Power Quality Presentation Singam

Introduction to Power Quality
Prepared by
S.Sridhar
Asst Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engg.,
Balaji Institute of Technology and Science,

Warangal, Narsampet
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY

Unit.1 Power Quality-syllabus
• Power Quality phenomenon
• Terms and definitions
• Various Power events in power quality
• causes for reduction in power quality.
04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 2

POWER QUALITY
❖Power quality refers to maintaining
a sinusoidal waveform of bus voltages
at rated voltage and frequency.
❖The waveform of electric power at

generation stage is purely sinusoidal
and free from any distortion.

❖Many devices that distort the
waveform.
❖These distortions may propagate

all over the electrical network.

Modern Utility System

Modern Utility System
1. Deregulation of electricity market
2. Customer demand
3. Distributed generations
• Wind Energy
• Solar Energy
• Co-generation plants

PQ Problems

Other linear loads, such as electrical motors driving fans,
water pumps, oil pumps, cranes, elevators, etc., not
supplied through power conversion devices like variable
frequency drives or any other form or
rectification/inversion of current will incorporate magnetic
core losses that depend
04/06/2012
on iron and copper physical
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 8
characteristics.
❖Classification of power quality areas
may be made according to the source
of the problem such as,
❖Converters
❖Magnetic circuit non linearity
❖Arc furnace or by the wave
shape of the signal such as
harmonics,
❖ Flicker or by the frequency
spectrum (radio frequency
interference).
❖The wave shape phenomena
associated with power quality may
be characterized into synchronous
and non- synchronous phenomena.
❖Synchronous phenomena refer

to those in synchronism with A.C
waveform at power frequency.
CAUSES OF POWER QUALITY
DETERIORATION
1. Natural causes:
• Faults or lighting strikes on

transmission lines or distribution
feeders
• Falling of trees or branches on
distribution feeders during
stormy conditions, equipment
failure etc.
2. Due to load or transmission line /
feeder operation:
• Transformer energisation
• Capacitor or feeder switching
• Power electronic loads (UPS, ASD,
converters etc.)
• Arc furnaces and induction heating
systems
• Switching on or off of large loads
etc.
FOUR MAJOR REASONS FOR THE
INCREASED CONCERN:
1. Newer-generation load equipment

2. Increasing harmonic levels on power
systems
3. End users have an increased awareness of
power quality issues.
4. Many things are now interconnected in a
network. Integrated processes mean that
the failure of any component has
much more important
04/06/2012
consequences.
Increased concern about the quality of
electric power is the continued push for
increasing productivity for all utility
customers.
❖Utility customers - always want to
increase productivity
❖ Manufacturers - want faster,
more productive, more efficient
machinery
❖ Utilities - encourage this
effort because it helps their customers
become more profita ble
POWER QUALITY DEFINITION
Whole of power engineering, in one
way or other is related to power
quality.
There is no universal agreement for

the definition of power quality.
❖A Utility may define power quality
as reliability and show statistics
demonstrating that its system is
99. 98 percent relia ble.
POWER QUALITY DEFINITION
A manufacturer of load
equipment may define power
quality as those characteristics of
the power supply that enable the
equipment to work properly. These
characteristics can be very
different for different criteria.
❖Power quality is ultimately a
consumer-driven issue, we define
power quality as,
❖Any power problem manifested in

voltage, current, or frequency
deviations that result in failure or
misoperation of customer
equipment.
Power Quality = Voltage Quality
The power supply system can only

control the quality of the voltage;
it has no control over the currents
that particular loads might draw.
Therefore, the standards in the

power quality area are devoted to
maintaining the supply voltage
within certain limits.
Generators may provide a near-
perfect sine wave voltage, the
current passing through the
impedance of the system can cause a
variety of disturbances to the
voltage. For example,
1. Current resulting from a short

circuit causes the voltage to sag or
disappear completely.
2. Currents from lightning strokes
passing through the power system cause
high-impulse voltages that frequently
flash over insulation and lead to other
phenomena, such as short circuits.
3. Distorted currents from harmonic-

producing loads also distort the voltage
as they pass through the system
impedance. Thus a distorted voltage is
presented to other end users.
POWER QUALITY PROBLEM EVALUATIONS
Voltage VoltageSags/ Harmonic

IDENTIFY PROBLEM Regulation/ Flicker Transients
CATEGORY Interruptoins Distortion
f
Unbalance
Causes
PROBLEM Measuremen/ts
CHARACTERIZATION Characteristi
f
cs DataCollection
- EquipmentImpacts
IDENTIFY RANGE Utility Utility End-Use End-Use Equipment

OF SOLUTIONS Transmission Distribution Customer Customer Design/
f
System System Interface System s
Speciifcation
EVALUATE
SOLUTIONS Modeling/
f
EvaluateTechnical Analysis
Alternatives
Procedures
OPTIMUM
SOLUTION EvaluateEconomicsof PossibleSoultions
Figure 1.2 Basic steps involved in a power quality evaluation.

SOURCES OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
1 . Load equipment and components
Converters, Pulse modulated loads,
Machine drives, Arc furnaces, Computers,
UPS, Television sets
Fluorescent and other gas discharge
lighting
Certain components which employ magnetic
circuits
2. Subsystems of the transmission and
distribution system
Gr0o4/u06/20nd12ing systemsUN,IT.1rPOeWsERoQnUALIn
a TYt systems 27
For steady- state phenomena,
the following attributes can be
used:
■ Amplitude
■ Frequency
■ Spectrum
■ Modulation
■ Source impedance
■ Notch depth
04/06/2012 ■ Notch area
For non-steady-state phenomena,
other attributes may be required:
■ Rate of rise
■ Amplitude
■ Duration
■ Spectrum
■ Frequency
■ Rate of occurrence
■ Energy potential
■
04/06/2012 Source impeda nce
Transients can be classified into
two categories,
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory

Impulsive transient
❖It is a sudden, non–power frequency
change in the steady-state condition of
voltage, current, or both.
❖It is unidirectional in polarity

(primarily either positive or negative).
❖Impulsive transients are normally

characterized by their rise and decay
times, which can also be revealed by
their spectral content.
For example,
❖1 . 2 *50-µs 2000-volt (V) impulsive

transient nominally rises from zero to
its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2µs and
then decays to half its peak value in
50µs .
❖The most common cause of impulsive

transients is lightning.
For example,
❖1 . 2 *50-µs 2000-volt (V) impulsive

transient nominally rises from zero to
its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2µs and
then decays to half its peak value in
50µs .
❖The most common cause of impulsive

transients is lightning.
Oscillatory Transient
❖It is a sudden, non–power frequency

change in the steady-state condition of
voltage, current, or both.
❖It includes both positive and negative

polarity values.
❖ It consists of a voltage or current

whose instantaneous value changes
pola rity rapidly.
❖It is described by its spectral
content (predominate frequency),
duration, and magnitude.
❖The spectral content subclasses

defined in Table 2.2 are
❖ High
❖ Medium
❖ Low frequency
❖HF: Primary Freq component >
500khz mesd in MicroSec duration -
Local sys response to Imp Tr
❖Med Freq: Primary Freq

component 5-500khz mesd in MicroSec
duration - Back-to-back capacitor
energization
❖ Low Freq: Primary Freq component

<5khz mesd in MicroSec duration 0. 3
to 50 ms - Cap Bank energization
(T&D)
Long-Duration Voltage Variations
❖Long-duration variations encompass

root-mean-square (rms) deviations at
power frequencies for longer than 1
min.
❖ It can be either overvoltages or

undervoltages.

❖ Overvoltages and undervoltages
generally are not the result of system
faults, but are caused by load
variations on the system and system
switching operations.
❖Long- duration variations are

typically displayed as plots of rms
voltage versus time.
❖ OVERVOLTAGE
❖ Increase in the rms ac voltage greater than
1 1 0 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.
CAUSES
1.load switching (e. g. , switchingoff a large
load or energizing a capacitor bank)
2. Incorrect tap settings on transformers
can also result in system overvoltages.
❖EFFECT
❖The overvoltages result because either the
system is too weak for the desired voltage
re0g4/0u6/l2a01t2 ion or voltag e controls are inadequate. 45
❖ UNDERVOLTAGE
❖ Decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than
90 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.
❖Due to switching events that are the opposite

of the events that cause overvoltages.
❖ CAUSES
1 . A load switching on or a capacitor bank
switching off can cause an under voltage
until voltage regulation equipment on
the system can bring the voltage back
to within tolerances.
2. OverloadedUNIT.1 POWER
circuits can result 46 in
undervoltages
04/06/2012 QUALITY
SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION
❖When the supply voltage has been zero for

a period of time in excess of 1 min, the
long-duration voltage variation is considered
a sustained interruption.
❖This term has been defined to be more

specific regarding the absence of voltage
for long periods.

SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS
This category encompasses the IEC category of voltage

dips and short interruptions.
Each type of variation can be designated as,
1 . Instantaneous,
2.Momentary,
3.Temporary, depending on its duration as defined in Table 2.2.
CAUSES
1.Fault conditions
2. The energization of large loads which require high
starting currents
3.Intermittent loose connections in power wiring.
Depending on the fault location and the system
conditions, the fault can cause either temporary voltage
dr0o4p/06/20s (1s2ags), voltage UrNisITe.1sPOW(sEwReQUllAsLI)T,Y or
a complete loss48 of voltage
(interruptions).
2 . 5 . 1 INTERRUPTION
An interruption occurs when the supply

voltage or load current decreases to less
than 0. 1 pu for a period of time not
exceeding 1 min.
CAUSES
1.Power system faults
2.Equipment failures
3. Control maUNlIfT.1uPnOWcEtR iQoUAnLIsTY

04/06/2012 49
2 . 5 . 1 INTERRUPTION
❖The interruptions are measured by their

duration since the voltage magnitude is
always less than 10 percent of nominal.
❖The duration of an interruption due to a

fault on the utility system is determined
by the operating time of utility protective
devices.
❖Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit

the interruption caused by a nonpermanent
fault to less than 30 cycles.
❖ Delayed reclosing of the protective
device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.
❖ The duration of an interruption due to

equipment malfunctions or loose connections
can be irregular.
❖ Figure shows such a momentary

interruption during which voltage on one
phase sags to about 20 percent for about
3 cycles and then drops to zero for about
1 . 8 s until the recloser closes back in.

❖ Delayed reclosing of the protective
device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.
❖The duration of an interruption due to

equipment malfunctions or loose connections
can be irregular.
❖Figure shows such a momentary

interruption during which voltage on one
phase sags to about 20 percent for about
3 cycles and then drops to zero for about
1 . 8 s until the recloser closes back in.
Sags (dips)
A sag is a decrease to between 0. 1 and

0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the
power frequency for durations from 0.5
cycle to 1 min.
Causes of Voltage sags
–Associated with system faults

–Energization of heavy loads
–Starting of large motors.
Figure shows typical voltage sag that can be
associated with a single- line-to-ground
(SLG) fault on another feeder from the
same substation.

•Figure illustrates the effect of a large motor
starting. An induction motor will draw 6 to 10
times its full load current during start-up.
•In this case, the voltage sags immediately to

80 percent and then gradually returns to
normal in about 3 s.
• Note the difference in time frame between
th0i4/s06/2a01n2 d sags due UtNITo.1 PuOWtEilRiQtUyALITsYystem faults. 56
•Sag durations are subdivided here into
three categories such as,
•Instantaneous (0.5-30 Cycles)
• Momentary (30 Cycles-3sec)
• Temporary (3sec – 1 min)
Swells
•A swell is defined as an increase to
between 1 . 1 and 1 . 8 pu in rms voltage or
current at the power frequency for
durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
•Swells are characterized by their
m0a4/g
06/n
20i
1t2 ude (rms vUa l.u1 PeO)WERaQnUAdLITYduration.
NIT 57
Causes of Voltage Swell
-Associated with system faults

–Energization of large Capacitor bank
–Switching off large load
–The severity of a voltage swell during a

fault condition is a function of
•Fault location
•System impedance
•Grounding
Voltage Imbalance (voltage unbalance)
•Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as the ratio of

the negative or zero sequence component to the positive
sequence component.
•The negative or zero sequence voltages in a power

system generally result from unbalanced loads causing
negative or zero sequence currents to flow.
Source
•Single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit (<2%)

•Result of blown fuses in one phase of a three- phase
capacitor bank
• Severe voltage unbalance (>5%) can result from single-
ph0a4/s06in/20g12conditions UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 60
Waveform Distortion
It is defined as a steady- state deviation
from an ideal sine wave of power frequency
principally characterized by the spectral
content of the deviation.
5 types of waveform distortion
–DC offset
–Harmonics
–Inter harmonics
–Notching
–Noise
DC offset
The presence of a dc voltage or current in
an ac power system is termed dc offset.
HARMONICS
• Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or
currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the frequency at which the
supply system is designed to operate.
•IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides

guidelines for harmonic current and voltage
distortion levels on distribution and
tra nsmission circuits.
•Periodically distorted waveforms can be
decomposed into a sum of the fundamental
frequency and the harmonics.
•Harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear

characteristics of devices and loads on the
power system.
•Harmonic distortion levels are described by

the complete harmonic spectrum with
magnitudes and phase angles of each individual
ha0r4/m onic componenUNIT
06/2012
t. .1 POWER QUALITY 64
•Total harmonic distortion (THD), as a
measure of the effective value of harmonic
distortion.
•THD - used to characterize both current

and voltage waves. However THD refers
distortion in voltage wave
•Figure illustrates the waveform and

harmonic spectrum for a typical
adjustable-speed-drive(ASD) input current.
•Total Harmonic distortion (THD)
•IEEE 519 sets limits on total harmonic
distortion (THD) for the utility side of the
meter
•Utility is responsible for the voltage

distortion at the point of common coupling
(PCC) between the utility and the end user.
•Total harmonic distortion is a way to

evaluate the voltage distortion effects of
injecting harmonic currents into the utility’s
system.
Total Harmonic distortion (THD) =
•(RMS of the harmonic content / RMS value
of the fundamental) * 100
•Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a term
used to describe the net deviation of a
nonlinear waveform from ideal sine
waveform characteristics.

Example: Find the total harmonic distortion of
a voltage waveform with the following harmonic
frequency make up:
Fundamental = V 1 = 1 1 4 V
3rd harmonic = V3 = 4 V
5th harmonic = V5 = 2 V
7th harmonic = V7 = 1 . 5 V
9th harmonic = V9 = 1 V
TH D6/201=2 (4. 82/1 1 4U)NIT×.1 P1OW0ER0QU=AL4

04/0 ITY. 23% 69
Total Demand Distortion (TDD)
•IEEE 51 9 sets limits total demand distortion
(TDD) for the end-user side of the meter.
•(RMS of the harmonic current / RMS value

of MD of Load Current ) * 100
•Expressed as a percent of rated load

current.
•TDD deals with evaluating the current

distortions caused by harmonic currents in the
en04d/0-6/2u01s2 er facilitiesUN. IT.1 POWER QUALITY 70
INTERHARMONICS
Voltages or currents having frequency
components that are non-integer multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Sources of Interharmonic Waveform
Distortion
•Static frequency converters
•Cycloconverters
•Induction furnaces
•Arcing devices

NOTCH
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance
caused by the normal operation of power
electronic devices when current is
commutated from one phase to another

NOISE
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical
signals with broadband spectral content
lower than 200 kHz superimposed upon the
power system voltage or current in phase
conductors, or found on neutral conductors
or signal lines.
SOURCES
Power electronic devices, Control circuits,
Arcing equipment, Loads with solid-state
rectifiers, and Switching power supplies.
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION(VOLTAGE FLICKER)
• Voltage fluctuations are systematic

variations of the voltage envelope or a series of
random voltage changes, the magnitude of
which does not normally exceed the voltage
ranges specified by ANSI C84.1 of 0.9 to
1 . 1 pu.
•SOURCE
•Loads that can exhibit continuous, rapid
variations in the load current magnitude can
cause voltage variations that are often
referred to as flicker.
Power Frequency Variations
Power frequency variations are defined as
the deviation of the power system
fundamental frequency from it specified
nominal value.

CBEMA Curve
•A set of curves representing the

withstanding capabilities of computers in
terms of the magnitude and duration of the
voltage disturbance.
•Developed by the Computer Business

Equipment Manufacturers Association
(CBEMA)

•The axes represent magnitude and
duration of the event.
•Points below the envelope are presumed to

cause the load to drop out due to lack of
energy.
•Points above the envelope are presumed to

cause other malfunctions such as insulation
failure, over voltage trip, and over
excitation.
ITI Curve
•A set of curves published by the
Information Technology Industry Council
(ITIC) representing the withstand
capabilities of computers connected to
1 20- V power systems in terms of the
magnitude and duration of the voltage
disturbance.
• The ITI curve replaces the curves

originally developed by the ITI’s
predecessor
04/06/2012
organization CBEMA.
SOURCES OF PQ PROBLEMS
•Major sources of power quality problems can be
divided into two categories, depending on the
location of the source in relationship to the
power meter.
1. Utility side of the meter includes
Switching operations
Power system faults
Lightning.
2.Other category is on the end-user side of the
meter and includes
Non-linear loads
Poor grounding
Electromagnetic interference
Static electricity
Utility side of the meter
•Sources of PQ problems on utility side of the
meter involve some type of activity on the utility’s
electrical power system.
•They can be either man-made or natural events.
They all involve some type of interruption of the
current or voltage. The most common manmade
causes are switching operations.
•Utilities switch equipment on and off by the use of
breakers, disconnect switches, or reclosers.
•Usually some type of fault on the power system
causes a breaker to trip.
•Utilities trip breakers to perform routine
ma04i/0n6/t20e12nance. TheyUNITa.1lPsOoWERtQrUiApLITY breakers to ins85ert
capacitors to improve the power factor.
Lightning striking a power line or substation
equipment, a tree touching a power line, a car
hitting a power pole, or even an animal touching
an energized line may cause the fault.
The tripping of the breaker and the initiating
fault can cause the voltage to sag or swell,
depending on when in the periodic wave the tripping
occurs.
Utilities set breakers and reclosers to reclose on
the fault to determine if the fault has cleared.
If the fault has not cleared, the breaker or
recloser trips again and stays open.
Figu re 2.20 shows a ut il it y b re aker.

0 4/ 06 /2 012 U NIT .1 PO W ER QU AL IT Y 86
Figure shows a utility breaker & Utility PF
Improvement Capacitor

•Utility activity that can cause oscillatory
transients is the switching of power factor
improvement capacitors. utilities use power factor
improvement capacitors to improve the power
factor by adding capacitive reactance to the
power system. This causes the current and
voltage to be in phase and thus reduces losses in
the power system.
•When utilities insert capacitors in the power
system, they momentarily cause an increase in
the voltage and cause transients.
•Capacitors, if tuned to harmonics on the power
system, can also amplify the harmonics. This is
especially true if the utility and end user both
sw0i4t/0c6/h2012their capacitUoNIrT.s1POoWnERaQUtALtITYhesame time. 88
End-user side of the meter
•Sources of PQ problems on the end- user side of the
meter usually involve a disruption of the sinusoidal voltage
and current delivered to the end user by the utility.
•These disruptions can damage or cause misoperation of
sensitive electronic equipment in not only the end- user’s
facilities but also in another end- user’s facilities that is
electrically connected.
The following is a list of power quality problems caused by

end users:
•Non- linear inrush current from the start- up of large
motors
•Static electricity
•Power factor improvement capacitors amplifying harmonics

•Po0o4/r06/2w01i2ring and groundUiNnITg.1PtOeWcEhRnQiUqAuLe
I TYs 89
Nonlinear loads
•There are today many types of nonlinear loads.
All these devices change a smooth sinusoidal wave
into irregular distorted wave shapes. The
distorted wave shapes produce harmonics. They
include all types of electronic equipment that use
•SMPS, ASDs
•Rectifiers, Inverters
•Arc welders and Arc furnaces
•Electronic and magnetic ballast in fluorescent
lighting
•Medical equipment like MRI (magnetic radiation
imaging) and x-ray machines.
•Other devices that convert ac to dc and generate
harmonics include battery chargers, UPS, electron
be0a4/m06/20f12urnaces, andUNiITn.1dPuOWcEtRiQoUnALIfTYurnaces. 90
•Most electronic devices use switched-mode power
supplies that produce harmonics.
•Manufacturers of electronic equipment have found

that they can eliminate a filter and eliminate the
power supply transformer (shown in Figure 2.22)
by the use of a switched-mode power supply (shown
in Figure 2.23).
What is a switched-mode power supply? How does

it produce harmonics?
The switched-mode process converts ac to dc using

a rectifier bridge, converts dc back to ac at a high
frequency using a switcher, steps the ac voltage
down to 5 V using a small
04/06/2012
transformer,
and finally converts the ac to dc using another
rectifier. Electronic equipment requires 5 V dc
to operate.
Go inside a switched mode power supply and

you’ll find a switching circuit that takes stored
energy from a capacitor in short pulses and
delivers voltage at a frequency of 20 to 1 00
kHz to a transformer in the form of a square
wave.
The high-frequency switching requires a small

and light transformer. However, the pulsed
square wave distorts the sine wave and
produces harmonics.
•Adjustable-speed drives save energy by adjusting the
speed of the motor to fit the load.
•However, ASDs cause harmonics by varying the

fundamental frequency in order to vary the speed of
the drive.
•Arc furnaces use extreme heat (3000°F) to melt

metal. The furnace uses an electrical arc striking from
a high-voltage electrode to the grounded metal to
create this extreme heat.
•The arc is extinguished every half-cycle. The short

circuit to ground causes the voltage to dip each time the
arc strikes.
•This causes the lights to flicker at a frequency

typically
04/06/2012
less than 60UNIT.1
HzPOWER
that is irritating to humans.
QUALITY 94
Arc furnaces also generate harmonic currents.
Figure 2.24 illustrates the configuration of a
one-electrode dc electric arc furnace.

