Groups PDF

Groups
MBIGILI L.J;
Haille Sellassie Building, Office No:212
December 22, 2020
MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

No:212 December 22, 2020 1 / 168
Outline
1 Groups
Elementary Properties of Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Subgroups of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Some Subgroup Theorems
Cyclic Groups
Subgroup of Cyclic Group
Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
Multiplication of permutations on S (Composition
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Groups
Groups
Our previous discussion was about sets, cartesian
products of sets, equivalence relations and finally
binary operations.
From these basic concepts, we turn our attention
to the discussion about groups.
So, our first question here is what is a group?

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Groups
Groups
binary operations.

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Groups
Groups
binary operations.

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Groups
Definition (Group)
A group is a set G together with a binary operation
? such that
1 (G1 ) ? is associative. i.e. a ? (b ? c) = (a ? b) ? c;
∀a, b, c ∈ G.
2 (G2 ) ∃e ∈ G such that a ? e = e ? a, ∀a ∈ G,
(e =identity element of G).
3 (G3 ) For each element a ∈ G. ∃a−1 ∈ G such that
a ? a−1 = a−1 ? a = e, (a−1 =the inverse of a).
4 If G1 , G2 and G3 are satisfied then hG, ?i is a group.
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Groups
Definition (Group)
? such that
∀a, b, c ∈ G.
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Groups
Definition (Group)
? such that
∀a, b, c ∈ G.
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Groups
Definition (Group)
? such that
∀a, b, c ∈ G.
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Groups
Groups: Example 1
a) Z under usual addition is a group. In this case
? = addition(+) and is a binary operation
(G1 ): satisfied as addition is associative.
(G2 ): satisfied since e = 0 ∧ a + 0 = 0 + a = a; ∀a ∈ Z,
then 0 is an identity element of a.
(G3 ): In this case the inverse of a is −a i.e. a−1 = −a,
as a ? a−1 = a−1 ? a = a + (−a) = 0
Hence hZ, +i is a group.

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Groups
Groups: Example 1
as a ? a−1 = a−1 ? a = a + (−a) = 0

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Groups
Groups: Example 1
as a ? a−1 = a−1 ? a = a + (−a) = 0

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Groups
Groups: Example 1
as a ? a−1 = a−1 ? a = a + (−a) = 0

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Groups
Groups: Example 1
as a ? a−1 = a−1 ? a = a + (−a) = 0

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Groups
Groups: Example 1
b) A set M of m × m matrices under usual addition
is a group. Observe that ? = +, e = m × m zero
matrix, and A−1 = −A ∈ M as
A + (−A) = (−A + A) = m × m zero matrix.
c) A set M of m × m matrices under usual
multiplication is a group. Here, ? = ×,
e = Im×m =identity matrix. A−1 ∈ M is the
inverse of A ∈ M under usual multiplication and
|A| =
6 0. Hence hM, ×i is a group.
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Groups
Groups: Example 1
b) A set M of m × m matrices under usual addition
is a group. Observe that ? = +, e = m × m zero
matrix, and A−1 = −A ∈ M as
A + (−A) = (−A + A) = m × m zero matrix.
c) A set M of m × m matrices under usual
multiplication is a group. Here, ? = ×,
e = Im×m =identity matrix. A−1 ∈ M is the
inverse of A ∈ M under usual multiplication and
|A| =
6 0. Hence hM, ×i is a group.
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Groups
Groups: Example 1
Notation: We denote by hG, ?i the group and ?
is the binary operation on G satisfying G1 , G2 , and
G3 .

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Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
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Groups
1) If G is a group, then the left and right
cancellation laws hold in G.
Proof : To show that right cancellation holds, we
must prove that if a ? b = c ? b, then a = c.
Since G is a group, then
a ? b = c ? b ⇔ (a ? b) ? b−1 = (c ? b) ? b−1
⇔ a ? (b ? b−1 ) = c ? (b ? b−1 ) by G1
⇔ a ? e = c ? e by G3
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Groups
a ? b = c ? b ⇔ (a ? b) ? b−1 = (c ? b) ? b−1
⇔ a ? (b ? b−1 ) = c ? (b ? b−1 ) by G1
⇔ a ? e = c ? e by G3
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Groups
a ? b = c ? b ⇔ (a ? b) ? b−1 = (c ? b) ? b−1
⇔ a ? (b ? b−1 ) = c ? (b ? b−1 ) by G1
⇔ a ? e = c ? e by G3
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Groups
a ? b = c ? b ⇔ (a ? b) ? b−1 = (c ? b) ? b−1
⇔ a ? (b ? b−1 ) = c ? (b ? b−1 ) by G1
⇔ a ? e = c ? e by G3
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Groups
a ? b = c ? b ⇔ (a ? b) ? b−1 = (c ? b) ? b−1
⇔ a ? (b ? b−1 ) = c ? (b ? b−1 ) by G1
⇔ a ? e = c ? e by G3
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Groups
Continuation......⇔ a = c G2 .
Proof : For the left cancellation, we need to show
that if b ? a = b ? c, then a = c.
b ? a = b ? c ⇔ b−1 ? (b ? a) = b−1 (b ? c)
⇔ (b−1 ? b) ? a = (b−1 ? b) ? c by G1
⇔ e ? a = e ? c by G3
⇔ a = c by G2 .
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Groups
b ? a = b ? c ⇔ b−1 ? (b ? a) = b−1 (b ? c)
⇔ (b−1 ? b) ? a = (b−1 ? b) ? c by G1
⇔ e ? a = e ? c by G3
⇔ a = c by G2 .
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Groups
b ? a = b ? c ⇔ b−1 ? (b ? a) = b−1 (b ? c)
⇔ (b−1 ? b) ? a = (b−1 ? b) ? c by G1
⇔ e ? a = e ? c by G3
⇔ a = c by G2 .
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Groups
2) If G is a group, then the identity element of G is
unique.
Proof : Suppose e1 , e2 ∈ G are both identities of
G. Then, its required to show that e1 = e2 .
Since e1 is an identity in G, then
e1 ? e 2 = e2 = e2 ? e 1

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Groups
unique.
e1 ? e 2 = e2 = e2 ? e 1

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Groups
unique.
e1 ? e 2 = e2 = e2 ? e 1

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Groups
Also, since e2 is an identity in G, then
e2 ? e 1 = e1 = e1 ? e 2
Therefore, e1 ? e2 = e2 ? e1 =⇒ e1 = e2 .
3) If G is a group, then every element in G has a
unique inverse element.
Proof : Suppose a ∈ G, suppose x, y ∈ G are both
inverses of a, we show that x = y.
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Groups
e2 ? e 1 = e1 = e1 ? e 2
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Groups
e2 ? e 1 = e1 = e1 ? e 2
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Groups
e2 ? e 1 = e1 = e1 ? e 2
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Groups

From the assumption
a ? x = e and a ? y = e
Therefore a ? x = a ? y. Thus x = y (by left

cancelation).
4) Let G be a group, and let a, b ∈ G, then
(a ? b)−1 = b−1 ? a−1 .

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Groups

From the assumption
a ? x = e and a ? y = e

cancelation).
(a ? b)−1 = b−1 ? a−1 .

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Groups

From the assumption
a ? x = e and a ? y = e

cancelation).
(a ? b)−1 = b−1 ? a−1 .

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Groups

Proof : It is enough to show that
(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = e
(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = a ? (b ? b−1 ) ? a−1

= a ? e ? a−1
= a ? a−1 = e (By G1 , G2 and G3 )

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Groups

(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = e
(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = a ? (b ? b−1 ) ? a−1

= a ? e ? a−1
= a ? a−1 = e (By G1 , G2 and G3 )

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Groups

(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = e
(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = a ? (b ? b−1 ) ? a−1

= a ? e ? a−1
= a ? a−1 = e (By G1 , G2 and G3 )

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Groups
Groups: Example 2
a) Define ? in Q+ by a ? b = |a|b for a, b ∈ Q+ . Show
that hQ+ , ?i is a group.
b) Let R∗ = R\{0} be the set of real numbers except
zero. Define on R∗ by a ? b = |a|b for a, b ∈ R∗ .
Check whether or not hR∗ , ?i is a group.

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Groups
Groups: Example 2

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Groups
Groups: Example 2

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Groups
Definition (Groups)
If G is a non-empty set with a binary operation ? such
that
G1 : ? is associative.
G2 : There is a left identity e with e ? a = a
∀a ∈ G.
G3 : For each a ∈ G; ∃a−1 ∈ G such that
a−1 ? a = e ∈ G (left inverse of a).
Then hG, ?i is a group. (Or ? use right identity
and right inverse of a).
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Groups
Definition (Groups)
that
∀a ∈ G.
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Groups
Definition (Groups)
that
∀a ∈ G.
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Abelian Groups
Definition (Abelian Group)

If hG, ?i is a group such that a ? b = b ? a; ∀a, b ∈ G,
then hG, ?i is an abelian group. (Named after
Norwegian mathematician Niel’s Abel 1802-1829).
Note: Abelian group sometimes known as a
commutative.

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Abelian Group
Lemma (Abelian Group)
Every group hG, ?i with the property a ? a = e; ∀a ∈ G
is an abelian group.
Proof
If G is a group so ? is a binary operation on G.
Let a, b ∈ G such that a ? a = e.
=⇒a−1 ? (a ? a) = a−1 ? e = a−1

=⇒(a−1 ? a) ? a) = e ? a = a
=⇒a = a−1 , ∀a ∈ G
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Abelian Group
Proof
Similarly b = b−1 , and now
a ? b = a−1 ? b−1
= (b ? a)−1
= b ? a ∀a, b ∈ G
Therefore a ? b = b ? a, so G is abelian.

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Abelian Group
Proof
Similarly b = b−1 , and now
a ? b = a−1 ? b−1
= (b ? a)−1
= b ? a ∀a, b ∈ G
Therefore a ? b = b ? a, so G is abelian.

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Abelian Group
Abelian Group: Examples

a) hZ, +i is an infinite abelian group as if m, n ∈ Z
then m + n = n + m. Here ? = +, m−1 = −m,
and e = 0.
b) Q∗ = Q\{0} is an infinite abelian group as if
r, s ∈ Q∗ then r.s = s.r. Here ? = × and e = 1,
r−1 = 1r , such that r ? 1r = 1r ? r = e.
c) Z3 = Z mod 3 = {0, 1, 2}. hZ3 , +i is a finite
abelian group as if m, n ∈ Z then m + n = n + m.

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Abelian Group

then m + n = n + m. Here ? = +, m−1 = −m,
and e = 0.

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Abelian Group

then m + n = n + m. Here ? = +, m−1 = −m,
and e = 0.

