Abstract Algebra

December 2, 2019

1 Group Theory
Definition 1.1. A binary operator ∗ is an operator defined on a set G such that ∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗
b ∈ G. Alternatively, a binary operator can be regarded as a function ∗ : G × G −→ G where
∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G. An algebraic structure is a non-empty set G with one or two binary
operators.
Definition 1.2. An algebraic structure (G, ∗) is a group if it satisfies the following axioms:
• Closure: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G i.e * is a binary operator.

• Associativity: If a, b, c ∈ G, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
• Identity: ∃ a unique element e ∈ G, such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀ a ∈ G.This element is the
identity element.
• Inverse: For every a ∈ G, ∃ a unique element b such that a ∗ b = e = e ∗ a.

Definition 1.3. An abelian group is a group (G, ∗) which satisfies the commutativity axiom, viz.
∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a.
Definition 1.4. Here are a few more defns.
• A set is a groupoid if only the closure axiom is satisfied.

• A set semi-group if only closure and associativity are satisfied.

• A monoid group is a set satisfying closure, associativity and the identity axiom.
• The order of a group is the number of elements of the group. The order of an element
a of a group is the least positive integer n such that an = e.

Example 1.1. Here are a few examples and counter-examples of groups.

1. (G, +) where G is Z, Q, R, C −→ Abelian groups
2. (G, ×) where G is Z, Q, R, C −→ are not groups since the element 0 has no inverse.

3. R∗ = R − {0}, Q∗ , C∗ −→ Abelian groups.

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 4. (Q+ , ×) −→ Set of positive rationals is an abelian group. But Q− can never be a group since
/ Q− .
the identity elements 0,1 ∈
5. (nZ, +) = {0, ±1, ±2, . . .} −→ Abelian group.
6. Set of odd integers is not a group under + or ×, ∵ the sum of two odd integers is always even.

7. The set of irrationals, R − Q can never be a group since 0,1 are rationals.
8. ({an |n ∈ Z}, ×), a ∈ R −→ Abelian group.
9. ({z|z ∈ C, |z| = 1}, ×) −→ Abelian group. Let z1 = r1 eiθ1 , z2 = r2 eiθ2 , r1 = r2 = 1.
Then, z1 .z2 = eiθ1 .eiθ2 = ei(θ1 +θ2 ) = ei(θ2 +θ1 ) = eiθ2 .eiθ1 = z2 .z1

10. (Z[i] = {a + ib|a, b ∈ Z}, +) −→ The set of Gaussian integers is a group.

11. (Mm×n (G), +), G = R, C, C, Z −→ Abelian group.
12. Matrices are not groups under ×, since not all matrices are of the same order and have
inverses. The set of non-singular square matrices over R, C, Q, Z, are, however, groups. None
of these are abelian, since matrix multiplication is non-commutative.
13. (P2 (R), +), the set of polynomials of degree 2 −→ Not a group. For example (t2 − 5t) + (−t2 −
1) = −5t − 1 is not of degree 2.
14. (P≤2 (R), +) −→ Abelian group.

15. In general, the set of n-th roots of unity is abelian under ×.

1.1 Clock Arithmetic

Definition 1.5. The set of integers modulo n is defined as Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}. Two binary
operators can be defined on this set, viz. addition modulo n, denoted by +n and multiplication
modulo n, denoted by ×n . a +n b is the least non-negative remainder obtained by dividing the sum
of a and b by n. a ×n b is the least non-negative remainder obtained by dividing the product of a
and b by n.

Properties:
• (Zn , +n ) is an abelian group with e = n and a−1 = n − a.

• (Zn , ×n ) is not a group, since 0 has no inverse.

• (Z∗p , ×p ) is an abelian group only if p is prime.
• If p is composite, (G, ×p ), G = {a|a ∈ Zp , (a, p) = 1} is an abelian group. i.e If p is composite,
the set of all elements of Zn relatively prime to p form an abelian group under ×p .

Example 1.2. Consider the Cayley table or multiplication table of (Zn , +n ).

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 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
Since every element in the table is also an element of Z5 , the group is closed. From the table, the
identity element can be identified as 0. Moreover, the inverse of each element can also be identified.
The table is also symmetric, implying that the group is abelian.
Example 1.3. Consider the Cayley table of (Z5 , ×5 ).
0 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
2 0 2 4 1 3
3 0 3 1 4 2
4 0 4 3 2 1

The operation is closed. The identity element is 1. But 0 does not have an inverse. So (Z5 , ×5 )
is not a group. If we consider (Z∗5 , ×5 ), e = 1, every element has an inverse and the matrix is
symmetric. Therefore, the group is abelian.