•Most nonlinear loads not only generate harmonics
but cause low power factor. They cause low power
factor by shifting the phase angle between the
voltage and current.
Power factor
Power factor is a way to measure the amount of
reactive power required to supply an electrical system
and an end-user’s facility.
Reactive power represents wasted electrical energy,
because it does no useful work.
Inductive loads require reactive power and constitute a

major portion of the power consumed in industrial
plants. Motors, transformers, fluorescent lights, arc
we0l4d/0e6/2r0s12, and inducUtNiITo.1nPOWhEReQaUtALiInTYg furnaces all 96use
reactive power.
•Power factor is also a way of measuring the phase
difference between voltage and current.
•Just as a rotating alternating current and voltage can be

represented by a sine wave, the phase difference between
voltage and current can be represented by the cosine of the
phase shift angle.
•Nonlinear loads often shift the phase angle between the

load current and voltage, require reactive power to serve
them, and cause low power factor.
•Linear motor loads require reactive power to turn the
rotating magnetic field in the motor and cause low power
factor.
•Nonlinear and linear loads that cause low power factor
include induction motors of all types, power electronic power
converters, arc welding machines, electric arc and
ind0u4/c06t/2io 2 furnaces, andUNIfT.l1uPoOrWeEsRcQeUAnLtITYand other types of97arc
01n
lighting.
Active power is the power to do useful work, such
as turning a motor or running a pump, and is
measured in kilowatts (kW).
Electrical equipment needs active power to convert

electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Reactive power is the power required to provide a

magnetic field to ferromagnetic equipment, like
motors and transformers, and does no useful work.
Reactive power is measured in kilovolt-amperes–

reactive (kVAR)s.
Apparent power or demand power is the total power
needed to serve a load. It is measured in
kilovoltamperes (kVA) and is the vector sum of
reactive and active power:
•Reactive power takes up capacity on the utility’s

and end-user’s electrical distribution systems.
•Reactive power also increases transmission and

distribution losses.
Reactive power is frequently described as
analogous to the foam in a beer mug.
It comes with the beer and takes up capacity in

the mug but does not quench the beer drinker’s
thirst.
As can be seen from the power triangle in Figure

2.26, power factor measures the reactive
efficiency of a power system.
At maximum efficiency the reactive power is

zero, and the power factor is unity.
•As a general rule, an electrical system using
motors exhibits a low power factor.
•Low power factors result in overall low power

system efficiency, including increased conductor
and transformer losses and low voltage. Low power
factor also reduces line and transformer capacity.
•Utilities must supply both the active and reactive

power and compensate for these losses. For this
reason, most utilities charge their customers a
penalty for low power factor.
•Many utilities increase the demand charge for

every percent the power factor drops below a set
val0u4e/06,/201s2ay 95 percenUNtIT..1 POWER QUALITY 102
•However, more and more utilities are charging for
kVAR-hours just like they charge for kW- hours.
These charges provide utility customers an
incentive to increase their power factor by the use
of power factor improvement capacitors.
•Otherwise, the utility has to install power factor

improvement capacitors on its own power system.
But how do capacitors improve power factor?
•Improving power factor can be accomplished

through the addition of shunt capacitors.
•However, more and more utilities are charging for
kVAR-hours just like they charge for kW- hours.
These charges provide utility customers an
incentive to increase their power factor by the use
of power factor improvement capacitors.
•Otherwise, the utility has to install power factor

improvement capacitors on its own power system.
But how do capacitors improve power factor?
•Improving power factor can be accomplished

through the addition of shunt capacitors.
Power factor improvement capacitors
•Power factor improvement capacitors improve the

power factor by providing the reactive power
needed by the load.
•They also reduce the phase shift difference

between voltage and current.
•Like a battery, they store electrical energy.

Unlike a battery, they store energy on thin metal
foil plates separated by a sheet of polymer
material.
•They release the energy every half-cycle of

vol0t4/a06g/20e12. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 106
They cause the current to lead the voltage by 90°.

This subtracts from the phase angle shift of
induction loads that cause the current to lag the
voltage by 90°.
This is how capacitors reduce the phase shift

between current and voltage and provide the
magnetization that motors and transformers need
to operate.
Therefore, capacitors are an inexpensive way to

provide reactive power at the load and increase
pow04/e06r/201f2actor. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 107
They cause the current to lead the voltage by 90°.

This subtracts from the phase angle shift of
induction loads that cause the current to lag the
voltage by 90°.
This is how capacitors reduce the phase shift

between current and voltage and provide the
magnetization that motors and transformers need
to operate.
Therefore, capacitors are an inexpensive way to

provide reactive power at the load and increase
pow04/e06r/201f2actor. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 108
•They supply the reactive, magnetized power
required by electric loads, especially industrial
loads that use inductive motors.
•Motors with their inductive, magnetizing,

reactive power cause current to “lag” behind
voltage.
•Capacitors create “leading” current. Capacitors

act in opposition to inductive loads, thereby
minimizing the reactive power required.
•When carefully controlled, the capacitor lead can

match the motor lag, eliminate the need for
reactive power, and increase the power factor
tow04/a06r/2d012unity. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 109
•Both fixed and dynamic shunt capacitors applied to
inductive loads increase the power factor.
•Fixed capacitors are switched on manually and apply

a constant capacitance; dynamic capacitors can be
switched on automatically and adjust their
capacitance according to the inductive load.
•Both types have advantages and disadvantages, but

both types provide similar benefits. In raising the
power factor, shunt capacitors release energy to the
system, raise system voltage, reduce system losses
and, ultimately, reduce power costs.
•However, capacitors have a downside. They can

am0p4/0l6i/f20y12harmonics thUrNIoTu g h h a r m onic resonance.
. 1P O WER Q U AL ITY 110
Harmonic resonance
•Electrical harmonic resonance occurs when the

inductive reactance of a power system equals the
capacitive reactance of a power system. This is a
good thing at the fundamental frequency of 60 Hz
and results in the current and voltage being in
phase and unity power factor.
•However, it is not so good when it occurs at a

harmonic frequency. If resonance occurs at a
harmonic frequency, the harmonic current reaches
a maximum value and causes overheating of
transformers, capacitors, and motors; tripping
•of04/0r6/e20l1a2 ys; and incoUrNrITe.1 cPOtWEmR QeUtALeITrY readings. 111
How does resonance occur at a harmonic
frequency?
The amount of inductive and capacitive reactance

are dependent on the frequency of the current and
voltage. Thus, resonance can occur at various
harmonic frequencies.
The formulas for inductive and capacitive

reactance illustrate this relationship:
XL =2*Π*f*L
XC =1/(2* Π *f*C)
•Capacitors can cause two types of resonance:
parallel and series resonance.
•Since most power factor improvement capacitors are

in parallel with the inductance of the power system, as
shown in the schematic of a parallel resonant circuit
(Figure 2.28), parallel resonance
•occurs most often.
•When capacitive and inductive reactance connect in

parallel in the power system, the magnitude of the
total reactance or impedance becomes,

Harmonic resonance occurs when XL XC and XT
becomes a pure resistance (R) and from Ohm’s law
(I V/XT) the harmonic current I reaches a
maximum.

How do you prevent resonance?
We prevent resonance by sizing and locating
capacitors to avoid the harmonic resonance
frequency or by using filters.
A filter is simply an inductor (reactor) in series with
a capacitor, as shown in Figure 2.29.
Filters detune the capacitor away from the resonant
frequency. Filters usually cost twice as much as
capacitors. Filters also remove the effect
of 04/06/2012
distortion powerUNIT.1
factor and increase the 115
POWER QUALITY
true
power factor.
True power factor
•True power factor is the power factor caused by

harmonics and the fundamental, while the
standard or displacement power factor described
previously is caused by the fundamental power at
60 Hz.
•It is not measured by standard VAR or power

factor meters.

True power factor
•As can be seen from the diagram, the true kVA is
larger than the displacement kVA because of the
effect of the harmonic distortion.
•Even though there is no penalty associated with true
power factor, it still has a detrimental effect on the
power system.
•Low true power factor means increased losses and
reduced system capacity. True power factor is
increased not by the addition of capacitors but by the
elimination of harmonics through the use of filters.
•The addition of capacitors can cause the true power
factor to be worse by magnifying the harmonic
distortion.
Poor Wiring and Grounding
An EPRI survey found poor wiring and grounding in the

end-user’s facilities cause 80 percent of all power
quality problems.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) determines the

design of the wiring and grounding. However, the NEC,
as described in Section 90-1(b), is intended to protect
people from fire and electrocution, not to protect
sensitive electronic equipment from damage.
As a consequence there is a great need to establish

guidelines for wiring and grounding that not only
protects the public but prevents power quality
pro04b/0l6e/20m12s. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 120
Symptoms of Poor Wiring and Grounding includes
•Computers that lose data or stop operating
•Telephone systems that lose calls or are noisy
•Industrial processes that suddenly stop
•Breaker boxes that get very hot
•Neutral leads that catch fire and even power

conditioning equipment, like transient voltage surge
suppressors (TVSSs), that catch fire.

• Guidelines will help to identify and prevent
problems caused by inadequate wiring and
grounding.
• Guidelines can be divided into three categories:
(1) Wiring
(2) Grounding
(3) Lightning protection

• Intermixing loads can cause power quality
problems in any facility.
• When nonsensitive and sensitive loads are

connected to the same circuit, they often
interact with one another.
• For example, when a large motor on an elevator or

an air conditioner starts, it causes a large inrush
current that can cause a voltage sag.
• The voltage sag inside a facility has the same

effect that a voltage sag has outside of the
facility. It causes lights to dim and computer
e0q4/0u6i/2p01m2 ent to malfUuNnITc.1tPOioWnER.QUALITY 123
• Solution is to not connect nonsensitive loads that
will interact with sensitive loads.
• Wiring sensitive loads to separate circuits

connected to the main electrical service panel
separates sensitive loads from nonsensitive loads.
Poor grounding can cause voltage potential

differences, excessive ground loops, and
interference with sensitive electronic equipment.
• Proper grounding not only protects people from

shock but provides a reference point and a path
f0o4/0r6/2012large curreUnNtITs.1POWcERaQuUsALeITdY by faults, like

124
switching surges and lightning strokes.

• Solution is to not connect nonsensitive loads that
will interact with sensitive loads.
• Wiring sensitive loads to separate circuits

connected to the main electrical service panel
separates sensitive loads from nonsensitive loads.
Poor grounding can cause voltage potential

differences, excessive ground loops, and
interference with sensitive electronic equipment.
• Proper grounding not only protects people from

shock but provides a reference point and a path
f0o4/0r6/2012large curreUnNtITs.1POWcERaQuUsALeITdY by faults, like

125
switching surges and lightning strokes.

• Poor grounding can result in lightning destroying
equipment in a home, office, or factory.
• Lightning surges will take the path of least

resistance.
• Wiring and grounding should be designed to divert

lightning current away from sensitive equipment to
ground through lightning protection devices, such
as lightning arresters and surge protectors as
shown in Figure

Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
• Another source of power quality problems is
electromagnetic interference (EMI). Some
devices, like a large motor during start- up,
emit a magnetic field that intersects with an
adjacent sensitive device, like a computer or
telephone.
• Michael Faraday’s transformer law explains this
phenomenon.
• Faraday’s transformer law says that when an
alternating magnetic field cuts across an
adjacent conductor, it will induce an alternating
current and voltage in that conductor.
• Induced current and voltage can damage
sensitive electronic equipment or cause it 128to
m a l f u nction.
04/ 06 /2 01 2
•Sensitive equipment in hospitals often
experiences EMI problems.
•For example, in one open-heart-surgery training

center, electromagnetic fields from an adjacent
electrical equipment room were causing heart
monitors to read incorrectly.
•Moving cables emitting the electromagnetic fields

a safe distance from the cables feeding the heart
monitors solved this problem.
Static electricity
•Another cause of PQ problems is static

electricity.
• Static electricity occurs when the rubbing of one
object against another causes a voltage buildup.
• For example, you can build up an electric charge on

your body when you rub your shoes on a carpet.
• Discharge of static electricity can occur when you

then touch a grounded object, like another person or
a metal object.
• Although static electricity PQ problems are

infrequent, they are often overlooked.
• Static electricity can create voltages of 3000 V or

more and damage sensitive electronic equipment.
• We can minimize static electricity problems by
– Increasing the humidity
– Changing the carpet
– Clothing
– Furniture to non static types
– Grounding the person working on a piece of

equipment to the equipment with a wrist
strap.
Effects of Power Quality Problems
• The effects of power quality problems are many

and varied. Often a utility customer calls the
utility in an attempt to determine the cause of a
power quality problem.
• However, most power quality problems manifest

themselves as some effect on an end-user’s
electrical equipment.
• These symptoms include motors overheating,

adjustable speed drives tripping off, computers
shutting down, flickering lights, and stopped
production.
• Effects of PQ problems can be best be

understood by looking at the various types of
loads that are affected by power quality
problems, including computers, consumer
products, lighting, meters, ferromagnetic
equipment, telephones, manufacturing
processes, and capacitors.
• Computers and computer-controlled equipment-

freeze up and lose data. Most power quality
problems on computers are caused by voltage
variations.
• Consumer products include digital clocks,

microwave ovens, television sets, video cassette
recorders, and stereo equipment - Affected by
voltage sags and outages causing the electronic
timer to shut down. This problem manifests
itself by the blinking clock.
Lighting includes incandescent, high-intensity

discharge, and fluorescent lights -
Incandescent lights often dim during a voltage
sag. All lighting will flicker when arc furnaces
a04n/0d6/201a2rc welders cUaNIuTs. 1PeOWtEhRQeUAvLIToYltageto fluctuat13e4.
Meters - give erroneous readings in the presence

of harmonics.
Ferromagnetic equipment include transformers and

motors -overheat and lose life when harmonic
currents increase the loading on them.
Telephones - experience noise induced by adjacent

electrical equipment.
Adjustable-speed drives not only cause harmonics

but are affected by them- frequent shutdown of
an ASDs is usually an indication of excessive
h04a/06r/2m012onics. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 135
Manufacturing processes - experience frequent

shutdowns due to voltage sags.
Capacitors - can amplify as well as draw harmonic

currents to themselves. This often causes the
capacitors to fail or be tripped off- line.

Need for PQ Standards
• PQ industry recognizes that PQ standards are

critical to the viability of the industry.
• Stakeholders in the PQ industry have developed

several PQ standards in recent years.
• Increased interest in power quality has resulted in

the need to develop corresponding standards.
• Increased use of sensitive electronic equipment,

increased application of nonlinear devices to
improve energy efficiency, the advent of
deregulation, and the increasingly complex and
i0n4/t06e/2r01c2onnected powUeNIrT.1 PsOyWsEtR eQUmALITaY ll contribute to 1t37he
need for power quality standards.
• Standards set voltage and current limits that

sensitive electronic equipment can tolerate from
• electrical disturbances.
• Utilities need standards that set limits on the

amount of voltage distortion their power systems
can tolerate from harmonics produced by their
customers with nonlinear loads.
• End users need standards that set limits not only

for electrical disturbances produced by utilities
but also for harmonics generated by
other
04/06/2012
end users. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 138
• Deregulation increases the need for standards

so that the offending organization causing poor
quality problems is held accountable for fixing
the problems.
• Standards also allow utilities to provide

different levels of power quality service.
• Several national and international organizations

have developed power quality standards.
Power Quality Standards Organizations
Organizations responsible for developing power quality

standards in the US include the following:
1. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE)
2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
3. National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST)
4. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
5. National Electrical Manufacturers Association

(N E M A),
0 4 /06 /20 12 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 140
Power Quality Standards Organizations
6. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
7. Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
Outside the US, the primary organizations

responsible for developing international PQ
standards include the following:
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
• Euronorms
• E04S/06K/20O12M for SouthUNIAT.1fPrOWicERaQnUAsLItTYandards 141

IEEE
• The IEEE was founded in 1 963 from two

organizations: the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers (AIEE) and the Institute
of Radio Engineers (IRE).
• In 1 991 , IEEE formed the Standards

Coordinating Committee (SSC- 22) to coordinate
and oversee the myriad of IEEE PQ standards
under development or revision.
• IEEE PQ standards deal primarily with the PQ

limits of disturbances at the PCC (the point
where the utility connects to its customer or
e04n/0d6/201u2ser). UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 142
IEEE
• IEEE power quality standards have a great impact in

the electrical utility industry but lack official
status, ANSI has the official responsibility to
adopt standards for the US.
ANSI
• 5 engineering societies and 3 government agencies

founded ANSI in 1918.
• It is a private, nonprofit organization with member

organizations from the private and public sectors.
• It does not develop standards, but facilitates

standards
04/06/2012
development by qualified groups, like the
IEEE.
ANSI
Consequently, many officially authorized IEEE

standards have the dual designation of
ANSI/IEEE.
It is the sole United States representative to the

two major international standards organizations,
1.International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)
2.International Electrotechnical Commission

(0I4/0E6/2C01)2. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 144
ANSI
Consequently, many officially authorized IEEE

standards have the dual designation of
ANSI/IEEE.
It is the sole United States representative to the

two major international standards organizations,
1.International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)
2.International Electrotechnical Commission

(0I4/0E6/2C01)2. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 145
IEC
• The genesis of the IEC occurred in 1890 at the

Electrical Exposition and Conference held in St.
Louis during a meeting of several famous
electrical pioneers.
• It has since evolved into an organization with

membership from 43 countries. The IEC Council
heads the IEC and oversees 200 technical
committees, subcommittees, and working
groups.
• IEC PQ standards working groups are concerned

mainly
0 4/ 06 /20 1 2
about standards that will enhance
U N IT.1POWER QUALITY
int e rn ational trad e .
146
IEC
They refer to power quality standards as so-

called electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
standards.
IEC’s reference to PQ standards as EMC

standards illustrates that IEC’s primary concern
is the compatibility of end-user equipment with
the utility’s electrical supply system.

What is Electromagnetics (EM)?
• It deals with analysis and application of

electric and magnetic fields.
• Principle of EM applied in
• Electrical Machines, electromechanical
energy conservation, Satellite communication,
remote sensing, fiber optics, electromagnetic
interference and comaptability.
• EM Devices
• Electric motors & Generators, Transformers,
Electromagnets, Antennas, Radars,
Microwave ovens, super conductors, Electro
04/06c/20a12rdiogram UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 148
Other domestic standards organizations
In US, other organizations, like EPRI, UL, NEMA,

NFPA, NIST, and some public utility commissions,
have also developed PQ standards.
EPRI- Developed reliability indices for utility

distribution systems and sponsored the System
Compatibility Research Project to enhance the
specifications of appliances and equipment to be
more compatible with their electrical environment.
Underwriters Laboratories is concerned about the

safety of various electrical appliances & developed a
standard for the safety of transient voltage
s04u/0r6g
/ 20e12 suppressors, UUNITL.1P1OW4E4R9QU.ALITY 150
Other domestic standards organizations
NEMA has set PQ standards for motors,

generators, and (UPSs).
NFPA - Concerned about electrical standards for

fire safety. Consequently, developed PQ
standards to protect computer equipment
(NFPA-75) and building lighting (NFPA-780-95)
from electrical fires.
NIST - Developed an information poster on power

quality (NIST-SP768).

