Ovid's Heroides

OVID’S HEROIDES
This volume offers up-to-date translations of all 21 epistles of Ovid’s Heroides. Each
letter is accompanied by a preface explaining the mythological background, an
essay offering critical remarks on the poem, and discussion of the heroine and her
treatment elsewhere in Classical literature. Where relevant, reception in later lit-
erature, film, music and art, and feminist aspects of the myth are also covered. The
book also contains an introduction covering Ovid’s life and works, the Augustan
background, the originality of the Heroides, dating, authenticity and reception. A
useful glossary of characters mentioned in the Heroides concludes the book. This is
a vital new resource for anyone studying the poetry of Ovid, Classical mythology
or women in the ancient world.
Paul Murgatroyd has lectured at the University of Natal, South Africa, and
McMaster University, Canada, in a career of over 40 years. He is the author of 11
books and over 90 articles in the field of Classical literature, especially Latin poetry,
and is a published Latin poet in his own right.
Bridget Reeves received a PhD from McMaster University, Canada, and currently
teaches in Hamilton, Canada. Her research interests are in story-telling, both in prose
and in verse, with a focus on the mythological character Europa.
Sarah Parker is a part-time instructor in the Classics department at Brock Uni-

versity, Canada. Her research interests are the ancient novel – those by Apuleius in
particular – and Latin literature in general.
OVID’S HEROIDES
A New Translation
and Critical Essays
Paul Murgatroyd, Bridget Reeves

and Sarah Parker
First published 2017
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D., author. | Murgatroyd, Paul,
translator, writer of supplementary textual content. | Reeves, Bridget,
translator, writer of supplementary textual content. | Parker, Sarah
(Classicist), translator, writer of supplementary textual content.
Title: Ovid’s Heroides : a new translation and critical essays/Paul
Murgatroyd, Bridget Reeves, and Sarah Parker.
Other titles: Heroides. English (Murgatroyd, Reeves, and Parker)
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016053015 | ISBN 9781138722156 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138722163 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315193724 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D.—Translations into English. |
Epistolary poetry, Latin—Translations into English.
Classification: LCC PA6522.H4 M87 2017 | DDC 871/.01—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016053015
ISBN: 978-1-138-72215-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-72216-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-19372-4 (ebk)
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CONTENTS
Prefaceix
Introduction1
Heroides 1 Penelope to Ulysses 7
Heroides 2 Phyllis to Demophoon 22
Heroides 3 Briseis to Achilles 32
Heroides 4 Phaedra to Hippolytus 43
Heroides 5 Oenone to Paris 56
Heroides 6 Hypsipyle to Jason 66
Heroides 7 Dido to Aeneas 76
Heroides 8 Hermione to Orestes 89
Heroides 9 Deianira to Hercules 99
Heroides 10 Ariadne to Theseus 111
Heroides 11 Canace to Macareus 121

viii Contents
Heroides 12 Medea to Jason 132
Heroides 13 Laodamia to Protesilaus 153
Heroides 14 Hypermestra to Lynceus 164
Heroides 15 Sappho to Phaon 173
Heroides 16 Paris to Helen 186
Heroides 17 Helen to Paris 200
Heroides 18 Leander to Hero 212
Heroides 19 Hero to Leander 221
Heroides 20 Acontius to Cydippe 230
Heroides 21 Cydippe to Acontius 240
Glossary of characters in the Heroides250

Select bibliography 257
Index260
PREFACE
This work is aimed in particular at Classical Civilization students taking courses on