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Groups
Examples
Prove the following Theorems
Theorem
Let G be a group. For any a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a
Theorem
Let G be a group and a and b be any two elements in
G. Then the equations ax = b and xa = b have unique
solution in G.

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Groups
Groups
We can use exponential notation for groups just as we
do in ordinary algebra. If G is a group and g ∈ G,
then we define g 0 = e. For n ∈ N, we define:
g n = g.g.g . . . .g
| {z }
n times
g −n = g −1 .g −1 .g −1 . . . .g −1
| {z }
n times

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Groups
Theorem
In a group, the usual laws of exponents hold; that is,
for all g, h ∈ G,
1 g m g n = g m+n for all m, n ∈ Z
2 (g m )n = g mn for all m, n ∈ Z
3 (gh)n = (h−1 g −1 )−n for all n ∈ Z. Furthermore, if
G is abelian, then (gh)n = g n hn .
It is important to realize that the last statement can

be made only because Z and Zn are commutative
groups.
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Groups
Theorem
for all g, h ∈ G,

groups.
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Groups
Theorem
for all g, h ∈ G,

groups.
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Groups
Groups
We will leave the proof of the theorem above as
an exercise.
Notice that (gh)n 6= g n hn in general, since the
group may not be abelian.
If the group is Z or Zn , we write the group
operation additively and the exponential
operation multiplicatively; that is, we write ng
instead of g n .
The laws of exponents now become
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Groups
Groups
an exercise.
instead of g n .
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Groups
Groups
an exercise.
instead of g n .
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Groups
Groups
an exercise.
instead of g n .
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Groups
Theorem
In a group, for all g, h ∈ G,
1 mg + ng = (m + n)g for all m, n ∈ Z
2 m(ng) = (mn)g for all m, n ∈ Z
3 m(g + h) = mg + mh for all m ∈ Z.

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Groups
Theorem

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Groups
Theorem

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Group
Definition (Order of a Group)
If G is a group, then the order of G is the number of
elements in G. We denote the order of G by |G| or
O(G).
Group Order
If G is finite, then |G| < ∞ and if G is infinite,
then |G| = ∞.
Every group has at least one element e. In such
case the order of G or |G| = 1.
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Group
Definition (Order of a Group)
If G is a group, then the order of G is the number of
elements in G. We denote the order of G by |G| or
O(G).
Group Order
If G is finite, then |G| < ∞ and if G is infinite,
then |G| = ∞.
Every group has at least one element e. In such
case the order of G or |G| = 1.
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Group
Group Order: Examples
In general, the order of G, |G| ≥ 1. If |G| = 1,
then G = {e}.
1) Group of order 2, that is G = {e, a}.
? e a
e e a
a a e
This is a Cayley’s group, so a−1 = a, that is
a2 = e(a ? a = e). The group is abelian.
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Group
then G = {e}.
? e a
e e a
a a e
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Group
then G = {e}.
? e a
e e a
a a e
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Group

2) Consider the group hZ2 , +i. The group structure
is
+ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0

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Group
3) Group of order 3, that is, G = {e, a, b}, |G| = 3.
Cayley’s group.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
a ? b = e, that is a2 = b implies that G is abelian.
Note that a group of order 3, G is always abelian.
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Group
Cayley’s group.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
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Group
Cayley’s group.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
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Group
4) Group of order 4 : Let G = {e, a, b, c}, |G| = 4.
Structure I: From this structure, we have
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b e e a
c e b a e
a ? a = b ? b = c ? c = e. By lemma above G is a
abelian.
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Group
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b e e a
c e b a e
abelian.
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Group
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b e e a
c e b a e
abelian.
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Group
Structure II:
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a b c e
b b c e a
c c e a b
From this structure a ? b = b ? a, b ? c = c ? b,
a ? c = c ? a and e ? a = a ? e, b ? e = e ? b, and
e ? c = c ? e. By lemma above G is a abelian.
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Group
Structure II:
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a b c e
b b c e a
c c e a b
From this structure a ? b = b ? a, b ? c = c ? b,
a ? c = c ? a and e ? a = a ? e, b ? e = e ? b, and
e ? c = c ? e. By lemma above G is a abelian.
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Group
Structure III:
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c a e
c c b e a
From this structure a ? b = b ? a = c,
b ? c = c ? b = e, a ? c = c ? a = b and e ? a = a ? e,
b ? e = e ? b, and e ? c = c ? e.
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Group
Structure III:
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c a e
c c b e a
From this structure a ? b = b ? a = c,
b ? c = c ? b = e, a ? c = c ? a = b and e ? a = a ? e,
b ? e = e ? b, and e ? c = c ? e.
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Group

By lemma above G is a abelian.
In this case |G| = 4 and we have more than one
group structure.
Remark: If |G| < 5, G is abelian.

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Group

group structure.

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Group

group structure.

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Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
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22, 2020 34 / 168
Definition
Let G be a group. A subset H of G is a subgroup of
hG, ?i if H is closed under ? and H is also a group
under the ?. We denote H a subgroup of G by H ≤ G.

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Subgroups of a Group: Examples

Example: Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}, hZ4 , +i is a
group, e = 0.
1 Let H = {0, 2}. The inverse of 2 is 2 and
2 + 2 = 0 ∈ H. This implies that H = {0, 2} is a
subgroup of Z4 , i.e. H ≤ Z4 .
2 Let H1 = {0, 3}, since 3 + 3 = 2 but 2 is not in H1
hence H1 is not a subgroup of Z4 .
3 Let H2 = {0, 1}. Since 1 + 1 = 2 ∈
/ H2 hence H2 is not
a subgroup of Z4 .

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group, e = 0.
3 Let H2 = {0, 1}. Since 1 + 1 = 2 ∈
a subgroup of Z4 .

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group, e = 0.
3 Let H2 = {0, 1}. Since 1 + 1 = 2 ∈
a subgroup of Z4 .

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group, e = 0.
3 Let H2 = {0, 1}. Since 1 + 1 = 2 ∈
a subgroup of Z4 .

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Example: From the group of order 4,
G = {e, a, b, c}, consider structure I.
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b e e a
c e b a e
Note that, from this structure
a ? a = b ? b = c ? c = e.
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Example: From the group of order 4,
G = {e, a, b, c}, consider structure I.
? e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b e e a
c e b a e
Note that, from this structure
a ? a = b ? b = c ? c = e.
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Continuation..... By lemma above G is abelian.
The subgroups in the group structure I are
{e}, {e, a}, {e, b}, {e, c} and G = {e, a, b, c}.
This group is known as Klein 4-group and
denoted by V.
Thus, subgroups of Klein 4-group are
{e}, {e, a}, {e, b}, {e, c} and V = {e, a, b, c}.

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denoted by V.

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denoted by V.

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denoted by V.

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Example of Klein 4-group
Consider the set of 2 × 2 matrices
! ! ! !
1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
, , ,
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1
M forms a multiplicative group of order 4.

This is an example of Klein 4-group as A2 = I2 ,
where A is a matrix of order 2 and I2 is the
identity matrix of order 2.
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! ! ! !
1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
, , ,
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1

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! ! ! !
1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
, , ,
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1

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Subgroups of a Group: Remarks

1 A group is a subgroup of itself.
2 Each group has at least two subgroups, G and
{e}. These two groups are called trivial or
improper subgroups. Any other subgroup is
called a proper or non-trivial subgroup.
3 If G has only trivial subgroups it is called a
simple group.

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simple group.

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simple group.

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Lattice Diagram
Lattice Diagram
a) Construct the lattice diagram of Klein 4-group.
b) Construct the lattice diagram of hZ4 , +i.
c) Construct the lattice diagram of hZ6 , +i.

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Lattice Diagram
Lattice Diagram

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Lattice Diagram
Lattice Diagram

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Let us examine some criteria for determining
exactly when a subset of a group is a subgroup.
Theorem
A subset H of G is a subgroup if and only if it satisfies
the following conditions.
1 The identity e of G is in H.
2 If h1 , h2 ∈ H, then h1 h2 ∈ H.
3 If h ∈ H, then h−1 ∈ H.
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Theorem
2 If h1 , h2 ∈ H, then h1 h2 ∈ H.
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Theorem
2 If h1 , h2 ∈ H, then h1 h2 ∈ H.
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Theorem
2 If h1 , h2 ∈ H, then h1 h2 ∈ H.
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Proof
First suppose that H is a subgroup of G. We
must show that the three conditions hold. Since
H is a group, it must have an identity eH .
We must show that eH = e, where e is the
identity of G.
We know that eH eH = eH and that
eeH = eH e = eH .
Hence, eeH = eH eH . By right-hand cancelation,
e = eH .
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Proof
identity of G.
eeH = eH e = eH .
e = eH .
No:212 December 22, 2020 43 / 168
Proof
identity of G.
eeH = eH e = eH .
e = eH .
No:212 December 22, 2020 43 / 168
Proof
identity of G.
eeH = eH e = eH .
e = eH .
No:212 December 22, 2020 43 / 168
Proof
The second condition holds since a subgroup H is
a group.
To prove the third condition, let h ∈ H. Since H
is a group, there is an element h0 ∈ H such that
h0 h = hh0 = e
By the uniqueness of the inverse in G, h0 = h−1 .

No:212 December 22, 2020 44 / 168
Proof
a group.
h0 h = hh0 = e

No:212 December 22, 2020 44 / 168
Proof
a group.
h0 h = hh0 = e

No:212 December 22, 2020 44 / 168
Proof
Conversely, if the three conditions hold, we must
show that H is a group under the same operation
as G; however, these conditions plus the
associativity of the binary operation are exactly
the axioms stated in the definition of a group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 45 / 168
Theorem
Let H be a subset of a group G. Then H is a subgroup
of G if and only if H 6= ∅, and whenever g, h ∈ H then
gh−1 ∈ H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 46 / 168
Proof
First assume that H is a subgroup of G. We wish
to show that gh−1 ∈ H whenever g and h are in
H.
Since h is in H, its inverse h−1 must also be in H.
Because of the closure of the group operation,
gh−1 ∈ H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 47 / 168
Proof
First assume that H is a subgroup of G. We wish
to show that gh−1 ∈ H whenever g and h are in
H.
Since h is in H, its inverse h−1 must also be in H.
Because of the closure of the group operation,
gh−1 ∈ H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 47 / 168
Proof
Conversely, suppose that H ⊂ G such that H 6= ∅
and gh−1 ∈ H whenever g, h ∈ H.
If g ∈ H, then gg −1 = e is in H. If g ∈ H, then
eg −1 = g −1 is also in H.
Now let h1 , h2 ∈ H. We must show that their
product is also in H.
However, h1 (h−1
2 )
−1
= h1 h2 ∈ H. Hence, H is a
subgroup of G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 48 / 168
Proof
However, h1 (h−1
2 )
−1
subgroup of G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 48 / 168
Proof
However, h1 (h−1
2 )
−1
subgroup of G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 48 / 168
Proof
However, h1 (h−1
2 )
−1
subgroup of G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 48 / 168
Theorem
Let x be an element of a group G. Then the set of all
elements of G that are of the form xn for some integer
n, is a subgroup of G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 49 / 168
Proof
Let H = {xn : n ∈ Z}. Then the identity element
belongs to H, since it is equal to x0 .
The product of two elements of H is itself an
element of H, since xm xn = xm+n for all integers
m and n.
Also the inverse of an element of H is itself an
element of H since (xn )−1 = x−n for all integers n.
Thus H is a subgroup of G, as required.