Example 1.4. Consider (Z∗4 , ×4 ). Closure is not satisfied!

1 2 3
1 1 2 3
2 2 0 2
3 3 2 1

1.2 Properties of Groups

1. The identity element of a group is unique.

Proof. Let e1 , e2 be two identity elements. Then, e1 .e2 = e1 = e2 .e1 and e2 .e1 = e2 = e1 .e2 .
Equating, we see that e1 = e2 .

2. The inverse of an element is unique.

Proof. Let x ∈ G and y1 , y2 be two inverses of x. Then, y1 = e.y1 = (y2 .x).y1 = y2 .(x.y1 ) =
y2 .e = y2 .

3. (a−1 )−1 = a ∀ a ∈ G.

Proof. a = a.e = a.(a−1 .(a−1 )−1 ) = (a.a−1 ).(a−1 )−1 ) = (a−1 )−1 )

4. (a.b)−1 = b−1 .a−1

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 Proof. (a.b)(a.b)−1 = e ⇒ a−1 (ab)(ab)−1 = a−1 .e ⇒ b(ab)−1 = a−1 ⇒ b−1 b(ab)−1 =
b−1 a−1 ⇒ (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1

5. Left and right cancellation laws apply i.e ax = bx ⇒ a = b and xa = xb ⇒ a = b.

Proof. a = a.e = a(xx−1 ) = (ax)x−1 = (bx)x−1 = b(xx−1 ) = b

6. If a2 = e ∀ a ∈ G, G is abelian.

Proof. (ab)2 = e ⇒ abab = e ⇒ ab = b−1 a−1 ⇒ ab = ba. The last equality comes from
a2 = e ⇒ a = a−1 .

7. O(a) = O(a−1 )

Proof. Prove the finite and infinite cases separately.

8. O(a.b) 6= O(a).O(b)

Proof. Consider the cube roots of unity under multiplication. O(ω) = 3, O(ω 2 ) = 3. But
O(ω.ω 2 ) = O(ω 3 ) = O(e) = 1 6= O(ω).O(ω 2 ).

1.3 Permutation Groups

Definition 1.6. A permutation is a 1-1 fn from a set S to itself. The symmetric group on
n symbols, Sn is the set of all permutations of {1, 2, . . . n}.From basic combinatorics, we see that
O(Sn ) = n!. If σ is a permutation such that σ(k) = ak , it can be expressed as
 
1 2 ... n
σ=
a1 a2 . . . an

Theorem 1.1. Sn is a group under multiplication of permutations.

Proof. The multiplication of permutations is defined as follows. Suppose σ, τ : S −→ S are two

permutations such that σ(i) = si and τ (si ) = tj , then τ ◦ σ : S −→ S is also a permutation since the
composition of two 1-1 functions is also 1-1. Then, τ ◦σ(i) = τ (s1 ) = tj . Thus if σ, τ ∈ Sn , τ ◦σ ∈ Sn
i.e Sn is closed under permutation multiplication.
The identity axiom is satisfied by the identity permutation, Id(i) = i ∀ i ∈ S.
Associativity holds since it holds for the composition of functions.
Since every permutation is a 1-1 function, an inverse exists, which is also a 1-1 function S −→ S.
If σ ∈ Sn , and σ(i) = ai ∀ i ∈ S, σ −1 (ai ) = i ∀ ai ∈ S.
   
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Example 1.5. The inverse of is .
4 3 5 2 1 5 4 2 1 3

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1.3.1 Dihedral Groups
Definition 1.7. An orbit of σ ∈ Sn is a subset g of S such that σ(x) ∈ g ∀ x ∈ g. A cycle is a
permutation σ such that σ has atmost one orbit with more than 1 element. A cycle of length 2 is
called a transposition. A permutation is even (resp. odd) if it can be expressed as the product
of an even (resp. odd) number of transpositions.
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 1.6. Consider S8 . Let σ = . The set {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8} is an
7 8 4 3 1 5 2 6
orbit of σ. {3, 4} is another orbit. Since there are two orbits with more than 1 element, σ is not a
cycle.  
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Let τ = . τ has the orbits {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8}, {3}, {4}, of which only one
7 8 3 4 1 5 2 6
has morethan one element. So τ is a cycle.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Let ρ = . It has the orbits {1}, {2}, {3}, {5}, {6}, {8}, {4, 7}. Clearly,
1 2 3 7 5 6 4 8
ρ is a cycle. In particular, it is a transposition.

