E Q U I R E M E N T S
Abu Dhabi
GENERAL:
1. Primary members to have standard cleaning and to be painted with one

coat of Red Oxide Primer. (UNO in PIF)
2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc or/and Galvanized materials.
3. Use of Metric system of units in Drawings and Calculations.
4. No Material substitution allowed without prior clearance from area
office.
5. Consistency in design calculation & drawing must be maintained since
most of the jobs are similar.
6. All Approval Drawings & Design Calculations must show PLOT
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. Live load 0.57 kN/m2 (UNO in PIF)

2. 4 mm minimum web thickness
3. 6 mm minimum flange thickness
4. 2.0 mm purlin thickness (Purlin Only)
5. 160 kmph based on 3 sec gust wind speed
6. The use of cleat for roof purlins
7. CD for approval drawings is being asked for recently.
8. Design for temperature variation
9. Sag rod required as per design
2
DMW
GENERAL:
1. Primary members to be Shot blasted to SA 2.5 and painted with the

following: (UNO Otherwise in PIF)
a. Berger, Epimastic 5500M:
A2-component high solids high build epoxy mastic primer/finish
coating. Volume solids 82%, 125 microns DFT.
b. Berger, Epimastic 6000:
A2-component high solids high build surface tolerant epoxy
finish coating. Volume solids 82%, 125 microns DFT.
c. Total of 250 micron DFT.
2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc or/and Galvanized materials.
4. No Material substitution is allowed without prior clearance from area
office.
5. Consistency in design calculation & drawing must be maintained for
similar jobs in a project.
6. All Approval drawings & Design Calculations must show DMW
PROJECT NUMBER and LOCATION.
DESIGN:
1. Minimum 6 mm webs and 8 mm flanges are required for Main Frames

including internal columns, Wind columns, End wall rafter, Canopy
rafter, Mezzanine beams, Joists and columns and Portal Frames.
2. Minimum 2.5 mm thick for Cold formed sections required for use as
Purlins, Eave struts and Girts. These should be fixed to supporting
members with cleats.
3. Anchor bolts shall be Grade 8.8 Hot dip Galvanized, with a minimum of
4 Nos. for all columns.
4. Electro Galvanized connection bolts to be used of Grade 8.8. Minimum 2
Nos. in any point.
5. Sandwich panel profile to be 45/150 with 0.7mm thk. Aluminum as
exterior sheet and 0.5mm Aluminum as interior skin-color is non std.
6. Live Load : 0.75 kN/m2 (on Purlins & Frames) (UNO in PIF)
7. Wind Speed : 160 Kmph
8. Collateral Load : 0.25 kN/m2 (on Purlins & Frames) (UNO in PIF)
9. Minimum diameter of Rod bracing at roof is 20 mm Ø.
3
10. Square tube strut beam to be used at roof & wall brace intersection.
(Minimum 2 Braced bays in any building). No pipes to be used.
11. Minimum 6 mm thick Angle bracing to be used at Side walls & End
walls.
12. Galvanized Sag rod 16mm Ø to be used for Purlins, Side wall and End
wall Girts for bays of more than 4.5 m. Use One row every max 3.80 m of
bay size: (i.e. .1 row for bays < 7.60 m , 2 rows for bays >= 7.60 m).
13. Minimum thickness of Gusset plate, splice plate to be 10 mm.
14. Design calculation to include Main Frame: Geometry, Members
Properties and Loading Diagrams.
DRAFTING:
1. All built-up, Hot rolled and cold formed sections to have the sizes and
thickness of the Flanges and Webs shown Clearly (Readable Big font)
on all the Approval Drawings.
2. Irrelevant information’s to be excluded from drawings or stamped with
"VOID".
3. Use of Metric system for standard anchor bolt details (No imperial units
are allowed).
4. Show sizes of sidewall Angle bracing on drawings.
5. Tube Struts to be shown in Roof and Sidewall drawings.
6. Show the size and location of Sag Rods on cross section and roof
framing plan - write "GALVANIZED" on drawings.
7. Show Size of Flange Braces/Stays on cross section drawings. (4mm
minimum thickness).
8. No 40mm notch to be shown on drawings.
9. No Ramp or Block work to be shown on Anchor Bolt Plan F1.
10. Grid Enumeration shown on Order Sketch to be adhered to.
11. Column sections to be shown on all Anchor Bolt details ( I , C , ][ ).
12. C/C distance of sidewall and end wall Columns as well as framed
opening jambs following the grid enumeration, to be shown on Anchor
Bolt Plan F1.
13. SKYLIGHTS Locations to be shown on Roof Sheeting Plan according to
the locations in the ORDER SKETCH.
14. All drawings should have the NOTE ABOUT PAINT as follows: “ All
steel framings members (except bolts and fasteners) shall be Shot
Blasted to Swedish Standard SA 2½ and shall be shop painted with:
a. 1st Coat: PenGuard EPOXY Primer - 50 micron DFT
b. 2nd Coat: PenGuard H.B. EPOXY Under Coat - 70 micron DFT
c. 3rd Coat: PenGuard H.B. EPOXY Under Coat - 70 micron DFT
d. 4th Coat: PenGuard H.B. EPOXY Top Coat - 50 micron DFT
Total - 240 micron DFT
4
Dubai
GENERAL:

2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc Or/And Galvanized materials.
office.
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. Minimum 6 mm thick material is required for Main frame and

Mezzanine beams. Multi-span internal column can be of 150x150x4.5
square tube. Wind columns and end wall rafters, mezzanine joists can be
of Cold Formed or I. Sections of any thickness.
3. Wind Speed : 160 KMPH
4. Cable bracing may be used at roof and sidewall.
5. Sag rods to be provided for purlins at bays of size (8.0 MET) and above (1
row per bay).
5
DRAFTING:
1. Built-up sections flange and web sizes and interior column sizes to be
shown clearly on cross section of the main frame.
"VOID".
3. Use of Metric system for standard anchor bolt details (No imperial
units are allowed).
4. No 40mm Notch to be shown on drawing.
5. No Ramp or Block work to be shown on Anchor Bolt Sheet F1.
7. Column Sections to be shown on all Anchor Bolt details ( I , C , ][ ).
8. C/C distances of sidewall and end wall Columns as well as framed
Bolts Plan F1.
6
Sharjah
GENERAL:
1. All Primary members should go through standard cleaning and should

be painted with one coat of Red Oxide Primer.
2. All Secondary members shall be of either Aluzinc or/and Galvanized
materials.
3. Metric system of units should be used in all Drawings and Calculations.
office.
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. Minimum thickness of built-up section of Main frame and Mezzanine

beams to be 4 mm web and 6 mm flanges.
2. Multi-span internal column can be 150x150x4.5mm square tube.
3. Wind columns and end wall rafters, mezzanine joists can be Cold Formed
or built-up of any thickness.
5. Wind Load : 1.00 kN/m2 (Up to 10.0 m Mean Height)
7. Provide Galvanized Sag rod 12 mm Ø for Purlins and Side wall Girts for
bay spacing more than 6.00 m. (Use 1 row for bays < 7.60 m , 2 rows for
bays >= 7.60 m).
7
DRAFTING:
2. Details of Bolts Connections of Main Frames to be shown on Frame cross
section.
"VOID".
are allowed).
5. No 40 mm Notch to be shown on drawing.
6. No Ramp or Block work to be shown on Anchor Bolt Plan.
7. Grid Enumeration shown on ORDER SKETCH should be adhered to.
8. Column Section profile to be shown on all Anchor Bolt details (I , C ,
Double C ).
9. C/C distances of side wall and end wall columns as well as framed
Bolt Plan.
10. Location of Skylights should be shown on Roof Sheeting Plan according
to the locations shown in the ORDER SKETCH.
11. Show Size of Flange Braces/Stays on cross section drawings. (4 mm Min.
thickness).
12. Flange brace should be provided on both sides of the rafter / column.
8
Northern Emirates
(AJMAN, RAK, UAQ, Fujairah)
GENERAL:

2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc Or/And Galvanized materials.
office.
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. Minimum 4 mm thick material is required for Main frame and

Mezzanine beams.
2. Multi-span internal column can be of 150x150x4.5 square tube.
3. Wind columns and end wall rafters, mezzanine joists can be of Cold
Formed or I-Sections of any thickness.
7. Sag rods to be provided for purlins at bays of size (8.0 m) and above (1
row per bay).
9
DRAFTING:
"VOID".
are allowed).