Other International standards organizations
IEC is the primary developer of international

power quality standards, other organizations
have developed their own standards.
ESKOM, the South African utility - Developed PQ

standards based on the best of those in the US
and the rest of the world, plus new requirements
that other organizations have not developed yet.
• These standards have allowed ESKOM to provide

enhanced power quality service at a
p04r/0e6/2m012ium cost. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 152

The European Standards Community Standards
Organization (CENELEC) - Developed PQ
standards called Euronorms.
The International Union of Producers and

Distributors of Electrical Energy (UNIPEDE)
published, in 1995,“Measurement Guide for
Voltage Characteristics.”
The French standards organization, Union

Internationale d’Electrothermie (UIE), is
preparing a PQ guide on voltage dips, short-
duration interruptions, harmonics, and
i0m ba lances.
• International standards tend to require more specific

measurements of power quality than United States
standards.
• International standards’ purpose is to ensure

electromagnetic compatibility between utilities and their
customers to help commerce and business, while United
States standards’ purpose is usually to solve a power
quality problem.
• US standards deal mostly with voltage quality, while
international standards deal with compatibility limits
between the electric utility power supply and the end-
user equipment.
• Thus, international standards require more specificity

04 /0 6/ 201 2 UN I T. 1P O W E R QUALITY 154
t han U nited States s tan d a r d s .
• Purpose of Power Quality Standards
• Purpose of power quality standards is to protect

utility and end user equipment from failing or
misoperating when the voltage, current, or
frequency deviates from normal.
• Power quality standards provide this protection

by setting measurable limits as to how far the
voltage, current, or frequency can deviate from
normal.
• By setting these limits, PQ standards help

utilities and their customers gain agreement as
to what are acceptable and unacceptable levels
o04f/06/2s0e12rvice. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 155
• Purpose of Power Quality Standards
To help the power quality industry compare the

results of power quality measurements from
different instruments, the IEEE developed IEEE
Standard 1159-1995 copyright © 1995,
Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric
Power Quality.

Voltage sag (dip) standards
Voltage sags are typically the most important

power quality variation affecting industrial and
commercial customers.
Standards for voltage sags or dips use reliability

indices to set voltage sag limits
IEEE uses the term sag or momentary

interruption
IEC uses the term dip or short- time interruption

to refer to the same phenomenon
Voltage sag (dip) standards
• Most basic index for voltage sag performance is

the system average rms (variation) frequency
index voltage (SARFIx).
• SARFIx quantifies three voltage sag parameters

into one index. The three parameters are the
number of voltage sags, the period of
measurement, and the number of end users
affected by the voltage sag.
• SARFIx is defined as

•SARFIx can be used to assess the frequency of occurrence of
sags, swells, and short-duration interruptions.
•Inclusion of the index threshold value x provides a means for

assessing sags and swells of varying magnitudes.
•For example, SARFI70 represents the average number of sags

below 70 percent experienced
0 4/06 /2 0 12
by the average customer served
UN IT.1 POWER QUALITY 162
fro m t h e assessed system .
Transients or surges
ANSI/IEEE C62. 41 - 1 991 , IEEE Guide for Surge

Voltages in Low Voltage AC Power Circuits, deals with
transients in a building.
Harmonic standards
The harmonic standard for the United States, IEEE

519-1992, Recommended Practices and Requirements
for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems,
recognizes that the primary source of harmonic
currents is nonlinear loads located on the end-user
(utility customer) side of the meter.
The utility can also transmit harmonic voltage

distortion
0 4 /06 /2 01 2
to other end users. IEEE 51 9- 1 992 sets
curr en t limits at theUNpITo.1iPnOtWEoRfQUcALoITmY mon coupling (PC1C63).
Harmonic standards
•IEEE 519-1992 defines harmonic limits on the

utility side of the meter as the total harmonic
distortion (THD) and on the end-user side of the
meter as total distortion demand (TDD).
•This standard sets the voltage distortion limits or

THD that the utility can supply to the end user at
the point of common coupling.

Grounding and wiring standards
• The primary standards for wiring and grounding are IEEE Standard
446, Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and
Commercial Applications (The Orange Book)
• IEEE Standard 141-1993, Electric Power Distribution for

Industrial Plants (The Red Book)
• IEEE Standard 1 42- 1 991 , Grounding of Industrial and Commercial

Power Systems (The Green Book)
• IEEE Standard 1 1 00, Powering and Grounding Sensitive Electronic

Equipment, FIPS Pub. 94
• National Electrical Code® (NEC)®, ANSI/NFPA 70. While the NEC

is concerned with providing adequate grounding that protects the
public from electrical shock, these other standards are concerned with
setting grounding standards that protect sensitive equipment from
damage or misoperation caused by extraneous ground current.
• N0a4t/ 06io/2n01a2lElectrical Code®UNaITn.1dPO(WNEERCQ)U®ALIaTrYeregistered trademar16k8s of

the National Fire Protection Association
References
1 . Electric Power System Quality – Roger C.Dugan,

Mark F. McGranaghan, Mark McGranaghan, Surya
Santoso, H. Wayne Beaty, H. Beaty, Tata McGraw-
Hill Education.
1 . Power Quality Primer - Barry kennedy

Unit 2
LONG INTERUPTION
syllabus
• Interruptions – Definition – Difference between failures,
• outage, Interruptions – causes of Long Interruptions – Origin of
Interruptions – Limits for the
• Interruption frequency – Limits for the interruption duration – costs
of Interruption –
• Overview of Reliability evaluation to power quality, comparison of
observations and
• reliability evaluation.
DEF: Long interuption
• An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to
less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min.
•
• A long interruption is a power quality event during which the voltage at a
customer connection or at the equipment terminals drops to zero and
does not come back automatically.
• Long interruptions are one of the oldest and most severe power quality
concerns.
• The official IEC definition mentions three minutes((>3 min)) as the
minimum duration of a long interruption.
• An interruption with a duration of less than three minutes (<3 min) should
be called a "short interruption."
Confusion about terminology
• • short interruption – the supply is restored automatically

• • long interruption – the supply is restored manually
• • supply interruption – a condition in which the voltage at the supply
terminals is lower than 1 % of the declared voltage
difference
Failure Outage Interruption
• a device or system that does not • removal of a primary component • a customer is no longer supplied
operate as intended from the system eg: TF outage or with electricity due to outages (a
generator outage zero-voltage situation).
2 types
• forced outage (failure)-directly
due to failures
• scheduled outage- are due to
operator intervention- typically to
allow for preventive maintenance
Causes of Long Interruptions
• Long interruptions are always due to component outages. Component outages are due to three
different causes:
• I. A fault occurs in the power system which leads to an intervention by the power system
protection. If the fault occurs in a part of the system which is not redundant or of which the
redundant part is out of operation the intervention by the protection leads to an interruption for
a number of customers or pieces of equipment. The fault is typically a short-circuit fault, but
situations like overloading of transformers or underfrequency may also lead to long interruptions.
• 2. A protection relay intervenes incorrectly, thus causing a component outage, which might again
lead to a long interruption. If the incorrect tripping (or maltrip) occurs in a part of the system
without redundancy, it will always lead to an interruption. If it occurs in a part of the system with
redundancy the situation is different.
• 3. Operator actions cause a component outage which can also lead to a long interruption. Some
actions should be treated as a backup to the power system protection, either correct or incorrect.
But an operator can also decide to switch off certain parts of the system for preventive
maintenance. This is a very normal action and normally not of any concern to customers.
Difference between planned outage , forced outage, load shedding, black out
• planned outages. These interruptions are prearranged and necessary for routine maintenance,
inspections and improvements on various electricity infrastructure like generators, powerlines, or
other associated equipment on either a transmission or distribution network.
• Planned outages at the street level will be managed by your local power distributor, who will
usually notify you in advance if work has been scheduled.
• An unplanned or forced outage: on the other hand, forced outage is an interruption to the
generation, transmission, or distribution of electricity that is unscheduled. At a distribution network
level, more often than not, unplanned outages result in a loss of supply to certain areas.
• These can occur as a result of damage to wires caused by storms, lighting strikes, falling trees (or
branches), motor accidents, bushfires, equipment failure etc.
• load shedding:
• This action is the deliberate shutdown of electricity supply to parts of the power system to protect
the failure of the entire power system, and typically occurs as the result of a supply/demand
imbalance. This measure is a last resort to protect the power system and avoid a system black.
Once the system is secure again, electricity will be restored to areas affected.
• A blackout event is defined as the complete interruption of energy supply that cause outages
across major parts of the system.
Origin of Interruptions
• Additional data is required to interpret the main cause of origin of interruption. A first step is to obtain data on the voltage level at
which the outage occurred which led to the interruption.
• Table 2.4 gives this data for Great Britain over the year 1995/96
• The table shows that the major contribution to the No. of interruptions and Unavailability, comes from the MV network (6.6 and
11kV). –(81 min)
• Reason 1: These networks have no redundancy so that a component outage immediately leads to a supply interruption. The 33
kV network is partly operated as a loop, hence its lower contribution.
• Reason 2: An additional factor is that a larger part of the low voltage network is underground, which accounts for a lower failure
rate.(0.06)
• These figures again confirm that an increased
reliability of the supply can only be achieved
through investment at distribution level.
• An important conclusion from Table 2.4, Fig. 2.6,
and Fig. 2.7 is that the longest interruptions are due to
1.) Scheduled outages and
2.) Outages at low voltage level.
Survey in Netherlands
• Surveys in other countries confirm that the majority of
interruptions(58%) is due to outages at medium voltage level. Table
2.5 gives interruption data obtained in The Netherlands over the
period 1991 through 1995.
• "High voltage" is typically 150kV and 380kV,
• "medium voltage" 10 kV, and
• "low voltage" 400 V.
• Interesting phenomenon is that about one third(29%) of the interruptions for
urban customers are due to outages in HV networks.
• This is due to the large consumer density in the cities, and due to the fact that
all low voltage system is underground.
• The high voltage networks are mainly overhead, which makes them
comparable to the U.K. situation.
• Figure 2.8 shows the contributions of the three voltage levels to the
interruption frequency, between 1976 and 1995, for the average low
voltage customer in the Netherlands.
• The contribution of the low voltage and medium voltage systems to
the interruption frequency is rather constant.
• The contribution of the high voltage network varies much more
during the year 90’s. Reason may the bad weather condition on HV
n/w compared to LV, MV n/w.
Probability density function
• Figure 2.9 shows the probability density function for the duration of interruptions
originating at different voltage levels in The Netherlands.
Analysis:
• For interruptions due to high voltage component outages, the majority of durations is short:
about 75% is shorter than 30 minutes.
• Outages in the medium voltage and low voltage networks (typically 11kV and 400 V,
respectively, in The Netherlands) lead to longer interruptions.
• For medium voltage only about 15% of the interruptions is shorter than 30 minutes, for low
voltage this value is even lower: about 5%. Reason for this is mode of restoration of power
supply
Restoration of power :
• Outages in the high voltage networks are normally restored via operator intervention from a
central control room.
• In medium voltage and low voltage networks there is no such control room and both fault
localization and restoration of the supply has to take place locally. From the density functions
in Fig. 2.9 it is clear that 30 minutes is about the minimum time needed for this.
• Almost 100% of medium and low voltage networks in The Netherlands are underground.
Restoration of the supply takes place normally via switching in radially operated loops.
Limits for the Interruption Frequency
• Long interruptions are by far the most severe power quality event; thus
any document defining or guaranteeing the quality of supply should
contain limits on frequency and duration of interruptions.
• The international standards on power quality do not yet give any
limitations for interruption frequency or duration.
• The European voltage quality standard EN 50160 (see Section 1.4.3)
comes closest by stating that "under normal operating conditions the
annual frequency of voltage interruptions longer than three minutes
may be less than 10 or up to 50 depending on the area."
• The document also states that “it is not possible to indicate typical
values for the annual frequency and durations of long interruptions."
Limits for the Interruption Frequency – contd…
• Many customers want more accurate limits for the interruption frequency.
• Therefore, some utilities offer their customers special guarantees, sometimes called "power quality
contracts."
• The utility guarantees the customer that there will be no more than a certain number of interruptions per
year.
• If this maximum number of interruptions is exceeded in a given year, the utility will pay a certain amount of
money per interruption to the customer. This can be a fixed amount per interruption, defined in the
contract, or the actual costs and losses of the customer due to the interruption.
• Some utilities offer various levels of quality, with different costs. The number of options is almost
unlimited: customer willingness to pay extra for higher reliability and utility creativity are the main
influencing factors at the moment. Technical considerations do not appear to play any role in setting levels
for the maximum number of interruptions or the costs of the various options.
• For a customer to make a decision about the best option, data should be available, not only about the
average interruption frequency but also on the probability distribution of the number of interruptions per
year.
• Contractual agreements about the voltage quality are mainly aimed at industrial customers. But also for
domestic customers, utilities offer compensation. Utilities in the U.K. have to offer a fixed amount to each
customer interrupted for longer than 24 hours.
• In The Netherlands, a COURT has ruled that utilities have to compensate the customers for all interruption
costs, unless the utility can prove that they are not to blame for the interruption. Also in Sweden some
utilities offer customers compensation for an interruption.
Limits for the Interruption Duration
• The inconvenience of an interruption increases very fast when its duration
exceeds a few hours. This holds especially for domestic customers. Therefore
it makes sense to not only to reduce the number of interruptions (which
might be very expensive) but their duration.
• Limiting the duration of interruptions is a basic philosophy in power system
design and operation in almost any country. In the U.K., as an example, the
duration of interruptions is limited in three ways:
• 1. The Office of Electricity Regulation (OFFER) sets targets for the
% of interruptions lasting > 3 hours & for the % of interruptions lasting >24
hours. These are so-called "overall standards of service".
• 2. The distribution company pays all customers whose supply is interrupted
for longer than 24 hours. This is a so-called "guaranteed standard of service"
[109].
• 3. The design of the systems is such that a supply interruption is likely to be
restored within a certain time.
Contd…
• The OFFER regulations contain, for each distribution company, a
target for the percentage of interruptions that is restored within 3
hours, and a target for the percentage restored within 24 hours.
• At the end of each year the distribution companies report back to
OFFER, which publishes the targets together with the actual
achievement.
• Table 2.7 shows targets and achievement over 1996/97 for some of
the utilities. We see that most utilities meet their targets.
• The maximum duration of interruption is also an important part of
the design of systems
• To achieve a certain reliability of supply, the power system should contain a certain amount of
redundancy. A common rule in the design of public systems is that the larger the number of
customers that would be affected by the outage of a component, the more redundancy there
should be present and the faster this redundancy should be available.
• Table 2.8 summarizes the way this is implemented in the U.K. [119]. These rules used to be part of
a so-called engineering recommendation, and it has been in use in the U.K. for many years.
• Depending on the load size, maximum durations of interruption are given. The larger the amount
of load affected, the faster the restoration of the supply.
In terms of power system operation and

design,
• this requires parallel supply for loads
above 60 MW,
• automatic or remote manual transfer
for loads above 12MW, and
• local manual transfer for loads above
1MW
COSTS OF INTERRUPTIONS
• To consider interruptions of the supply in the design and operation of
power systems, the inconvenience due to interruptions needs to be
quantified one way or the other.
• Any serious quantification requires a translation of all inconvenience into
amount of money.
• Many publications on costs of interruption show a graph with costs against
reliability. Such a curve is reproduced in Fig. 2.40.
• The idea behind this curve is that a more reliable system is more expensive
to build and operate, but the costs of interruption (either over the lifetime
of the system, or per year) are less. The total costs will show a minimum,
which corresponds to the optimal reliability. Even if we assume that both
cost functions can be determined exactly, the curve still has some serious
limitations. Figure 2.40 should only be used as a qualitative demonstration
Contd…
• Additional investment does not always give a more reliable system: an increase in the number of
components could even decrease the reliabiity.
• Reliability is not a single-dimensional quantity. Both interruption frequency & duration
influence the interruption costs.
• There is no sliding scale of reliability and costs. The system designer can choose between a
limited number of design options; sometimes there are just two options available. The choice
becomes simply a comparison of advantages and disadvantages of the two options.
• The two cost terms cannot simply be added. One term (building and operational costs) has a
small uncertainty, the other term (interruption costs) has a large uncertainty due to the
uncertainty in the actual number and duration of interruptions.
Different costs of interuption
The cost of an interruption consists of a number of terms. Each term has its own difficulty in being assessed. Again simply adding the
terms to obtain the total costs of an interruption is not the right way, but due to lack of alternatives it is often the only feasible option.
1. Direct costs. These are the costs which are directly attributable to the interruption.
The standard examples are
• domestic customers is the loss of food in the refrigerator.
• For industrial customers the direct costs consist, among others, of lost raw material, lost production, and salary costs during the non-
productive period.
• For commercial customers the direct costs are the loss of profit and the salary costs during the non-productive period.
When assessing the direct costs one has to be watchful of double-counting. An example of double-counting is adding the lost sales and
the salary costs (as the price of the product already includes the salary costs).
2. Indirect costs. The indirect costs are much harder to evaluate, and in many cases not simply to express in amount of money.
• A company can lose future orders when an interruption leads to delay in delivering a product.
 A domestic customer can decide to take an insurance against loss of freezer contents.
 A commercial customer might install a battery backup.
 A large industrial customer could even decide to move a plant to an area with less supply interruptions.
3. Non-material inconvenience. Some inconvenience cannot be expressed in money.
Not being able to listen to the radio for 2 hours can be a serious inconvenience, not able to see cricket for 15min, but the actual costs are
zero.
In industrial and commercial environments, the non-material inconvenience can also be big without contributing to the direct or indirect
costs.
A way of quantifying these costs is to look at the amount of money a customer is willing to pay for not having this interruption.
Costs per interruption.
• To quantify the costs of an interruption, again different methods are in use. Some
values can be easily calculated into each other, with some values a certain
amount of care is needed.
• For an individual customer the costs of an interruption of duration d can be
expressed in dollars. The costs per interruption can be determined through an
inventory of all direct and indirect costs.
1. Costs per interrupted kW.

Let Ci(d) be the costs of an interruption of “duration d” for customer i, and Li the
load of this customer when there would not have been an interruption. The costs
per interrupted kW are defined as
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 (𝑑𝑑)
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖
and are expressed in $/kW.
2. Cost per interruption for a group of people
• For a group of customers experiencing the same interruption, the
costs per interrupted kW are defined as the ratio of the total costs of
the interruption and the total load in case there would not have been
an interruption:
∑𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 (𝑑𝑑)
∑𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖
3. Costs per kWh
• In many studies the assumption is made that the cost of an
interruption is proportional to the duration of the interruption. The
cost per kWh not delivered is defined as
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖
and is constant under the assumption. The cost per kWh is expressed in
$/kWh.
4. Cost per interruption(kwh) for a group of
people
• For a group of customers the cost per kWh not delivered is defined as
∑𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 (𝑑𝑑)
𝑑𝑑∑𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖
• Some utilities obtain an average cost per kWh not delivered for all
their customers
5. Costs of interruption rated to the peak load
 For industrial and commercial customers the peak load is much easier to obtain, as it is typically
part of the supply contract. The cost of an interruption can be divided by the peak load, to get a
value in $/kW.
 For planning purposes the cost of interruption rated to the peak load can still be a useful value.
The design of a system is based for a large part on peak load, so that rating the cost to the peak
load gives a direct link with the design.
6.Costs per interruption rated to the annual consumption.