Properties
1. Since orbits of a permutation are disjoint, A permutation can be expressed as a product of
its orbits. In example 1.6, σ can expressed as (1 7 2 8 6 5)(3 4), τ as (1 7 2 8 6 5)(3)(4) or
simply (1 7 2 8 6 5) and ρ as (4 7).
2. The product of two cycles need not be a cycle. For example, in S5 , consider σ = (1 5 3) and
τ = (2 1 5). σ ◦ τ = (1 3)(2 5).
3. Every permutation can be expressed as the product of disjoint cycles.

4. Every cycle can be expressed as the product of transpositions. This product is not unique
and does not necessarily contain disjoint transpositions. For example, in S8 (1 3 5 7) =
(1 3)(1 5)(1 7) = (5 1)(5 3)(5 7)
5. Every permutation can be expressed as the product of transpositions.
6. Every transposition has order 2. (a b)(a b) = (a)(b).

7. If σ = s1 .s2 . . . sk , σ −1 = s−1 −1 −1 −1
k sk−1 . . . s2 s1 .

Example 1.7. Consider S3 . It has the following 3!=6 permutations.

ρ0 = () ρ1 = (1 2 3) ρ2 = (1 3 2)
µ1 = (2 3) µ2 = (1 3) µ3 = (1 2)

The transpositions are clearly odd. Since ρ1 = (1 2)(1 3) and ρ2 = (1 3)(1 2), these two are even.
The identity permutation is also even, since it can be expressed as the product of 0 transpositions.

Proposition 1.1. There is an equal number of odd and even permutation.

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Proof. Given Sn , let An and Bn be the set of all even and odd permutations respectively. Define
φ : An −→ Bn by φ(σ) = σ ◦ τ , where τ is a fixed transposition in Sn . φ is well-defined, because
if σ1 = σ2 ∈ An , σ1 ◦ τ = σ2 ◦ τ ∈ Bn (adding one transposition to two even permutations make
them odd).
φ is injective. Suppose φ(σ1 ) = φ(σ2 ). Then, σ1 ◦ τ = σ2 ◦ τ . But Sn is a group. Applying right
cancellation, σ1 = σ2 .
φ is surjective. Let µ ∈ Bn . Now, τ −1 ∈ Sn . Then, µ ◦ τ −1 ∈ An and φ(µ ◦ τ −1 ) = µ. Thus
∀ µ ∈ Bn , and element ν = µ ◦ τ −1 ∈ An such that φ(ν) = µ.
Thus φ is a bijective function between sets. So, O(An ) = O(Bn ).
n!
In particular, since O(Sn ) = O(An ) + O(Bn ) = n! and O(An ) = O(Bn ), O(An ) = O(Bn ) = .
2

1.4 Subgroups
Definition 1.8. Let (G, ∗) be a group. Then, a non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup if (H, ∗)
is itself a group. It is denoted by H ≤ G. A subgroup H is improper if H = G or H = e.
Example 1.8. Subgroups of some important groups.
1. (Z, +) - Z, {0}, {nZ|n ∈ Z}
2. (Q, +) - Q, Z, {0}, {nZ|n ∈ Z}
3. (Q, ×) - Q, {1}, {1, −1}, Q+ = {q ∈ Q|q > 0}, {an |a ∈ Q∗ , n ∈ Z}
4. (R∗ , ×) - all the subgroups of (Q∗ , ×), {an |a ∈ R∗ , n ∈ Z}
5. (C∗ , ×) - all of the above, {z|z ∈ C, |z| = 1}, {nth roots of unity|n ∈ Z+ }

Subgroup Lattice Diagrams

Theorem 1.2. A non-empty subset H of a group (G, .) is a subgroup iff a, b ∈ H ⇒ a.b−1 ∈
H ∀ a, b ∈ H.
Proof. Necessary direction: Suppose H is a subgroup. Then, a, b ∈ H ⇒ a, b−1 ∈ H, since H
is itself a group and inverses exist. Then, a, b−1 ∈ H ⇒ ab−1 ∈ H since H satisfies closure. This
holds ∀ a, b ∈ H.
Sufficient direction: Assume that a, b ∈ H ⇒ a.b−1 ∈ H.
• Let b = a. Then, ab−1 ∈ H ⇒ aa−1 ∈ H ⇒ e ∈ H. Identity element exists.
• Let a = e. Then, a, b ∈ H ⇒ e, b ∈ H ⇒ eb−1 ∈ H ⇒ b−1 ∈ H. Inverse exists for all elements
of H.
• Let a, b ∈ H. Then, b−1 ∈ H. Since a, b−1 ∈ H, a(b−1 )−1 = ab ∈ H, as know that (b−1 )−1 = b.
Closure is satisfied. Note that we can substitute (b−1 )−1 = b even though H has not yet been
proved to be a group since the relation holds in the parent set G and the binary operation is
the same in G and H.
• Associativity holds in H since it holds in G and the binary operation in both cases is the
same.