myth, women and Ovid. Its aim is to present a translation of the Heroides which is
both reliable and readable and basic literary criticism which will make the letters
come alive and have impact, enhancing appreciation and plain enjoyment of the
poetry.
The introduction covers Ovid’s life and works; the Augustan background; origi-
nality of the Heroides; dating; authenticity; reception; and overall evaluation (e.g.
feminist issues, tone, artificiality, monotony, novelty as narrative and elegy).
The translation, based on the best text available (Goold’s revised Loeb), is meant
to be accurate and accessible, so that the poems really reach readers. It is not literal
(because that often makes for clumsiness and obscurity), but it does not leave out
(or import) anything significant. This involves some explication (to avoid masses
of notes) and the watering down of many erudite allusions (‘Hercules’ instead of
‘Alcides’ etc.). There is a couplet for couplet correspondence.
Each translation is preceded by a short preface, pointing out differences from the
previous letter (to preclude charges of monotony), and explaining the mythological
background, so students can grasp what is going on in the epistle when they read it.
Each translation is succeeded by critical remarks on the poem itself, highlighting
salient features (pathos, humour, sources etc.) and bringing out different levels and
layers. These are deliberately selective rather than comprehensive. As such, they are
intended to appeal to readers and stimulate them; and so they will steer clear of dry
scholarship (e.g. arguments about authenticity) and aim at variety (e.g. not go on
about sources constantly). Feminist criticism is obviously important, but does not
dominate to the exclusion of other approaches. There are questions for students, to
draw them in, and references to other scholars for different points of view. These
essays also go beyond the poem itself, filling out the picture with regard to the
heroine and the treatment of her elsewhere in Classical literature (with stress on
x Preface
Ovid and high points in other authors).Where relevant, reception in later literature
and in film, music and art is also covered. There are discussion topics as well, and
exercises to involve readers creatively with the heroine and her story.There is also a
glossary of people mentioned in the Heroides to conclude the book.
As this is a wide-ranging investigation, three scholars have collaborated on it –
Dr Bridget Reeves, Dr Sarah Parker and Dr Paul Murgatroyd. We would like to
thank Adrienne McBride, a student of Westdale Secondary School, who carefully
examined the translations and essays for clarity and appeal. In particular, we were
very fortunate to be able to draw on the scholarship and expertise of Dr Ray Clark,
who offered constant support, went through the whole book with great thorough-
ness and perception and suggested numerous improvements.
Paul Murgatroyd, Bridget Reeves and Sarah Parker
INTRODUCTION
Almost all of what we know about Ovid (full name: Publius Ovidius Naso) comes
from his own poetry. He was born on the twentieth of March 43 bc and was a
teenager when Augustus became Rome’s first emperor. He came from a well-off
middle-class family in Sulmo (an Italian town about ninety miles north of Rome).
He was sent to Rome to be educated, along with his brother, who was a year
older than Ovid, and who showed promise as a lawyer, but tragically died young,
aged twenty. In Rome Ovid studied Latin and Greek language and literature and
also rhetoric (the art of public speaking), and he finished his education by touring
Greece, Sicily and Turkey. He became interested in poetry while still a boy, and
during his rhetorical training showed himself a good speaker, but already his com-
positions seemed like free verse. His literary tastes were encouraged by the presence
in Rome of the great poets of the day, whom the young Ovid worshipped. His
father wanted him to follow a conventional career in the world of law and politics,
and Ovid did make a start at that, but he soon rebelled and rejected it for a life as a
poet, giving the first public reading of his verse when his beard had been cut once
or twice.
He was one of the ‘Augustan’ writers (i.e. those who wrote when Augustus was
emperor), and he took pleasure in being part of a golden age of poetry in Rome. In
producing personal love elegy he followed in the footsteps of three other illustri-
ous elegists – Gallus, Propertius and Tibullus. Also active during this period were
Horace, who is most famous for his lyric Odes, and Virgil, who is best known for
his epic Aeneid, and who is generally considered to be the major Roman poet. Each
of these authors was distinctive and original, but they all held in common certain
views on the nature of poetry. Their verse did certainly appeal to the heart, but
it was also highly intellectual and very sophisticated. These were cultured men,
intimately acquainted with mythology and with their (Greek and Roman) literary
predecessors, and they let their erudition in these (and other) areas pervade their
2 Introduction
works. They also composed very polished poetry, paying close attention to metre,
style and language. Wit, complexity and ingenuity are often in evidence too. Ovid
embraced all of that, and added his own particular sparkle.
He was a prolific and versatile author and became much admired himself by
younger poets. He devoted himself to the pleasures of writing and moving in intel-
lectual circles. He had a house in Rome, and a country villa, where he could work
in solitude (he enjoyed writing in his orchard in particular). He was married three
times, and was especially close to his third wife, to her daughter (who was his step-
daughter and a poetess herself) and also to his own daughter (by his second wife).
Ovid’s enjoyable way of life in smart Roman society came to an abrupt end
in ad 8, when he was banished by the emperor Augustus to Tomis, a port on
the Black Sea (modern Costanza, in Romania). He tells us that this was for two
reasons – a poem and a mistake. The poem was the Ars Amatoria, which was
charged with teaching adultery (something that was now a criminal offence),
even though Ovid explicitly stated in it that it was not for married women.
The mistake was according to the poet a more serious matter and hurt the
emperor deeply. What it was exactly remains a mystery. He says that he witnessed
something unintentionally, but never explains what. He tried to win recall from
Augustus and from Tiberius (his successor as emperor), but did not succeed. In
his appeals to them to help him get permission to return Ovid was forced by
a strange irony to send poetic letters to his wife and friends back home similar
to those he invented in the Heroides for heroines writing to separated lovers. He
spent the rest of his life at Tomis in misery and frustration, far from his beloved
Rome, and finally died there in ad 17, aged fifty-nine.
The choice of Tomis as a place of exile for Ovid seems very harsh, even calcu-
lating and vindictive. It was in a barely settled province at the ends of the empire.
The city had originally been founded by Greek colonists, but the majority of the
population were local tribesmen, and the Greek inhabitants had largely gone native.
There he was virtually cut off from Greek as well as Roman culture.This poet, who
enjoyed an audience and relished their criticism as essential to the creative process,
was deprived of such an audience, and complained that writing a poem you could
read to nobody was like dancing in the dark. This highly urbane and civilized
author was sent to live among savages, and after avoiding military service as a young
man he was now exposed to raids by fierce tribesmen and had to put in time on
the city walls to defend the place. Although there will be some exaggeration and
omission in his depiction (due to his depression and in an attempt to win pity),
Ovid paints a truly bleak picture of Tomis and the surrounding area. According to
him no Latin and only a barbarous form of Greek was spoken there. He says that
the food and water were bad, the air was unhealthy and the countryside was ugly,
savage and treeless. He describes long winters of cold so bitter that it froze rivers
and the sea and the wine in the jar (so that you had to break off chunks to drink)
and made men’s hair tinkle with ice, while the wind seared the skin, blew tiles
off the roofs and even knocked down whole buildings. There were also maraud-
ing barbarians – wild horsemen from the steppe who rode across the frozen river
Introduction 3
Danube, attacking the town and its outlying farms, and carrying off cattle and even
the peasants themselves.
As we said, Ovid was a versatile and prolific author. He is renowned as a love
poet. In addition to the Heroides (on which see below), he wrote the Amores (‘Loves’),
witty and amusing elegies about the ups and downs of his love life, especially with
his beautiful mistress Corinna. He also composed the Medicamina Faciei Femineae, a
treatise on women’s cosmetics (of which the first 100 lines survive), and two clever
and mock-solemn didactic poems (poetry of instruction). In the first, the Ars Amatoria
(‘Art of Love’), he tells men and women how to conduct a successful affair, and in the
second, the Remedia Amoris (‘Remedies for Love’), with typical inversion he explains
how to terminate a liaison. The best translation of the Amores is that of Lee (truly in
the spirit of Ovid), and there is a fine version of the Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris
by Turner; also worth mentioning is the translation of all those poems by Green 1982.
For literary criticism on the love poetry in general see Lively and Armstrong 2005.
Ovid also produced a tragedy, the Medea (now lost), and the Fasti, a poetic calen-
dar, in which he tells a lot of mythological stories connected with the stars and rites
and festivals mentioned in the poem. The first six books (on the months January to
June) survive. He is perhaps most famous for the Metamorphoses, a great collection
of myths involving change, in which he shows his narrative abilities at their best
in a series of highly amusing and moving accounts. In Tomis he wrote the Tristia
and Epistulae ex Ponto, pieces reflecting on his exile and trying to secure a return to
Rome, and the Ibis, a lengthy and learned curse on an enemy. For translations see
Boyle & Woodard (Fasti), Raeburn (Metamorphoses), Green 2005 (Tristia and Epis-
tulae ex Ponto) and Mozley (the Ibis, and some other poems which were dubiously
attributed to Ovid). For literary criticism see Murgatroyd (on the Fasti), Galinsky
1975 and Fratantuono (on the Metamorphoses), and Williams and Claassen (on the
Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto). There is an enjoyable general survey of Ovid’s works
by Mack. For more in-depth treatment see any of the three Companions (edited by
Hardie, Boyd and Knox 2009).
The Heroides are twenty-one fictional letters in Latin verse (elegiac couplets).
The first fifteen (called the single Heroides) are addressed by women to men whom
they love and from whom they are in some way separated; 1–14 are by mytho-
logical heroines, while 15 is by the Greek poetess Sappho. In the double Heroides
(16–21) there are three pairs of epistles, in each of which a man writes to a mytho-
logical female whom he loves and receives a reply from her (Paris and Helen; Lean-
der and Hero; Acontius and Cydippe). The dating of these poems is difficult and
controversial. However, most modern scholars agree that the single Heroides were
an early work, contemporary with the Amores (which were composed from about
26 bc onwards), and the double Heroides were produced later, round about the time
of Ovid’s exile. The authenticity of many of these letters has been questioned, with
9, 15 and 16–21 coming in for particularly strong suspicion. The debate continues,
but most critics now accept that 1–14 were by Ovid. We see no good grounds for
denying Ovidian authorship of any of the Heroides, and feel that even if they were
not all composed by Ovid, they are all interesting and well worth studying.
4 Introduction
At Ars Amatoria 3.346 Ovid claimed that the Heroides amounted to a new poetic
genre, and it does seem that there was here typical innovation by our poet, as no
other collection of verse letters by mythological characters prior to him has sur-
vived. But to create this unique form he drew on various elements in the rhetorical
and literary tradition. He was probably influenced to some extent by his training
at school in rhetoric, especially by two exercises – the suasoria, in which students
had to advise a mythological or historical personage to follow a certain course of
action, and ethopoeia, in which they had to compose a speech by a mythological or
historical figure at a particular point. Ovid will also have drawn on monologues by
heroines in Greek and Roman tragedy, and elsewhere in literature on poems and
passages in which females actually speak out or are represented as speaking out for
themselves. No doubt he had an eye to actual ancient epistles (real and invented),
and the idea of a poetic love letter in particular may have come from the third
poem in Propertius’ fourth book of elegies, which purports to be a Roman wom-
an’s letter to her man, who is absent on a military campaign (although the relative
dating of the Heroides and the Propertian poem is uncertain).
Ovid in general has had a massive impact on subsequent literature, art and
music (see Hardie 249ff., Knox 2009 395ff., Boyd 383ff. and Ziolkowski). The
Heroides especially were picked up by Chaucer, Shakespeare, Marlowe, Donne,
Pope and Tennyson, while Dryden called them Ovid’s most perfect piece of
poetry; they were very influential in the middle ages and reached the height
of their popularity in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (see
White). Tastes change. For much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the
poems were written off by misguided and mentally lazy critics as monotonous
laments, mere rhetorical exercises that were inconsistent in tone and so on. This
was based on superficial skimming, and there was very little in-depth analysis
or close reading. For a long time there were just two book-length studies of
the epistles in English. Howard Jacobson’s Ovid’s Heroides, on the single letters
(1–15) only, came out in 1974. In the first part of this work each of the fifteen
poems receives its own chapter of critical appreciation, paying attention to aspects
such as sources, structure, authenticity, characterization and the psychology of
the heroine. The criticism is generally sober and often illuminating, but he tends
to be dismissive of wit, and unfortunately the Latin is not translated, so you will
experience some difficulty in following Jacobson’s points. The final six chapters
branch out into bigger questions, like the dating of the Heroides, the nature of
the genre and variation within the collection. In 1985 Florence Verducci’s Ovid’s
Toyshop of the Heart was published. In it there is a shrewd and spirited reaction
against earlier censure of the poems for artificiality, lack of involvement and inap-
propriate frivolity and irreverence. She concentrates on the role of parody, irony
and especially wit in Heroides 3, 6, 10, 11, 12 and 15 (and she provides translations
of the Latin and Greek that she cites). Important articles (and a book in German
by a scholar called Spoth) also started to appear at this time, studying in detail the
elegiac and epistolary elements in the Heroides, and probing with real insight their
relationship to Ovid’s literary models.
Introduction 5
At the start of the twenty-first century there was a sudden flurry of feminist
criticism of the collection with three books which present interesting and chal-
lenging new ways of looking at the letters (and translate all Latin quoted). Efrossini
Spentzou’s Readers and Writers in Ovid’s Heroides saw the light of day in 2003. She
views the epistles as expressions of female culture, with the heroines struggling for
control over their own destiny and their own stories (consciously challenging and
contradicting male accounts by Homer, Euripides, Virgil etc.), as they turn them-
selves from girls who are written about to girls who write, and tell their tales in
accordance with the female way of constructing a story. Sara H. Lindheim’s Mail
and Female came out in the same year. She maintains that on the surface Ovid
empowers women to tell their own tale, but has them make the hero each time the
protagonist and point of reference for their self-definition and construct themselves
to ensure that they will be the hero’s eternal object of desire.This leads to disjointed
self-portraits, as they try on contradictory roles, and there are repetitions in the
Heroides because Ovid gives the women a limited repertoire of roles, making them
all alike, in contrast to the actual diffuseness of women. In 2005 Laurel Fulkerson’s
The Ovidian Heroine as Author was published. She sees the heroines as a community
of authors who read each other’s letters and base their strategy in their own epistle
on that of others which they think would help them attain their end. Although
they can misinterpret and be misguided about this, they can also learn from another
writer’s mistakes and success.
It remains to offer our own overall evaluation.The Heroides have suffered in par-
ticular from people approaching them with unreasonable expectations and closed
and lazy minds, trying to impose on them their own view of what the poems should
be like and consequently feeling disappointed and criticizing them when they do
not conform to that. It is important, and only fair, to grant Ovid his prerogative as
the author and allow him to make of the epistles what he wants to make of them.
Heroides 1–15, 17, 19 and 21 are letters ostensibly written by various heroines, and
Ovid does give them personalities and lets them speak up and make their own points.
But he is producing highly sophisticated poetry with various levels in a multifaceted
performance, and he gives the women a voice and character to suit his poetic pur-
poses (as he does with the male letter-writers in Heroides 16, 18 and 20). It was not his
intention to catch the essence of femininity or to provide a full, detailed and nuanced
recreation of the heroines. Allowing them to express their own identity or to explore
women’s issues was simply not a major thrust of the collection.
Given the situations of the writers and the often tragic outcomes of their stories,
many readers assume that the epistles will be characterized by sadness. We do cer-
tainly find pathos in the Heroides, and Ovid was very skilled at creating it. However,
by no means all of the poems or all parts of them are poignant (and a long succes-
sion of mournful letters would be tedious in the extreme). Some are tragicomic,
with a piquant tonal mixture, while others are mainly witty and humorous. In this
way there is an intellectual as well as an emotional appeal.
Some object to the artificiality of the Heroides. These are obviously not meant
to be seen as genuine letters (often it would have been impossible for them to
6 Introduction
be written or sent to the addressees). Their epistolary form is a literary device