No:212 December 22, 2020 50 / 168
Proof
m and n.

No:212 December 22, 2020 50 / 168
Proof
m and n.

No:212 December 22, 2020 50 / 168
Proof
m and n.

No:212 December 22, 2020 50 / 168
Definition
Let x be an element of a group G. The order of x is
the smallest positive integer n for which xn = e. The
subgroup generated by x is the subgroup consisting of
all elements of G that are of the form xn for some
integer n.
Theorem
Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then H ∩ K
is also a subgroup of G.
No:212 December 22, 2020 51 / 168
Proof
The identity element of G belongs to H ∩ K since
it belongs to the subgroups H and K.
If x and y are elements of H ∩ K then xy is an
element of H (since x and y are elements of H),
and xy is an element of K, and therefore xy is an
element of H ∩ K.

No:212 December 22, 2020 52 / 168
Proof
The identity element of G belongs to H ∩ K since
it belongs to the subgroups H and K.
If x and y are elements of H ∩ K then xy is an
element of H (since x and y are elements of H),
and xy is an element of K, and therefore xy is an
element of H ∩ K.

No:212 December 22, 2020 52 / 168
Proof
Also the inverse x−1 of an element x of H ∩ K
belongs to H and to K and thus belongs to
H ∩ K, as required.
Remark: More generally, the intersection of any
collection of subgroups of a given group is itself a
subgroup of that group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 53 / 168
Proof
Also the inverse x−1 of an element x of H ∩ K
belongs to H and to K and thus belongs to
H ∩ K, as required.
Remark: More generally, the intersection of any
collection of subgroups of a given group is itself a
subgroup of that group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 53 / 168
Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
22, 2020 54 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
The groups Z and Z4 which are among the most
familiar and easily understood groups, are both
examples of what are called cyclic groups.
In this part we will study the properties of cyclic
groups and cyclic subgroups, which play a
fundamental part in the classification of all
abelian groups.

No:212 December 22, 2020 55 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
The groups Z and Z4 which are among the most
familiar and easily understood groups, are both
examples of what are called cyclic groups.
In this part we will study the properties of cyclic
groups and cyclic subgroups, which play a
fundamental part in the classification of all
abelian groups.

No:212 December 22, 2020 55 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Often a subgroup will depend entirely on a single
element of the group; that is, knowing that
particular element will allow us to compute any
other element in the subgroup.
Example 1: Suppose that we consider 3Z and
look at all multiples (both positive and negative)
of 3. As a set, this is
3Z = {. . . , −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .}
No:212 December 22, 2020 56 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Often a subgroup will depend entirely on a single
element of the group; that is, knowing that
particular element will allow us to compute any
other element in the subgroup.
Example 1: Suppose that we consider 3Z and
look at all multiples (both positive and negative)
of 3. As a set, this is
3Z = {. . . , −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .}
No:212 December 22, 2020 56 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
This subgroup is completely determined by the
element 3 since we can obtain all of the other
elements of the group by taking multiples of 3.
Every element in the subgroup is “generated” by
3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 57 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
This subgroup is completely determined by the
element 3 since we can obtain all of the other
elements of the group by taking multiples of 3.
Every element in the subgroup is “generated” by
3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 57 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Example 2: Let H = {2n : n ∈ Z}, then H is a
subgroup of the multiplicative group of nonzero
rational numbers Q∗ .
If a = 2m and b = 2n are in H, then
ab−1 = 2m 2−n = 2m−n is also in H. Hence H is a
subgroup of Q∗ determined by the element 2.

No:212 December 22, 2020 58 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Example 2: Let H = {2n : n ∈ Z}, then H is a
subgroup of the multiplicative group of nonzero
rational numbers Q∗ .
If a = 2m and b = 2n are in H, then
ab−1 = 2m 2−n = 2m−n is also in H. Hence H is a
subgroup of Q∗ determined by the element 2.

No:212 December 22, 2020 58 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Theorem
Let G be a group and a be any element in G. Then the
set
hai = {ak : k ∈ Z}
is a subgroup of G. Furthermore, hai is the smallest
subgroup of G that contains a.
Proof
The identity is in hai since a0 = 1.

No:212 December 22, 2020 59 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
If g and h are any two elements in hai, then by
the definition of hai we can write g = am and
h = an for some integers m and n.
So gh = am an = am+n is again in hai. Finally, if
g = an in hai, then the inverse g −1 = a−n is also
in hai.

No:212 December 22, 2020 60 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
If g and h are any two elements in hai, then by
the definition of hai we can write g = am and
h = an for some integers m and n.
So gh = am an = am+n is again in hai. Finally, if
g = an in hai, then the inverse g −1 = a−n is also
in hai.

No:212 December 22, 2020 60 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
Now required to show that hai is the smallest
subgroup of G containing a.
It is clear that, any subgroup H of G containing a
must contain all powers of a by closure.
Hence, H contains hai. Therefore, hai is the
smallest subgroup of G containing a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 61 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof

No:212 December 22, 2020 61 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof

No:212 December 22, 2020 61 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Remark: If we are using the “+”notation, as in
the case of the integers under addition, we write
hai = {na|n ∈ Z}.
For a ∈ G, we call hai the cyclic subgroup
generated by a.
If G contains some element a such that G = hai,
then G is a cyclic group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 62 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
hai = {na|n ∈ Z}.
generated by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 62 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
hai = {na|n ∈ Z}.
generated by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 62 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
In this case a is a generator of G.
If a is an element of a group G, we define the
order of a to be the smallest positive integer n
such that an = e, and we write |a| = n.
If there is no such integer n, we say that the
order of a is infinite and write |a| = ∞ to denote
the order of a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 63 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
the order of a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 63 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
the order of a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 63 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Example 3: Notice that a cyclic group can have
more than a single generator.
For instance, both 1 and 5 generate Z6 hence, Z6
is a cyclic group.
Not every element in a cyclic group is necessarily
a generator of the group.
The order of 2 ∈ Z6 is 3. The cyclic subgroup
generated by 2 is h2i = {0, 2, 4}.

No:212 December 22, 2020 64 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
is a cyclic group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 64 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
is a cyclic group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 64 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
is a cyclic group.

No:212 December 22, 2020 64 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups: More examples
1 Consider G = {e, a} and its Cayle table below.
? e a
e e a
a a e
Thus, G is acyclic group generated by a. We
write G = hai and |G| = O(G) = 2.
2 hZ3 , +i is a cyclic group generated by 1 and 2 as
Z3 = h1i = h2i and |Z3 | = 3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 65 / 168
Cyclic Groups
1 Consider G = {e, a} and its Cayle table below.
? e a
e e a
a a e
Thus, G is acyclic group generated by a. We
write G = hai and |G| = O(G) = 2.
2 hZ3 , +i is a cyclic group generated by 1 and 2 as
Z3 = h1i = h2i and |Z3 | = 3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 65 / 168
Cyclic Groups

3 hZ, +i is a special cyclic group, generated by
0, −1, 1 i.e. hZ, +i = h0, −1, 1i. This is a group
having more than one generator.
4 Are hZ4 , +i and hZ9 , +i cyclic groups? Why?
5 U (9) = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} is called a group units in
Z9 . Is U (9) a cyclic group?

No:212 December 22, 2020 66 / 168
Cyclic Groups


No:212 December 22, 2020 66 / 168
Cyclic Groups


No:212 December 22, 2020 66 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Let n be a positive integer. The set Zn of
congruence classes of integers modulo n is a cyclic
group of order n with respect to the operation of
addition.
Theorem
Every cyclic group is abelian.

No:212 December 22, 2020 67 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
Let G be a cyclic group generated by a so that
G = hai = {ak |k ∈ Z}.
Let b, c ∈ G. Then there exist m, n ∈ Z such that
b = am , c = an . Then
bc = am an = am+n
= an+m = an am
= cb, ∀b, c ∈ G
So G is abelian.
No:212 December 22, 2020 68 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
G = hai = {ak |k ∈ Z}.
bc = am an = am+n
= an+m = an am
= cb, ∀b, c ∈ G
So G is abelian.
No:212 December 22, 2020 68 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
G = hai = {ak |k ∈ Z}.
bc = am an = am+n
= an+m = an am
= cb, ∀b, c ∈ G
So G is abelian.
No:212 December 22, 2020 68 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups
Remark: The converse of the theorem above is
not always true. For instance, Klein 4-group is
an example of abelian group but not cyclic.
Theorem
A cyclic group with only one generator can have at
most two elements.
Proof
See next slides.............
No:212 December 22, 2020 69 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
Let G = hai. Suppose a2 6= e (i.e. G has more
than two distinct elements).
Thus G contains at least three distinct elements
e, a, b.
From the table of G = {e, a, b} below.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
No:212 December 22, 2020 70 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
e, a, b.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
No:212 December 22, 2020 70 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
e, a, b.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
No:212 December 22, 2020 70 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
Let c ∈ G, then c = ak , k ∈ Z.
But ab = e =⇒ a = (b−1 ).
From c = ak , we have c = ak = (b−1 )k = b−k
Hence b is also a generator of G.
This contradicts our assumption, so a2 = e and G
must have at most two elements e and a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 71 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
But ab = e =⇒ a = (b−1 ).

No:212 December 22, 2020 71 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
But ab = e =⇒ a = (b−1 ).

No:212 December 22, 2020 71 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
But ab = e =⇒ a = (b−1 ).

No:212 December 22, 2020 71 / 168
Cyclic Groups
Proof
But ab = e =⇒ a = (b−1 ).