For domestic customers it is easier to obtain the annual consumption than the peak load. Rating the
cost of an interruption to the annual consumption gives a value in $/kWh.
Short interruptions
syllabus
• definition, origin of short interruptions, basic principle, fuse saving, voltage
magnitude events due to re-closing, voltage during the interruption,
monitoring of short interruptions, difference between medium and low
voltage systems. Multiple events, single phase tripping – voltage and current
during fault period, voltage and current at post fault period, stochastic
prediction of short interruptions.
definition
• A short interruption has the same causes as a long interruption: fault
clearing by the protection, incorrect protection intervention, etc.
When the supply is restored automatically, the resulting event is
called a short interruption.
• Automatic restoration can take place by reclosing the circuit breaker
which cleared the fault or by switching to a healthy supply.
Necessity:
• Short interruptions in the public supply are due to attempts by the utility to
limit the duration of interruptions.
• The duration of an interruption is an important aspect of distribution and
transmission system design.
• By using automatic reclosing the duration of an interruption can be
brought back from typically about 1 hour, to typically less than 1 minute.
Definitions used in the European standard EN 50160 and in three IEEE standards
The definition of short interruptions used for this chapter is not based on duration but on the method of restoring
• EN 50160 the supply.
- Long interruption: >3 minutes.
- Short interruption: <= 3 minutes.
• IEEE Std.1159-1995
It distinguishes between momentary, sustained, and temporary interruptions.
• - Momentary interruption: between 0.5 cycles and 3 seconds.
• - Sustained interruption: > 3 seconds.
• - Temporary interruption: between 3 seconds to 1min.
• IEEE Std.1250-1995
This standard was published at same time as IEEE Std.1159-1995. The difference is especially striking for
interruptions.
• - Instantaneous interruption: between 0.5 and 30 cycles (half a second).
• - Momentary interruption: between 30 cycles and 2 seconds.
• - Temporary interruption: between 2 seconds to 2 minutes.
• - Sustained interruption: longer than 2 minutes.
• IEEE Std.859-1987
This standard does not give specific time ranges but uses the restoration method to distinguish the types.
• - Transient outages are restored automatically.
• - Temporary outages are restored by manual switching.
• - Permanent outages are restored through repair or replacement.
origin of short interruptions-basic principle
1.lightening:
• Fig shows an example of an overhead distribution network. Each feeder consists of a main feeder and a number of lateral
conductors. Most faults on overhead lines are transient: they require operation of the protection.
• A typical cause of a transient fault is a lightning stroke to an overhead line. The lightning stroke injects a very high current
into the line causing a very fast rising voltage. The lightning current varies between 2 and 200 kA in peak value. The typical
lightning current has a peak value of Ipeak = 20 kA which is reached within 1µs after its initiation.
• If the wave impedance Zwave of the line is 200Ω, the voltage can theoretically reach a value of
•
• The voltage will never reach such a value in reality (with the possible exception of transmission systems with operating
voltages of 400 kV or higher), because a flashover to ground or between two phases will result long before the voltage reaches
such a high value. The result is an arcing fault between one phase and ground or between two or more phases with or
without ground. Soon after the protection removes the faulted line from the system, the arc disappears. Automatic reclosing
will restore the supply without any permanent damage to the system.
2.Transients due to external objects
 Also, smaller objects causing a temporary path to ground will only cause a transient short circuit. The object (e.g., a small
branch fallen from a tree) will either drop to the ground or evaporate due to the high current during the fault, leaving only an
arc which disappears again soon after the protection intervenes.
 The duration of an interruption due to a transient fault can thus be enormously reduced by automatically restoring
the supply after an interruption. In case of a fault somewhere on the feeder, the circuit breaker opens instantaneously and
closes again after a "reclosing interval“ or "dead time" ranging from less than one second up to several minutes. There is of
course a risk that the fault was not a transient one, but permanent.
Lightening phenomena
Transients types
Fuse saving
• Fuse saving is a common protection strategy that prevents nuisance fuse
blowing during transient faults by fast operation of the recloser located at
the head of a feeder before the blown up of its downstream fuses.
• After a predefined time, enough for the fault clearance, the recloser
reenergises the feeder and restores the power supply. Since 50% to 80% of
faults occurring in electrical distribution networks (EDNs) have transient
nature [1], the fuse saving strategy can improve the system security and
reliability.
• Selectivity between feeder breaker and downstream devices is normally
expected in typical distribution systems.
• The fuse saving scheme typically uses a low set INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT ELEMENT which will trip the feeder breaker before
the fuse branch can blow, and the breaker is then immediately reclosed.
• The low set elements are automatically cut out of service after the first
tripout, so that if the fault should persist the inverse time elements will have
to operate to trip the circuit breaker.
• This gives time for the branch circuit fuse of the faulty circuit to blow if the
fault is beyond the fuse.
• Instead, a permanent fault is cleared by an expulsion fuse. To achieve this,
the recloser has two settings: an instantaneous trip and a delayed trip. The
protection coordination should be such that the instantaneous trip is faster
than the expulsion fuse and the delayed trip slower, for all possible fault
currents.
• A permanent fault can also be cleared by the main breaker, but that would
lead to a long interruption for all customers fed from this feeder.
• In this way the cost of replacing blown branch circuit fuses is minimized,
and at the same time the branch circuit outage is also minimized.
Voltage Magnitude Events Due To Reclosing
• The combination of reclosing and fuse saving, as described above, leads to different voltage magnitude
events for different customers.
Figure 3.2 shows the events due to one reclosing action as experienced by a customer on the faulted feeder
(indicated by "1" in Fig. 3.1) and by a customer on another feeder fed from the same substation bus (indicated
by "2").
• In Fig. 3.2, A is the fault-clearing time and B the reclosing interval. The
customer on the faulted feeder (solid line) will experience a decrease in voltage
during the fault, similar in cause and magnitude to a voltage sag.
• The difference between the two customers is in the effect of the fault clearing.
For the customer on the non-faulted feeder, the voltage recovers to its pre-
event value. The customer will only experience a voltage sag. For the customer
on the faulted feeder, the voltage drops to zero.
• The customer on a neighboring feeder (dashed line) will see a
voltage sag with a duration equal to the fault-clearing time.
The moment the recloser opens, the voltage recovers. If the
fault is still present at the first reclosure, the customer on the
nonfaulted feeder will experience a second voltage sag.
Customers on the faulted feeder will experience a second
short interruption or a long interruption.
• Figure 3.3 shows an actual recording of a short interruption.
The top(left) figure corresponds to the dashed line in Fig. 3.2
(customer on a nonfaulted feeder).
• The bottom(right) figure is for a customer on the faulted
feeder (solid line in Fig. 3.2). The fault-clearing time is about
two cycles, the dead time about two seconds.
• The first reclosure is not successful, the second one is. The top
figure shows a voltage sag to about 75% of two-cycle duration,
the bottom figure a voltage reduction to 50% for two cycles
followed by zero voltage for about two seconds.
• When comparing Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3, note that the horizontal axis of Fig.
3.2 is not to scale, B is much larger than A. This is the typical situation. The
fault-clearingtime (A) is only a few cycles, whereas the reclosing time (B)
can be up to several minutes.
• Another example of the initiation of a short interruption is shown in
Fig. 3.4.
• We see that the voltage magnitude initially drops to about 25% of
nominal and to almost zero after 3 cycles. The spikes in the voltage
are due to the arc becoming instable around the current zero-
crossing. Apparently the arc gets more stable after two cycles.
3.3.4 Voltage During the Interruption
• The moment the circuit breaker in Fig. 3.1 opens, the feeder and the
load fed from it are no longer supplied. The effect of this is normally
that the voltage drops to zero very fast.
• There are, however, situations in which the voltage drops to zero
relatively slow, or even remains at a nonzero value.
• The possible reasons are:
Some cases
• Induction motor load is able to maintain some voltage in the system for a short time. This contribution is
typically rather small because the motors have already been feeding into a short circuit for a few cycles; thus,
part of the rotor field of the induction motors will be gone already. Most induction motors will thus only give
a small voltage contribution and only for a few cycles.
• Synchronous motors maintain their field even when the supply voltage disappears. They will be able to
maintain some system voltage until their load has come to a standstill, which can take several seconds. If
there is a significant amount of synchronous motor load present, its fault contribution could make fault
extinguishing difficult. Typically synchronous motors will be tripped by their undervoltage protection after
about 1 second, after which they no longer contribute to the feeder voltage.
• Synchronous and induction generators connected to the feeder (e.g., wind turbines or combined-heat-
and-power installations) are capable of maintaining the feeder voltage at a nonzero value even during a
long interruption. This could be a potential problem when large amounts of generation are connected to the
feeder. This so-called embedded generation is often not equipped with any voltage or frequency control
(relying on the grid to maintain voltage and current within limits) so that an islanding situation can occur in
which voltage and frequency deviate significantly from their nominal values. Especially overvoltage and
overfrequency can lead to serious damage. To prevent such a situation, most embedded generation is equipped
with a loss-of-grid protection that disconnects the generator when an unusual voltage or frequency is detected.
All this assumes that the short-circuit fault is no longer present on the feeder. As long as the fault is
present, all above-mentioned machines feed into the fault so that the feeder voltage remains low.
3.4 MONITORING OF SHORT INTERRUPTIONS
• As short interruptions are due to automatic switching actions, their recording requires automatic
monitoring equipment.
• Unlike long interruptions, a short interruption can occur without anybody noticing it. That is one of
the reasons why utilities do not yet collect and publish data on short interruptions on a routine
basis.
• One of the problems in collecting this data on a routine basis is that some kind of monitoring
equipment needs to be installed on all feeders. A number of surveys have been performed to obtain
statistical information about voltage magnitude variations and events. With those surveys, monitors
were installed at a number of nodes spread through the system.
• As with long interruptions, interruption frequency & duration of interruption are normally presented
as the outcome of the survey.
• Again like with long interruptions much more data analysis is possible, e.g., interruption frequency
versus time of day or time of year, distributions for the time between events, variation among
customers.
• For voltage sags and other short-duration events an automatic recording method is needed. A so-
called power quality monitor is an appropriate tool for that, although modern protective relays can
perform the same function.
• For each event the monitor records a magnitude and a duration plus possibly a few other
characteristics and often also a certain number of samples of raw data: time domain as well as rms
values. This could result in an enormous amount of data, but in the end only magnitude and duration
of individual events are used for quantifying the performance of the supply.
3.4.1 Example of Survey Results
• Figures 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 show some results of analysis of the data obtained by a North
American survey.
• Figure 3.5 gives the interruption frequency as a function of the interruption
duration. Each vertical bar gives the average number of interruptions per year, with a
duration in the given interval. The average number of interruptions has been obtained as
follows:
Probability distribution function
The resulting probability distribution function is

presented in Fig. 3.6.
This curve gives the fraction of interruptions with a
duration not exceeding the indicated value.
We see that 10% of interruptions lasts less than 20 cycles,
and 80% of interruptions les s than 2 minutes (thus 20%
more than 2 minutes).
From an equipment point of view the reverse data are
of more interest, the fraction of interruptions (or the
absolute number) lasting longer than a given duration.
This will give information about the number of times a
device will trip or (for a given maximum trip frequency)
about the immunity requirements of the device.
• Figure 3.7 plots the number of
interruptions per year lasting longer
than the indicated value., the curve is
the complement of the curve in Fig. 3.6.
• We can conclude from the figure that
equipment which trips for an
interruption of 20 cycles will trip on
average 14 times per year. To limit the
equipment trip frequency to four per
year, the equipment should be able to
tolerate interruptions up to 30 seconds
in duration.
Multiple Events
• A direct consequence of reclosing actions is that a customer may experience two or more events within a
short interval. When the short-circuit fault is still present upon the first reclosure, the customers fed from the
faulted feeder will experience a second event. This is another short interruption if a second attempt at
reclosing is made. Otherwise the second event will be a long interruption. A customer fed from a nonfaulted
feeder experiences two voltage sags in a short period of time.
• For a few years a discussion has been going on about whether to count this as one event or as multiple events
[20]. The most recent publications of North American surveys consider a l-minute or 5-minute window. If two
or more events take place within such a window, they are counted as one event. The severity of the multiple
event (i.e., magnitude and duration) is the severity of the most severe single event within the window.
• Some examples of the working of a "five-minute filter" are shown in Fig. 3.8. Using such a "filter" is suitable
for assessment of the number of equipment trips, as the equipment will trip on the most severe event or not at
all. In some cases it could still be needed to know the total event frequency, thus counting all events even if
they come very close.
• Two possible applications are: (I) components which show accelerated aging due to short undervoltage
events; and (2) equipment which only trips during a certain fraction of its load cycle. In the latter case the
equipment has a probability to trip during each of the three events, and the total probability is of course larger
than the probability to trip during the most severe event only.
The NPL low-voltage data for short interruptions have been presented with and without the above-mentioned
filter in Table 3.4 [54]. The three rows give, from top to bottom: the number of short interruptions when each
event is counted as one event no matter how close it is to another event; the number of events when multiple
events within a 5-minute interval are counted as one event; the reduction in number of events due to the
application of this filter.
3.7 STOCHASTIC PREDICTION OF SHORT INTERRUPTIONS
To stochastically predict the number of short interruptions experienced by a customer fed from a certain feeder,
the following input data is required:
• Failure rate per km of feeder, different values might be used for the main and for the lateral conductors.
• Length of the main feeder and of the lateral conductors.
• Success rate of reclosure, if multiple reclosure attempts are used: success rate of the first reclosure, of the
second reclosure, etc.
• Position of reclosing breakers and fuses.
We will explain the various steps in a stochastic prediction by using the system shown in Fig. 3.16. Note that
this is a hypothetical system. Stochastic prediction studies in larger, albeit still hypothetical, systems have been
performed by Warren [139]. The following data is assumed for the system in Fig. 3.16:
• The failure rate of the main feeder is: 0.1 faults per year per km of feeder.
• The failure rate of the lateral conductors is: 0.25 faults per year per km of feeder.
• The success rate of the first reclosure is 75%; thus, in 25% of the cases a second trip and reclosure are needed.
• The success rate of the second attempt is 100/0 of the number of faults. Thus, for 15% of the faults the second
attempt does not clear the fault. Those faults are "permanent faults" leading to a long interruption
• The reclosing procedure used is as follows:
• I. The circuit breaker opens instantaneously on the overcurrent due to the fault.
• 2. The circuit breaker remains open for a short time (1 sec); 75% of the faults clears in
this period.
• 3. The circuit breaker closes. If the fault is still present the breaker again opens
instantaneously on overcurrent. This is required in 25% of the cases.
• 4. The circuit breaker now leaves a longer dead time (5 sec). Another 10% of the faults
clear in this period.
• 5. The circuit breaker closes for a second time. If the fault is still present the breaker
remains closed until the fuse protecting the lateral conductor has had time to blow.
• 6. If the fault is still present (i.e., if the current magnitude still exceeds its threshold) after
the time needed for the fuse to clear the fault, the breaker opens for a third time and
now remains open. Further reclosure has to take place manually and the whole feeder
will experience a long interruption.
The total number of faults on the feeder is
11km x 0.1 faults/km year + 22 km x 0.25 faults/km year =6.6 faults/year
Each fault will lead to a voltage magnitude event. There are four different events possible:
• a short interruption of 1 second duration.
• two short interruptions; one of 1 second duration and one of 5 seconds duration.
• two short interruptions followed by a voltage sag.
• two short interruptions followed by a long interruption.
Due to short-circuit faults on this feeder, 6.6 events per year occur, of which
• 750/0 = 5.0 per year need one trip, leading to one short interruption for all customers.
• 100/0 = 0.7 per year need two trips, leading to two short interruptions for all customers.
• 15% = 1.0 per year are permanent, leading to two short interruptions followed by a voltage sag or
followed by a long interruption.
The number of short interruptions is equal for every customer connected to this feeder:
5.0/year of 1 second duration.
0.7/year of 1+5 seconds duration.
The number of long interruptions depends on the position at the feeder. A permanent fault on the main
feeder leads to a long interruption for all customers. A permanent fault on one of the laterals leads to a
long interruption only for customers fed from this lateral. The number of permanent faults is, for the
different parts of the feeder:
• lateral A: 8 km x 0.25 faults/km year x 0.15 = 0.3 faults per year
• lateral B: 4 km x 0.25 faults/km year x 0.15 =0.15 faults per year
• lateral C: 7 km x 0.25 faults/km year x 0.15 =0.26 faults per year
• lateral D: 3km x 0.25 faults/km year x 0.15 =0.11 faults per year
• main: 11km x 0.1 faults/km year x 0.15 =0.17 faults per year
The number of long interruptions experienced by customers connected to different parts of the feeder, is
• main: 0.17/year
• lateral A: 0.17 + 0.3 =0.47/year
• lateral B: 0.17 +0.15 =0.32/year
• lateral C: 0.17 +0.26 =0.43/year
• lateral D: 0.17 + 0.11 = 0.28/year
Getting rid of the reclosure scheme and letting a fuse clear all faults on the lateral
conductors would lead to long interruptions only.
• main: Lljyear
• lateral A: 3.1/year
• lateral B: 2.I/year
• lateral C: 2.9/year
• lateral D: 1.9/year
• Table 3.6 compares the number of long and short interruptions for systems with and without a reclosure
scheme. For equipment or production processes sensitive to long interruptions only, the system with a
reclosure scheme is clearly preferable. It leads to a reduction of the number of long interruptions by 85%.
• But when equipment production process is sensitive to short and to long interruptions, it is better to abolish
the reclosure scheme and trip permanently on every fault. That would reduce the number of equipment trips
by a factor between 2 and 5, depending on the position of the load on the feeder. In reality this decision is not
that easy to make, as some customers prefer more short interruptions above a few long ones, while for others
only the number of interruptions matters.
• The first group is mainly the domestic customers, the second one the industrial customers. A financial
assessment will almost always be in the favor of the industrials. An assessment on numbers of customers or
on kWh will be in favor of the domestic customers.
UNIT 3
Voltage sag - Characterisation
Introduction
• Voltage sags are short duration reductions in rms voltage, caused by
i) Short circuits ii) Overloads, and iii) Starting of large motors.
• The interest in voltage sags is mainly due to the problems they cause on several types of
equipment: adjustable-speed drives, process-control equipment, and computers.
• Some pieces of equipment trip when the rms voltage drops below 90% for longer than
one or two cycles.
• Short interruptions and most long interruptions originate in the local distribution
network.
• An example of a voltage sag due to a short-circuit fault is
shown in Fig. 4.1. We see that the voltage amplitude drops to
a value of about 20% of the pre-event voltage for about two
cycles. After these two cycles the voltage comes back to about
the pre-sag voltage. This magnitude and duration are the
main characteristics of a voltage sag. (in previous chapters).
• That magnitude and duration do not completely characterize
the sag.
• The during-sag voltage contains a rather large amount of
higher frequency components. Also the voltage shows a small
overshoot immediately after the sag.
• Most of the current interest in voltage sags is directed to
voltage sags due to short circuit faults. These voltage sags are
the ones which cause the majority of equipment to trip. But
also the starting of induction motors leads to voltage sags.
• Fig 4.2 gives example of such a voltage sag due to IM starting. Comparing this
figure with Fig. 4.1 shows that no longer the actual voltage as a function of time is
given but the RMS voltage versus time.
• The rms voltage is typically calculated every cycle or half-cycle of the power system
frequency.
• Voltage sags due to induction motor starting last longer than those due to short
circuits. Typical durations are seconds to tens of seconds.
 4.2 DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE SAG MAGNITUDE
Quantification Of Voltage Level
• The magnitude of a voltage sag can be determined in a number of ways.

• Most existing MONITORS obtain the sag magnitude from the RMS voltages. But this
situation might well change in the future.
• There are several alternative ways of quantifying the voltage level.
• Two obvious examples are
1. the magnitude of the fundamental (power frequency) component of the voltage and
2. the peak voltage over each cycle or half-cycle.
As long as the voltage is sinusoidal, it does not matter whether rms voltage,
fundamental voltage, or peak voltage is used to obtain the sag magnitude.
4.2.1.1 Rms Voltage.
• As voltage sags are initially recorded as sampled points in time, the
rms voltage will have to be calculated from the sampled time-
domain voltages. This is done by using the following equation:
where N is the number of samples per cycle and Vi are the sampled
voltages in time domain.
• The algorithm described by (4.1) has been applied to the sag shown
in Fig. 4.1.
• The results are shown in Fig. 4.3 and in Fig. 4.4. In Fig. 4.3 the rms
voltage has been calculated over a window of one cycle, which was
256 samples for the recording used. Each point in Fig. 4.3 is the rms
voltage over the preceeding 256 points (the first 255 rms values have
been made equal to the value for sample 256):
One cycle duration half cycle duration
• We see that the rms voltage does not immediately drop to a lower value but
takes one cycle for the transition.
• We also see that the rms value during the sag is not completely constant and
that the voltage does not immediately recover after the fault.
• A surprising observation is that the rms voltage immediately after the fault is
only about 90% of the pre-sag voltage.
Half cycle duration of rms voltage
• As voltage sags are initially recorded as sampled points in time, the
rms voltage will have to be calculated from the sampled time-
domain voltages. This is done by using the following equation:
• In Fig. 4.4 the rms voltage has been calculated over the preceeding
128 points, N = 128 in (4.2).
• The transition now takes place in one half-cycle.