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Theorem 1.3. The intersection of two subgroups H and K of a group G is also a group.
Proof. Suppose a, b ∈ H ∩ K. Then, a, b ∈ H and a, b ∈ K. Since H, K are subgroups, ab−1 ∈ H
and ab−1 ∈ K. Thus a, b−1 ∈ H ∩ K.

Theorem 1.4. The union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup.

Proof. Here is a counter-example. 3Z and 4Z are two subgroups of Z. 3Z ∪ 4Z = {0, 3, 4, 6, 8, . . .}.
But 3 + 4 = 7 ∈/ 3Z ∪ 4Z. The union does not satisfy closure and is hence not a group.
Definition 1.9. If G is a group, the set Z = {x|ax = xa ∀ a ∈ G} is center/normaliser of G.
The normaliser of an element a ∈ G, N (a), is the set {x ∈ G|ax = xa}.
Theorem 1.5. The normalizer Z of a group G is a subgroup.
Proof. Z is non-empty since e ∈ Z ⇐ ae = e = ea ∀ a ∈ G. The condition ax = xa ∀a ∈ G can be
rewritten as axa−1 = x ∀ a ∈ G. Suppose x, y ∈ Z. Then, ax = xa and ay = ya.
Now, a(xy −1 )a−1 = ax(y −1 a−1 ) = ax(ay)−1 = xa(ya)−1 = xa(a−1 y −1 ) = x(aa−1 )y −1 = xy −1 .
This implies that xy −1 ∈ Z. Thus Z ≤ G.
Theorem 1.6. The normaliser of an element a of G, N (a) is a subgroup of G.
Proof. N (a) = {x ∈ G|ax = xa}. Clearly, the set is non-empty since ea = ae = e ⇒ e ∈ N (a).
Suppose x, y ∈ N (a). Proceeding in the same way as theorem 1.5, we see that xy −1 ∈ N (a).

Theorem 1.7. If H, K are 2 subgroups of G, then (HK)−1 = K −1 H −1 .

Proof. Let x ∈ (HK)−1 . Then, x = (hk)−1 , h ∈ H, k ∈ K. But x = (hk)−1 = k −1 h−1 , k −1 ∈
K −1 , h−1 ∈ H −1 ⇒ x ∈ K −1 H −1 . This implies (HK)−1 ⊂ K −1 H −1 .
Let x ∈ K −1 H −1 . Then, x = k −1 h−1 , k −1 ∈ K −1 , h−1 ∈ H −1 . But x = (hk)−1 , h ∈ H, k ∈ K ⇒
x ∈ (HK)−1 ⇒ K −1 H −1 ⊂ (HK)−1 .
Since (HK)−1 ⊂ K −1 H −1 and K −1 H −1 ⊂ (HK)−1 , (HK)−1 = K −1 H −1 .
Similarly, it can be proved that {a−1 xa}, a, x ∈ G is also a group. The set G = {eiθ |θisreal} =
is also a group.
Theorem 1.8. If H ≤ G, H = H −1 . The converse is not true.

Proof. Suppose x ∈ H. Since H ≤ G, x−1 ∈ H. Then, (x−1 )−1 ∈ H −1 ⇒ x ∈ H −1 ⇒ H ⊂ H −1 .

by definition, H −1 = {h−1 |h ∈ H}. So if h0 ∈ H −1 , h0 = h−1 , h ∈ H. But H is a subgroup, so
h−1 = h0 also belongs to H. Thus 0 ∈ H −1 ⇒ h0 ∈ H ⇒ H −1 ⊂ H.
Combining the two, H = H −1 .
Conversely, consider the group ({1, −1}, ×). H = {−1} is a non-empty subset such that H = H −1 .
But H is not a subgroup of {1, −1}.

Theorem 1.9. Let H 6= ∅ ⊂ G. Then, H ≤ G ⇐⇒ HH −1 = H.