No:212 December 22, 2020 71 / 168
We can ask some interesting questions about
cyclic subgroups of a group and subgroups of a
cyclic group.
If G is a group, which subgroups of G are cyclic?
If G is a cyclic group, what type of subgroups
does G possess?
Theorem
A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
No:212 December 22, 2020 72 / 168
cyclic group.
does G possess?
Theorem
No:212 December 22, 2020 72 / 168
cyclic group.
does G possess?
Theorem
No:212 December 22, 2020 72 / 168
Proof
The main tools used in this proof are the
division algorithm and the Principle of
Well-Ordering.
Let G be a cyclic group generated by a and
suppose that H is a subgroup of G.
If H = {e}, then trivially H = hei is cyclic.
If H 6= {e}, then an ∈ H, n ∈ Z+ .

No:212 December 22, 2020 73 / 168
Proof
Well-Ordering.
If H 6= {e}, then an ∈ H, n ∈ Z+ .

No:212 December 22, 2020 73 / 168
Proof
Well-Ordering.
If H 6= {e}, then an ∈ H, n ∈ Z+ .

No:212 December 22, 2020 73 / 168
Proof
Well-Ordering.
If H 6= {e}, then an ∈ H, n ∈ Z+ .

No:212 December 22, 2020 73 / 168
Proof
let m be the smallest integer in Z+ such that
am ∈ H. Such an m exists by the Principle of
Well-Ordering.
We claim that c = am generates H; that is
H = ham i = hci.
We must show that every b ∈ H is a power of c.
Since b ∈ H and H ≤ G, we have b = an for some
n.
No:212 December 22, 2020 74 / 168
Proof
Well-Ordering.
H = ham i = hci.
n.
No:212 December 22, 2020 74 / 168
Proof
Well-Ordering.
H = ham i = hci.
n.
No:212 December 22, 2020 74 / 168
Proof
Well-Ordering.
H = ham i = hci.
n.
No:212 December 22, 2020 74 / 168
Proof
Using the division algorithm, we can find
numbers q and r such that n = mq + r where
0 ≤ r < m; hence,
an = amq+r = (am )q ar = cq ar
So ar = an c−q . Since an and c−q are in H, then

ar must also be in H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 75 / 168
Proof
Using the division algorithm, we can find
numbers q and r such that n = mq + r where
0 ≤ r < m; hence,
an = amq+r = (am )q ar = cq ar
So ar = an c−q . Since an and c−q are in H, then

ar must also be in H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 75 / 168
Proof
However, m was the smallest positive number
such that am was in H; consequently, r = 0 and
so n = mq. Therefore,
b = an = amq = cq

No:212 December 22, 2020 76 / 168
Corollary
The subgroups of Z are exactly nZ for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Theorem
Let G be a cyclic group of order n and suppose that a
is a generator for G. Then ak = e if and only if n
divides k.

No:212 December 22, 2020 77 / 168
Proof
Let first suppose that n is the smallest positive
integer such that an = e.
Secondly, suppose that ak = e. By division
algorithm, k = nq + r, where 0 ≤ r < n, hence
e = ak = anq+r = anq ar = ear = ar

No:212 December 22, 2020 78 / 168
Proof
Let first suppose that n is the smallest positive
integer such that an = e.
Secondly, suppose that ak = e. By division
algorithm, k = nq + r, where 0 ≤ r < n, hence
e = ak = anq+r = anq ar = ear = ar

No:212 December 22, 2020 78 / 168
Proof
Since the smallest positive integer is n such that
an = e, then r = 0 and k = nq, thus n|k.
Conversely, if n divides k, then k = ns for some
integer s. Consequently,
ak = ans = (an )s = es = e

No:212 December 22, 2020 79 / 168
Proof
Since the smallest positive integer is n such that
an = e, then r = 0 and k = nq, thus n|k.
Conversely, if n divides k, then k = ns for some
integer s. Consequently,
ak = ans = (an )s = es = e

No:212 December 22, 2020 79 / 168
Theorem
Let G be a cyclic group of order n and suppose that
a ∈ G is a generator of the group. If b = ak , then the
order of b is n/d, where d = gcd(k, n).
Proof
Required to find the smallest integer m such that
e = bm = akm .

No:212 December 22, 2020 80 / 168
Proof
From the theorem above, for such smallest m,
then n divides km since n is the order of G or,
equivalently, n/d divides m(k/d).
Since d = gcd(k, n), then n/d and k/d are
relatively prime.
Hence, for n/d to divide m(k/d), it must divide
m.
Therefore, such a smallest m is n/d

No:212 December 22, 2020 81 / 168
Proof
relatively prime.
m.

No:212 December 22, 2020 81 / 168
Proof
relatively prime.
m.

No:212 December 22, 2020 81 / 168
Proof
relatively prime.
m.

No:212 December 22, 2020 81 / 168
Corollary
The generators of Zn are the integers r such that
1 ≤ r < n, and gcd(r, n) = 1.
Example
Let us examine the group Zn . The numbers 1, 3,
5, 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15 are the elements of Z16
that are relatively prime to 16.
Each of these elements generates Z16

No:212 December 22, 2020 82 / 168
Corollary
The generators of Zn are the integers r such that
1 ≤ r < n, and gcd(r, n) = 1.
Example
Let us examine the group Zn . The numbers 1, 3,
5, 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15 are the elements of Z16
that are relatively prime to 16.
Each of these elements generates Z16

No:212 December 22, 2020 82 / 168
Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
22, 2020 83 / 168
Cosets: Notation
Let S and T be non-empty subsets of a group G.
Define
ST = {st|s ∈ S, t ∈ T }
Definition
If H is a subgroup of G and a ∈ G, then define
Ha = {b ∈ G|b = ha, for some h ∈ H}

Ha is called the right coset of H in G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 84 / 168
Definition
Likewise
aH = {b ∈ G|b = ah, for some h ∈ H}

aH is called the left coset of H in G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 85 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
Consider hZ4 , +i and a subgroup H = {0, 2}.
Then
H0 = {h0|h ∈ H} = {0 + 0, 2 + 0} = {0, 2} = H
H1 = {h1|h ∈ H} = {0 + 1, 2 + 1} = {1, 3}
H2 = {h2|h ∈ H} = {0 + 2, 2 + 2} = {2, 0}
= {0, 2} = H0 = H

No:212 December 22, 2020 86 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
Continuation....
H3 = {h3|h ∈ H} = {0 + 3, 2 + 3} = {3, 1}
= {1, 3} = H1
H0, H1, H3, are the right cosets of H in Z4 .

In this case, we have two distinct cosets that is
H0 = H, H1.

No:212 December 22, 2020 87 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
Continuation....
H3 = {h3|h ∈ H} = {0 + 3, 2 + 3} = {3, 1}
= {1, 3} = H1

H0 = H, H1.

No:212 December 22, 2020 87 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
Continuation....
H3 = {h3|h ∈ H} = {0 + 3, 2 + 3} = {3, 1}
= {1, 3} = H1

H0 = H, H1.

No:212 December 22, 2020 87 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
Note that, H0 is identity and the cosets partition
G = Z4 as
[
H0 ∩ H1 = ∅ and Hai = Z4
Likewise, 0H, 1H, 2H, 3H are the left cosets of H

in Z4 .
Since hZ4 , +i is abelian, then Ha = aH, ∀a ∈ G.
Note: In commutative group, left and right cosets
are always identical.
No:212 December 22, 2020 88 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
G = Z4 as
[
H0 ∩ H1 = ∅ and Hai = Z4

in Z4 .
No:212 December 22, 2020 88 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
G = Z4 as
[
H0 ∩ H1 = ∅ and Hai = Z4

in Z4 .
No:212 December 22, 2020 88 / 168
Cosets: Example 1
G = Z4 as
[
H0 ∩ H1 = ∅ and Hai = Z4

in Z4 .
No:212 December 22, 2020 88 / 168
Cosets: Example 2
Let G be a cyclic group of order 4 generated by a
i.e. G = hai. Find all left cosets of H in G, if
H = ha2 i. Show that the two cosets are either
identical or else disjoint.
Solution: Given G = {e, a, a2 , a3 } and we define
the left coset as aH = {b ∈ G|b = ah; h ∈ H}.
eH = {ee, ea2 } = {e, a2 } = H

aH = {ae, aa2 } = {a, a3 }
No:212 December 22, 2020 89 / 168
Cosets: Example 2
Let G be a cyclic group of order 4 generated by a
i.e. G = hai. Find all left cosets of H in G, if
H = ha2 i. Show that the two cosets are either
identical or else disjoint.
Solution: Given G = {e, a, a2 , a3 } and we define
the left coset as aH = {b ∈ G|b = ah; h ∈ H}.
eH = {ee, ea2 } = {e, a2 } = H

aH = {ae, aa2 } = {a, a3 }
No:212 December 22, 2020 89 / 168
Cosets: Example 2
Continuation......
a2 H = {a2 e, a2 a2 } = {a2 , e} = H
a3 H = {a3 e, a3 a2 } = {a3 , a} = aH
We have only two distinct cosets, H and aH
H ∩ aH = ∅ and H ∪ aH = G
Each coset contains two elements and these

cosets H and aH partition G, i.e. H ∪ aH = G.
No:212 December 22, 2020 90 / 168
Cosets: Example 2
Continuation......
a2 H = {a2 e, a2 a2 } = {a2 , e} = H
a3 H = {a3 e, a3 a2 } = {a3 , a} = aH

No:212 December 22, 2020 90 / 168
Cosets: Example 2
Continuation......
a2 H = {a2 e, a2 a2 } = {a2 , e} = H
a3 H = {a3 e, a3 a2 } = {a3 , a} = aH

No:212 December 22, 2020 90 / 168
Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets
of H in G have the following properties:
i) x ∈ xH for all x ∈ G;
ii) if x and y are elements of G, and if y = xa for
some a ∈ H, then xH = yH;
iii) if x and y are elements of G, and if xH ∩ yH is
non-empty then xH = yH.

No:212 December 22, 2020 91 / 168
Theorem

No:212 December 22, 2020 91 / 168
Theorem

No:212 December 22, 2020 91 / 168
Proof.
Let x ∈ G. Then x = xe, where e is the identity
element of G. But e ∈ H. It follows that x ∈ xH.
This proves (i).
Let x and y be elements of G, where y = xa for
some a ∈ H. Then yh = x(ah) and xh = y(a−1 h)
for all h ∈ H. Moreover ah ∈ H and a−1 h ∈ H for
all h ∈ H, since H is a subgroup of G. It follows
that yH ⊂ xH and xH ⊂ yH, and hence
xH = yH. This proves (ii).
No:212 December 22, 2020 92 / 168
Proof.
Let x ∈ G. Then x = xe, where e is the identity
element of G. But e ∈ H. It follows that x ∈ xH.
This proves (i).
Let x and y be elements of G, where y = xa for
some a ∈ H. Then yh = x(ah) and xh = y(a−1 h)
for all h ∈ H. Moreover ah ∈ H and a−1 h ∈ H for
all h ∈ H, since H is a subgroup of G. It follows
that yH ⊂ xH and xH ⊂ yH, and hence
xH = yH. This proves (ii).
No:212 December 22, 2020 92 / 168
Proof.
Finally suppose that xH ∩ yH is non-empty for
some elements x and y of G. Let z be an element
of xH ∩ yH. Then z = xa for some a ∈ H, and
z = yb for some b ∈ H. It follows from (ii) that
zH = xH and zH = yH. Therefore xH = yH.
This proves (iii).