(a means of giving an old story a new focus and so on). Ovid is not bothered about
the lack of realism, and in fact sometimes jokes about it (see, for example, the
opening lines of Her. 3). We should not be bothered by it either. After all, we don’t
criticize ballet or musicals for being artificial. Rather we should suspend disbelief,
go along with the fiction and enjoy it.
A common complaint has been that the poems are monotonous. In fact, if one
looks carefully, it is clear that on the contrary there is a tour-de-force aspect and
Ovid has set himself a challenge over ringing the changes in a series of epistles.
There is deliberate variation from letter to letter, as will be pointed out in the
essays on the individual poems below (see also Jacobson 381ff. on the variety). At
the same time, with typical dexterity, Ovid also forges links between individual
Heroides, whether set right next to each other or widely separated (several of these
are mentioned in the essays below; for more on the correspondences see Barsby
16f. and Kenney 18ff.).
Something else that makes for liveliness is the fact that this is a new form of mythi-
cal narrative. It catches a particular moment in the tale and now explores it for us by
means of an epistolary setup, ensuring that our attention is taken by our ability to read
over the writer’s shoulder, as it were, and gain intimate insights into her or his feelings.
This format also makes for an engagingly fragmentary and oblique account of events,
with lots of allusion and foreshadowing (hints of what will happen subsequently).
The Heroides also offer an elegiac retelling of stories common in epic and tragedy,
with interesting and diverting spins to Ovid’s sources.There is a new focus and a new
perspective for myths, putting the stress on love and giving us the point of view of
just one character, very often a female one for a change, and one who has frequently
been peripheral or marginalized in past treatments. That makes for a very personal
and often coloured version of events, with omission, distortion and so on.
This form represents a way of enlivening Latin elegy too. As in those personal
poems, there is an ‘I’ speaking here about love, desires, experiences etc., but with a
striking inversion it is a female or a hero rather than the male poet-lover who speaks
(and is misused, makes appeals, behaves humbly etc.). Here too Ovid explores new
erotic areas – not just the relationship of the lover and his girl, but also the love of
husband and wife, stepmother and stepson, sister and brother. There are also many
twists to the standard themes, language, situations and imagery of Latin elegy. See
further Mack 69ff. and Liveley 59ff.
One last thing worth bearing in mind (and something that many critics have
ignored) is the fact that the author of the Heroides is Ovid, who also wrote the bril-
liant Amores, Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris. So don’t expect something dull or
simple. We are moved certainly, but we are also entertained and dazzled. Here too
we find cleverness and complexity; a typical admixture of ingenuity, inventiveness
and versatility; and very dense poetry, with different layers beneath the appeals – in
particular wit, humour (often subtle and dark), irony, stylistic polish, narrative skills
and constantly a creative and combative engagement with earlier authors.
Heroides 1
PENELOPE TO ULYSSES
First of all some background information, so you will be able to understand Penel-
ope’s letter (we will do this with the subsequent Heroides too).
A vast Greek army sailed off to Troy (in modern Turkey) to recover Helen, the
beautiful queen of Sparta (in Greece), who had eloped with the handsome Trojan
prince Paris, and so the Trojan War began. The wily hero Ulysses (also known as
Odysseus, the Greek form of his name) went with them. He left behind on his
island kingdom of Ithaca his loving wife Penelope and also his baby son Telemachus
and his mother (who died while he was away) and his father Laertes. The fighting
at Troy was long and hard, and many Greeks died (see lines 15–22 below in Heroides
1). But there were Greek successes too: in one exploit Ulysses and a comrade put
to death a Trojan spy called Dolon and also king Rhesus, who was a Trojan ally, tak-
ing his marvellous horses as spoil; and Achilles killed Troy’s great defender Hector
in a duel and dragged his corpse behind his chariot in revenge, because Hector had
slain in battle his close friend Patroclus, when he masqueraded as Achilles, wearing
his armour. It took ten years for king Priam’s Troy to fall, and Ulysses had to spend
another ten years getting home after that, enduring various hair-raising adventures
(with monsters, cannibals etc.) and being kept prisoner on an island for seven years
by a goddess who was in love with him. During his lengthy absence his devoted
wife remained faithful to him, but she came under intense pressure to remarry
when over a hundred young nobles turned up as suitors for her hand and abused
their right to hospitality, eating and drinking away Ulysses’ fortune. She bravely
resisted them over a long period, keeping them at bay for three years by promising
to marry one of them when she had finished making a shroud, and secretly undo-
ing at night what she had woven during the day, until the trick was found out. But
she was in a weak position, with only her young son, her aged father-in-law and a
few loyal servants (see lines 103–4 below) on her side. Telemachus went to main-
land Greece in the hope of getting news of his absent father from people who had
8 Heroides 1: Penelope to Ulysses
fought with him at Troy (Nestor, ruler of Pylos, and Menelaus, king of Sparta), and
during his absence an old beggar turned up on Ithaca, who was in fact Ulysses in
disguise. When Telemachus returned, Ulysses identified himself to him and enlisted
his help. Then he went to the palace and spoke to his wife, still disguised as an old
stranger. The next day Penelope set up a contest, agreeing to marry any man who
could string Ulysses’ great bow and shoot an arrow through a line of twelve axes.
The suitors who tried failed, but the ‘beggar’ succeeded. He then turned the bow
on the suitors, and with the help of his son and two loyal servants slaughtered them.
After that he finally revealed himself to his wife and was reunited with her. Ovid’s
letter is set after Telemachus’ return and before Ulysses butchers the suitors. In it
Penelope, at the end of her tether, is desperate to persuade her husband to return
and rescue her.
From Penelope to Ulysses, her dilatory husband.

Writing back’s no good. Come in person!
Troy, the town that Greek girls hate, has definitely fallen.
Priam and all Troy were hardly worth the price I’ve paid.
Oh, if only the adulterer Paris had been drowned by a 5
raging sea when he was sailing to Sparta!
Then I wouldn’t have slept alone in a cold bed or be
complaining, all on my own, that the days pass slowly,
and I wouldn’t be wearing out my widowed hands weaving
in an attempt to beguile the long nights. 10
I always feared dangers worse than those you actually faced.
Love is full of fear and anxiety.
I imagined it was you that the brutal Trojans attacked;
I went pale whenever I heard Hector’s name.
If somebody spoke of Antilochus conquered by the enemy, 15
his fate made me fear for you.
If I heard of Patroclus’ death while disguised by Achilles’
armour, I wept, because trickery could fail.
When told how Tlepolemus died, with his blood warming his
opponent’s spear, I worried about you all over again. 20
In short, whenever I got news of a Greek being killed,
my loving heart was colder than ice.
But a sympathetic god looked out for my chaste love:
Troy is ashes and my husband survived.
The Greek chiefs returned, altars smoked with sacrifices, 25
Trojan spoil was dedicated to our ancestral gods.
Young wives made thank-offerings for the survival of their spouses,
who bragged of their destiny outweighing Troy’s;
righteous old men and trembling girls marvelled, and wives
hung on their husband’s lips, as he told his tale. 30
One man outlined brutal battles on the table-top,
Heroides 1: Penelope to Ulysses 9
tracing out the whole of Troy in a little wine:

‘This is the river Simois, this is Sigeum,
here stood old Priam’s lofty palace.
There were Achilles’ and Ulysses’ tents; here the horses dragged 35
off Hector’s mangled corpse, frightened into a gallop.’
Old Nestor told the whole story to your son when he was sent
to ask about you, and he passed it on to me.
He also told of Rhesus and Dolon put to the sword –
one betrayed by sleep, the other by guile. 40
You dared – oh, all too forgetful of your family –
to creep into Rhesus’ camp at night
and kill so many enemies, with only one assistant –
showing great caution and thinking first of me!
My heart kept fluttering with fear, until I heard that you 45
rode Rhesus’ horses back through your camp in triumph.
Troy has been torn apart by the Greeks, her walls razed
to the ground, but what good is that to me,
if I remain as I was while Troy held out and
must do without my absent husband forever? 50
Destroyed for others, Troy survives for me alone, even though
the victors live there and plough with captured oxen.
Where Troy stood, there stands in the ground enriched by Trojan
blood an abundant crop of corn ready for reaping;
curved ploughs strike the half-buried bones of 55
warriors, and grass conceals ruined houses.
You won, but aren’t here, and I’m not allowed to know why
or where you’re callously lingering and lurking.
Any foreigner who lands on our shore only goes away
after being cross-examined by me about you 60
and being given a letter written by me to pass on
to you, if he sees you somewhere.
I sent to Pylos, the land of aged Nestor;
no clear news of you came back from Pylos.
I sent to Sparta; Sparta doesn’t know the truth either. 65
Where are you living or tarrying, apart from me?
Apollo’s Troy still standing would be more useful to me
(ah, my prayers for its fall annoy me now):
then I’d know where you fought, have only war to fear
and be far from the only woman complaining. 70
I’m out of my mind, don’t know what to fear, but fear
everything; there’s so much for me to worry about.
All the dangers on land and sea – I suspect every one
of them of being behind your lengthy delay.
Those are my foolish fears.You men are so promiscuous, 75
you could be captivated by some foreign mistress.

Perhaps you tell her how unsophisticated your wife is, the sort
whose wool isn’t coarse while her manners are.
I hope I’m wrong and this accusation fades into thin air.
Don’t choose to be absent when you could return. 80
As I’m on my own, my father Icarius tries to force me
to remarry and criticizes my endless delays.
He can criticize forever. I’m yours and must be called yours.
I will always be Penelope, wife of Ulysses.
But my father is being softened by my devotion to you 85
and my chaste prayers, and is easing up.
A crowd of lecherous men from Dulichium, Same and
hilly Zacynthus descended on me as suitors
and lord it in your palace, with none to stop them,
ravaging your wealthy possessions (our lifeblood). 90
Why tell you of dreadful Medon, Pisander and Polybus
and the grasping hands of Eurymachus and Antinous
and the others? It’s scandalous: by being absent
you’re feeding them all with your hard-won goods.
The beggar Irus and Melanthius, who brings them your goats 95
to eat, are the crowning disgrace on top of your losses.
There are three of us, and we can’t fight – your frail wife,
your old father Laertes and our boy Telemachus.
I almost lost our son recently in a treacherous attack,
as he prepared to go to Pylos against everyone’s wishes. 100
May the gods ensure that in the natural order of things
we die first and he is there to close our eyes.
The herdsman is on our side and so is your aged nurse
and the faithful servant in charge of the filthy sty.
But Laertes is no use at fighting, so he can’t 105
act as king in the midst of our enemies.
If he lives, Telemachus will grow stronger, but at this
point he needs you to help and protect him.
I don’t have the strength to drive the enemies from our home.
Come quickly, and be a great refuge for your family! 110
You have a son (may he survive!), who at his tender
age should have been trained in his father’s ways.
Think of Laertes: he is putting off his dying day
so you can be here to close his eyes.
I was a girl when you left. Even if you come at once, 115
believe me, you’ll see that I’ve become an old woman.
This poem is a good introduction to the whole collection. When composing

Heroides 1, our learned poet looked back over approximately 700 years to Homer’s
Odyssey in particular, a long epic poem in Greek that told of the hero’s adventures
on his way back to Ithaca and described how he reunited with his family there and
re-established himself as king. For text and translation of the Odyssey (and much,
much more) visit the Chicago Homer site (www.library.northwestern.edu/homer)
or the Perseus Project (www.perseus.tufts.edu). Ovid here does something that
he does over and over again in the Heroides: he takes material from a much loftier
genre of poetry and converts it to elegy, putting the emphasis on love and giving
the female real prominence. Here (supposedly) her story and her thoughts and
feelings are related by Penelope herself, instead of the poet Homer, and there is an
unwavering focus on her alone, with son, suitors and servants very much in the
background. Rather than being just one character in the epic poem, she now gets a
whole poem to herself, and it is her voice that we hear and her point of view that
we see (so, for example, the hero’s return is no longer presented as a great adventure
but is something puzzling and worrying). See further Lindheim 43ff. [note that the
abbreviation ‘f.’ means ‘and the following page (or line)’, so 43f. = pages 43–4, while
‘ff.’ denotes more than one page (or line) following].
In Homer Penelope is a figure of great beauty and pathos. She is the faithful and
virtuous wife, devoted to her family and deeply upset by her husband’s prolonged
absence. She is also intelligent and crafty, but her position is not strong and she has
major problems trying to assert her authority over the suitors. (For more on the
Homeric Penelope see Thornton 93ff. and Felson-Rubin.) Nothing was sacred to
Ovid, and typically he makes alterations to the characterization of her found in the
revered Homer, and provides a very entertaining treatment of this widely admired
heroine. So we are given new insights into her mind (as constructed by Ovid): for
instance, there is no parallel in the Odyssey for her fears for Ulysses when she hears
of other Greeks killed (lines 15ff.) or of his exploit with Dolon and Rhesus (45f.)
or for her suspicions of Ulysses being unfaithful and mocking her (75ff.). She is
also pro-active, in writing a letter of appeal to her husband (rather than just weep-
ing and questioning strangers for news, as in Homer). This Penelope is feisty and
assertive too, and Ovid enhances her cunning and devious character in the Odyssey
by incorporating new levels of subtlety for which there is no precedent in Homer.
In Heroides 1 Ovid presents a Penelope who is eloquent and wily like her hus-
band. Her letter is very focused, constantly appealing to her beloved Ulysses and
trying to manipulate the arch manipulator in ways that are both touching and
amusing. Directly and indirectly she often reassures him about her feelings for him
and her behaviour during his time away, stressing how much she loves and misses
him (enough to make her complain about his absence) and how she has remained
true to him, and she frequently attempts to win pity and make him feel bad about
not having returned. At 87ff. she tries scare-tactics too, dwelling on the suitors, to
show Ulysses the great threat to his wife and property. As part of her strategy she
also employs speculation, exaggeration and downright fabrication. So, for example,
at 52ff. she speaks with assurance about the present condition of Troy, but this is
mere (and incorrect) conjecture, to bring out the length of time since the city fell
and the extent of Ulysses’ non-appearance, to make him sorry for her. At 97f. and
(after bringing out the extreme danger to his son) at 105ff. she overstates the youth
of Telemachus (at twenty years old, he is no longer a ‘boy’) and the inability to fight
of her son and father-in-law (in fact later Telemachus battles with Ulysses against
the suitors, and all three of them join in combat with the suitors’ relatives at the end
of the Odyssey). At 37f. and 63ff. she maintains that she sent her son to Nestor and
Menelaus to ask about his father, but in the Odyssey he went without her knowl-
edge and at the instigation of the goddess Athena, so presumably Penelope is here
fibbing to put herself across as desperate to get news of her sorely missed husband,
and pathetically cheated of that (although in Homer Menelaus did know some of
the truth about Ulysses and passed it on to Telemachus, who told her, contrary to
the claim in 65). Comically in line 100 she slips up, probably because she is under
stress and in such an anxious state, by suggesting that she did not want Telemachus
to go to Nestor and Menelaus and he went on his own initiative. Not only is the
virtuous Penelope telling lies to her husband but also it would appear that she is not
quite as sly and as consistently good a liar as Ulysses.
Given the happy ending to Penelope’s story, this epistle could never be really
sad; but there is something that makes it particularly diverting, when we are finally
allowed to piece together the timing of its composition and the identity of the
recipient. From 37f. we learn that Telemachus has returned from his trip to main-
land Greece, so Ulysses must be already on Ithaca. From 59–62 we learn that Penel-
ope hands a letter from her for her husband to every stranger she meets, and at this
point the ‘stranger’ with whom she is in contact is the hero in disguise, so she must
have unwittingly given this letter to Ulysses himself. This means that, when he
reads it, as somebody already there and well informed about the situation, he will
see through the above-mentioned ploys by his wife (but no doubt enjoy them, as
a trickster himself). It also means that there is extensive irony here, as she tries so
hard to get him to come home when he is there all the time, gives him news about
the state of affairs on Ithaca and about his son when he knows all that, and says that
Telemachus needs his father’s influence when he is already receiving it. See if you
can spot for yourself similar irony throughout the poem, for example in lines 1, 18,
43, 57f., 66, 80, 93f. and 115.
Like all of the Heroides this is a multifaceted composition, and one final facet
worth considering is allusion to specific lines in Homer. At 75–8 there is a clever
use of a passage in the Odyssey. Penelope has heard from Telemachus the news
he picked up from Menelaus that Odysseus (Ulysses) was kept as a most unwill-
ing prisoner on the island of a goddess (Calypso), and at 75ff. she builds on that,
expressing the fear that he may have fallen in love with some foreign female and
be telling her mockingly about his wife’s lack of sophistication. This is particularly
entertaining for us because we know something that Penelope does not. At Odys-
sey 5.214ff. Odysseus did speak about his wife to a foreign female with whom he
was staying (Calypso), but he did not love Calypso, and when he spoke to her, so
far from criticizing Penelope, he stated his preference for his mortal wife over that
beautiful deity and said how much he longed to see his spouse again, even if that
meant enduring great danger at sea on his way home. Then again Penelope is not
entirely wrong, as we with our superior knowledge can see, because the hero did
get more involved with another female (the goddess Circe), with whom he lived of
his own free will for a year. Although the Odyssey is the main model for Heroides 1,
lines 39–46 refer to the story of Dolon and Rhesus as told in the other famous epic
poem by Homer (Iliad 10.218ff.). They demote Odysseus’ companion Diomedes,
who is not even mentioned by name, making him a mere assistant and Odysseus
the one who slaughtered king Rhesus and his men, whereas in Homer Diomedes
did the killing and Odysseus just stole the horses. So, entertainingly, Penelope (a
character of the Odyssey) blends into this letter (which is predominantly based on
the Odyssey) an episode from the Iliad, and in so doing ‘corrects’ the account in the
Iliad, giving greater prominence to the hero of her own Odyssey.
Homer depicts the sequel to this epistle – the reunion of Penelope and Odysseus –
in book 23 of the Odyssey. It is one of the high points in the poem, touching and also
amusing. Her acceptance of Odysseus is held back over many lines to create a build-
up and to make us feel a similar relief and joy when she does finally recognize him
as her husband. Obviously we see here the devoted wife’s deep love for her man. We
also see her shrewdness: she is understandably cautious after all she has been through
and all the tales she has been told by strangers, and she decides to establish beyond
a doubt that this is her husband. She is not intimidated by his rebukes and makes a
spirited response to them at 174ff. She is quick-witted too, picking up on his demand
for a bed and turning that to her advantage with a clever test for him in connection
with their bed. The test succeeds, and she manages to outwit the archetypal trickster
by taking him in, so that he thinks their bed has actually been moved and comes out
with an unconsidered outburst that unintentionally proves his identity. This shows
that she has an intelligence which matches that of her husband, and the simile (com-
parison) at the end of the passage also draws together subtly Penelope and the great
sailor Odysseus, who had been shipwrecked himself.
At 23.1ff., after Odysseus has killed the suitors, he sends the old nurse Eurycleia
to Penelope. She assures her mistress that her husband has returned. Penelope really
wants to believe it, but is wary. She agrees to go and see the man who killed the
suitors, and gazes at him in bewilderment, sometimes seeing a likeness to Odys-
seus, but at other times seeing just a beggar in rags. Telemachus criticizes her for
being hard-hearted and not accepting her husband, and she tells him that she is in
shock, but if it really is Odysseus, there are secret signs that will prove it. Odysseus
says that she is disdainful of him because he is dirty and dressed in rags, but she will
soon come round. He asks Telemachus to leave them alone, and then goes off for a
bath. The goddess Athena strips away his disguise as an old beggar, gives him added
beauty and makes him look like a god. He returns, sits in a chair opposite his wife
and says (166ff.):
‘You are a strange person. The gods who live on Olympus have
given you a heart harder than that of any other woman.
No other wife would steel herself like this
to hold back from a husband who returned
home after twenty years full of suffering. 170