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Proof. Necessary direction: Suppose H ≤ G. Suppose x ∈ HH −1 . x = hk −1 , h, k ∈ H. But since
H is a subgroup, k −1 ∈ H. By closure, hk −1 = x ∈ H. So HH −1 ⊂ H. By definition, e ∈ H −1 .
So, if h ∈ H, h = he = HH −1 . Thus H ⊂ HH −1 .
Sufficient direction: Assume that HH −1 = H. Since H is non-empty, it suffices to prove that
x, y ∈ H ⇒ xy −1 ∈ H. Now, x, y ∈ H ⇒ xy −1 ∈ HH −1 ⇒ xy −1 ∈ H.
Theorem 1.10. Let H, K ≤ G. Then, HK ≤ G ⇐⇒ HK = KH.
Proof. Necessary direction: Assume that HK ≤ G. Since H and K are subgroups, H = H −1 and
K = K −1 . HK = (HK)−1 = K −1 H −1 = KH.
Sufficient direction: Suppose HK = KH. To prove that HK ≤ G, it suffices to prove that
(HK)(HK)−1 = HK.(HK)(HK)−1 = HKK −1 H −1 = H(KK −1 )H −1 = HKH −1 = (HK)H −1 =
K(HH −1 ) = KH.

1.5 Cyclic Groups

Definition 1.10. Let G be a group. It is a cyclic group if a ∈ G such that g = an , n ∈ N ∀ g ∈ G.
The element a is called the generator of G, denoted by G =< a >.
Example 1.9. Here are some examples of cyclic groups and cyclic subgroups of important groups.
Counter-examples are also given.
1. (Z, +) =< 1 >
2. {1, −1, i, −i} =< i >, < −i >
3. (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +), (Q∗, ×), (R, ×), (C, ×)
4. S3 is a finite non-cyclic group. In particular, it is the smallest non-abelian group.
Theorem 1.11. All cyclic groups are abelian.
Proof. Let G =< a > be a cyclic group. Then, for two elements g1 = an1 , g2 = an2 of G,
g1 g2 = an1 an2 = an1 +n2 = an2 +n1 = an2 an1 = g2 g1 .
The converse is not true. Consider as an example, the Klein 4-Group, V4 or K4 = {e, a, b, c}
where e is the identity element and the Cayley table is given by
e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
This is a non-cyclic, abelian group, since < e >= {a}, < a >= {e, a}, < b >= {e, b}, < c >= {e, c}.
However, its proper subgroups are all cyclic. Thus, K4 is the smallest non-cyclic group.
Theorem 1.12. If G =< a >, then G =< a−1 >.
Proof. If G =< a >, g = an ∀g ∈ G. Then, g = (a−1 )−n ∀g ∈ G.
Theorem 1.13. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

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Proof. Let G be a cyclic group and H be a subgroup. Define the set S = {m ∈ Z|am ∈ H}.
Claim.(S, +) ≤ (Z, +)
Because e ∈ H and e = a0 , 0 ∈ S ⇒ S 6= ∅. Suppose m, n ∈ S. Then, am , an , a−n ∈ H, since H is
a subgroup. ⇒ am .a−n = am−n ∈ H by closure. ⇒ m − n ∈ S.
The claim implies that S = {0} or S = {pZ|p ∈ Z} for some p. If S = {0}, H = {e}. If S = {pZ},
H = {am |m ∈ pZ} ⇒ H = {akp |k ∈ Z} =< ap >.
Theorem 1.14. The order of the generator of a cyclic group is equal to the order of the group.
Theorem 1.15. Let G be a cyclic group generated by a, of order d. Then, ak , k < d is also a
generator of G iff k and d are relatively prime.

Corollary. A cyclic group of order d has φ(d) generators, where φ is the Euler totient function.
1 1 1
[φ(n) = n(1 − )(1 − ) . . . (1 − ), where n = pa1 1 pa2 2 . . . pas s is the canonical factorization of n.]
p1 p2 ps
Proof. Let G =< a > of order d. An element ak is a generator iff (k, d) = 1. Thus the number
of generators of G is the number of positive integers less that d relatively prime to d, which is, by
definition φ(d).
Example 1.10 (CSE. 2015). Taking 2 groups of order 4, {e, a, b, c}, construct composition tables
to show that one is cyclic while the other is not.
Construct composition tables for {1, −1, i, −i} and the Klein group, K4 .

Example 1.11 (CSE. 2015). How many generators are there of the cyclic group of order 8?
From Theorem 1.14, we see that if G =< a > is a group of order 8, O(a) = 8. From Theorem 1.15,
we see that an element ak ∈ G is a generator iff (k, 8) = 1. But the number of positive integers less
than 8 relatively prime to 8 is 3. Hence, the group has 4 generators in total.
Example 1.12 (CSE. 2016). Let p be a prime number and Zp be the additive group of integers
modulo p. Show that every non-zero element of Zp generates Zp .