No:212 December 22, 2020 93 / 168
Corollary
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then, from the left
cosets of H in G, if for g1 , g2 ∈ G, g1 H = g2 H then
Hg1−1 = Hg2−1 :
Theorem
Let H be a finite subgroup of a group G. Then each
left coset of H in G has the same number of elements
as H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 94 / 168
Proof.
Let H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hm }, where h1 , h2 , . . . , hm
are distinct elements, and let x ∈ G.
Then the left coset xH consists of the elements
xhj for j = 1, 2, . . . , m.
Suppose that j and k are integers between 1 and
m for which xhj = xhk .

No:212 December 22, 2020 95 / 168
Proof.
xhj for j = 1, 2, . . . , m.

No:212 December 22, 2020 95 / 168
Proof.
xhj for j = 1, 2, . . . , m.

No:212 December 22, 2020 95 / 168
Proof.
Then hj = x−1 (xhj ) = x−1 (xhk ) = hk , and thus
j = k, since h1 , h2 , . . . , hm are distinct.
It follows that the elements xh1 , xh2 , . . . , xhm are
distinct.
We conclude that the subgroup H and the left
coset xH both have m elements, as required.

No:212 December 22, 2020 96 / 168
Proof.
distinct.

No:212 December 22, 2020 96 / 168
Proof.
distinct.

No:212 December 22, 2020 96 / 168
Cosets: Index
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G.
Define the index of H in G to be the number of
left cosets of H in G. We will denote the index by
[G : H].
Example 3: Let G = Z6 and H = {0, 3}. Then
[G : H] = 3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 97 / 168
Cosets: Index
[G : H].
[G : H] = 3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 97 / 168
Cosets: Index
[G : H].
[G : H] = 3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 97 / 168
Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The number of left
cosets of H in G is the same as the number of right
cosets of H in G.
Proof.
Let LH and RH be the left and right cosets of H
in G, respectively.
To prove this theorem it is enough to define a
bijective map φ : LH −→ RH .

No:212 December 22, 2020 98 / 168
Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The number of left
cosets of H in G is the same as the number of right
cosets of H in G.
Proof.
Let LH and RH be the left and right cosets of H
in G, respectively.
To prove this theorem it is enough to define a
bijective map φ : LH −→ RH .

No:212 December 22, 2020 98 / 168
Proof.
If gH ∈ LH , then let φ(gH) = Hg −1 .
The bijective map is well defined since if
g1 H = g2 H then Hg1−1 = Hg2−1 by the corollary
above.
We now show that φ is one-to-one mapping.
Consider Hg1−1 = φ(g1 H) = φ(g2 H) = Hg2−1 .
Also from the fact that g1 H = g2 H, then the map
φ is onto since φ(g −1 H) = Hg

No:212 December 22, 2020 99 / 168
Proof.
above.

No:212 December 22, 2020 99 / 168
Proof.
above.

No:212 December 22, 2020 99 / 168
Proof.
above.

No:212 December 22, 2020 99 / 168
Proof.
above.

No:212 December 22, 2020 99 / 168
Proposition
Let H be a subgroup of G with g ∈ G and define a map
φ : H −→ gH by φ(h) = gh. The map φ is bijective;
hence, the number of elements in H is the same as the
number of elements in gH.
Proof.
We first show that the map φ is one-to-one.
Suppose that φ(h1 ) = φ(h2 ) for elements
h1 , h2 ∈ H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 100 / 168
Proposition
Proof.
h1 , h2 ∈ H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 100 / 168
Proposition
Proof.
h1 , h2 ∈ H.

No:212 December 22, 2020 100 / 168
Proof.
We must show that h1 = h2 . Since φ(h1 ) = gh1
and φ(h2 ) = gh2 , then gh1 = gh2 .
Thus by left cancelation, we have h1 = h2 .
To show that φ is onto is easy. By definition
every element of gH is of the form gh for some
h ∈ H and hence φ(h) = gh.

No:212 December 22, 2020 101 / 168
Proof.

No:212 December 22, 2020 101 / 168
Proof.

No:212 December 22, 2020 101 / 168
Proof.

No:212 December 22, 2020 101 / 168
Proof.

No:212 December 22, 2020 101 / 168
Theorem (Lagrange’s Theorem)
Let G be a finite group, and let H be a subgroup of G.
Then |G|/|H| = [G : H] is the number of distinct left
cosets of H in G. In particular, the order of H divides
the order of G.
Proof.
The group G is partitioned into [G : H] distinct
left cosets.
Each coset has |H| elements; therefore,
|G| = [G : H]|H|.
No:212 December 22, 2020 102 / 168
Theorem (Lagrange’s Theorem)
Let G be a finite group, and let H be a subgroup of G.
Then |G|/|H| = [G : H] is the number of distinct left
cosets of H in G. In particular, the order of H divides
the order of G.
Proof.
The group G is partitioned into [G : H] distinct
left cosets.
Each coset has |H| elements; therefore,
|G| = [G : H]|H|.
No:212 December 22, 2020 102 / 168
Alternatively, the proof is as follows

Given |G| < ∞. Then
S S
G = a∈G Ha = a∈G aH(the union of left/right
cosets of H in G).
Each coset of H has the same number of elements.

No:212 December 22, 2020 103 / 168

S S
cosets of H in G).

No:212 December 22, 2020 103 / 168

S S
cosets of H in G).

No:212 December 22, 2020 103 / 168
Proof.
In particular since He = H is one of the cosets,
then all cosets in G have the same number of
elements as H. So[
G= Ha
a∈G
= Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ . . . ∪ Han

No:212 December 22, 2020 104 / 168
Proof.
elements as H. So[
G= Ha
a∈G
= Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ . . . ∪ Han

No:212 December 22, 2020 104 / 168
Proof.
elements as H. So[
G= Ha
a∈G
= Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ . . . ∪ Han

No:212 December 22, 2020 104 / 168
Proof.
Thus [
|G| = | Hai |
ai ∈G
= |Ha1 | + |Ha2 | + . . . + |Han |(disjoint cosets)
But |Hai | = |He| = |H|, then

|G| = |H| + |H| + . . . + |H|(Addition of n−terms)
= n|H| =⇒ n = |G|/|H|

No:212 December 22, 2020 105 / 168
Proof.
Thus [
|G| = | Hai |
ai ∈G

= n|H| =⇒ n = |G|/|H|

No:212 December 22, 2020 105 / 168
Proof.
Thus [
|G| = | Hai |
ai ∈G

= n|H| =⇒ n = |G|/|H|

No:212 December 22, 2020 105 / 168
Proof.
Thus [
|G| = | Hai |
ai ∈G

= n|H| =⇒ n = |G|/|H|

No:212 December 22, 2020 105 / 168
Proof.
Thus [
|G| = | Hai |
ai ∈G

= n|H| =⇒ n = |G|/|H|

No:212 December 22, 2020 105 / 168
Remark
The converse of the above theorem is not always true.
That is, |H| ||G| does not imply that H is a subgroup of
G.

No:212 December 22, 2020 106 / 168
Corollary
If G is a group and |G| = p, a prime number, then G is
cyclic.
Proof.
Since p is prime, by Lagrange’s Theorem, G can
have no non-trivial subgroups, i.e. the only
subgroups are {e} and G (trivial subgroup of G).
Choose a ∈ G, a 6= e. Then hai ≤ G, hai =
subgroup of G generated by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 107 / 168
Corollary
If G is a group and |G| = p, a prime number, then G is
cyclic.
Proof.
Since p is prime, by Lagrange’s Theorem, G can
have no non-trivial subgroups, i.e. the only
subgroups are {e} and G (trivial subgroup of G).
Choose a ∈ G, a 6= e. Then hai ≤ G, hai =
subgroup of G generated by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 107 / 168
Proof.
But the only subgroups are {e} and G. Since
a 6= e, then hai =
6 e.
The only subgroup remaining is G, so G ≤ hai.
Thus G ≤ hai, hence G is a cyclic group generated
by a.
Note: This corollary suggest that groups of
prime order p must somehow look like Zp .

No:212 December 22, 2020 108 / 168
Proof.
a 6= e, then hai =
6 e.
by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 108 / 168
Proof.
a 6= e, then hai =
6 e.
by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 108 / 168
Proof.
a 6= e, then hai =
6 e.
by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 108 / 168
Definition
If G is a group and a ∈ G, then, the order of a is the
least positive integer k such that ak = e.
Remark
The order of a is denoted by o(a). If no such
integer k exists, then a is of infinite order.

No:212 December 22, 2020 109 / 168

Example 1: Let G = {e, a, b} be a group with
the following structure.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
Find the order of the elements a; b and e.

No:212 December 22, 2020 110 / 168

Example 1: Let G = {e, a, b} be a group with
the following structure.
? e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
Find the order of the elements a; b and e.

No:212 December 22, 2020 110 / 168

Example 2: Consider hZ4 , +i. This is a group
under addition modulo 4. Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}, e = 0.
Find the order of 1,2,3.

No:212 December 22, 2020 111 / 168
Proposition
If G is a group having a finite order and a ∈ G, then
o(a) divides |G|.
Proof.
Let a 6= e and H ≤ G, H ≤ hai so
H = {e, a, a2 , a3 , . . . , am−1 }.
The number of elements is m. So H = hai is
finite cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.

No:212 December 22, 2020 112 / 168
Proposition
o(a) divides |G|.
Proof.
H = {e, a, a2 , a3 , . . . , am−1 }.

No:212 December 22, 2020 112 / 168
Proposition
o(a) divides |G|.
Proof.
H = {e, a, a2 , a3 , . . . , am−1 }.

No:212 December 22, 2020 112 / 168
Proof.
Since a 6= e, a2 6= e . . . , am−1 6= e, then am = e and
therefore o(a) = m.
am ? a = e ? a = a, and o(a) = |H| = m(where m
is the least positive integer such that am = e).
Using Lagrange’s Theorem, we find that |H| ||G| ,
hence o(a) ||G| .

No:212 December 22, 2020 113 / 168
Proof.
therefore o(a) = m.
hence o(a) ||G| .