But come, nurse, make up a bed for me to
sleep alone, as she has a heart of iron.’
Cautious Penelope made this reply to him:
‘You are a strange person. I’m not at all haughty or disdainful,
or overwhelmed by the change in you – I remember very well what 175
you looked like when you sailed from Ithaca on your long-oared ship.
Now, Eurycleia, take the other servants and place the sturdy bed
outside our bedroom, which he built so skilfully with his own hands;
make it up there spreading bedclothes on it –
fleeces and blankets and bright coverlets.’ 180
So she spoke, testing her husband.
Odysseus now asks angrily who moved the bed from its original position in the
bedroom, and wonders how it could have been moved, because he constructed it
himself, building the bedroom around an immovable olive tree, which he trimmed
and made into one of the bedposts. Penelope’s response to that comes at 205ff.:
At his words she went weak at the knees and her heart melted, 205
as she realized he had given her incontrovertible proof.
In tears, she ran straight to him, flung her arms
around his neck, kissed his head and said:
‘Don’t be angry with me, Odysseus: you’ve always been the most
understanding of men. Our misery was due to the gods, 210
who begrudged us a life together, enjoying youth
and reaching the threshold of old age with each other.
But don’t be irritated with me now or indignant because
I didn’t give you a loving welcome the moment I saw you.
Inside, in my heart, I was always afraid that some 215
stranger would come here and trick me with
lies (there are lots of evil, scheming people).
Helen of Argos, Zeus’ daughter, fell in love with a
stranger and slept with him. She wouldn’t have
done that if she’d known that Greek warriors 220
were going to fetch her back to her own country.
But a god drove her to behave so disgracefully.
Before that she hadn’t contemplated that fatal madness
which immediately brought misery to her and to us.
But now, as you’ve given clear proof by mentioning the 225
secret of the bed, which no other human has seen
apart from you and me and a single servant-girl
(Actoris, who my father gave me when I came here,
and who was the doorkeeper for our well-built bedroom),
you really have won over my hard, hard heart.’ 230
Her words made Odysseus weep, and he held his dear, loyal wife in his arms.
She was in tears too, and wouldn’t take her arms from his neck, as happy to see
him as shipwrecked sailors are to see land after swimming to shore through a
stormy sea.
This is all very affecting, but here, as generally in the Odyssey, Penelope is cir-
cumscribed and confined to her role as wife and mother.We learn a bit more about
Penelope from literary sources other than Homer, although most of the material
still concerns her role as a wife. For example, we are told that Odysseus acquired
her as his bride by winning a foot-race among suitors for her hand or because her
uncle Tyndareus persuaded her father to give her to Odysseus in thanks for some
excellent advice he had received from him.Tyndareus was Helen’s father and he was
bothered that there might be a quarrel among her many suitors, until Odysseus sug-
gested that he should get them all to swear an oath to defend the one chosen as her
husband if he was ever wronged in connection with his marriage (when Paris took
Helen off to Troy, this oath was called upon to assemble the great army of Greeks
that went to get her back). Some relate that while Odysseus was at Troy a rumour
spread that he had died there, and in great grief Penelope threw herself into the
sea, but was miraculously saved by birds, which lifted her up and brought her back
to shore. But others claimed that she committed adultery with the suitors and that
she gave birth to the minor deity Pan, fathered either by the god Hermes/Mercury
or by all of the suitors (linking Pan with the Greek word pantes, meaning ‘all’). For
more on this hostile tradition see Jacobson 246ff.
This bawdy version of Ulysses’ wife is found in Latin poetry too. At Amores
1.8.47f. Ovid makes a foul old procuress maintain that Penelope set up the archery
contest to size up her suitors as lovers, with the bow of horn used to reveal their
sexual stamina. A more elaborate version occurs in Horace Satires 2.5, written a few
years before Ovid. This poem satirizes a particularly unpleasant feature of Roman
society at that time – will-hunting (i.e. courting rich people with no children as
heirs, in the hope of getting included in their will). It consists of ironical advice
on how to achieve that, put across in a memorable form. In the Odyssey during his
return from Troy Odysseus visited the Land of the Dead to get advice about his
journey home from the ghost of the prophet Tiresias.With a comic addition to that
sombre scene in Homer, Horace makes Odysseus put one more question before
their interview ends. As he faces the prospect of arriving on Ithaca with no money,
he asks how he can restore his fortunes. In reply Tiresias tells him to insinuate him-
self into the affections of a rich old man, so that he can inherit from him. Although
two Greeks are speaking, incongruously the sphere of operations is Horace’s Rome,
and it shows two heroic figures in a distinctly unheroic light, with the implication
that even they would be infected by the rampant immorality there. So the wise and
revered prophet offers immoral advice, and the great warrior is perfectly ready to
put it into practice and demean himself. Penelope is dragged into all this at 75ff.
First Tiresias actually advises Odysseus to prostitute his own wife to a rich old man.
In his response Odysseus is not shocked or outraged, and doesn’t defend the vir-
tue of his paragon of a spouse, but just doubts if he could persuade her to do that.
Tiresias then easily removes his doubts with a few cynical remarks (which also leave
Odysseus unmoved).
‘If he’s a lecher, don’t wait to be asked, be obliging and 75