Proof. Zp is a cyclic group generated by the element 1, which has order O(1) = O(Zp ) = p. For
convenience, let an mean a ⊕4 a ⊕4 . . . n times. Then, other generators of the group are the elements
ak , where (k, p) = 1. But since p is prime, every integer 1 < k < p is relatively prime to p. Thus
{ak |1 ≤ k < p} are all generators of Zp . So, every non-zero element of the group is a generator of
the group.

1.6 Cosets
Definition 1.11. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Then, the set Ha = {ha|h ∈ H} is
the right coset of H in G with respect to a. Similarly, {aH = {ah|h ∈ H}}.
Theorem 1.16. There is a bijective correspondence between the set of all left cosets and the set of
all right coset of a subgroup H in a group G.

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Proof. Let R = {Ha|a ∈ G} and L = {aH|a ∈ G}. Define f : R −→ L by f (Ha) = a−1 H ∀a ∈ G.
Well-defined and injective:Ha = Hbab−1 ∈ Hab−1 = h(b−1 )−1 a−1 = h−1 (b−1 )−1 a−1 ∈ Ha−1 H =
b−1 H ⇐ f (Ha) = f (Hb)
Surjective:For every aH ∈ L, a right coset Ha−1 ∈ R, since aH ∈ L ⇒ a ∈ G ⇒ a−1 ∈ G ⇒
Ha−1 ∈ R. Moreover, f (Ha−1 ) = (a−1 )−1 H = aH.
f is hence a bijective correspondence.
Theorem 1.17. There is a 1-1 correspondence between any two left (or right) cosets of H in G.
Proof. Define f : Ha −→ Hb by f (ha) = hb. This map is well defined, since if h1 a = h2 a,
h1 aa−1 b = h2 aa−1 b ⇒ h1 b = h2 b ⇒ f (h1 a) = f (h2 a). Similarly, injectivity can be proved. For
every hb in Hb, h ∈ H and hence ha ∈ Ha such that f (ha) = hb. So, f is surjective.

1.7 Lagrange’s Theorem

Theorem 1.18 (Lagrange’s Theorem). If G is a finite group and H ≤ G, then O(H)|O(G).
`
Proof. Recall that all cosets of H in G are distinct. ∴ G = a∈I aH where I = {a ∈ G|aH is distinct}
and O(aH)P= O(H) = O(bH) ∀a, b ∈ G.
∴ O(G) = a∈I O(aH) = |I|O(aH) = |I|O(H). ⇒ O(H)|O(G).
Definition 1.12. |I|, the number of distinct cosets of H in G is defined as the index of H in G,
denoted by [G : H] = O(G)/O(H).
Example 1.13. Recall the cosets of Z4 . When H = {0, 2}, there are 2 distinct cosets, {1, 3} and
{0, 2}. ∴, [Z4 : H] = 4/2 = 2.
Proposition 1.2. If K ≤ H ≤ G, [G : K] = [G : H][H : K].
O(G) O(G) O(H)
Proof. [G : K] = = . = [G : H][H : K].
O(K) O(H) O(K)
Proposition 1.3. The converse of Lagrange’s Theorem is not true.
Proof. Conisder Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. If H = {1, 3}, O(H)|O(G), but H  G. Alternatively, consider
A4 . O(A4 ) = 12. But A4 does not have any subgroup of order 6.
Theorem 1.19. Every group of order ≤ 3 is cyclic.
Proof. A group of order 1 is {e}, which is clearly cyclic. If a group G = {e, a}, a2 = e. If not,
a2 = a ⇒ a = e, but a, e are distinct elements. So, G =< a >. Let G = {e, a, b} be a group of order
3. From Lagrange’s Theorem, we know that O(a)|O(G). Since O(G) = 3, O(a) 6= 2. Now, consider
a2 . If a2 = e, there would be a contradiction. If a2 = a, a = e which is again a contradiction. Thus
a2 = b. So, G =< a >. Similarly, G =< b >.
Theorem 1.20. A finite group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof. Let G be a group of prime order p, p ≥ 2. Since p ≥ 2, atleast one element a(6= e) ∈ G.
Define a subgroup H = {a, a2 , . . .}. By Lagrange’s Theorem, O(H)|O(G) ⇒ O(H)|p. But since p
is prime, O(H) = 1 or O(H) = p. If O(H) = 1, H = {e} ⇒ a = e. But this is a contradiction. So,
O(H) = p ⇒ H = G. Since H is by definition a cyclic group, G is also cyclic.