4.2.1.2 Fundamental Voltage Component
• Using the fundamental component of the voltage has the advantage that the phase-angle
jump can be determined in the same way. The fundamental voltage component as a
function of time may be calculated as
• The absolute value of this complex voltage is the

voltage magnitude as a function of time; its argument can be
used to obtain the phase-angle jump.
• In a similar way we can obtain magnitude and phase angle of a
harmonic voltage component as a function of time. This so-called
"time-frequency analysis" obtained by applying Digital Signal Processing.
• A comparison with Fig. 4.3 shows that the behavior of the fundamental
component is very similar to the behaviour of the rms voltage.
Contd….
• The rms voltage has the advantage that it can be applied easily to a half-cycle
window. Obtaining the fundamental voltage from a half-cycle window is
more complicated.
• A possible solution is to take a half-cycle window and to calculate the
second half-cycle by using
• The fundamental voltage is obtained by taking the Fourier transform of the following
series:
• This algorithm has been applied to the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.1, resulting in
Fig.4.6. The transition from pre-fault to during-voltage is clearly faster than in Fig.
4.5.
• Note that this method assumes that there is no de voltage component present.
4.2.1.3 Peak Voltage
• The peak voltage as a function of time can be obtained by using the following expression:
• with v(t) the sampled voltage waveform and T an integer multiple of one half-cycle. In Fig. 4.7, for each
sample the maximum of the absolute value of the voltage over the preceding half-cycle has been
calculated. We see that this peak voltage shows a sharp drop and a sharp rise, although we will see later
that they do not coincide with commencement and clearing of the sag.
• Contrary to the rms voltage,
the peak voltage shows
an overshoot immediately
after the sag, which corresponds
to the overvoltage in time domain
One-Cycle Voltage Sag.
• Another example of a voltage sag is shown in Fig. 4.9; contrary to Fig. 4.1, all three
phase voltages are shown.
• The voltage is low in one B phase for about one cycle and recovers rather fast after that.
Observation: The other two phases show some transient phenomenon, but no clear
sag or swell.
• The latter is also evident from Fig. 4.10 which gives the half-cycle rms value for the sag
shown in Fig. 4.9.
• We see in the latter figure that the voltage in the two non-faulted phases shows a
small swell.
• Due to the short duration of the sag the rms voltage curve does not have a specific flat
part. This makes the determination of the sag magnitude rather arbitrary.
• If the monitor takes one sample every half-cycle the resulting sag magnitude can be
anywhere between 26% and 70% depending on the moment at which the sample is
taken . In case a one-cycle window is used to calculate the rms voltage, the situation
becomes worse.
4.9. Time-domain plot of a one-cycle sag, plots of the three
phase voltages .
4.10 Half-cycle rms voltages for the voltage sag shown in Fig. 4.9
Alternative methods
• The two alternative methods for obtaining the sag
magnitude versus time have also been applied to phase B
of the event in Fig. 4.9
• The shape of the latter is similar to the shape of the half-
cycle rms. The half-cycle peak voltage again shows a
much sharper transition than the other two methods
The half-cycle peak voltage is shown in Fig. 4.11,
The half-cycle fundamental voltage component in Fig. 4.12.

4.2.1.5 Obtaining One Sag Magnitude
• Until now, we have calculated the sag magnitude as a function of time: either as the rms
voltage, as the peak voltage, or as the fundamental voltage component obtained over a
certain window.
• There are various ways of obtaining one value for the sag magnitude from the
magnitude as a function of time. Most monitors take the lowest value.
• when the sag magnitude needs to be quantified in a number, One common practice is to
characterize the sag through the remaining voltage during the sag. This is then given as
a percentage of the nominal voltage.
• Thus, a 70% sag in a 230 volt system means that the voltage dropped to 161 V. This
method of characterizing the sag is recommended in a number of IEEE standards (493-
1998, 1159-1995, 1346-1998).
• Deep sag is a sag with a low magnitude(ex 10% of actual voltage) ; a shallow sag has a
large magnitude(90% actual voltage).
4.2.2 Theoretical Calculations of Voltage Magnitude
• Consider the power system shown in Fig. 4.13, where the numbers (1 through 5)
indicate fault positions and the letters (A through D) loads.
• A fault in the transmission network, fault position 1, will cause a serious sag for both
substations bordering the faulted line. This sag is then transferred down to all
customers fed from these two substations. As there is normally no generation
connected at lower voltage levels, there is nothing to keep up the voltage. The result is
that a deep sag is experienced by all customers A, B, C, and D. The sag experienced by
A is likely to be somewhat less deep, as the generators connected to that substation
will keep up the voltage.
• A fault at position 2 will not cause much voltage drop for customer A. The impedance
of the transformers between the transmission and the sub-transmission system are
large enough to considerably limit the voltage drop at high-voltage side of the
transformer. The sag experienced by customer A is further mitigated by the generators
feeding in to its local transmission substation. The fault at position 2 will, however,
cause a deep sag at both sub-transmission substations and thus for all customers fed
from here (B, C, and D).
• A fault at position 3 will cause a very deep sag for customer D, followed by a short or
long interruption when the protection clears the fault. Customer C will only
experience a deep sag. If fast reclosure is used in the distribution system, customer C
will experience two or more sags shortly after each other for a permanent fault.
Customer B will only experience a shallow sag due to the fault at position 3, again
due to the transformer impedance. Customer A will probably not notice anything from
this fault.
• For fault 4 will cause a deep sag for customer C and a shallow one for customer D.
• For fault 5 : a deep sag for customer D and a shallow one for customer C. Customers A
and B will not be influenced at all by faults 4 and 5.
Quantification of sag magnitude in Radial systems
• To quantify sag magnitude in radial systems, the voltage divider model, shown in Fig. 4.14, can be used.
• This might appear a rather simplified model, especially for transmission systems, useful model to predict some
of the properties of sags.
• In Fig. 4.14 we see two impedances: Zs is the source impedance at the point-of-common coupling(PCC) ; and
ZF is the impedance between the point-of-common coupling and the fault.
• The point-of-common coupling is the point from which both the fault and the load are fed.
• The voltage at the PCC, and thus the voltage at the equipment terminals, can be found from
• we will assume that the pre-event voltage is exactly 1 pu, thus E = 1. This results as
• Any fault impedance should be included in the feeder impedance ZF' We see from (4.9) that the sag becomes
deeper for faults electrically closer to the customer (when ZF becomes smaller), and for systems with a
smaller fault level (when Zs becomes larger).
• Equation (4.9) can be used to calculate the sag magnitude as a function of the
distance to the fault. Therefore we have to write ZF = Z x L, with z the
impedance of the feeder per unit length and ‘L’ the distance between the
fault and the PCC, leading to
Sag Magnitude As A Function Of The Distance
• The sag magnitude as a function of the distance
to the fault has been calculated for a typical
11kV overhead line, resulting in Fig. 4.15. For
the calculations a 150mm2 overhead line was
used and fault levels of 750 MVA, 200 MVA, and
75 MVA.
• Observation:
as the sag magnitude increases (i.e., the sag
becomes less severe) for increasing distance to
the fault and for increasing fault level.
4.2.2.1 Influence of Cross Section
• O/H lines of different cross section have different impedance,
and lines and cables also have different impedance.
• It is thus to be expected that the cross section of the line or
cable influences the sag magnitude as well.
• To show this influence, Fig. 4.16 plots the sag magnitude at the
PCC as a function of the distance between the fault and the
PCC, for 11kV overhead lines with three different cross sections:
50, 150, and 300 mm''.
• A source impedance of 200 MVA has been used.
• The smaller the cross section, the higher the impedance of
the feeder and thus the lower the voltage drop.
• For overhead lines, the influence is rather small as the
reactance dominates the impedance.
• For underground cables, the influence is much bigger as
shown in Fig. 4.17, again for cross sections of 50, 150, and
300 mm2. The inductance of cables is significantly smaller
than for overhead lines, so that the resistance has more
influence on the impedance and thus on the sag magnitude.
• .
4.2.2.2 Faults behind Transformers.
• The impedance between the fault and the PCC in Fig. 4.14 not only consists of lines or cables
but also of power transformers.
• As transformers have a rather large impedance, among others to limit the fault level on the
low-voltage side, the presence of a transformer between the fault and the PCC will lead to
relatively shallow sags.
EX: To show the influence of transformers on the sag magnitude, consider the situation shown
in Fig. 4.18: a 132/33kV transformer is fed from the same bus as a 132kV line. A 33 kV line is fed
from the low-oltage side of the transformer. Fault levels are 3000MVA at the 132kV bus, and
900 MVA at the 33 kV bus. In impedance terms, the source impedance at the 132kV bus is
5.81Ω, and the transformer impedance is 13.55 Ω, both referred to the 132kV voltage level.
• We can again use (4.9), where Zs =5.81 Ω, ZF = 13.550 +z . L
• where z is the feeder impedance per unit length, and
• L the distance between the fault and the transformer's secondary side terminals.
• The feeder impedance must also be referred to the 132kV level:
• when the feeder impedance is 0.3 Ω /km at 33 kV.

The results of the calculations are shown in Fig. 4.19 for faults on the
33 kV line (upper curve) and for faults on the 132kV line (lower curve).
We see that sags due to 33kV faults are less severe than sags due to 132kV
faults.
4.2.2.3 Fault Levels.
• Often the source impedance at a certain bus is not immediately available, but instead the
fault level is.
• One can ofcourse translate the fault level into a source impedance and use (4.9) to
calculate the sag magnitude.
• But one may calculate the sag magnitude directly if the fault levels both at the PCC and
at the fault position are known.
• Let SFLT be the fault level at the fault position & SPCC is fault at the point-of-common
coupling. For a rated voltage Vn the relations between fault level and source impedance
are as follows:
• With (4.9) the voltage at the PCC can be written as

• We use (4.13) to calculate the magnitude of sags behind transformers. For this
we use typical fault levels in the U.K. power system [13]:
• Consider a fault at a typical 11 kV bus, i.e., with a fault level of 200 MVA. The
voltage sag at the high-voltage side of the 33/11 kV transformer is from (4.13)
• In a similar way the whole of Table 4.2 has been filled. The zeros in this table indicate
that the fault is at the same or at a higher voltage level. The voltage drops to a low
value in such a case. We can see from Table 4.2 that sags are significantly damped
when they propagate upwards in the power system.
4.2.4 Sag Magnitude In Non-Radial Systems
• Radial systems are common in LV & MV networks (distribution N/W)
4.2.4.1 Local Generators. The connection of a local generator to a distribution
network, as shown in Fig. 4.23, mitigates voltage sags of the indicated load in
two different ways.
The generator increases the fault level at the distribution bus, which mitigates
voltage sags due to faults on the distribution feeders. This especially holds for a
weak system.
The installation of local generation requires a
larger impedance of the feeding transformer.
• Local generator also mitigates sags due to faults in the rest of the system. During such a
fault the generator keeps up the voltage at its local bus by feeding into the fault.
• An equivalent circuit to quantify this effect has been drawn in Fig. 4.24:
Z1 the source impedance at the PCC;
Z2 the impedance between the fault and the PCC; and
Z3 the impedance between the generator bus and the PCC.
Z4 is the impedance of the local generator during the fault
• By adding a generator close to the load a second flow of

fault current is introduced. The PCC as indicated in Fig. 4.24 is the PCC before the
introduction of the local generator.
Without the local generator the voltage at the equipment terminals would be equal to the
voltage at the PCC, When a local generator is present, the voltage at the equipment
terminals during the sag equals the voltage on the generator bus. This voltage is related to
the voltage at the PCC according to the following equation:
The voltage drop at the generator bus is times the voltage drop at the PCC, The voltage drop becomes smaller for
larger impedence to the PCC (weaker connection) and for smaller generation impedance (larger generator).
EXAMPLE An example of a system with on-site generation is given in Fig. 4.25: the industrial system is fed from a 66 kV, 1700
MVA substation via two 66/11 kV transformers in paraJIel. The fault level at the 11kV bus is 720 MVA, which includes the
contribution of two 20 MVA on-site generators with a transient reactance of 170/0. The actual industrial load is fed
from the 11 kV bus, for which we will calculate the sag magnitude due to faults at 66 kV. The feeder impedance at 66 kV is 0.3
Q/km.
• The calculation results are shown in Fig. 4.26. The bottom curve gives
the sag magnitude at the 11kV bus for faults at a 66 kV feeder,
when the 11kV generator is not in operation.
• The top curve gives the sag magnitude at the 11kV bus with on-site
generator connected. Due to the generator keeping up the voltage at
the 11kV bus, the sag magnitude never drops below 26%.
4.3 VOLTAGE SAG DURATION
• 4.3.1 Fault-Clearing Time
• W.K.T, the drop in voltage during a sag is due to a short circuit being present in the
system. The moment the short-circuit fault is cleared by the protection, the voltage can
return to its original value.
• The duration of a sag is mainly determined by the fault-clearing time, but it may be
longer than the fault-clearing time.
• Generally speaking faults in transmission systems are cleared faster than faults in
distribution systems. In transmission systems the critical fault-clearing time is
rather small. Thus, fast protection and fast circuit breakers are essential.
• Also transmission and sub-transmission systems are normally operated as a grid,
requiring distance protection or differential protection, both of which are rather fast.
• The principal form of protection in distribution systems is overcurrent protection. This
requires often some time-grading which increases the fault-clearing time.
• An overview of the fault-clearing time of various protective devices is given in reference [8].
• current-limiting fuses: less than one cycle
• expulsion fuses: 10-1000 ms
• distance relay with fast breaker: 50-100 ms
• distance relay in zone 1: 100-200 ms
• distance relay in zone 2: 200-500 ms
• differential relay: 100-300 ms
• overcurrent relay: 200-2000 ms
Some typical fault-clearing times at various voltage levels for a U.S. utility are
given in. reference [9].
From this list it becomes clear that the sag duration will be longer when a sag originates at
a lower voltage level.
4.3.2 Magnitude-Duration Plots
• Knowing the magnitude and duration of a voltage sag, it can be presented by
a point in a magnitude-duration plane. This way of sag characterization has
been shown to be extremely useful for various types of studies
• An example of a magnitude-duration plot is shown in Fig. 4.42. The numbers in Fig. 4.42
refer to the following sag origins:
1. Transmission system faults
2. Remote distribution system faults
3. Local distribution system faults
4. Starting of large motors
5. Short interruptions
6. Fuses
Faults in remote networks, cleared by current-limiting fuses, lead to short and shallow sags, not indicated in the figure.
Finally the figure contains voltage sags due to motor starting, shallow and long duration (see Section 4.9) and short
interruptions, deep and long duration.
• Consider the general system configuration shown in Fig. 4.43.
• A short-circuit fault in the local distribution network will typically lead to a rather deep sag.
This is due to the limited length of distribution feeders. For a fault in any distribution
network, the sag duration may be up to a few seconds.
• When the fault occurs in a remote distribution network, the sag will be much more shallow
due to the transformer impedance between the fault and the PCC.
• Transmission system faults are typically cleared within 50 to 100ms, thus leading to short-
duration sags. Current-limiting fuses lead to sag durations of one cycle or less, and rather
deep sags if the fault is in the local distribution or low-voltage network.
Balanced & Unbalanced Faults
Phase Angle Jumps (PAJ)
Phase angle jumps (PAJ)
• A short circuit in a power system not only causes a drop in voltage magnitude but also a
change in the phase angle of the voltage.
• In a 50 Hz or 60 Hz system, voltage is a complex quantity (a phasor) which has magnitude
and phase angle.
• A change in the system, like a short circuit, causes a change in voltage. This change is not
limited to the magnitude of the phasor but includes a change in phase angle as well.
• The change in phase angle associated with the voltage sag is referred to as phase-angle jump
(PAJ).
• The phase-angle jump manifests itself as a shift in Zero Crossing of the instantaneous
voltage.
Affects:
• But power electronics converters using phase-angle information for their firing instants may
be affected.
Causes of phase angle jumps
• Phase-angle jumps during three-phase faults are due to the difference in X/R ratio between the source
and the feeder.
• A second cause of phase-angle jumps is the transformation of sags to lower voltage levels.
• Figure 4.74 shows a voltage sag with a phase-angle jump of +45°: the during-fault voltage leads the pre-
fault voltage. A sag with a phase-angle jump of -45° is shown in Fig. 4.75: the during-fault voltage lags the
pre-fault voltage.
4.5.1 Monitoring
• To obtain the phase-angle jump of a measured sag, the phase-angle of the

voltage during the sag must be compared with the phase-angle of the voltage
before the sag.
• The phase-angle of the voltage can be obtained from the voltage zero-crossing or
from the phase of the fundamental component of the voltage.
• The complex fundamental voltage can be obtained by doing a Fourier transform
on the signal. This enables the use of Fast-Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithms.
• This algorithm has been applied to the recorded sag in Fig. 4.1. The resulting sag magnitude
is shown in Fig. 4.76 and the phase-angle jump in Fig. 4.77.
Finding of phase angle jump
• If X/R ratio of fault and supply is same i-e 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓/𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓=𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠/𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 then there is no phase angle jump. This
condition holds good for faults in transmission lines, but usually not for faults in utility networks.
• The phase-angle jump will thus be associated with system if the X/R ratio of the supply and the utility
network are distinct.
• Through Fig.1 model, different types of faults and their associated PAJ can be found.
• In order to find the phase angle jump (PAJ) caused by UNBALANCING, Sequence Component
Analysis Is Used.
• The phase is breakdown into its sequence components (positive, negative and zero sequence). By
analyzing its sequence components, PAJ can be calculated.
• However, sequence components analysis is also helpful to find the phase angle jump when various
kinds of faults occur in utility network.
• The study of phase angle jump is performed on 4-bus radial system.The SLD is shown below in fig.2 For the purpose of
simplification, transmission line is not included in the model. The substation is fed from 132kV generating station where
voltages are stepped down to primary distribution level(11kV) by star/delta transformer-1 and then 5kM feeder is connected to
delta/star Transformer2, which is used to further stepdown the voltages up to 380 V three phase and 220 V single phase for
power utilization. In this paper, our main focus is on Bus-D because faults and unbalancing occur at this point and it is also
called Point of Common Coupling (PCC). The simulation of this model is done on MATLAB/SIMULINK to get the real time
results. Table.1 shows the parameters that are used in simulation keeping the system frequency as 50 Hz.
1)Single Phase-To-Ground Fault
• Single Phase-to-ground fault is occurred at the load terminal.

The RMS per unit voltage and PAJ are shown in fig.3. After
fault, load terminal voltage is reduced to 0.14 pu and has a
phase angle jump of -51 deg.
• The remaining phases are healthy due to proper grounding.
2) Double Line-To-Ground Fault
• Double line to ground fault is simulated at the load terminal.