readily hand over Penelope to your better.’ ‘Do you think
she can be persuaded, a lady so pure and proper, who the
suitors weren’t able to tempt away from the straight and narrow?’
‘Yes! The lads who turned up are mean with their presents,
more interested in the palace cooking than in sex. 80
That is why your Penelope is chaste. Just you make her
your partner and let her taste some cash from one old man –
she’ll be like a dog that can’t be scared away from a juicy bone.’
The image in that final line conjures up a picture of the heroine aggressively pro-
tecting her interests, absolutely unwilling to give up her prize, snarling, slavering
and so on. But all this is not so much anti-Penelope as anti-Rome. The idea is that
even as noble and virtuous a woman as Penelope would be corrupted by degener-
ate Roman society.
Penelope’s popularity in literature (and cinema) extends well beyond the ancient
world down to our own day (see Grafton & Most & Settis 699f.). Probably the most
bizarre use of the heroine was made by Jacopo Ugone in 1655. He claimed that the
Odyssey was an allegory that prophesied events in connection with the Catholic
church.Thus Ulysses represents St Peter, and Penelope stands for the church threat-
ened by wicked reformers (the suitors), while the pope (Telemachus) protects the
church until St Peter returns and defeats the reformers. I have to admit that this
does leave me wondering what St Peter was doing with Calypso for seven years.
Even more amusing than that is the Coen brothers’ film O Brother,Where Art Thou?
(released in 2000), which is a very creative and ingenious updating of the Odyssey.
In it Penelope is even more feisty than she is in Heroides 1; in fact she is the domi-
nant partner in the relationship, and although she has only one suitor (who beats
up Ulysses) she is perfectly prepared to marry him.
James Joyce’s long and challenging novel Ulysses concerns the thoughts and
actions of two men in the Irish city of Dublin one day in 1904. The men are Ste-
phen Dedalus, a young schoolmaster who decides to give up his job and wander
the town, and Leopold Bloom, an advertising agent who roams the streets while
his wife (the infamous Molly Bloom) entertains her lover at home. Leopold Bloom
(= Ulysses) and Stephen Dedalus (= Telemachus) reenact those two heroes’ expe-
riences in the Odyssey among modern equivalents of characters and places in the
epic poem and finally come together. This is a naturalistic novel of early twentieth-
century city life, exposing much of its shabbiness and shoddiness. There are ironic
contrasts between the worlds of Homer and Dublin, bringing out the mundane,
sordid and provincial nature of the Irish town. A particularly strong contrast is that
between the wives of the ancient Ulysses and the modern Bloom. The Irish Penel-
ope is a fading singer who has had many lovers and is currently having an affair
with her manager, Blazes Boylan. Her husband, who is unfaithful himself, knows
about it and feels jealousy, but does nothing about the situation. In the Odyssey the
hero and his wife are joyfully reunited and retire to bed, where they make love, talk
about all that has happened during their years apart and then fall asleep. Ulysses ends
with Leopold Bloom returning home, joining his wife in bed and giving her a short
(edited) account of what had happened that day and then falling asleep, while she
lies awake, thinking about her erotic encounter with Boylan earlier that day and
about her other lovers, at length and in lecherous detail.
Recently Margaret Atwood has produced an entertaining and thought-provoking
new take on Penelope’s story in her novel The Penelopiad. In it the dead heroine
tells her own story, and proves to be sharp-witted and sharp-tongued, given to
amusing asides about our modern world. There is a down to earth and deflating
realism: what the suitors really wanted was Odysseus’ kingdom and his posses-
sions, as his wife was by then ageing and had put weight on around the middle;
and she herself sometimes daydreamed about going to bed with one or more
of them. This Penelope is also smart and more in control of events when her
husband returns: she sees through his beggar disguise at once, but pretends to be
taken in so as not to hurt his feelings, and she deliberately sets up the contest with
the bow so that he can win it and claim her as his wife. The book also explores
with sympathy and indignation the story of the twelve unfaithful maids in the
palace, who were involved with the suitors and who were subsequently hanged
on Odysseus’ orders, and they provide interludes as a sort of chorus. For more
on later versions of Penelope see Stanford (index under Penelope), Graziosi &
Greenwood 62ff., 243f. and Hall 115ff.
Penelope also figures in art. In both the Greek and the Roman worlds artists
focused almost exclusively on her role as the dutiful yet grieving wife. The heroine
is often seen pining away for her beloved husband, either seated mournfully on
her own or in the company of others, who seem to try unsuccessfully to engage
the inconsolable woman in conversation. The Chiusi Vase (about 440 bc) by the
Penelope Painter illustrates such a pathetic scene (type in Chiusi Vase in the Google
Images search engine and view the first image), and encapsulates very well the pres-
entation of Penelope as the archetypal Greek wife. This red figure skyphos shows
in the foreground a weary Penelope seated on a stool, her head leaning on her
right hand, as her arm rests on her leg. To the left is a standing Telemachus, holding
two lances in his left hand, as he looks down at his broken-hearted mother. Single
ornate palmettos frame the scene. In the background stands an upright, warp-
weighted loom with a partially woven cloth depicting silhouetted gryphons in
profile (see further Roller & Roller 14).With her downcast eyes and slouched body,
Penelope looks forlorn and tired. While Roller & Roller 18 argue that her sadness
stems from knowing that she is about to unravel a section of the shroud which she
has just completed, a psychologically dismaying task for a weaver, perhaps a more
likely cause for her grief is the fact that her husband is absent. Here sits a woman
weary of the charade of the shroud and tired of wondering where her husband is.
And having her son in attendance is a poignant reminder for Penelope, and for us,
the viewers, that she has raised Telemachus alone in the absence of his father. No
wonder she looks wiped out!
Deviations from the mourning Penelope are extremely rare in antiquity –
actually, even when reunited with Odysseus, the heroine is frequently depicted as
seated sadly as her husband approaches her. But an intriguing mosaic from Apamea
dating to the third quarter of the fourth century ad illustrates how the Homeric
couple were possibly employed for allegorical purposes (type in Ulysses Penelope
mosaic Apamea Brussels in the Google Images search engine and view the first
image).The multi-coloured mosaic, which was found in a building beneath a cathe-
dral, is a piece extending over two metres in length, most of which is decorated
with geometric patterns, though there are other panels too (see further Dunbabin
169f.). In one panel, labelled Therapenides (Maidservants), are a number of danc-
ing maidservants, welcoming home the wandering Odysseus who, recognizable
from his traveller’s cap, stands beneath an arch in the embrace of a veiled Penelope.
Both appear to the left of the panel. Dunbabin notes that there are several other
panels and figures (like Socrates and Poseidon, as well as personifications such as
Bythos = Judgment) on this mosaic and acknowledges that Apamea was a centre
for Neoplatonic philosophy. Others, however, go further, suggesting that Odysseus
stands for the Sage who is welcomed home from his travels by Philosophy, repre-
sented by Penelope (see, for example, Montiglio 183 n. 69), due to the philosophic
interest at Apamea. Philosophy, therefore, wraps her arms around the wise Sage who
has wandered but finally returned.
Away from ancient art the iconography of Penelope expands somewhat, so that
by the sixteenth century the heroine is not just languishing on her derrière, although
those types of scenes do still persist. For instance, there is an exquisite painting by
the renowned Bernardino di Betto (1454–1513), nicknamed il Pintoricchio ‘the
little painter’ (see further Hartt & Wilkins 327f.). This shows Penelope weaving as
her suitors enter the room (type in Pintoricchio Penelope in the Google Images
search engine and view the first image). One of three frescoes by Pintoricchio for
Petrucci’s palace in Siena, this painting of Penelope with her suitors (about 1509)
demonstrates the interest artists of the early 1500s had in showing perspective on
multiple planes.
In the foreground Penelope, elegantly dressed in a contemporary blue gown,
sits to the left of the composition at her loom, with her lady’s maid seated on the
ground and holding a tray of yarn. To the right four suitors enter from a doorway
at the back of the room. As the men approach, each grows in size, indicating some
perspective. Far in the back the last man to enter is Odysseus, wearing the disguise
of a beggar. The foreground is also marked by the frame of the loom, which takes
up much of the area of the room. Painters of this time were particularly keen on
incorporating open windows to extend the canvas view (see Hagen & Hagen 121).
Thus out through the window, in the background, scenes of Odysseus’ adventures