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Corollary. A finite group of prime order has only improper subgroups.

1.8 Quotient Groups

Let G be a group and H ≤ G. Then, G/H = {aH|a ∈ H} is a group with respect to the operation
aH.bH = (a.b)H.
Proof. Closure.Let aH, bH ∈ G/H, a, b ∈ G. Then, aH.bH = (a.b)H ∈ G/H because a.b ∈ G by
the closure axiom of G.
Associativity. Holds because (a.b)c = a(b.c) in G.
Identity.Consider H = eH ∈ G/H. For any aH ∈ G/H, eH.aH = (e.a)H = aH = (a.e)H =
aH.eH. ∴, eH is the identity element of G/H.
Inverse. aH ∈ G/H ⇒ a ∈ G ⇒ a−1 ∈ G ⇒ a−1 H ∈ G/H. Now, aH.a−1 H = (a.a−1 )H = eH.
∴ a−1 H is the inverse of aH.
Example 1.14. Let G = Z4 and H = {0, 2}. G/H = {{0, 2}, {1, 3}}, where {0, 2} = 0 +4 H =
2 +4 H and {1, 3} = 1 +4 H = 3 +4 H.
(2 +4 H).(1+H ) = {0, 2}.{1, 3} = {1, 3} = (3 +4 H).

Note. O(G/H) = no.of distinctcosets = [G : H].

Theorem 1.21. If G is abelian, G/H is also abelian.

Proof. aH.bH = (a.b)H = (b.a)H = bH.aH.
Theorem 1.22. If G is cyclic, so is G/H.
Proof. Suppose G =< a > .Then, every subgroup is also cyclic. In particular, H is also cyclic.
G/H = {bH|b ∈ G}. But ∀b ∈ G, b = an , n ∈ Z. bH = an H = (a.a.a hdotsntimes)H =
aH.aH . . . ntimes = (aH)n . ∴ G/H is also cyclic.
0 + 3Z = 3Z
Example 1.15. Consider G = (Z, +) and H = 3Z. Then, the cosets of HinG are:
3 + 3Z = {. . . , −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .} = 3Z 4
So, Z/3Z = {3Z, 1 + 3Z, 2 + 3Z}

1.9 Normal Subgroups

Definition 1.13. Let G be a group and H ≤ G. Then, H is normal in G if aH = Ha ∀a ∈ G.
It is denoted by H E G. Alternatively, aHa−1 = H or ∀g ∈ G, h ∈ H, ghg −1 ∈ H.

Example 1.16. Here are some examples and counter-examples.

1. G E G and {e} E G.
2. If G is abelian, every subgroup is normal.

Proof. Let H ≤ G, where G is abelian. Then, for a ∈ G, h ∈ H, ah = ha. i.e aH = Ha.

3. G = S3 , H = {ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 }

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 4. G = S3 , H = {ρ0 , µ1 } is not a normal subgroup.
Proposition 1.4. The intersection of normal subgroups is also a normal subgroup.
Proof. Let H, K E G. Let h ∈ H ∩ K and g ∈ G. Then, h ∈ H and h ∈ K. Since H, K are normal,
ghg −1 ∈ H and ghg −1 ∈ K ⇒ ghg −1 ∈ H ∩ K. This gives H ∩ K E G.

Proposition 1.5. If H, N ≤ G and N E G, then H ∩ N E H.

Proof. Let h ∈ H and n ∈ H ∩ N . Consider hnh−1 .
Since h, n ∈ H, hnh−1 ∈ H. Since N E G and h ∈ H ⇒ h ∈ G, hnh−1 ∈ N . Combining these,
hnh−1 ∈ H ∩ N . So, H ∩ N E H.

Proposition 1.6. Let M, N E G such that M ∩ N = {e}. Then, every element of M commutes
with every element of N .
Proof. It suffices to prove that for m ∈ M, n ∈ N, mnm−1 n−1 = e.
Since M E G, nmn−1 ∈ M . Also, by closure, mnmn−1 ∈ M . Similarly by closure and the inverse
axiom, N E G ⇒ mnm−1 ∈ N ⇒ mnm−1 n−1 ∈ N . This means that mnm−1 n−1 ∈ M ∩ N =
{e} ⇒ mnm−1 n−1 = e.