No:212 December 22, 2020 113 / 168
Proof.
therefore o(a) = m.
hence o(a) ||G| .

No:212 December 22, 2020 113 / 168
Corollary
Let H and K be subgroups of a finite group G such
that G ⊃ H ⊃ K. Then [G : K] = [G : H][H : K]
Proof.
Just observe that
|G| |G| |H|
[G : K] = = ×
|K| |H| |K|
= [G : H][H : K]

No:212 December 22, 2020 114 / 168
Corollary
Proof.
Just observe that
|G| |G| |H|
[G : K] = = ×
|K| |H| |K|
= [G : H][H : K]

No:212 December 22, 2020 114 / 168
Corollary
Proof.
Just observe that
|G| |G| |H|
[G : K] = = ×
|K| |H| |K|
= [G : H][H : K]

No:212 December 22, 2020 114 / 168
Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
22, 2020 115 / 168
Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups
Let S be a set with n elements.
Definition
The Permutation of a set S of n elements is a
one-to-one and onto ( bijective mapping) map
τ : S −→ S.

No:212 December 22, 2020 116 / 168
Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups
Definition
τ : S −→ S.

No:212 December 22, 2020 116 / 168
Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups
Definition
τ : S −→ S.

No:212 December 22, 2020 116 / 168
Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups
The permutation of this set form a group Sn
called symmetric group on n elements.
A subgroup of Sn is called a permutation
group and |Sn | = n!.

No:212 December 22, 2020 117 / 168
Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups
The permutation of this set form a group Sn
called symmetric group on n elements.
A subgroup of Sn is called a permutation
group and |Sn | = n!.

No:212 December 22, 2020 117 / 168
Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups: Examples

Example 1: Let S = {1, 2, 3} such that
1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 1, 3 7→ 3.
Then, we represent this by
!
1 2 3
τ=
2 1 3

No:212 December 22, 2020 118 / 168
Permutation Groups

Example 1: Let S = {1, 2, 3} such that
1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 1, 3 7→ 3.
Then, we represent this by
!
1 2 3
τ=
2 1 3

No:212 December 22, 2020 118 / 168
Permutation Groups

Example 2: Let S = {a, b}, under the bijective
mapping we can form two combinations of
permutations 2! i.e.
! !
a b a b
σ0 = , σ1 =
a b b a
The mappings σ0 and σ1 are the permutations on

S.
No:212 December 22, 2020 119 / 168
Permutation Groups

! !
a b a b
σ0 = , σ1 =
a b b a

S.
No:212 December 22, 2020 119 / 168
Permutation Groups

! !
a b a b
σ0 = , σ1 =
a b b a

S.
No:212 December 22, 2020 119 / 168
Permutation Groups
The mapping σ0 leaves the elements unaltered
and therefore is called an identity mapping.
Example 3: Let S = {a, b, c}, so we can form
3! = 6 permutations namely
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ0 = , σ1 = , σ2 =
a b c a c b b c a
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ3 = , σ4 = , σ5 =
b a c c a b c b a
No:212 December 22, 2020 120 / 168
Permutation Groups
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ0 = , σ1 = , σ2 =
a b c a c b b c a
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ3 = , σ4 = , σ5 =
b a c c a b c b a
No:212 December 22, 2020 120 / 168
Permutation Groups
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ0 = , σ1 = , σ2 =
a b c a c b b c a
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ3 = , σ4 = , σ5 =
b a c c a b c b a
No:212 December 22, 2020 120 / 168
Permutation Groups
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ0 = , σ1 = , σ2 =
a b c a c b b c a
! ! !
a b c a b c a b c
σ3 = , σ4 = , σ5 =
b a c c a b c b a
No:212 December 22, 2020 120 / 168
Permutation Groups

So σ0 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , σ4 , σ5 are six permutations on
S3 , and σ0 is the identity permutation on S3 .
In general, if S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }, then there are
n! permutations on S which forms a group Sn of
order n!.

No:212 December 22, 2020 121 / 168
Permutation Groups

So σ0 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , σ4 , σ5 are six permutations on
S3 , and σ0 is the identity permutation on S3 .
In general, if S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }, then there are
n! permutations on S which forms a group Sn of
order n!.

No:212 December 22, 2020 121 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
The notation that we have used to represent
permutations up to this point is cumbersome, to
say the least.
To work effectively with permutation groups, we
need a more streamlined method of writing down
and manipulating permutations.

No:212 December 22, 2020 122 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
The notation that we have used to represent
permutations up to this point is cumbersome, to
say the least.
To work effectively with permutation groups, we
need a more streamlined method of writing down
and manipulating permutations.

No:212 December 22, 2020 122 / 168
Permutation Groups
Definition
A permutation σ ∈ Sn is a cycle of length k if there
exist elements a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ S such that
σ(a1 ) = a2 , σ(a2 ) = a3 , . . . , σ(ak ) = a1 and σ(s) = s for
all other elements s ∈ S.

No:212 December 22, 2020 123 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
We write (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) to denote the cycle σ.
Cycles are the building blocks of all permutations.
Example 1: Consider the subgroup H of S7
consisting the permutation σ.
!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
σ= = (162354)(7) = (162354)
6 3 5 1 4 2 7
This is a cycle of length 6.

No:212 December 22, 2020 124 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
σ= = (162354)(7) = (162354)
6 3 5 1 4 2 7

No:212 December 22, 2020 124 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
σ= = (162354)(7) = (162354)
6 3 5 1 4 2 7

No:212 December 22, 2020 124 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
σ= = (162354)(7) = (162354)
6 3 5 1 4 2 7

No:212 December 22, 2020 124 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
Example 2:The permutation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
τ= = (1)(243)(5)(6) = (243)
1 4 2 3 5 6
is a cycle of length 3.
Example 3: Not every permutation is a cycle.
Consider the permutation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
π= = (1243)(56).
2 4 1 3 6 5

No:212 December 22, 2020 125 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
Example 2:The permutation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
τ= = (1)(243)(5)(6) = (243)
1 4 2 3 5 6
is a cycle of length 3.
Example 3: Not every permutation is a cycle.
Consider the permutation
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
π= = (1243)(56).
2 4 1 3 6 5

No:212 December 22, 2020 125 / 168
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation: Note

This permutation actually contains a cycle of
length 2 and a cycle of length 4.
(12)(34) = (34)(12) and
!
1 2 3 4
σ0 = = (1)(2)(3)(4).
1 2 3 4

No:212 December 22, 2020 126 / 168
Permutation Groups

(12)(34) = (34)(12) and
!
1 2 3 4
σ0 = = (1)(2)(3)(4).
1 2 3 4

No:212 December 22, 2020 126 / 168
Permutation Groups

(12)(34) = (34)(12) and
!
1 2 3 4
σ0 = = (1)(2)(3)(4).
1 2 3 4

No:212 December 22, 2020 126 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Though it is natural to multiply elements in a
group from left to right, functions are composed
from right to left.
Let σ and τ be permutations on a set S. To
compose σ and τ as functions, we calculate
(σ ◦ τ )(x) = σ(τ (x)). That is, we do τ first, then
σ.
It is sometimes more convenient to write στ (x)
instead of (σ ◦ τ )(x) or σ ◦ τ (x).
No:212 December 22, 2020 127 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
from right to left.
σ.
No:212 December 22, 2020 127 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
from right to left.
σ.
No:212 December 22, 2020 127 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Example 1: Consider the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
the permutations σ1 and σ2 on S.
! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
σ1 = , and σ2 =
2 3 1 4 3 4 2 1

No:212 December 22, 2020 128 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
σ1 = , and σ2 =
2 3 1 4 3 4 2 1

No:212 December 22, 2020 128 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
σ1 = , and σ2 =
2 3 1 4 3 4 2 1

No:212 December 22, 2020 128 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
The composition σ1 σ2 follows the following
scenario.
2 σ 1 σ 1 2 σ σ
1−
→ 3−
→ 1 ⇒ 1 −−→1
2 σ 1 σ 1 2 σ σ
2−
→ 4−
→ 4 ⇒ 2 −−→4

No:212 December 22, 2020 129 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Continuation................
2 σ 1 σ 1 2 σ σ
3−
→ 2−
→ 3 ⇒ 3 −−→3
2 σ 1 σ 1 2 σ σ
4−
→ 1−
→ 2 ⇒ 4 −−→2
Hence the composition mapping σ1 σ2 on S is

!
1 2 3 4
σ1 σ2 =
1 4 3 2

No:212 December 22, 2020 130 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Continuation................
2 σ 1 σ 1 2 σ σ
3−
→ 2−
→ 3 ⇒ 3 −−→3
2 σ 1 σ 1 2 σ σ
4−
→ 1−
→ 2 ⇒ 4 −−→2
Hence the composition mapping σ1 σ2 on S is

!
1 2 3 4
σ1 σ2 =
1 4 3 2

No:212 December 22, 2020 130 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
consisting of identity permutation σ0 and the
permutations
! !
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
σ= , τ=
1 2 3 5 4 3 2 1 4 5
!
1 2 3 4 5
π=
3 2 1 5 4

No:212 December 22, 2020 131 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
The following table tells us how to multiply
elements in the permutation group H above.
◦ σ0 σ τ π
σ0 σ0 σ τ π
σ σ σ0 π τ
τ τ π σ0 σ
π π τ σ σ0

No:212 December 22, 2020 132 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
◦ σ0 σ τ π
σ0 σ0 σ τ π
σ σ σ0 π τ
τ τ π σ0 σ
π π τ σ σ0

No:212 December 22, 2020 132 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
◦ σ0 σ τ π
σ0 σ0 σ τ π
σ σ σ0 π τ
τ τ π σ0 σ
π π τ σ σ0

No:212 December 22, 2020 132 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Example 3: Permutation multiplication is not
usually commutative. Let
! !
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
σ= , and τ =
4 1 2 3 2 1 4 3
Compute the following and compare the results:

(a) στ and (b) τ σ.

No:212 December 22, 2020 133 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Note that: In general if i 6= j then
1 σi σj 6= σj σi
2 (σi σj )σk = σi (σj σk )(permutation composition is
associative).
We may find easy to compute products of cycles

directly.
Example 4: Suppose that σ = (1352) and
τ = (256), then required to find στ .

No:212 December 22, 2020 134 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
associative).

directly.

No:212 December 22, 2020 134 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
associative).

directly.

No:212 December 22, 2020 134 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
associative).

directly.

No:212 December 22, 2020 134 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
associative).

directly.

No:212 December 22, 2020 134 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Remember that to find στ , we apply first τ and
then σ. Thus στ = (1356)
If µ = (1634), then σµ = (1652)(34).
Two cycles in S, σ = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) and
τ = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bl ) are disjoint if ai 6= bj for all i
and j.