The RMS per unit voltage and PAJ are shown in fig.4. After the
fault, the voltages of both faulted phases reduced to 0.12 pu.
• phase-A has a phase angle jump of -78 deg. while phase-B has
a phase angle jump of -22 deg. The remaining phase-C is
healthy due to proper grounding.
Fig.4: Double line-to-ground fault (a)RMS voltages of phase A, B(pu) (b)PAJ of phase A in degrees (c)PAJ of phase B in degrees
• 3) Phase to Phase Fault
• Phase to phase fault is occurred when any single phase is
shorted with other phase. This type of fault is also simulated on
load terminals.
• The RMS per unit voltage and phase angle jump (PAJ) are
shown in Fig.5.
• After the occurrence of fault phase-A has 0.55 pu while Phase-
B has sag of 0.45 pu.
• The Phase Angle Jumps of Phases A, B are -56 deg. and +56
deg. respectively. However, the remaining Phase-C is healthy
due to proper grounding.
Fig. 5: Line-to-line fault (a) RMS voltages of phase A, B (pu)

(b)PAJ of phase A in degrees (c)PAJ of phase B in degrees
• 4) Three Phase-To-Ground Fault
• When all three phases of power system are shorted with ground, the resultant fault is called triple line-to-ground
fault. Again this fault is simulated on load terminals. The RMS per unit voltage and phase angle jump (PAJ) are
shown in fig.6. After the fault, all the phases have equal sag that is around 0.07 pu as well as all phases have equal
phase angle jump of -60 deg.
Fig. 6.: Three line-to-ground fault (a) RMS voltages of phase A, B, C(pu) (b)PAJ of phase A in degrees (c)PAJ of phase B in degrees (d) PAJ of phase c in degrees
5) Phase Angle Jump Due To Unbalancing
• Unbalancing in the power system disturbs the symmetry
of three phase balanced system. Especially in
distribution system, where local consumers are
connected.
• There is always some amount of unbalancing in system
and practically it is impossible to get balanced secondary
distribution system.
• Due to unbalance in system, the phase angle between
alternate phases have no more 120 deg electrical
symmetry but are disturbed by the uneven loads on
distributor or even the line parameters of the distributor
are unsymmetrical.
• In simulation, distribution system is unevenly loaded to
find out the phase angle jump. Phase-A is overloaded to
23.5 MVA and Phase-B has a load of 15.5 MVA and
finally Phase-C has a load of 8.5 MVA.
• Total voltage unbalance is 25.87%. The Voltage sag of
each phase and their corresponding phase angle jump
(PAJ) are shown in Fig.7. Fig.6: Unbalancing Iin distribution system (a) RMS voltages of phase A, B, C(pu)
• Phase A, B and C have per unit voltages of 0.695 pu , (b)PAJ of phase A in degrees (c)PAJ of phase B in degrees (d) PAJ Of phase C in
degrees
0.899 pu and 1.153pu respectively and have a phase
angle jumps of -21.73 deg , -11.96 deg and 2.01 deg
respectively.
B. Fault impedance versus PAJ
• It is observed that phase angle jump (PAJ) changes
when impedance of fault is varied. When impedance
of fault is very low, the PAJ is large, increase of fault
impedance greatly reduces the phase angle jump
(PAJ) and non-linear effect is observed. Fig.7 shows
the graph of fault impedance verses PAJ. The result is
obtained from single line-to-ground fault.
Fig.7: Variation of PAJ when impedance of fault is changed.
C. Voltage sag versus PAJ

• Since voltage sag is related to phase angle jump (PAJ).
Voltage sag in any phase of distribution system affects
the symmetry of three phase and hence phase angle
jump (PAJ) occurs.
• It is found that when the extent of sag is very high, the
phase angle jump is also too much high and load
voltage linearly reduces the phase angle jump. Fig.8
illustrates the effect of voltage sag on PAJ.
Fig. 8: Variation in PAJ when load voltage is changed (pu).

D. Fault Current versus PAJ
• In this section phase angle jump (PAJ) is observed
when single line-to-ground fault current is changed.
Since any fault occurred in power system is composed
of three states: sub-transient, transient and steady state.
• Sub-transient fault current has highest amount of
current value which is dangerous for power system and
then after few moments, transient fault current flow in
system which is lesser than sub-transient current and
sustain for one or two cycles and then steady state fault
current flow in system which remain in power system
until fault is not cleared.
• Fig.9 shows the all states of fault current variation with
phase angle jump (PAJ).
Fig. 9: Variation of PAJ when fault current is changed

(a) sub-transient fault current (kA),
(b) (b) transient fault current,
(c) (c) steady state fault current.
E. Power versus PAJ
• When fault occurs in power system, the
voltages of the system drastically goes down
and huge amount of current flows in the
system which causes huge power losses,
produce heating and affect the thermal
stability of the power system.
• In this section, power loss is observed when
single line to-ground fault occurs in system at
various impedances and their associated
phase angle jumps.
• It is observed that power losses vary non-
linearly with different value of phase angle
jumps (PAJ).
• Fig.10 shows the variation of PAJ with
different values of power losses. Highest
power loss is accounted at 24.9 deg.
Fig.10. Variation of PAJ with different power losses caused by

SLGF fault.
UNIT -IV
Power Quality Considerations In

Industrial Power Systems
Discussions :
• In this unit, we study the Impact of voltage sags on Electrical Equipment.
• We also discuss three types of equipment which are perceived as most

sensitive to voltage sags.
Voltage Sags – Equipment Behavior
1. Computers, Consumer electronics, and Process-control equipment which
will be modeled as a single-phase diode rectifier. Under-voltage at the dc bus
is the main cause of tripping.
2. Adjustable-speed AC drives which are normally fed through a three-phase

rectifier. Apart from the under-voltage at the DC bus, Current unbalance, DC
voltage ripple, and Motor speed are discussed.
3. Adjustable-speed DC drives which are fed through a Three-phase Controlled

Rectifier. The firing-angle control will cause additional problems due to phase-
angle jumps. Also the effect of the separate supply to the field winding is
discussed.
5.1.1 Voltage Tolerance and Voltage-Tolerance Curves
• Generally speaking electrical equipment operates best when the RMS voltage is constant
and equal to the nominal value.
• In case the voltage is zero for a certain period of time, it will simply stop operating
completely.
• No piece of electrical equipment can operate indefinitely without electricity. Some equipment will stop within
one second like most desktop computers. Other equipment can withstand a supply interruption much longer;
like a lap-top computer which is designed to withstand (intentional) power interruptions.
• For each piece of equipment, it is possible to determine how long it will continue to
operate after the supply becomes interrupted.
• A rather simple test would give the answer.
• The same test can be done for a voltage of 10% (of nominal), for a voltage of 20% , etc. If
the voltage becomes high enough, the equipment will be able to operate on it indefinitely.
Connecting the points obtained by performing these tests results in the so-called "voltage-
tolerance curve." An example of a voltage-tolerance curve is shown in Fig. 5.1.
Some equipment will malfunction if the supply voltage goes below certain level for
a fixed duration. This information is generally provided in the form equipment
voltage tolerance curve whose generic shape is shown in Figure 1.
• The Figure shows generic shape the typical voltage

tolerance curve of equipment. The equipment
sensitivity to voltage sag is usually expressed only in
terms of the magnitude and duration of voltage sag
and designated by voltage tolerance curve.
• For this purpose, the rectangular voltage tolerance
curve is used which indicates that voltage sag deeper
than specified voltage magnitude (Vmin) and longer
than the specified duration (tmax) will cause
malfunction (or trip) equipment.
Basic Test Levels
Standards requires that various processing equipments tolerate voltage sags connected to their AC
power line. They must tolerate sags to 50% of equipment nominal voltage for duration of up to 200
ms, sags to 70% for up to 0.5 seconds and sags to 80% for up to 1.0 second.
A visualization of above standard depicts the required

voltage sag ride-through capability curve. The
equipment must be able to continuously operate
without interruption during conditions identified in
the area above the defined solid red line.
Voltage-Tolerance Curve
Voltage-Tolerance curve
• The concept of voltage-tolerance curve for sensitive electronic equipment was introduced in
1978 by Thomas Key.
• When studying the reliability of the power supply to military installations, he realized that
voltage sags and their resulting tripping of mainframe computers could be a greater task.
• The resulting voltage-tolerance curve became known as the "CBEMA curve" several years
later threat to national security than complete interruptions of the supply.
• The Voltage-Tolerance curve is also an important part of IEEE standard 1346.
• This standard recommends a method of comparing equipment performance with the supply
power quality.
• The voltage-tolerance curve is the recommended way of presenting the equipment
performance. The concept of "voltage sag co-ordination chart", which is at the heart of IEEE
standard 1346.
• Voltage sags normally do not cause equipment damage, but
can easily disrupt the operation of sensitive electronic
equipment.
• The voltage sag can be characterized by the magnitude and
the duration. The equipment sensitive is generally
determined by both of the values.
• The sensitivity of the equipment to voltage sags can be
expressed by the tolerance curve. Two curves of popular
equipment tolerance used namely; the information
technology industry council (ITIC) curve [6] and the SEMI
F47 curve.
• These curves are shown in Figure 3. Each point on the
curves in Figure 3 indicates how long a piece of equipment
is able to ride through certain voltage sags.
The first curve is ITIC curve, was formerly called the computer and business equipment
manufacturer association (CBEMA) curve. It represents the voltage variation tolerance requirements
of information technology equipment as defined by the information technology industry council,
formerly known as CBEMA. On the other hand, the second curve specifies the voltage sag immunity
of semiconductor manufacturing equipment (SEMI).
Tested Computers Specification and Test Procedure
• Three different computers are test to study the effect of voltage sag with
specifications of them are shown in Table I.
• The supply voltage is generated to determine the maximum duration of an interruption for which the PC
would still operate with starting 5 ms second to 600 ms in step 10 ms. The PCs were considered to
malfunction when the computer performed a restart of the operating system.
For sag of depth 90% to 55%, there are no effects on the three computers
observed during period. However, for sag of depth 50% with duration of 0.1
second or above, two computers (computers A and B) were show to restart.
Computer C is less than sensitive computers A and B. It restarts with the
sag duration 500 ms and above.
• While describing equipment behaviour through the voltage-tolerance curve, a number of assumptions are made.
The basic assumption is that - a sag can be uniquely characterized through its magnitude and duration.
• The values in Table 5.1 should be read as follows. A voltage tolerance of “a” ms, “b%” implies that the equipment
can tolerate a zero voltage of “a” ms and a voltage of “b%” of nominal indefinitely. Any sag longer than “a” ms and
deeper than “b%” will lead to tripping or malfunction of the equipment.
• In other words: the equipment voltage-tolerance curve is rectangular with a "knee" at “a” ms, “b%”
5.1.2 Voltage-Tolerance Tests
• The only standard that currently describes how to obtain voltage tolerance of equipment
is IEC 61000-4-11.
• It defines a number of preferred magnitudes & durations of sags for which the equipment
has to be tested.
• The equipment does not need to be tested for all these values, but one or more of the
magnitudes and durations may be chosen.
• The preferred combinations of magnitude and duration are the (empty) elements of the
matrix shown in Table 5.2.
• It only defines the way in which the voltage tolerance of equipment shall be obtained.
Procedure of tests:
An informative appendix to the standard
mentions two examples of test setups:
 Use a transformer with two output voltages.
Make one output voltage equal to 100% and
the other to the required during-sag
magnitude value. Switch very fast between
the two outputs, e.g., by using thyristor
switches.
 Generate the sag by using a waveform
generator in cascade with a power amplifier.
5.2 COMPUTERS AND CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
• The power supply of a computer, and of most consumer electronics equipment normally consists of a
diode rectifier along with an electronic voltage regulator (DC/DC converter). The power supply of all
these low-power electronic devices is similar and so is their sensitivity to voltage sags.
• television : A television will show a black screen for up to a few seconds;
• a CD player will reset itself and start from the beginning of the disc, or just wait for a new command.
• Televisions and video recorders normally have a small battery to maintain power to the memory
containing the channel settings. This is to prevent loss of memory when the television is moved or
unplugged for some reason. If this battery no longer contains enough energy, a sag or interruption could
lead to the loss of these settings.
• Microwave oven : The same could happen to the settings of a microwave oven, which is often not
equipped with a battery.
• The process-control computer of a chemical plant is rather similar in power supply to any desktop
computer. Thus, they will both trip on voltage sags and interruptions, within one second. But the
desktop computer's trip might lead to the loss of 1 hour of work (typically less), where the process-
control computer's trip easily leads to a restarting procedure of 48 hours plus sometimes a very
dangerous situation.
5.2.1 Typical Configuration of Power Supply
• A simplified configuration of the power supply to a computer is shown in Fig. 5.2.
• The capacitor connected to the non-regulated DC bus reduces the voltage ripple at the input
of the voltage regulator. The voltage regulator converts the non-regulated DC voltage of a few
hundred volts into a regulated DC voltage of the order of 10 V.
• If the AC voltage drops, the voltage on the DC side of the rectifier drops.
• If the voltage at the DC bus becomes too low the

regulated DC voltage will also start to drop and
ultimately errors will occur in the digital electronics.
Some computers detect an under-voltage at the input
of the controller and give a signal for a "controlled"
shutdown of the computer.
Figure 5.2 Computer power supply.

5.2.2 Estimation of Computer Voltage Tolerance
5.2.2.1 DC Bus Voltages. As shown in Fig. 5.2, a single-phase rectifier consists of four diodes and a capacitor.
• Twice every cycle the capacitor is charged to the amplitude of the supply voltage. In between the
charging pulses the capacitor discharges via the load.
• The diodes only conduct when the supply voltage exceeds the DC voltage. When the supply voltage
drops the diodes no longer conduct and the capacitor continues to discharge until the DC voltage
reaches the reduced supply voltage again.
• In normal operation the capacitor is charged during two small periods each cycle, and discharges
during the rest of the cycle.
• In steady state, the amount of charging and discharging of the capacitor are equal.
To study the effect of voltage sags on the voltage at the (non-regulated) DC bus, the power supply has
been modeled as follows:
• The diodes conduct when the Absolute value of the (AC) supply voltage is larger than the DC bus
voltage. While the diodes conduct, the DC bus voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
• The supply voltage = 1pu sinewave before the event and a constant-amplitude sinewave during the
event but with an amplitude < 1pu. The voltage only shows a -drop in magnitude, no phase-angle jump.
The supply voltage is not affected by the load current.
• While the diodes do not conduct, the capacitor is discharged by the voltage regulator. The power
taken by the voltage regulator is constant and independent of the dc bus voltage.
• This model has been used to calculate the dc bus voltages before, during, and after a
voltage sag with a magnitude of 50% (without phase-angle jump). The result is shown in
Fig. 5.3. As a reference, the absolute value of the ac voltage has been plotted as a dashed
line.
• Due to the voltage drop, the maximum ac voltage becomes less than the DC voltage. The
resulting discharging of the capacitor continues until the capacitor voltage drops below
the maximum of the ac voltage. After that, a new equilibrium will be reached. Because a
constant power load has been assumed the capacitor discharges faster when the DC bus
voltage is lower. This explains the larger dc voltage ripple during the sag.
• It is important to realize that the discharging of the capacitor

is only determined by the load connected to the DC bus, not
by the AC voltage. Thus all sags will cause the same initial
decay in DC voltage. But the duration of the decay is
determined by the magnitude of the sag. The deeper the sag
the longer it takes before the capacitor has discharged
enough to enable charging from the supply.
• In Fig. 5.4 the sags in AC and DC voltage are plotted for
voltage sags of different magnitude. The top curves have been
calculated for a sag in ac voltage down to 50%, the bottom
ones for a sag in ac voltage down to 70%
The dotted lines give the rms voltage at ac side (the sag in ac
voltage). We see that the initial decay in de bus voltage is the
5.2.2.2 Decay of the DC Bus Voltage.
• Within a certain range of the input voltage, the voltage regulator will keep its output voltage
constant, independent of the input voltage. Thus, the output power of the voltage regulator
is independent of the input voltage. If we assume the regulator to be lossless the input
power is independent of the DC voltage. Thus, the load connected to the DC bus can be
considered as a constant power load.
• As long as the absolute value of the ac voltage is less than the DC bus voltage, all electrical
energy for the load comes from the energy stored in the capacitor. Assume that the
capacitor has capacitance C. The energy a time t after sag initiation is 1/2C{V(t)2, with V(t)
the DC bus voltage. This energy is equal to the energy at sag initiation minus the energy
consumed by the load:
• where Vo is the DC bus voltage at sag initiation and P the loading of the DC bus.
Expression (5.1) holds as long as the DC bus voltage is higher than the absolute value of
the AC voltage, thus during the initial decay period in Figs. 5.3 and 5.4. Solving (5.1) gives
an expression for the voltage during this initial decay period:
• During normal operation, before the sag, the variation in DC bus voltage is small, so that
we can linearize (5.2) around V = Vo, resulting in
• where t is the time elapsed since the last recharge of the capacitor. The voltage
ripple is defined as the difference between the maximum and the minimum value
of the de bus voltage. The maximum is reached for t =0, the minimum for t =T/2,
with T one cycle of the fundamental frequency. The resulting expression for the
voltage ripple is
• The voltage ripple is often used as a design criterion for single-phase diode
rectifiers. Inserting the expression for the de voltage ripple (5.4) in (5.2) gives an
expression for the dc voltage during the discharge period, thus during the initial
cycles of a voltage sag:
• where f is the number of cycles elapsed since sag initiation. The larger the DC
voltage ripple in normal operation, the faster the DC voltage drops during a sag.
5.2.2.3 Voltage Tolerance
• Tripping of a computer during a voltage sag is attributed to the DC bus voltage dropping
below the minimum input voltage for which the voltage controller can operate correctly. We
will refer to this voltage as Vmin .
• We further assume that in normal operation, before the sag, both AC and DC bus voltage
are equal to 1pu.
• A sag with a magnitude V will result in a new steady-state DC voltage which is also equal to
V, if we neglect the dc voltage ripple. From this we can conclude that the computer will not
trip for V > Vmin
• For V < Vmin the DC bus voltage only drops below Vmin if the sag duration exceeds a
t .
certain value tmax. The time max it takes for the voltage to reach a level Vmin can be found
by solving t from (5.5) with Vo = 1
• When the minimum de bus voltage is known, (5.6) can be used to calculate how long it will take
before tripping. Or in other words: what is the maximum sag duration that the equipment can
tolerate. The DC bus voltage at which the equipment actually trips depends on the design of the
voltage controller: varying between 50% and 90% DC voltage, sometimes with additional time delay.
Table 5.3 gives some values of voltage tolerance, calculated by using (5.6).
Thus, if a computer trips at 50% DC bus voltage, and as the normal operation
DC voltage ripple is 5%, a sag of less than four cycles in duration will not
cause a maltrip.
Any sag below 50%, for more than four cycles will trip the computer. A voltage
above 50% can be withstood permanently by this computer. This results in
what is called a "rectangular voltage-tolerance curve," as shown in Fig. 5.5.
Each voltage regulator will have a non-zero minimum operating voltage. The
row for zero minimum DC bus voltage is only inserted as a reference. We can
see from Table 5.3 that the performance does not improve much by reducing
the minimum operating voltage of the voltage controller beyond 50%. When the
dc voltage has dropped to 50%" the capacitor has already lost 75%, of its
energy.
5.2.3 Measurements of PC Voltage Tolerance
• Figure 5.6 shows measured voltages and currents for a personal computer. The
applied voltage sag was one of the most severe the computer could tolerate.
• In Fig. 5.6 we see the DC bus voltage starting to drop the moment the ac voltage
drops. During the decay in de bus voltage, the input current to the rectifier is very
small. The output of the voltage controller remains constant at first. But when the
de bus voltage has dropped below a certain value, the de voltage regulator no
longer operates properly and its output also starts to drop. In this case a new
steady state is reached where the regulated de voltage is apparently still sufficient
for the digital electronics to operate correctly. During the new steady state, the
input current is no longer zero. with a very large current peak charging the dc bus
capacitor. This current could cause
• an equipment trip or even a long interruption if fast-acting overcurrent protection
devices are used. Upon ac voltage recovery, the DC bus voltage also recovers
quickly. This is associated with a very large current peak charging the dc bus capacitor.
This current could cause an equipment trip or even a long interruption if fast-acting
overcurrent protection devices are used.
• The voltage-tolerance curves obtained from various tests are shown in Fig.
5.7 and Fig. 5.8. Figure 5.7 shows the result of a U.S. study [29]. For each
personal computer, the tolerance for zero voltage was determined, as well
as the lowest steady-state voltage for which the computer would operate
indefinitely. For one computer the tolerance for 800/0 voltage was
determined; all other computers could tolerate this voltage indefinitely.
We see that there is a large range in voltage tolerance for different
computers. The age or the price of the computer did not have any
influence.
• The experiments were repeated for various operating states of the
computer: idle; calculating; reading; or writing. It turned out that the
operating state did not have any significant influence on the voltage
tolerance or on the power consumption. Figure 5.7 confirms that the
voltage-tolerance curve has an almost rectangular shape.
• Figure 5.8 shows voltage-tolerance curves for personal computers
obtained from a Japanese study [49], in the same format and scale as the
American measurements in Fig. 5.7. The general shape of the curves is
identical, but the curves in Fig. 5.7 indicate less sensitive computers than
the ones in Fig. 5.8..
• Summarizing we can say that the voltage tolerance of personal computers
varies over a rather wide range: 30-170 ms, 50-70% being the range
containing half of the models. The extreme values found are 8 ms, 88%
and 210 ms, 30%.
5.2.4 Voltage-Tolerance Requirements. CBEMA and ITIC
• As mentioned before, the first modern 'voltage-tolerance curve was introduced for mainframe
computers [1]. This curve is shown as a solid line in Fig. 5.9. We see that its shape does not
correspond with the shape of the curves shown in Figs. 5.5,5.7, and 5.8.
• This can be understood if one realizes that these figures give the voltage-tolerance performance for
one piece of equipment at a time, whereas Fig. 5.9 is a voltage-tolerance requirement for a whole
range of equipment. The requirement for the voltagetolerance curves of equipment is that they
should all be above the voltage-tolerance requirement in Fig. 5.9. The curve shown in Fig. 5.9
became well-known when the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA)
started o use the curve as a recommendation for its members. The curve was subsequently taken
up in an IEEE standard [26] and became a kind of reference for equipment voltage tolerance as well
as for severity of voltage sags. A number of software packages for analyzing power quality data plot
magnitude and duration of the sags against the CBEMA curve. The CBEMA curve also contains a
voltage-tolerance part for overvoltages, which is not reproduced in Fig. 5.9. Recently a "revised
CBEMA curve" has been adopted by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC), which is the
successor of CBEMA. The new curve is therefore referred to as the ITIC curve; it is shown as
• a dashed line in Fig. 5.9.
• The ITIC curve gives somewhat stronger requirements than the CBEMA curve.
• This is because power quality monitoring has shown that there are an alarming number
• of sags just below the CBEMA curve [54].
5.2.5 Process Control Equipment
• Process control equipment is often extremely sensitive to voltage sags; equipment has been
reported to trip when the voltage drops below 80% for a few cycles. The consequences of the
tripping of process control equipment can be enormous.
• For example, the tripping of a small relay can cause the shutdown of a large chemical plant, leading
to perhaps $100000 in lost production. Fortunately all this is low-power equipment which can be fed
from a UPS, or for which the voltage tolerance can be improved easily by adding extra capacitors, or
some backup battery.
• Tests of the voltage tolerance of programmable logic controllers (PLC's) have been performed in
the same way as the PC tests described before. The resulting voltage-tolerance curves for some
controllers are shown in Fig. 5.10. It clearly shows that this equipment is extremely sensitive to
voltage sags. As most sags are between 4 and 10 cycles in duration, we can reasonably assume that a
PLC trips for each sag below a given threshold, varying between 85% and 35%. Even more worrying
is that some controllers may send out incorrect control signals before actually tripping. This has to
do with the different voltage tolerance of the various parts of the controller. The incorrect signals
could lead to dangerous process malfunctions. Additional voltage-tolerance curves for process
control equipment, obtained from another study, are shown in Fig. 5.11. The numbers with the
curves refer to the following devices:
• 1. Fairly common process controller used for process heating applications such
• as controlling water temperature.
• 2. More complicated process controller which can be used to provide many
• control strategies such as pressure/temperature compensation of flow.
• 3. Process logic controller.
• 4. Process logic controller, newer and more advanced version of 3.
• 5. AC control relay, used to power important equipment.
• 6. AC control relay, used to power important equipment; same manufacturer
• as 5.
• 7. AC control relay used to power motors; motor contactor.
• This study confirms that process control equipment is
extremely sensitive to voltage disturbances, but also that it is
possible to build equipment capable of tolerating long and
deep sags. The fact that some equipment already trips for
half-a-cycle sags suggests a serious sensitivity to voltage
transients as well. The main steps taken to prevent tripping of
process control equipment is to power all essential process
control equipment via a UPS or to ensure in another way that
the equipment can withstand at least short and shallow sags.
Devices 2 and 3 in Fig. 5.11 show that it is possible to make
process control equipment resilient to voltage sags. But even
here the costs of installing a UPS will in almost all cases be
justified.
• Here are some other interesting observations from Fig. 5.11:
• Device 2 is the more complicated version of device 1. Despite
the higher complexity, device 2 is clearly less sensitive to voltage
sags than device 1.
• Device 4 is a newer and more advanced version of device 3.
Note the enormous deterioration in voltage tolerance.
• Devices 5 and 6 come from the same manufacturer, but show
5.3 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED AC DRIVES
Many adjustable-speed drives are equally sensitive to voltage sags as process control equipment discussed in the
previous section. Tripping of adjustable-speed drives can occur due to several phenomena:
• The drive controller or protection will detect the sudden change in operating conditions and trip the drive to
prevent damage to the power electronic components.
• The drop in DC bus voltage which results from the sag will cause maloperation
or tripping of the drive controller or of the PWM inverter.
• The increased ac currents during the sag or the post-sag overcurrents charging the de capacitor will cause an
overcurrent trip or blowing of fuses protecting the power electronics components.
• The process driven by the motor will not be able to tolerate the drop in speed or the torque variations due to the
sag.
5.3.1 Operation of AC Drives
• Adjustable-speed drives (ASD's) are fed either through a 3-φ diode rectifier, or through a three-phase controlled
rectifier. Generally speaking, the first type is found in AC motor drives, the second in DC drives and in large ac
drives.
• We will discuss small and medium size AC drives fed through a three-phase diode rectifier in this section, and
DC drives fed through controlled rectifiers in the next section.
• The configuration of most ac drives is as shown in Fig. 5.12. The three ac voltages are fed to a three-phase diode
rectifier. The output voltage of the rectifier is smoothened by means of a capacitor connected to the de bus. The
inductance present in some drives aims at smoothening the dc link current and so reducing the harmonic
distortion in the current taken from the supply.
• The DC voltage is inverted to an AC voltage of variable frequency and magnitude, by means of voltage-source
converter (VSC). The most commonly used method for this is pulse-width modulation (PWM). Pulse-width
modulation will be discussed briefly when we' describe the effect of voltage sags on the motor terminal voltages.
• The motor speed is controlled through the magnitude and frequency of the output voltage of the VSC. For ac
motors, the rotational speed is mainly determined by the frequency of the stator voltages. Thus, by changing the
frequency an easy method of speed control is obtained. The frequency and magnitude of the stator voltage are
plotted in Fig. 5.13 as a function of the rotor speed. For speeds up to the nominal speed, both frequency and
magnitude are proportional to the rotational speed.
• The maximum torque of an induction motor is proportional to the square of the voltage magnitude
and inversely proportional to the square of the frequency :
• By increasing both voltage magnitude and frequency, the maximum torque remains constant. It is
not possible to increase the voltage magnitude above its nominal value.
• Further increase in speed will lead to a fast drop in maximum torque.
5.4 Adjustable-speed
DC Drives
5.4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED DC DRIVES
• DC drives have traditionally been much better suited for adjustable-speed
operation than AC Drives.
• The speed of AC motors is, in first approximation, proportional to the
frequency of the voltage.
Nr ∞ f
• The Nspeed of DC motors ∞ to the Voltage Magnitude. Voltage magnitude is