Bolts Plan F1.
10
JAFZA
GENERAL:
1. Primary members to be Shot blasted to SA 2½ and painted with the

following: (UNO in PIF)
A 2-component high solids high build epoxy mastic primer/finish
A 2-component high solids high build surface tolerant epoxy finish
Total of 250 micron DFT.
2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc or/And Galvanized materials.
3. Galvanized Anchor Bolts and connection bolts to be used, Minimum 4
Nos. required for all columns.
5. No Material substitution is allowed without prior clearance from area
office.
most of the jobs are similar
7. All Approval drawings & Design Calculations must show PLOT
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. Minimum 6 mm thick material is required for Main Frames including

internal columns, Wind columns, End wall rafter, Canopy rafter
Mezzanine beams, Joists and columns and Portal Frames. Only Purlins,
Eave struts and Girts can be cold form sections.
2. Live Load : 0.60 kN/m2 (on Purlins & Frames)
3. Wind Speed : 162 KMPH or 45 m/sec
4. Purlins at roof to be designed for Pattern Loading.
5. Rod bracing @ roof to be minimum of 20mm Ø Tube strut beam to be
used at roof & wall brace intersection (Minimum 2 Braced bays in any
building).
6. Angle bracing to be used at Sidewalls, and Flat Bar bracing above B/W at
End walls.(4mm Min. thickness for both).
7. Galvanized Sag rod 16mm Ø to be used for Purlins, SIDE WALL and
END WALL Girts for bays of more than 4.5MET. Use One row every
3.80M of bay size: (i.e .1 row for bays < 7.60M , 2 rows for bays >= 7.60M)
8. Design Calculation book must have calculations substantiating Gutter
size and Downspout used.
11
9. Number of Downspouts to be limited to minimum number required by

Design. ( IMPORTANT to be OPTIMIZED).
10. Design calculation to include Main Frame: Geometry, Members
Properties and Loading Diagrams.
DRAFTING:
1. All built-up, Hot rolled and cold formed sections to have the sizes and
thickness of the Flanges and Webs shown Clearly (Readable Big font)
on all the Approval Drawings.
"VOID".
are allowed).
4. Show sizes of sidewall Angle bracing on drawings.
5. Tube Struts to be shown in Roof and Sidewall drawings.
6. Show the size and location of Sag Rods on cross section and roof
framing plan - write "GALVANIZED" on drawings.
7. Show Size of Flange Braces/Stays on cross section drawings. (4mm
minimum thickness).
8. No 40mm notch to be shown on drawings.
9. No Ramp or Block work to be shown on Anchor Bolt Plan F1.
11. Column sections to be shown on all Anchor Bolt details ( I , C , ][ ).
12. C/C distance of sidewall and end wall Columns as well as framed
Bolt Plan F1.
14. All drawings should have the NOTE ABOUT PAINT as follows: “All
steel framings members (except bolts and fasteners) shall be Shot
Blasted to Swedish Standard SA 2½ and shall be shop painted with:
A 2-component high solids high build epoxy mastic
primer/finish coating. Volume solids 82%, 125 microns DFT.
A 2-component high solids high build surface tolerant epoxy
finish coating. Volume solids 82%, 125 microns DFT.
Total of 250 micron DFT.
12
HFZ
GENERAL:

coat of Red Oxide Primer. (UNO in PIF).
2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc OR /AND Galvanized materials.
office.
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. Minimum thickness of built-up section of Main frame and Mezzanine

beams to be 4 mm web and 6 mm flanges.
2. Multi-span internal column can be of 150x150x4.5 mm square tube.
3. Wind columns and end wall rafters, mezzanine joists can be of Cold
Formed or built-up of any thickness.
7. Galvanized Sag rod 12 mm Ø to be used for Purlins and Sidewall Girts as
per HFZ requirements.
13
DRAFTING:
section.
"VOID".
are allowed).
8. Column Section profile to be shown on all Anchor Bolt details ( I , C ,
Double C ).
Bolt Plan F1.
11. Show Size of Flange Braces/Stays on cross section drawings. (4mm Min.
thickness).
12. Flange brace should be provided on both sides of the rafter / column.
14
SAIF Zone
GENERAL:

coat of Gray Oxide Primer. (UNO in PIF).
2. Secondary members to be of Aluzinc or/And Galvanized materials.