No:212 December 22, 2020 135 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
If µ = (1634), then σµ = (1652)(34).
and j.

No:212 December 22, 2020 135 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
If µ = (1634), then σµ = (1652)(34).
and j.

No:212 December 22, 2020 135 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Example 5: The cycles (135) and (27) are
disjoint, however, the cycles (135) and (347) are
not. Calculating their products, we find that
(135)(27) = (135)(27) and (135)(347) = (13475).
The product of two cycles that are not disjoint

may reduce to something less complicated; the
product of disjoint cycles cannot be simplified.
No:212 December 22, 2020 136 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
Example 5: The cycles (135) and (27) are
disjoint, however, the cycles (135) and (347) are
not. Calculating their products, we find that
(135)(27) = (135)(27) and (135)(347) = (13475).
The product of two cycles that are not disjoint

may reduce to something less complicated; the
product of disjoint cycles cannot be simplified.
No:212 December 22, 2020 136 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
The composition of a permutation and its inverse
yields an identity permutation. For example, let
S = {a, b, c, d} such that σ = (ab)(cd), then
σ −1 = (ab)(cd) is the inverse of σ. That is
σσ −1 = σ0 .
Example 6: Consider S = {1, 2, 3} such that
σ1 = (123), and σ −1 = (132), then
σσ −1 = (1)(2)(3) = σ0 .

No:212 December 22, 2020 137 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
σσ −1 = σ0 .
σ1 = (123), and σ −1 = (132), then
σσ −1 = (1)(2)(3) = σ0 .

No:212 December 22, 2020 137 / 168
Permutation Groups
Composition Mapping
σσ −1 = σ0 .
σ1 = (123), and σ −1 = (132), then
σσ −1 = (1)(2)(3) = σ0 .

No:212 December 22, 2020 137 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proposition
Let σ and τ be two disjoint cycles in Sn . Then
στ = τ σ.
Proof.
Let σ = (a1 , a2 . . . , ak ) and τ = (b1 , b2 . . . , bl ). We
must show that στ (x) = τ σ(x).
If x is neither in {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } nor in
{b1 , b2 , . . . , bl }, then both σ and τ fix x.

No:212 December 22, 2020 138 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proposition
Let σ and τ be two disjoint cycles in Sn . Then
στ = τ σ.
Proof.
Let σ = (a1 , a2 . . . , ak ) and τ = (b1 , b2 . . . , bl ). We
must show that στ (x) = τ σ(x).
If x is neither in {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } nor in
{b1 , b2 , . . . , bl }, then both σ and τ fix x.

No:212 December 22, 2020 138 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proof.
That is σ(x) = x and τ (x) = x. Hence
στ (x) = σ(τ (x)) = σ(x) = x = τ (x) = τ (σ(x))

= τ σ(x).
Now suppose that x ∈ {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }. Then

σ(ai ) = a(i mod k)+1 , that is
a1 7→ a2 , a2 7→ a3 , . . . , ak−1 7→ ak , ak 7→ a1

No:212 December 22, 2020 139 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proof.
That is σ(x) = x and τ (x) = x. Hence
στ (x) = σ(τ (x)) = σ(x) = x = τ (x) = τ (σ(x))

= τ σ(x).
Now suppose that x ∈ {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }. Then

σ(ai ) = a(i mod k)+1 , that is
a1 7→ a2 , a2 7→ a3 , . . . , ak−1 7→ ak , ak 7→ a1

No:212 December 22, 2020 139 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proof.
Continuation............
However, τ (ai ) = ai , since σ and τ are disjoint.
Therefore
στ (ai ) = σ(τ (ai )) = σ(ai ) = a(i mod k)+1
= τ (a(i mod k)+1 ) = τ (σ(ai )) = τ σ(ai )
Similarly, if x ∈ {b1 , b2 , . . . , bl }, then σ and τ

commute.

No:212 December 22, 2020 140 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proof.
Therefore

commute.

No:212 December 22, 2020 140 / 168
Permutation Groups
Proof.
Therefore

commute.

No:212 December 22, 2020 140 / 168
Permutation Groups
Theorem
Every permutation in Sn can be written as the product
of disjoint cycles.
Permutations !
1 2 3 4 5 6
Example: Let σ = and
6 4 3 1 5 2
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
τ= . Use cycle notation to
3 2 1 5 6 4
write the permutations σ and τ . Hence find στ
and τ σ. Are the results the same?
No:212 December 22, 2020 141 / 168
The Cosets of Permutation Groups

In this section, we wish to look at the behaviour
of cosets for permutation groups.
Example 1: Let H be a subgroup of S3 defined
by the permutations {(1), (123), (132)}. Find
(a) the left cosets of H in S3
(b) the right cosets of H in S3 .
(c) Hence compare the results.

No:212 December 22, 2020 142 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 142 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 142 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 142 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 142 / 168

Solution: (1(a)) The left cosets of H in S3 are
(1)H = (123)H = (132)H = {(1), (123), (132)}

(12)H = (13)H = (23)H = {(12), (13), (23)}

No:212 December 22, 2020 143 / 168

Solution: (1(b)) The right cosets of H in S3 are
H(1) = H(123) = H(132) = {(1), (123), (132)}

H(12) = H(13) = H(23) = {(12), (13), (23)}
(c) Conclusion: The left cosets and right cosets of

H in S3 are exactly the same.

No:212 December 22, 2020 144 / 168

Solution: (1(b)) The right cosets of H in S3 are
H(1) = H(123) = H(132) = {(1), (123), (132)}

H(12) = H(13) = H(23) = {(12), (13), (23)}
(c) Conclusion: The left cosets and right cosets of

H in S3 are exactly the same.

No:212 December 22, 2020 144 / 168

Example 2: Let K be a subgroup of S3 defined
by the permutations {(1), (12)}. Find
(a) the left cosets of K in S3
(b) the right cosets of K in S3 .
Hence compare the results.

No:212 December 22, 2020 145 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 145 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 145 / 168


No:212 December 22, 2020 145 / 168

Solution: (2(a)) The left cosets of K in S3 are
(1)K = (12)K = {(1), (12)}

(13)K = (123)K = {(13), (123)}
(23)K = (132)K = {(23), (132)}

No:212 December 22, 2020 146 / 168
Solution: (2(b)) The right cosets of K in S3 are
K(1) = K(12) = {(1), (12)}

K(13) = K(132) = {(13), (132)}
K(23) = K(123) = {(23), (123)}
Conclusion: The left cosets and right cosets of

K in S3 are not the same.
Remark: Thus, it is not the case that a left
coset is always the same as a right coset.
No:212 December 22, 2020 147 / 168
K(1) = K(12) = {(1), (12)}

K(13) = K(132) = {(13), (132)}
K(23) = K(123) = {(23), (123)}

No:212 December 22, 2020 147 / 168
K(1) = K(12) = {(1), (12)}

K(13) = K(132) = {(13), (132)}
K(23) = K(123) = {(23), (123)}

No:212 December 22, 2020 147 / 168
Orbits
Orbits
Let a, b ∈ A and let a ∼ b if and only if b = σ n (a),
n ∈ Z.
In this case, ∼ is an equivalence relation as:
1 Reflexive: a ∼ a, since a = σ 0 (a), n = 0 ∈ Z.
2 Symmetric: If a ∼ b, then b = σ n (a), n ∈ Z, which
implies that a = σ −n (b), −n ∈ Z.Hence b ∼ a.
3 Transitive: Let a ∼ b and b ∼ c. Then, b = σ n (a) and
c = σ m (b), m, n ∈ Z. This implies that
c = σ m (σ n (a)) = σ m+n (a) = σ k (a) for k = m + n ∈ Z.
Hence, a ∼ c.

No:212 December 22, 2020 148 / 168
Orbits
Orbits
n ∈ Z.
Hence, a ∼ c.

No:212 December 22, 2020 148 / 168
Orbits
Orbits
n ∈ Z.
Hence, a ∼ c.

No:212 December 22, 2020 148 / 168
Orbits
Orbits
n ∈ Z.
Hence, a ∼ c.

No:212 December 22, 2020 148 / 168
Orbits
Orbits
n ∈ Z.
Hence, a ∼ c.

No:212 December 22, 2020 148 / 168
Orbits
Definition
Let σ be a permutation of set A. The equivalence
classes of A which are determined by equivalence
relation are orbits of σ.
Orbits: Examples
Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Since the identity
element σ0 leaves all the elements unchanged, the
orbits of σ0 are
! the one element subset of A. i.e.
1 2 3
σ0 = .
1 2 3
No:212 December 22, 2020 149 / 168
Orbits
Orbits: Examples
Then {1}, {2} and {3} are the orbits of σ0 .
Example 2: Given A = {1, 2, . . . , 8}. Find! all
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the orbits of τ =
3 8 6 7 4 1 5 2
Solution: The orbits are
{1, 3, 6}, {2, 8}, {4, 7, 5}. All orbits are disjoint
and partition A.

No:212 December 22, 2020 150 / 168
Orbits
Orbits: Examples
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the orbits of τ =
3 8 6 7 4 1 5 2
and partition A.

No:212 December 22, 2020 150 / 168
Orbits
Orbits: Examples
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the orbits of τ =
3 8 6 7 4 1 5 2
and partition A.

No:212 December 22, 2020 150 / 168
Orbits
The order of Orbits

If a permutation σ is a product of disjoint cycles
of lengths l1 , l2 , . . . , ln then the order of σ is the
lcm of the lengths.
That is, if lcm(l1 , l2 , . . . , ln ) = k, then σ k = σ0 .
Example 3: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
1 Suppose that σ = (1 4)(2 5)(3 6 7). Therefore
o(σ) = lcm(2, 2, 3) = 6. We can check that σ 6 = σ0 .
2 If σ = (1 4 3 2), then o(σ) = lcm(4) = 4 and σ 4 = σ0 .