much easier to vary than frequency.
• Only with the introduction of power transistors have variable-frequency
inverters and thus ac adjustable- speed drives become feasible.
• In this section we will discuss some aspects of the behaviour of DC drives
during voltage sags.
5.4.1 Operation of DC Drives
5.4.1.1 Configuration. A typical configuration of a DC drive is presented in Fig. 5.54.
 The armature winding, which uses most of the power, is fed via a three-phase
controlled rectifier. The armature voltage is controlled through the firing angle of
the thyristors.
 The more the delay in firing angle, the lower the armature voltage. There is normally no
capacitor connected to the DC bus. The torque produced by the DC motor is
determined by the armature current, which shows almost no ripple due to the large
inductance of the armature winding.
 The field winding takes only a small amount of power; thus a single-phase rectifier is
sufficient.
In case, field-weakening is used to extend the speed range of the
DC motor, a controlled single-phase rectifier is needed.
 To limit the field current, a resistance is placed in series with the
field winding. The resulting field circuit is therefore mainly resistive,
so that voltage fluctuations result in current fluctuations and thus in
torque fluctuations.
A capacitor is used to limit the voltage (and torque) ripple. To
limit these torque fluctuations a capacitor is used like the one used
to limit the voltage ripple in single-phase rectifiers.
Speed controlled methods
The speed of a dc motor is increased by increasing the armature
voltage or by decreasing the field voltage. Speed control of a de drive
takes place in two ranges:
1. Armature voltage control range: The field voltage is kept at its
maximum value and the speed is controlled by the armature voltage.
This is the preferred range. The field current is high, thus the armature
current has its minimum value for a given torque. This limits the
armature losses and the wear on the brushes.
2. Field weakening range: Above a certain value the armature voltage
can no longer be increased. It is kept constant and the speed is further
increased by reducing the field voltage. As there is a maximum value
for the armature current, the maximum torque decreases with
increasing speed.
5.4.1.3 Firing-Angle Control.
• The DC component of the output voltage of a thyristor rectifier is varied by
means of firing-angle control.
• The firing angle determines rectifier average output voltage.
• A diode starts conducting the moment its forward voltage becomes
positive; a thyristor conducts only when the forward voltage is positive and
a pulse is applied to its gate.
• By firing the thyristor at the instant a diode would start conducting, the
output voltage of a controlled rectifier is the same as that of a non-
controlled one. This is called free-firing. The firing angle of a thyristor is the
delay compared to the free-firing point.
• Figure 5.56 shows the output voltage of a three -phase thyristor rectifier
with a firing angle of 50°.
• A firing angle a delays conduction over a period (α/2π) x T, with T one cycle of the fundamental
frequency.
• The average output voltage (i.e., the dc component) for a firing angle α is
The firing of the thyristors takes place at a certain point of the supply voltage sine wave. For this the control
system needs information about the supply voltage. There are different methods of obtaining the correct
firing instant:
1. The thyristors are fired with a certain delay compared to the zero-crossing of the actual supply voltage.
In normal operation the three voltages are shifted 120 compared to each other. Therefore, the zero-
crossing of one voltage is used as a reference and all firing instants are obtained from this reference
point. This method of control is extremely sensitive to distortion of the supply voltage. Any change in
zero-crossing would lead to a change in firing angle and thus to a change in armature voltage.
2. The output voltage of a phase-locked loop (PLL) is used as a reference.
A phase-locked loop generates an output signal exactly in phase with the
fundamental component of the input signal. The reference signal is no
longer sensitive to short-time variations in the supply voltage. This slow
response will turn out to be a serious potential problem during voltage.
sags associated with phase-angle jumps.
3. A more sophisticated solution is to analyze the voltage in the so-called
synchronously rotating dq-frame.
5.4.2 Balanced Sags
According to (5.43), the motor speed is proportional to the ratio of armature voltage and field voltage.
The voltage sag in all three phases makes that armature and field voltage drop the same amount; the speed should
thus remain the same. The model behind (5.43), however, neglects the transient effects, which are mainly due to
the inductance of the motor winding and the inertia of the load. A model of the dc motor, which is valid for
transients as well, is shown in Fig. 5.57, where La and Lf are the inductance of armature and field winding,
respectively.
Analysis:
Because of the voltage sag, the voltage on ac side of the field-winding rectifier will drop. This will lead to a decay
in field current. The speed of decay is determined by the amount of energy stored in the inductance and in the
capacitance. Typically the capacitor will give the dominant time constant so that the
decay in field current can be expressed as follows:
where Ifo is the initial current and τ is the time constant of the decay in field current.
The voltage sag leads to a direct drop in armature voltage, which leads to a decay in armature current. The decay
is somewhat different from the decay in field current. The armature current is driven by the difference between
the armature voltage and the induced back-EMF
• Because the motor speed does not immediately drop, the back-emf E remains the same. The effect of a drop in
armature voltage is thus that the current drops toward a large negative value (Va - E)/Ra.
DC motor
Events occur upon balance sag appears- conclusion
• The drop in armature and in field current leads to a drop in torque which causes a drop in speed. The drop in
speed and the drop in field current cause a reduction in back-EMF.
• Sooner or later the back-EMF will become smaller than the armature voltage, reversing the drop in armature
current. Because speed as well as field current have dropped the new armature current is higher than the pre-event
value.
• The more the speed drops, the more the back-EMF drops, the more the armature current increases, the more the
torque increases. In other words, the dc motor has a built-in speed control mechanism via the back-EMF.
• The torque becomes higher than the load torque and the load reaccelerates.
• The load stabilizes at the original speed and torque, but for a lower field current and a higher armature current.
The drop in field current equals the drop in voltage; the armature current increases as much as the field current
drops, because their product (the torque) remains constant.
5.4.2.2 Simulation of Balanced Sags.
• The drive was operating at nominal speed , thus with zero firing angle for the rectifiers. In
this system the time constant was 100ms, both for the armature winding and for the field
wind ing . A supply voltage of 660V was used resulting in a pre-sag motor power of 10kW
and a speed of 500 rpm . The moment of inertia of the load driven by the motor was 3.65
kgm/s" ,
• The simulations were performed by solving the differential equations with a step-by-step
approximation [154]. The voltage dropped to 80% in all three phases during 500 ms (30
cycles). The plots show two cycles pre-sag, 30 cycles during-sag, and 88 cycles post-sag.
5.4.2.3 Intervention by the Control System.
• The control system of a DC drive can control a number of parameters:
• armature voltage, armature current, torque, or speed.
• In case the control system is able to keep armature and field voltage constant, the drive will not experience the
sag. However, the control system will typically take a few cycles to react.
• If the motor aims at keeping the motor speed constant, the drop in speed (as shown in Fig. 5.61) will be
counteracted through a decrease in firing angle of the thyristor rectifier. For a deep sag the firing angle will
quickly reach its minimum value. Further compensation of the drop in armature voltage would require control
of the field voltage. But as we saw above, the field voltage is kept intentionally constant so that control is
difficult.
5.4.2.4 Intervention by the Protection.
The typical reason for the tripping of a DC drive during a voltage sag is that one of the settings of the protection is
exceeded. As shown in Figs. 5.58 through 5.61, voltage, current, speed, and torque experience a large transient.
The protection could trip on any of these parameters, but more often than not, the protection simply trips on DC
bus under-voltage.
DC drives are often used for processes in which very precise speed and positioning are required, e.g., in robotics.
Even small deviations in speed cannot be tolerated in such a case. We saw before that the motor torque drops
very fast, even for shallow sags, so that the drop in speed will become more severe than for an AC drive.
Unbalanced sags
• One of the effects of unbalanced sags on DC drives is that armature and field voltage do not drop the same
amount. The armature voltage is obtained from a three-phase rectifier, the field voltage from a single-phase
rectifier. During an unbalanced sag, the single-phase rectifier is likely to give a different output voltage than the
three-phase rectifier. If the field voltage drops more than the armature voltage, the new steady-state speed could
be higher than the original speed.
 If the field voltage drops more than the armature voltage, the back-emf will quickly be less than the armature
voltage, leading to an increase in armature current. Also the new steady-state speed is higher than the pre-event
speed. Overcurrent in the armature winding and over-speed are the main risk.
 If the field voltage drops less than the armature voltage, the armature current's decay will only be limited by the
drop in motor speed. It will take a long time before the motor torque recovers. As the new steady-state speed is
lower than the pre-event speed, under-speed becomes the main risk.
5.4.4 Phase-Angle Jumps
• Phase-angle jumps affect the angle at which the thyristors are
fired. The firing instant is normally determined from the phase-
locked loop (PLL) output, which takes at least several cycles to
react to the phase-angle jump.
• A calculated step response of a conventional digital phase-
locked loop to a phaseangle jump is shown by Wang [57]. His
results are reproduced in Fig. 5.70, where we can see that it
takes about 400 ms for the PLL to recover.
• We can reasonably assume that the phase-locked-loop output
does not change during the sag. The effect of the phase-angle
jump is that the actual voltage is shifted compared to the
reference voltage. Because of this the thyristors are fired at a
wrong point of the supply-voltage sine wave. This is shown in
Fig. 5.71 for a negative phaseangle jump. The during-sag
voltage lags the pre-sag voltage; thus the zero-crossing of the
actual supply voltage comes later than the zero crossing of the
PLL output. In Fig. 5.72 the sine wave of the actual voltage is
used as a reference: due to the negative phaseangle jump t!¢,
the thyristors are fired at an angle t!¢ earlier than intended
5.4.4.1 Balanced Sags.
• For balanced sags the phase-angle jump is equal in the three phases; thus the shift in firing angle is the same for all
three voltages. If the shift is less than the intended firing-angle delay, the output voltage of the rectifier will be
higher than it would be without phase-angle jump. This assumes that the phase-angle jump is negative, which is
normally the case. A negative phase-angle jump will thus somewhat compensate the drop in voltage due to the
sag. For a positive phase-angle jump the output voltage would be reduced and the phase-angle jump would
aggravate the effects of the sag.
• For a firing angle equal to α the pre-sag armature volt age equals
• The voltage is rated to the armature voltage for zero firing angle. For a sag with magnitude V (in pu) and
phase-angle jump Δ φ, the during-event armature voltage is
• The phase-angle jump is assumed negative Δ φ is its absolute value.

The ratio between V’a and Va is the relative magnitude of the sag in the
armature voltage.
This is plotted in Fig. 5.73 for firing-angle delays of 30°, 50°, and 70°. A during-
event magnitude V of 50% has been assumed, and the phase-angle jump is
varied between zero and 30°.
If the shift is larger than the intended firing-angle delay, the actual firing will take
place before the free-firing point. As the forward voltage over the thyristors is
still negative it will not commence conducting. How serious this effect is depend
s on the duration of the firing pulse.
5.4.5 Commutation Failures
• The moment a thyristor is fired and forwardly biased, it starts conducting. But the current through the
conductor does not immediately reach its full value because of the inductive nature of the source.
• Commutation is complete and thyristor 1 ceases to conduct when i2(t) =Idc.
• Commutation takes longer for smaller values of V, thus during voltage sags, and for a firing-delay angle α closer
to 180, thus for the drive being in regenerative mode. The maximum current the supply voltage is able to
cummutate is found from (5.59) as
• If this is less than the actual armature current, a commutation failure occurs: both thyristors will continue to
conduct, leading to a phase-to-phase fault. This will cause blowing of fuses or damage of the thyristors. The risk
of commutation failure is further increased by the increased armature current during and after the sag.
5.4.8 Overview of Mitigation Methods for DC Drives
• Making de drives tolerant against voltage sags is more complicated

than for ac drives. Three potential solutions, to be discussed below,
are :
1. adding capacitance to the armature winding,
2. improved control system, and
3. self-commutating rectifiers.
5.4.6.1 Armature Capacitance:
Installing capacitance to the armature winding, on dc side of the three-phase rectifier, makes that
the armature voltage no longer drops instantaneously upon sag initiation. Instead the armature
voltage decays in a similar way to the field voltage. To obtain a large time constant for the decay of
the armature voltage requires a large capacitor for the armature winding. Note that the power taken
by the armature winding is much larger than the power taken by the field winding. For three-phase
unbalanced sags it may be sufficient to keep up the voltage during one half-cycle.
5.4.6.2 Improved Control System.
• 5.4.6.3 Improved Rectifiers. The control of the drive may be significantly improved by using a self-
commutating rectifier. These rectifiers enable control of the output voltage on a sub-cycle
timescale. This will preverit the drop in armature voltage and thus the severe drop in torque. Using
advanced control techniques it may also be possible to install additional enery storage which is
only made available during a reduction in the supply voltage. By using self-commutating rectifiers
it may also be possible to use a sophisticated control system that detects and mitigates phase-
angle jumps. With such a control system, the reference signal should no longer be obtained from a
phase-locked loop but from the measured supply voltage through a suitable digital filter.
• 5.4.6.4 Other Solutions.
Other solutions include a more critical setting of the undervoltage and overcurrent protection; the
use of components with higher overcurrent tolerance; and disabling the firing of the thyristors to
prevent tripping on overcurrent.
• 5.4.6.2 Improved Control System.
• Any control system for a DC drive ultimately controls the firing angle of a controlled
rectifier. This may be the armature rectifier, the field rectifier, or both. Due to the nature of
a thyristor rectifier it is unlikely that the control system will have an open-loop time
constant less than two cycles. We saw before that the drop in armature current and torque
takes place much faster than this. It is thus not possible to prevent the transient in
armature current and torque. Two straightforward quantities to be controlled are armature
voltage and motor speed. Controlling the armature voltage enables the use of a simple
controller with a small open-loop time constant. For the controller to work, sufficient
margin must be available in the rectifier to bring the armature voltage back to 100%. If sags
down to 50% magnitude have to be mitigated, the normal operating voltage on de side of the
rectifier should not exceed 50°A, of maximum. The result is that only half of the control
range of the rectifier can be used for speed control. The other half is needed for voltage sag
mitigation.
• Speed control is the commonly-used method of control for de drives. The voltage sag will
cause a drop in speed. The speed controller detects this and reduces the firing angle to
compensate. If the firing angle is zero the controller can no longer increase thespeed. Speed
control will not mitigate the transients in torque and current but it may reduce the variations in speed. A
disadvantage of both control techniques is that they will lead to a severe transient in armature current and
torque upon voltage recovery.
UNIT V
Mitigation of Interruptions
&
Voltage Sags
Mitigation of Interruptions and Voltage Sags
Discussions
• This chapter gives an overview of
• i) methods to mitigate voltage sags and interruptions.
• ii) Also on mitigation equipment to be installed between the power
system and the sensitive equipment.
7.1.1 From Fault to Trip
• To understand the various ways of mitigation, the mechanism leading to an equipment trip
needs to be understood. Figure 7.1 shows how a short circuit leads to an equipment trip.
• The equipment trip is what makes the event a problem; if there were no equipment trips,
there would not be any voltage quality problem.
• The underlying event of the equipment trip is a short-circuit fault: a low-impedance
connection between two or more phases, or between one or more phases and ground.
• At the fault position the voltage drops to a low value.
• The effect of the short circuit at other positions in the system is an event of a certain magnitude and
duration at the interface between the equipment and the power system. The short-circuit fault will
always cause a voltage sag for some customers.
• If the fault takes place in a radial part of the system, the protection intervention clearing the fault will
also lead to an interruption.
• If there is sufficient redundancy present, the short circuit will only lead to a voltage sag. If the
resulting event exceeds a certain severity, it will cause an equipment trip
Less possible cases:
Admittedly, not only short circuits lead to equipment trips, but also events like capacitor switching or
voltage sags due to motor starting.
Most possible cases:
But the large majority of equipment trips will be due to short-circuit faults.
Contd..
Figure 7.1 enables us to distinguish between the various
mitigation methods:
• reducing the number of short-circuit faults.
• reducing the fault-clearing time.
• changing the system such that short-circuit faults result in less
severe events at the equipment terminals or at the customer
interface.
• connecting mitigation equipment between the sensitive
equipment and the supply.
• improving the immunity of the equipment.
Power engineers have always used a combination of these
mitigation methods to ensure a reliable operation of equipment
Figure 7.1 The voltage quality problem and