office.
NUMBER.
DESIGN:
1. 6 mm thick material is required for Main Frames including internal

columns, Wind columns, End wall rafter, Canopy rafter, Mezzanine
beams, Joists and columns and Portal Frames. Only Purlins, Eave struts
and Girts can be cold form sections.
2. LL : 0.60 kN/m2 (on Purlins & Frames) (UNO in PIF)
3. WS : 135.6 KPH (160 KPH / 1.18 as per page VIII-4-27 of MBMA
1996). * 160 KPH is Gust Wind Speed. (UNO in PIF)
4. These calculations to be shown in Design Package.
5. Rod bracing to be used at roof and sidewalls. (Minimum 2 Braced bays in
any building).
6. Galvanized Sag rod 12mm Ø to be used for Purlins, SIDE WALL and
END WALL Girts for bays of more than 3.8 m. (1 row for bays < 7.60M , 2
rows for bays >= 7.60M).
7. Design package must have calculations substantiating Gutter size and
Downspout used.
15
DRAFTING:
section.
"VOID".
are allowed).

Bolt Plan F1.
11. Base plate thickness to be shown on Anchor Bolts details.
12. All drawings must include details of connections and splices as

distinguished between shop and field welds and showing the length and
type of each weld. (If field welding is indicated)
16

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1

MAMMUT BUILDING SYSTEMS

 Mammut Building Systems

Introduction 1 Wind Loads 1

General Function and Responsibility 1 MBMA 1996 1

Value Engineering 3 MBMA 2002 20

Design Codes 1 C H A P T ER6

For Loads 1 Seismic Loads 1

For Built-up or Hot Rolled Steel Design 2 Definition 1

For Cold Formed Steel Design 3 MBMA 1986 9

For Welding 4 MBMA 1996 15

C H A P T ER 3 MBMA 2002 / IBC 2000 / ASCE 7-98 27

Dead Loads 1 MBMA 2006 / IBC 2006 / ASCE 7-05 51

C H A P T ER4 Snow Loads 1

Live Loads 1 Definition 1

Reduction in Live Loads 5

Reduction in Roof Live Loads 8 C H A P T ER8

Partition Live Loads 12 Crane Loads 1

Loads on Handrails and Guard Rails 14

Loads on grab bar system 15

Loads on fixed ladders 16

Loads as per BS-6399-1-1996 18

Load Combinations 1 Guidelines for Design of Metal Buildings 1

MBMA 2006 (Mammut Standard) 3

Mammut Standard Deflection 5 C H AP T ER1 5

MBMA 1996 6 Panels & Fasteners Design 1

ASCE 7-98 10 C H AP T ER1 6

IBC 2000 12 Purlins & Girts Design 1

ASCE 7-02 15 C H AP T ER1 7

IBC 2003 17 Mezzanine 1

IBC 2006 21 C H AP T ER1 8

Material Specification 1 Fabrication & Erection Tolerances 1

Bolts and Fasteners 1 Area Job Requirements 1

General Function and Responsibility of

The designer should take advantage of all allowable increases in stresses

Consideration should be given to use of partial composite design of floor

Tailor the surface preparation and painting requirements to the project

Avoid locating column or rafter splices at mid span.

2. Built-up or Hot Rolled Steel Design,

3. Cold Formed Steel Design,

 AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2004 “American Welding Society” Structural

As far as possible combination of different codes should be avoided, if

Code combination should be as below,

Dead loads - consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated

Weights of fixed service equipments, such as plumbing stacks and risers,

It is customary in the metal building industry to refer to the weights of fixed

Table 3.1 Weights of Standard Materials

Sr. No. Description kN/m2

Table 3.2 Weights of Sandwich Panels (All Profiles)

Weight of Sandwich Panel Combination (kN/m2)

Table 3.3 Weights of Materials

Dead Loads as per BS-6399-1:1996

Material Collateral Loads (kN/m2)

Calculate the Dead Load on the building components:

1) Dead Load on Panels = Self weight of the panels

Refer table 3.1 weight of 0.5 mm thk. Aluzinc panel

2) Dead Load on Purlins = Weight of the panels

Refer table 3.1 assuming 200Z20 section for purlins,

Total Dead Load on Purlins = 0.040 + 0.036 + 0.007