No:212 December 22, 2020 151 / 168
Orbits
The order of Orbits

lcm of the lengths.
Example 3: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

No:212 December 22, 2020 151 / 168
Orbits
The order of Orbits

lcm of the lengths.
Example 3: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

No:212 December 22, 2020 151 / 168
Orbits
The order of Orbits

lcm of the lengths.
Example 3: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

No:212 December 22, 2020 151 / 168
Orbits
The order of Orbits

lcm of the lengths.
Example 3: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

No:212 December 22, 2020 151 / 168
Transpositions
Transpositions
The simplest permutation is a cycle of length 2.
Such cycles are called transpositions.
Since
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = (a1 an )(a1 an−1 )(a1 an−2 ) . . . (a1 a3 )(a1
any cycle can be written as the product of

transpositions, leading to the following
proposition.
No:212 December 22, 2020 152 / 168
Transpositions
Transpositions
The simplest permutation is a cycle of length 2.
Such cycles are called transpositions.
Since
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = (a1 an )(a1 an−1 )(a1 an−2 ) . . . (a1 a3 )(a1
any cycle can be written as the product of

transpositions, leading to the following
proposition.
No:212 December 22, 2020 152 / 168
Transpositions
Proposition
Any permutation of a finite set containing at least two
elements can be written as the product of
transpositions.
Transpositions: Examples
1) In A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then σ = (23) is a
transposition and also (23)(4) = (23) is a
transposition.
2) (a1 a2 a3 a4 ) = (a1 a2 )(a1 a3 )(a1 a4 )
3) (1234) = (12)(13)(14) and (4) (234) = (23)(24).
No:212 December 22, 2020 153 / 168
Transpositions
Proposition
transpositions.
1) In A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then σ = (23) is a
transposition.
2) (a1 a2 a3 a4 ) = (a1 a2 )(a1 a3 )(a1 a4 )
3) (1234) = (12)(13)(14) and (4) (234) = (23)(24).
No:212 December 22, 2020 153 / 168
Transpositions
Proposition
transpositions.
1) In A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then σ = (23) is a
transposition.
2) (a1 a2 a3 a4 ) = (a1 a2 )(a1 a3 )(a1 a4 )
3) (1234) = (12)(13)(14) and (4) (234) = (23)(24).
No:212 December 22, 2020 153 / 168
Transpositions
Transpositions: Facts
1) If the permutation has an odd length then the
number of transpositions is even.
2) If the permutation has an even length, then the
number of transpositions is odd.
3) The identity permutation is taken as an even
permutation.
Example: (a) Consider σ1 = (123) = (12)(13)
which is even. (b) Consider
σ2 = (1234) = (12)(13)(14) is odd.
No:212 December 22, 2020 154 / 168
Transpositions
permutation.
σ2 = (1234) = (12)(13)(14) is odd.
No:212 December 22, 2020 154 / 168
Transpositions
permutation.
σ2 = (1234) = (12)(13)(14) is odd.
No:212 December 22, 2020 154 / 168
Transpositions
permutation.
σ2 = (1234) = (12)(13)(14) is odd.
No:212 December 22, 2020 154 / 168
Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
22, 2020 155 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
Let A be a finite set {1, 2, 3 . . . , n}. The set of all
permutations of A is the symmetric group on n
letters denoted by Sn .
That is |Sn | = o(Sn ) = n!.
Theorem
Let A be a finite set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. Sn is the
collection of all permutation on A. Sn is the group
under multiplication of permutations.
No:212 December 22, 2020 156 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
Let A be a finite set {1, 2, 3 . . . , n}. The set of all
permutations of A is the symmetric group on n
letters denoted by Sn .
That is |Sn | = o(Sn ) = n!.
Theorem
Let A be a finite set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. Sn is the
collection of all permutation on A. Sn is the group
under multiplication of permutations.
No:212 December 22, 2020 156 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Proof.
G1: Associativity property. If σ, τ, µ ∈ Sn , then
(στ )µ = σ(τ µ), is true.
G2: Existence of Identity element. The identity
element of Sn is the permutation which does not
move any element in A. That is
σ0 = (1)(2)(3) . . . (n) ∈ Sn .
G3: Existence of Inverse element: For each
σ ∈ Sn , then there exists σ −1 ∈ Sn such that
σσ −1 = σ −1 σ = σ0 ∈ Sn .
No:212 December 22, 2020 157 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Proof.
σ0 = (1)(2)(3) . . . (n) ∈ Sn .
σσ −1 = σ −1 σ = σ0 ∈ Sn .
No:212 December 22, 2020 157 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Proof.
σ0 = (1)(2)(3) . . . (n) ∈ Sn .
σσ −1 = σ −1 σ = σ0 ∈ Sn .
No:212 December 22, 2020 157 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
Example 4: Consider A = {1, 2, 3} and n = 3.
So S3 is the symmetric group of A and
|S3 | = o(S3 ) = 3! = 6.
So we have 6 different permutations on A.
That is
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
ρ0 = = (1)(2)(3), ρ1 = = (123)
1 2 3 2 3 1

No:212 December 22, 2020 158 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
|S3 | = o(S3 ) = 3! = 6.
That is
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
ρ0 = = (1)(2)(3), ρ1 = = (123)
1 2 3 2 3 1

No:212 December 22, 2020 158 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
|S3 | = o(S3 ) = 3! = 6.
That is
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
ρ0 = = (1)(2)(3), ρ1 = = (123)
1 2 3 2 3 1

No:212 December 22, 2020 158 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
Continuation.............
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
ρ2 = = (132), µ1 = = (23)
3 1 2 1 3 2
! !
1 2 3 1 2 3
µ2 = = (13), µ3 = = (12)
3 2 1 2 1 3

No:212 December 22, 2020 159 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Symmetric Groups
Below here is the Cayley table for the products of
the permutations above.
◦ ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 µ 1 µ2 µ3
ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 µ 1 µ2 µ3
ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0 µ 2 µ3 µ1
ρ2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1 µ 3 µ1 µ2
µ1 µ1 µ2 µ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
µ2 µ2 µ3 µ1 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1
µ3 µ3 µ1 µ2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0
No:212 December 22, 2020 160 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Remark
1 Any group G such that |G| ≤ 4 is abelian. But
also, if |G| = p(prime), then G is abelian. So if
|G| ≤ 5 is abelian.
2 S3 (|S3 | = 6) is a group of minimal order which is
non abelian.
3 If p is a prime such that |G| = p2 , then G is
abelian.

No:212 December 22, 2020 161 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Remark
non abelian.
abelian.

No:212 December 22, 2020 161 / 168
Symmetric Groups
Remark
non abelian.
abelian.

No:212 December 22, 2020 161 / 168
Contents
1 Groups
Abelian Groups
Order of a Group
Lattice Diagram
Cyclic Groups

Cosets
Permutation Groups
Cycle Notation
22, 2020 162 / 168
The Alternating Group
Definition
The subgroup of Sn consisting of even permutations of
n letters is the alternating group An on n letters.

Let An = {σ ∈ Sn |σ is even permutation}.
Suppose that
Bn = {σ ∈ Sn |σ is odd permutation}.
So An ∩ Bn = ∅ and An ∪ Bn = Sn . Hence An and
Bn partition Sn .
No:212 December 22, 2020 163 / 168
Definition
The subgroup of Sn consisting of even permutations of
n letters is the alternating group An on n letters.

Let An = {σ ∈ Sn |σ is even permutation}.
Suppose that
Bn = {σ ∈ Sn |σ is odd permutation}.
So An ∩ Bn = ∅ and An ∪ Bn = Sn . Hence An and
Bn partition Sn .
No:212 December 22, 2020 163 / 168
Example: Let n = 3 so that
A3 = {σ ∈ S3 |σ is even permutation}. Thus
S3 = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)} and

A3 = {e, (123), (132)}, B3 = {(12), (13), (23)}
Bn does not contain e, so it is not a subgroup of

Sn .
n!
The cardinality of An is |An | = 2.

No:212 December 22, 2020 164 / 168
S3 = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)} and

A3 = {e, (123), (132)}, B3 = {(12), (13), (23)}

Sn .
n!

No:212 December 22, 2020 164 / 168
S3 = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)} and

A3 = {e, (123), (132)}, B3 = {(12), (13), (23)}

Sn .
n!

No:212 December 22, 2020 164 / 168
Lemma
The product of
1 Two even permutation is even
2 Two odd permutation is even
3 An even and odd permutation is odd
4 An odd and even permutation is odd

No:212 December 22, 2020 165 / 168
Lemma
The product of

No:212 December 22, 2020 165 / 168
Lemma
The product of

No:212 December 22, 2020 165 / 168
Lemma
The product of

No:212 December 22, 2020 165 / 168

Example: Express !
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
σ= as a product of
3 7 8 9 4 5 2 1 6
disjoint cycles and then determine the order of σ.
Hence compute σ 1000 .

No:212 December 22, 2020 166 / 168
Solution: (a) σ = (138)(27)(4965)
(b) o(σ) = lcm(3, 2, 4) = 12 and (c) Required to
compute σ 1000 .
Since 1000 = 12 × 83 + 4, then
σ 1000 = σ 12×83+4 = (σ 12 )83 .σ 4 = σ 4 .
So
σ 4 = σ 2 .σ 2 = (183)(46)(59).(183)(46)(59) = (138)
No:212 December 22, 2020 167 / 168
Solution: (a) σ = (138)(27)(4965)
compute σ 1000 .
Since 1000 = 12 × 83 + 4, then
σ 1000 = σ 12×83+4 = (σ 12 )83 .σ 4 = σ 4 .
So
σ 4 = σ 2 .σ 2 = (183)(46)(59).(183)(46)(59) = (138)
No:212 December 22, 2020 167 / 168
Solution: (a) σ = (138)(27)(4965)
compute σ 1000 .
Since 1000 = 12 × 83 + 4, then
σ 1000 = σ 12×83+4 = (σ 12 )83 .σ 4 = σ 4 .
So
σ 4 = σ 2 .σ 2 = (183)(46)(59).(183)(46)(59) = (138)
No:212 December 22, 2020 167 / 168
Further Questions Please?

No:212 December 22, 2020 168 / 168

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Groups

December 22, 2020

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Hence hZ, +i is a group.

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Hence hZ, +i is a group.

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Hence hZ, +i is a group.

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Hence hZ, +i is a group.

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Hence hZ, +i is a group.

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Elementary Properties of Groups

Therefore a ? x = a ? y. Thus x = y (by left

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Elementary Properties of Groups

Therefore a ? x = a ? y. Thus x = y (by left

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Elementary Properties of Groups

Therefore a ? x = a ? y. Thus x = y (by left

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Elementary Properties of Groups

(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = a ? (b ? b−1 ) ? a−1

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Elementary Properties of Groups

(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = a ? (b ? b−1 ) ? a−1

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Elementary Properties of Groups

(a ? b) ? (b−1 ? a−1 ) = a ? (b ? b−1 ) ? a−1

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Definition (Abelian Group)

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

=⇒a−1 ? (a ? a) = a−1 ? e = a−1

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Abelian Group: Examples

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Abelian Group: Examples

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

Abelian Group: Examples

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

MBIGILI L.J; Haille Sellassie Building, OfficeGroups

It is important to realize that the last statement can

It is important to realize that the last statement can

It is important to realize that the last statement can