ways of mitigation.
7.1.2 Reducing the Number of Faults
Reducing the number of short-circuit faults in a system reduces
i) The sag frequency
ii) Frequency of sustained interruptions.
This is thus a very effective way of improving the quality of supply and many
customers suggest this as the obvious solution when a voltage sag or short
interruption problem occurs.
“Unfortunately, the solution is rarely that simple.”
A short circuit not only leads to
i) a voltage sag or interruption at the customer interface
ii) cause damage to utility equipment and plant.
Therefore most utilities will already have reduced the fault frequency as far as
economically feasible.
Some examples of fault mitigation are:
• Replace overhead lines by underground cables. A large fraction of short-circuit faults is due to
adverse weather or other external influences. UG cables are much less affected by external phenomena.
The fault rate on an underground cable is an order of magnitude less than for an overhead line. The
effect is a big reduction in the number of voltage sags and interruptions. A disadvantage of
underground cables is that the repair time is much longer.
• Use covered wires for overhead line. A recent development is the construction of overhead lines with
insulated wires. Normally the wires of an overhead line are bare conductors. With covered wires, the
conductors are covered with a thin layer of insulating material. Even though the layer is not a full
insulation, it has proven to be efficient in reducing the fault rate of overhead lines.
• Implement a strict policy of tree trimming. Contact between tree branches and wires can be an
important cause of short-circuit faults, especially during heavy loading of the line. Due to the heating of
the wires their sag increases, making contact with trees more likely.
• Install additional shielding wires. Installation of one or two shielding wires reduces the risk of a
fault due to lightning. The shielding wires are located such that severe lightning strokes are most likely
to hit a shielding wire. A lightning stroke to a shielding wire is normally conducted to earth through a
tower.
• Increase the insulation level. This generally reduces the risk of short-circuit faults. Short circuits
are due to overvoltages or due to a deterioration of the insulation.
• Increase maintenance and inspection frequencies. This again generally reduces the risk of faults. If
the majority of faults are due to adverse weather, as is often the case, the effect of increased
maintenance and inspection is limited.
One has to keep in mind, however, that these measures may be very expensive and that its costs have
to be weighted against the consequences of the equipment trips.
7.1.3 Reducing the Fault-Clearing Time
• Reducing the fault-clearing time does not reduce the number of events but only
their severity.
• The duration of an interruption is determined by the speed with which the
supply is restored.
• Faster fault-clearing can significantly limit the sag duration.
• The ultimate reduction in fault-clearing time is achieved by using current-
limiting fuses. Current-limiting fuses are able to clear a fault within one half-
cycle, so that the duration of a voltage sag will rarely exceed one cycle.
• The recently introduced static circuit breaker also gives a fault clearing time
within one half-cycle; but it is obviously much more expensive than a current-
limiting fuse.
• Additionally several types of fault-current limiters have been proposed which
not so much clear the fault, but significantly reduce the fault-current magnitude
within one or two cycles.
• But the fault-clearing time is not only the
time needed to open the breaker but also
the time needed for the protection to
make a decision.
• Here we need to consider two
significantly different types of
distribution networks, both shown in Fig.
7.2.
The top drawing in Fig. 7.2 shows a system with one circuit breaker protecting the whole feeder.
The protection relay with the breaker has a certain current setting.
• This setting is such that it will be exceeded for any fault on the feeder, but not exceeded for any
fault elsewhere in the system nor for any loading situation.
• The moment the current value exceeds the setting the relay instantaneously gives a trip signal to
the breaker. Upon reception of this signal, the breaker opens within a few cycles.
• Typical fault-clearing times in these systems are around 100 milliseconds.
• To limit the number of long interruptions for the customers, reclosing is used in combination
with (slow) expulsion fuses in the laterals or in combination with interruptors along the feeder.
This type of protection is commonly used in overhead systems.
• Reducing the fault-clearing time mainly requires a faster
breaker. The static circuit breaker or several of the other
current limiters would be good options for these systems.
• A current-limiting fuse to protect the whole feeder is not
suitable as it makes fast reclosing more complicated. Current-
limiting fuses can also not be used for the protection of the
laterals because they would start arcing.
• The network in the bottom drawing of Fig. 7.2 consists of a number of
distribution substations in cascade.
• To achieve selectivity, time-grading of the overcurrent relays is used. The
relays furthest away from the source trip instantaneously on overcurrent.
• When moving closer to the source, the tripping delay increases each time with
typically 500 ms.
 Close to the source, fault-clearing times can be up
to several seconds.
 These kind of systems are typically used in
underground networks and in industrial
distribution systems.
 The fault-clearing time can be reduced by using
inverse-time overcurrent relays. For inverse-time
overcurrent relays, the delay time decreases for
increasing fault current.
To achieve a serious reduction in fault-clearing time
one needs to reduce the grading margin, thereby
allowing a certain loss of selectivity by using faster
breakers, or even static circuit breakers,
7.1.4 Changing the Power System
By implementing changes in the supply system, the severity of the event can be reduced.
The main mitigation method against interruptions is the installation of redundant (alternate or back
up) components.
Some examples of mitigation methods especially directed toward voltage sags are:
• Install a generator near the sensitive load. The generators will keep the voltage up during a sag due
to a remote fault. The reduction in voltage drop is equal to the percentage contribution of the generator
station to the fault current.
• Split busses or substations in the supply path to limit the number of feeders in the exposed area.
• Install current-limiting coils at strategic places in the system to increase the "electrical distance" to
the fault. One should realize that this can make the sag worse for other customers.
• Feed the bus with the sensitive equipment from two or more substations. A voltage sag in one
substation will be mitigated by the infeed from the other substations. The more independent the
substations are the more the mitigation effect. The best mitigation effect is by feeding from two
different transmission substations.
The number of short interruptions can be prevented by connecting less customers to one recloser
(thus, by installing more reclosers).
Short as well as long interruptions are considerably reduced in frequency by installing additional
redundancy in the system. The costs for this are only justified for large industrial and commercial
customers.
7.1.5 Installing Mitigation Equipment
The most commonly applied method of mitigation is the installation of additional
equipment at the system-equipment interface.
• The popularity of mitigation equipment is explained by it being the only place where the
customer has control over the situation.
Both changes in the supply as well as improvement of the equipment are often completely
outside of the control of the end-user.
Some examples of mitigation equipment are:
• Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) are extremely popular for computers: personal
computers, central servers, and process-control equipment. For the latter equipment the
costs of a UPS are negligible compared to the total costs.
• Motor-generator sets are often depicted as noisy and as needing much maintenance. But
in industrial environments noisy equipment and maintenance on rotating machines are
rather normal. Large battery blocks also require maintenance, expertise on which is much
less available.
• Voltage source converters (VSCs) generate a sinusoidal voltage with the required
magnitude and phase, by switching a DC voltage in a particular way over the three phases.
This voltage source can be used to mitigate voltage sags and interruptions.
7.1.8 Improving Equipment Immunity
Improvement of equipment immunity is probably the most effective solution against
equipment trips due to voltage sags.
But it is often not suitable as a short time solution. A customer often only finds out
about equipment immunity after the equipment has been installed.
. Some specific solutions toward improved equipment are:
• The immunity of consumer electronics, computers, and control equipment (i.e.,
single-phase low-power equipment) can be significantly improved by connecting
more capacitance to the internal DC bus. This will increase the maximum sag
duration which can be tolerated.
• Single-phase low-power equipment can also be improved by using a more
sophisticated DC-DC converter: one which is able to operate over a wider range of
input voltages. This will reduce the minimum voltage for which the equipment is
able to operate properly. Ex: 230V AC LED bulb instead of incandescent bulb
 The main source of concern are Adjustable-Speed Drives. We saw that AC drives
can be made to tolerate sags due to single-phase and phase-to-phase faults by
adding capacitance to the DC bus. To achieve tolerance against sags due to three-
phase faults, serious improvements in the inverter or rectifier are needed.
 Improving the immunity of DC adjustable-speed drives is very difficult because the
armature current, and thus the torque, drops very fast. The mitigation method will
be very much dependent on restrictions imposed by the application of the drive.
 Apart from improving (power) electronic equipment like drives and process control
computers a thorough inspection of the immunity of all contactors, relays, sensors,
etc., can also significantly improve the process ride-through.
When new equipment is installed, information about its immunity should be
obtained from the manufacturer beforehand. Where possible, immunity
requirements should be included in the equipment specification.
7.1.7 Different Events and Mitigation Methods
Figure 7.3 shows the magnitude and duration of voltage sags and interruptions resulting from various
system events.
“For different events, different mitigation strategies apply.”
• Sags due to short-circuit faults in the transmission and sub-transmission system are characterized
by a short duration, typically up to 100ms.
These sags are very hard to mitigate at the source and also improvements in the system are seldom
feasible. The only way of mitigating these sags is by improvement of the equipment or, where this turns
out to be unfeasible, installing mitigation equipment. For low-power equipment a UPS is a
straightforward solution;
• As we saw in Section 7.1.3, the duration of sags due to distribution system faults depends on the
type of protection used, ranging from less than a cycle for current-limiting fuses up to several
seconds for overcurrent relays in underground or industrial distribution systems. The long sag
duration makes that equipment can also trip due to faults on distribution feeders fed from another
HV/MV substation.
• For deep long-duration sags, equipment improvement becomes more difficult and system
improvement easier.
• The latter could well become the preferred solution, although a critical assessment of the various
options is certainly needed. Reducing the fault-clearing time and alternative design configurations
should be considered.
• Sags due to faults in remote distribution systems and sags due to motor starting
should not lead to equipment tripping for sags down to 85%. If there are problems
the equipment needs to be improved. If equipment trips occur for long-duration sags
in the 70%-80% magnitude range, improvements in the system have to be
considered as an option.
• For interruptions, especially the longer ones,

improving the equipment immunity is no longer
feasible. System improvements or a UPS in
combination with an emergency generator are
possible solutions here.
7.4 THE SYSTEM-EQUIPMENT INTERFACE
The interface between the system and the equipment is the most common place to
mitigate sags and interruptions.
 Most of the mitigation techniques are based on the injection of active power,
thus compensating the loss of active power supplied by the system.
 All modern techniques are based on power electronic devices, with the voltage
source converter being the main building block.
Terminology is still very confusing in this area, terms like "compensators,"
"conditioners,“ "controllers," and "active filters" are in use, all referring to similar
kind of devices.
7.4.1 Voltage-Source Converter
Most modern voltage-sag mitigation methods at the system-equipment interface contain a
so-called voltage-source converter.
 A voltage-source converter is _a power electronic device which can generate a
sinusoidal voltage at any required frequency, magnitude, and phase angle.
 The principle of the voltage-source converter is shown in
Fig. 7.26.
 A three-phase voltage-source converter consists of three
single-phase converters with a common DC voltage. By
switching the power electronic devices on or off with
a certain pattern an AC voltage is obtained. One can
use a simple square wave or a pulse-width modulated
pattern. The latter gives less harmonics but higher
losses.
 The same voltage-source converter technology is also
used for so-called "Flexible AC Transmission Systems" or
FACTS and for mitigation of harmonic distortion and
voltage fluctuations .
7.4.2 Series Voltage Controllers-DVR
7.4.2.1 Basic Principle. The series voltage controller consists of a voltage source converter in series with the
supply voltage, as shown in Fig. 7.27. The voltage at the load terminals equals the sum of the supply voltage
and the output voltage of the controller:
A converter transformer is used to connect the output of the voltage-source converter to the system.
A relatively small capacitor is present on DC side of the converter. The voltage over this capacitor is kept
constant, by exchanging energy with the energy storage reservoir. The required output voltage is obtained by
using a pulse-width modulation switching pattern. As the controller will have to supply active as well as
reactive power, some kind of energy storage is needed.
The term Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) is commonly used instead of

series voltage controller. In the DVRs that are currently commercially
available large capacitors are used as a source of energy. Other
potential sources are being considered: battery banks, superconducting
coils, flywheels.
The amount of energy storage depends on

i) the power delivered by the converter and
ii) on the maximum duration of a sag.
The controller is typically designed for a certain maximum sag duration and
a certain minimum sag voltage.
• The reduction in active power requirement with increasing (negative) phase-
angle jump is explained in Fig. 7.30.
• Due to the phase-angle jump the voltage at system side of the controllers
becomes more in phase with the load current.
 The amount of active power taken from the supply

thus increases and the active power requirement
of the controller is reduced. This holds for a
negative phase-angle jump and a lagging power
factor.
 For a leading power factor, a negative phase-angle

jump increases the active power requirements, as
shown in Fig. 7.31.
7.4.3 Shunt Voltage Controllers-StatCom
A shunt-connected voltage controller is normally not

used for voltage sag mitigation but for limiting reactive
power fluctuations or harmonic currents taken by the
load.
Such a controller is commonly referred to as a
"Static Compensator" or "StatCom.“
"Advanced Static Var Compensator" (ASVC) and
"Static Condensor" (StatCon).
A StatCom does not contain any active power storage
and thus only injects or draws reactive power.
Limited voltage sag mitigation is possible with the
injection of reactive power only, but active power
is needed if both magnitude and phase angle of the
pre-event voltage need to be kept constant.
The principle of a shunt voltage controller is shown in
Fig. 7.41.
The actual controller has the same configuration as
the series controller. But instead of injecting the
voltage difference between the load and the
system, a current is injected which pushes up the
voltage at the load terminals, in a similar way to
the sag mitigation by a generator discussed in
Section 7.2.
• The circuit diagram used to analyze the controller's operation is shown in
Fig. 7.42. The load voltage during the sag can be seen as the superposition
of the voltage due to the system and the voltage change due to the
controller. The former is the voltage as it would have been without a
controller present, the latter is the change due to the injected current.
• Assume that the voltage without controller is
• The load voltage is again equal to 1pu:

Figure 7.42 Circuit diagram with power
system, series controller, and load. Full circuit
(top), voltages without controller (center),
effect of the controller (bottom).
Figure 7.43 shows the amount of active power injected by the
controller to maintain the voltage at its pre-event value. We see that
for zero impedance angle the active power requirement is independent
of the source impedance.
The injected voltage is the required voltage rise at the load due to the
injection of a current into the source impedance. This injected voltage
is the difference between the normal operating voltage and the sag
voltage as it would be without controller. The injected current is the
injected voltage divided by the source impedance.
In phasor terms: the argument (angle, direction) of the injected current is the
argument of the injected voltage minus the argument of the source impedance.
The source impedance is normally mainly reactive. In case of a sag without
phase-angle jump, the injected current is also mainly reactive. A phase-angle
jump causes a rotation of the injected voltage as indicated in the figure. This
leads to a rotation of the injected current away from the imaginary axis. From
the figure it becomes obvious that this will quickly cause a serious increase in
the active part of the current (i.e., the projection of the current on the load
voltage). The change in the reactive part of the current is small, so is the change
in current magnitude.
7.4.3.1 Disadvantages of the Shunt Controller.
• main disadvantage of the shunt controller is its high active power

demand.
• Another disadvantage of the shunt controller is that it not only in
increases the voltage for the local load but for all load in the system.
Advantage of a shunt controller
The main advantage of a shunt controller is that it can also be used to improve the current quality of
the load. By injecting reactive power, the power factor can be kept at unity or voltage fluctuations due
to current fluctuations (the flicker problem) can be kept to a minimum. The shunt controller can also
be used to absorb the harmonic currents generated by the load.
7.4.4 COMBINED SHUNT AND SERIES CONTROLLER.
• The series controller, as discussed before, uses an energy storage reservoir to
power part of the load during a voltage sag. We saw that the series controller
cannot mitigate any interruptions, and that it is normally not designed to mitigate
very deep 'sags (much below 50% of remaining voltage). There is thus normally
some voltage remaining in the power system. This voltage can be used to extract
the required energy from the system.
• Series-connected converter injects the missing voltage, and a shunt connected
converter takes a current from the supply. The power taken by the shunt
controller must be equal to the power injected by the series controller.
• The principle is shown in Fig. 7.47. Series- and shunt-connected converters
have a common de bus. The change in stored energy in the capacitor is
determined by the difference between the power injected by the series converter
and the power taken from the supply by the shunt converter. Ensuring that both
are equal minimizes the size of the capacitance.
7.4.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages.
The main advantage of the shunt-series controller
is that it does not require any energy storage. It
can be designed to mitigate any sag above a certain
magnitude, independent of its duration.
This could result in a relatively cheap device, able
to compete with the UPS (see below) for the
protection of low-power, low-voltage equipment.
The shunt converter of a shunt-series controller
can also be used to mitigate current quality
problems, as mentioned above with the discussion
of the shunt controller.
The main disadvantage of the shunt-series
controller is the large current rating required to
mitigate deep sags. For low-power, low-voltage
equipment this will not be a serious concern, but it
might limit the number of large power and
medium-voltage applications.

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Introduction to Power Quality

Balaji Institute of Technology and Science,

UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY

• Terms and definitions

• Various Power events in power quality

• causes for reduction in power quality.

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 2

❖The waveform of electric power at

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 3

❖These distortions may propagate

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 4

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 5

1. Deregulation of electricity market

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 6

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 7

❖Synchronous phenomena refer

• Faults or lighting strikes on

1. Newer-generation load equipment

There is no universal agreement for

❖Any power problem manifested in

The power supply system can only

Therefore, the standards in the

1. Current resulting from a short

3. Distorted currents from harmonic-

Voltage VoltageSags/ Harmonic

IDENTIFY RANGE Utility Utility End-Use End-Use Equipment

Figure 1.2 Basic steps involved in a power quality evaluation.

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 32

❖It is unidirectional in polarity

❖Impulsive transients are normally

❖1 . 2 *50-µs 2000-volt (V) impulsive

❖The most common cause of impulsive

❖1 . 2 *50-µs 2000-volt (V) impulsive

❖The most common cause of impulsive

❖It is a sudden, non–power frequency

❖It includes both positive and negative

❖ It consists of a voltage or current

❖The spectral content subclasses

❖Med Freq: Primary Freq

❖ Low Freq: Primary Freq component

❖Long-duration variations encompass

❖ It can be either overvoltages or

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 43

❖Long- duration variations are

❖Due to switching events that are the opposite

❖When the supply voltage has been zero for

❖This term has been defined to be more

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 47

This category encompasses the IEC category of voltage

Each type of variation can be designated as,

An interruption occurs when the supply

1.Power system faults

3. Control maUNlIfT.1uPnOWcEtR iQoUAnLIsTY

❖The interruptions are measured by their

❖The duration of an interruption due to a

❖Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit

❖ The duration of an interruption due to

❖ Figure shows such a momentary

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 51

❖The duration of an interruption due to