are depicted. To the right is Odysseus’ ship, with the hero tied to the mast, as the
Sirens sing to him. His crew-members, unable to endure the Sirens’ song further,
plunge themselves into the water. Off to the left is a scene depicting Odysseus’
meeting with Circe. The two are surrounded by Odysseus’ men who were turned
into swine by the witch.The painting is a complex composition, seemingly focused
on Odysseus (his trials and soon now his revenge – note the bow and arrows on
the wall against which Penelope sits); however, Penelope does figure largely. She still
appears as the dutiful wife who awaits her husband’s return, but, as Hagen & Hagen
112 shrewdly point out, the focus is on the loom and Penelope’s trickery. Just as
Odysseus used his cunning against the Sirens and Circe, and now uses it in his
disguise in order to enter his home and seek his revenge, so too Penelope employs
great deceit against the suitors.
When commissioned by King Francis I of France in 1532 to decorate the royal
chateau Fontainebleau, the Italian-born painter Francesco Primaticcio began an
extensive and elaborate gallery of scenes from the Odyssey (see further Fiorenza
795ff.). Most of the murals have been destroyed, but a splendid scene entitled
Ulysses and Penelope (painted about 1560) survives and resides now in the Toledo
Museum of Art (type in Primaticcio Penelope in the Google Images search
engine and view the first image). The painting is an exceptional work which,
while drawing attention to the couple, really highlights Penelope. In this scene
Primaticcio recalls Odyssey 23.30ff., where after making love the married pair
recount to each other their trials and tribulations before being reunited. Both fig-
ures are nude, though covered by bed-sheets from the waist down. Ulysses, who is
to the left of the composition, raises himself up with his right elbow as he turns
his head towards Penelope, who faces forward and is seated to her husband’s left.
The hero turns his wife’s head with his upraised left hand so that she faces him
and a profile of her face is shown. Penelope appears to be engrossed in her narra-
tive, as her hands are raised and she seems to count with her fingers the number
of her past troubles, but with that subtle turning of the head the two lovers are
caught in a spellbinding gaze.
Primaticcio makes Penelope the central figure of this composition – she is
located in the middle of the painting, but attention is drawn to her in other ways
as well. There is a definite chiaroscuro effect, with the light falling on her, while
Ulysses is shadowed and the background even more so. In addition, by making
Ulysses grasp the heroine’s chin the painter draws the eye towards her. Penelope’s
animation also seems to give her prominence in the piece. Lastly, Primaticcio devi-
ates from Homer by drawing attention to the heroine – in the Odyssey it is the hero
who recounts his story at length, not Penelope, so what is depicted here is a reversal
of roles in which the heroine and her account are the real focus, as Fiorenza 807
astutely recognizes.
In the eighteenth century the Swiss-born history painter Angelica Kauffman
embraced Penelope and made the heroine the focus of her oeuvre. Kauffman
came to London in 1766 and established herself as a leading artist in Neoclassical
England and was one of the founding members of the Royal Academy in 1768
(see further Roworth 11ff.). During her time in England Kauffman produced
numerous paintings of Penelope, some of which had never appeared before in
the iconography of the heroine. Penelope Invoking Minerva’s Aid for the Safe Return
of Telemachus (1774) is just such a novel work of art (type in Kauffman Penelope
Minerva in the Google Images search engine and view the first image). Penelope
is centrally located in this composition at an altar upon which stands a miniatur-
ized full-length bronze statue of the Roman goddess Minerva (= Greek Athena).
The heroine is framed by her attending maidservants, three on the left and one
on the right behind her, all of whom are carrying gifts for the goddess. Penelope
wears a brilliant embroidered white gown, which further stresses her prominence
in this painting, especially as it stands in marked contrast to the darker jewelled
gowns of her servants. Neoclassical elements are present, such as the classicizing
decoration of the altar, the women’s attire and pale aquiline profiles (see fur-
ther Rosenthal 20ff.). While Penelope’s maidservants are occupied in tasks and
conversation, the heroine gives her attention solely to the goddess, raising her
right hand along with her gaze, as she implores the deity for the safe return of
Telemachus from Greece. A real sense of Penelope’s helplessness comes across in
her supplication of the goddess, which is in striking contrast to the portrayal of
her as a cunning woman in her iconography. Although she is often shown as the
one in control as she deceives her suitors, Kauffman’s painting depicts a mother
caught up in the world of men (compare Rosenthal 25).
Where is Penelope? You might be asking yourself why there was a lack of interest
in Penelope in art. A Google search on artistic representations of her in comparison
to, say, Medea or Helen of Troy or any number of ancient heroines would lead you
to the conclusion that Penelope appears only rarely in art. Why is that, and, when
she does figure, what is the motivation behind her appearance? Does a painter need
an ulterior motive beyond painting something that hasn’t been painted before?
These are just some of the questions that you may be asking yourself, so consider
the following, and see if you agree.
Penelope could be viewed as a bit of a bore. As Roworth 37 rightly claims,
Penelope was not suicidal, a passive victim or suitable for erotic representation. One
could infer that because she was not a virgin she would not pique the interest of a
god looking down for an easy conquest. Rather she was a faithful wife and devoted
mother of a grown man. In short she may not have appealed to many artists intent
on arousing voyeuristic patrons. But the fact that she does appear in art suggests that
she holds great appeal for some painters. For Pintoricchio it has been suggested that
in a corrupt period, in which trickery was key to survival, artwork demonstrating
skill at deception was valued, at least by Petrucci, the artist’s patron, who consid-
ered himself rather crafty (see further Hagen & Hagen 122). Primaticcio seems to
have turned to the female protagonist after exhausting himself with Ulysses in the
Galerie d’Ulysse at Fontainebleau; but Fiorenza 812 also points out that Penelope
captivated aristocratic females looking for models for themselves. And what about
Kauffman, whose repertoire, for the most part, centred on the Odyssean heroine?
This painter appears to have dedicated her life to Penelope. Rosenthal 18 percep-
tively argues that for Kauffman Penelope was the ‘metaphorical embodiment of
the female historical narrator’ and that Kauffman had a close affinity to this female
protagonist. Just as Penelope wove her shroud and controlled the narrative of her
future, so too Kauffman, as one of a handful of female history painters, wove her
own narrative in her paintings.
For some, and maybe even for you, there is only one question: why wouldn’t
Penelope be painted? Here is a great example of the idea that numbers don’t matter.
The representations of Penelope that are out there simply give us something more
from antiquity to enjoy.
Heroides 2
PHYLLIS TO DEMOPHOON
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 13:40 08 June 2017
The Heroides have been accused of being repetitious, and to a lazy reader taking a
superficial view they may seem to be just a series of complaints by abandoned females.
But in fact Ovid is careful to ensure a lively variety, and there is even a tour-de-force
aspect, as he constantly rings the changes (as well as forging links between some
letters) in a typically clever and complex display. So there are marked differences
between this poem and the last one, with regard to the writer’s character (Phyllis is a
naive young woman of Thrace, a land to the north of Greece) and her situation (she
has been deceived, used and deserted by her man, who will not come back to her),
and the epistle’s tone, which is consistently sad, and its purpose (on which see below).
Demophoon, an Athenian prince, sailed into a harbour in Thrace with his ships
seriously damaged and was given shelter there by queen Phyllis. She fell in love with
him, and he pretended to love her, married her and took her virginity, before sail-
ing on to Athens when his fleet was repaired. He promised to return a month later,
but did not. She writes this letter four months after his departure, still very much
in love, but deeply hurt by his continued absence and accusing him of breaking his
word. At 69ff. she contrasts him with his father, the great hero Theseus, who killed
brigands, conquered monsters, murdered the king of the Greek city of Thebes, and
even went down to the Underworld, trying to abduct its queen from her palace
there. She also accuses Demophoon of admiring his father’s treachery in abandon-
ing the princess Ariadne, who had helped him beat the monstrous Minotaur, and
who was later rescued and claimed by the god Bacchus as his wife (79f.). After
maintaining at 117ff. that her marriage to him was an ill-omened affair, attended
by the Furies (sinister goddesses of the Underworld), she ends by telling how she
still paces the shore looking for his ship and is now set on committing suicide.