1.10 Group Homomorphism

Definition 1.14. Let G, H be 2 groups. A function φ : (G, ∗) −→ (H, .) is a homomorphism if
φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a).φ(b) ∀ a, b ∈ G. A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism. Two groups
are isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them; denoted by ∼ = H. A homomorphism from
one group to itself is an automorphism.
Example 1.17. Here are some homomorphism given without proof. To show that a map is a
homomorphism we prove that it is well-defined and satisfies the homomorphism condition. To show
that it is an isomorphism, we show additionally that the map is injective and surjective.

1. (Z, +) ∼
= (nZ, +) via φ(x) = nx
2. (R, +) ∼
= (R+ , ×) via φ(x) = ex .
3. Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).

4. f : G −→ G, f (x) = x−1 is an automorphism.

5. (R, +)  (R∗ , ×)

Proof. Consider the equation x ∗ x = a ∀a. This has a solution in (R, +), viz. x = a/2. But
in (R∗ , ×), a solution does not exist if a = −1. x × x = −1 ⇒ x = i ∈
/ R∗ . If two groups are
isomorphic, the equation must have a solution in both groups.

Proof. In (R, +), O(1) = 1, O(n) = ∞ ∀n 6= 1. In (R∗ , ×), O(1) = O(−1) = 2, O(n) = ∞
otherwise. But isomorphisms conserve the order of elements. So the two groups cannot be
isomorphic.

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 6. (Q, +)  (Q∗ , ×). As before, the equation x ∗ x = a can be taken. It does not have a solution
in the second group for a = 2, 3, 5, . . ..
Definition 1.15. Let φ : G1 −→ G2 be a homorphism with e1 , e2 the identity elements of G1 , G2
respectively. Then, the kernel, ker φ is the set of elements of G1 mapped by φ to e2 . i.e K =
ker φ = {x ∈ G1 |φ(x) = e2 }. The image, Im(φ) = {φ(x)|x ∈ G1 }.

Proposition 1.7. Some properties of homomorphisms: Let φ : G −→ H be a homomorphism.

1. φ(e1 ) = e2
2. φ(x−1 ) = φ(x)−1
Theorem 1.23. The kernel and image of a homomorphism φ : G −→ H are subgroups of G, H
respectively. In particular, ker φ E G.
Proof. We consider the kernel and the image separately.

Kernel. Suppose g, h ∈ ker φ. Then, φ(g) = φ(h) = eH . Now, φ(gh−1 ) = φ(g)(φ(h))−1 = eH ⇒

gh−1 ∈ ker φ. So, ker φ ≤ G. Moreover, if k ∈ G, φ(kgk −1 ) = f (k)f (g)f (k −1 ) = f (k)f (k −1 ) =
f (kk −1 ) = f (eG ) = eH . Thus, kgk −2 ∈ ker φ. So ker φ E G.

Image. Suppose a, b ∈ Im(φ). Then, a = φ(g), b = φ(h) for some g, h ∈ G. Consider ab−1 =
φ(g)(φ(h))−1 = φ(g)φ(h−1 ) = φ(gh−1 ) ⇒ ab−1 ∈ Imφ. Thus, Imφ ≤ H.

Theorem 1.24. A homomorphism is injective iff its kernel is trivial i.e f is injective if f ker = {e}.
Proof. Necessary direction. Suppose f : G −→ H is injective. Assume, for a contradiction that
ker f is non-trivial, i.e it has at least one non-trivial element, g 6= e. Then, f (g) = e. But since f
is injective, f (g) = f (e) ⇒ g = e, which gives a contradiction.
Sufficient direction. Suppose ker f = {e}. Suppose f (g) = f (h) ⇒ f (g)(f (h))−1 = e ⇒
f (gh−1 ) = e ⇒ gh−1 ∈ ker f . This gives gh−1 = e ⇒ g = h, which implies that f is injective.
Example 1.18. Prove that Z/nZ ∼
= Zn .
Proof. Z/nZ = {0 + nZ, 1 + nZ, . . . , (n − 1) + nZ}. (To see why, see example 1.15). Z/nZ =
{k + nZ|k ∈ Zn }. Define f : Z/nZ −→ Zn by f (k + nZ) = k. This map is well-defined and bijective.
To see that it is a homomorphism, consider
f (k + nZ.l + nZ) = f ((k +n l)nZ) = k +n l.
f (k + nZ)f (l + nZ) = k +n l.
Theorem 1.25 (First Isomorphism Theorem). If f : G −→ H is a homomorphism, then Imf ∼
=
G/ ker f .

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