Demophoon, this is your Phyllis (who gave you shelter in Thrace),
complaining that you didn’t return when you promised to.
It was agreed you would sail back and anchor here
Heroides 2: Phyllis to Demophoon 23
a month later, when the moon was full again.

The moon has waned and waxed four times since then, 5
but your ship hasn’t appeared in our waters.
If you count the days (and we lovers count them carefully),
this complaint of mine isn’t premature.
My hope lingered, like you. We’re slow to believe what it hurts us to believe.
Now you are guilty, but your lover hardly credits it. 10
I’ve often lied to myself for you, often imagined the gusty
south wind was bringing back your white sails.
I cursed Theseus for not letting you go, but perhaps he
wasn’t the one who stopped you setting out.
Sometimes I feared your ship had sunk on its way to our 15
river Hebrus, wrecked by foam-white waves.
I often begged and prayed to the gods for you to be well,
you criminal, and burnt incense in supplication.
Often, when I saw in the sky and on the sea that the wind was
favourable, I said to myself: ‘If he’s well, he’s on his way.’ 20
In short your faithful lover came up with all the things that slow
someone down, and I was good at finding excuses.
But you’re lingering somewhere else.Your oaths by the gods don’t
bring you back and you’re not moved to return by love for me.
The winds took your sails and your words. It hurts that 25
your sails don’t return and your words aren’t true.
Tell me, what did I do wrong except love unwisely? That’s
a mistake that might have won your heart.
You criminal, my only crime was taking you in, but that
crime is equal and equivalent to a kindness. 30
What happened to your obligations, the pledge of your hand-clasp
and Cupid, who was always on your lying lips?
What happened to the marriage-god, the guarantor vouching
for our promised years together as man and wife?
You swore to me by the sea (all churning with winds and waves), 35
on which you had surely sailed and would sail again,
and by Neptune, your grandfather (unless that’s a lie too),
who calms the ocean when it’s whipped up by winds,
and by Venus too, Demophoon, and her son’s bow and
torches, those weapons that work on me all too well, 40
and by kindly Juno, who presides over the marriage-bed,
and by torch-bearing Ceres’ secret rites.
If all those wronged gods punished your perjury, just one
of you won’t be enough for their vengeance.
Ah, I was actually mad enough to refit your battered fleet, 45
so you could safely sail off and abandon me,
and I supplied you with oars when you intended deserting me.
Oh, it was my own weapons that wounded me.
24 Heroides 2: Phyllis to Demophoon
I trusted your seductive words (there were lots of them),

I trusted your illustrious ancestry, 50
I trusted your tears – or are they also taught to pretend,
are they crafty too, flowing as ordered?
I trusted the gods as well. Why swear all those oaths by them?
You could have taken me in well enough with just a few.
I’m not upset over helping you with a port and a place to stay, 55
but my kind hospitality should have stopped there.
I regret the disgrace of going further by sharing my bed with you
as your wife and pressing my body to yours.
I wish the night before that had been my last,
when I could have died with my good name intact. 60
I hoped for better treatment, because I thought I deserved it;
any hope based on what one deserves is reasonable.
There’s no glory in easily tricking a trusting girl! You should
have been considerate to someone so naive.
I was in love and a woman, so I was deceived by your words. 65
God grant that’s your only claim to fame!
Let your statue join your family’s in the middle of Athens,
with pride of place for your father’s, inscribed with his feats.
When men have read there how he slew Sciron, grim
Procrustes, Sinis and the Minotaur, 70
and conquered the Thebans and routed the Centaurs
and knocked at the doors of dark Pluto’s gloomy palace,
let this be inscribed on your statue’s base behind his:
he deceived the girl who sheltered and loved him.
Out of all your father’s exploits his desertion of Ariadne 75
is the one that made a lasting impression on you.
The only deed he makes excuses for is the only one you admire;
you act as the heir of his deceitfulness, you traitor.
Ariadne – I don’t begrudge it – now enjoys a better husband,
sitting on high in Bacchus’ tiger-drawn chariot. 80
But the Thracians I turned down won’t marry me, because of
the rumour I preferred a stranger to my own people.
One of them says: ‘Let her go off to learned Athens right now;
we’ll find somebody else to rule warlike Thrace.
Judge what she did by its outcome.’ God damn the man who 85
thinks actions should be condemned because of how they turn out!
But if your ship came back, they’d claim then that I
acted in the best interest of my subjects and myself.
But I didn’t.You’ll never live here, caring about my palace,
and bathing in a local river after tiring yourself out. 90
I can still picture you as you were leaving, when your fleet
filled my harbour on the point of departing.
You had the nerve to embrace me, draped over your lover’s
neck, pressing on me long, lingering kisses,
and to mingle your tears with my tears and to 95
complain that you had the right breeze for sailing
and to say as your final, parting words to me:
‘Phyllis, expect your Demophoon back!’
Expect you back, when you went intent on never seeing me again?
Expect back sails forbidden to my seas? 100
Yet I do expect you back – just return to your lover, even though
late, untrue to your word only in terms of time.
A stupid request! Perhaps you’ve another wife now and are
in love (something that turned out badly for poor Phyllis).
Now, I suppose, you’ve forgotten me and know no Phyllis. 105
Ah, if you ask who Phyllis is and where she lives,
I’m the one who gave you access to a port in Thrace and hospitality,
after you’d wandered and been driven far and wide,
the rich queen so generous to you in your time of need, who gave
you many gifts, was going to give you many more, 110
who put you in control of her father’s vast kingdom
(which can hardly be governed by a female ruler) –
where icy Rhodope extends to shady Haemus
and the sacred river Hebrus rushes along –
the one who offered you her virginity amid sinister omens 115
and let your treacherous hands undress her.
Tisiphone as my bridal attendant shrieked in that bedroom,
while a screech-owl gave ill-omened hoots.
Allecto was there, with little snakes around her neck, and the
wedding-torches lit for me came from a funeral. 120
Broken-hearted, I pace the shore with its rocks and bushes,
the shore that extends far and wide before my gaze.
Whether the stars shine cold or the ground thaws in the sun,
I look to see which way the winds blow out at sea.
Whenever I see sails approaching from afar, at once I 125
suppose they’re yours, bringing my god to me.
I run out into the water, scarcely impeded by the waves,
into the shallows at the edge of the surging sea.
The closer the sails come, the less able I am to stand;
I faint and collapse into the arms of my maids. 130
There’s a bay that curves gently like a drawn bow;
at its outermost tips are hard, steep crags.
I have decided to leap from there down into the sea; and since you
continue to be false to me, I’ll keep to that decision.
When I’ve jumped, I hope the waves take me to your 135
shores and you set eyes on my unburied body.
Even if you were harder than iron and adamant and yourself,
you’ll say: ‘You shouldn’t have followed me like this.’
I often thirst for poison; often dying a bloody
death run through by a sword appeals to me; 140
putting a noose around my neck also appeals,
because it let you embrace it, you traitor.
I will atone for the loss of my virginity by dying soon;
choosing the form of death won’t take long.
This epitaph (or one like it) inscribed on my tomb will make 145
you notorious and hated as the cause of my death:
demophoon slew phyllis, who sheltered and loved him;
her hand killed, he caused her to kill.
Several critics think that the purpose of Phyllis’ letter is to get her man to
return, and initially that might well seem to be what is going on here, and we
are subtly inclined to make that assumption right after reading Penelope’s epistle,
which did have such an aim. But typically Ovid goes for something different here.
Suddenly at 133ff. Phyllis announces her firm intention to kill herself, soon, and
has even gone so far with that plan as to compose an epitaph for herself. It appears
that in fact she has just about completely given up on the idea of Demophoon
ever coming back – hence her decision to end it all. Lines 89f. and 133f. make
clear her despair, and in the course of the whole letter she overtly appeals to
him to reappear only once, late on and very briefly (at 101f.), and immediately
retracts that as a stupid and pointless request. So Heroides 2 takes the form of a
suicide note, explaining why Phyllis is about to terminate her life. She may be
going over things in her own mind, getting straight for herself what led to her
resolution (which we know from the myth that she will carry out), but the mis-
sive is addressed specifically to Demophoon, so it would be intended to come to
his notice. As such, it points out to him at length and in detail how badly he has
treated her (stressing his exploitation of her, his lies, ingratitude, perjury and per-
fidy), how much misery he has caused her and how responsible he is for her death
(emphasized in the final line, for him to take away with him). She wants him to be
clearly aware of all this, presumably so that he will feel shame, remorse and guilt,
as he should. But even now she is not as hard on him as she could be, and does
not attack him furiously (because she still feels deeply for him), and part of what
she is doing here is assuring him of how much she loved him and continues to
love him right up to the point of imminent death despite all he has done to her.
That is tragic, and there is much else that is poignant in this poem.
The Heroides give readers the impression that they are listening to the authentic
words of various heroines, but this is, of course, just an illusion.The Phyllis encoun-
tered in Her. 2 will not be the real Phyllis (if there ever was such a person). Ovid’s
Phyllis is a constructed character (read Wyke for an interesting treatment of the
construction of the female). The fact that here and elsewhere in the collection the
women are created by a man raises some interesting questions. Is there patriarchal
arrogation of femininity? Is the poet trying to deny the heroines their diversity
and otherness (compare Lindheim on this)? Or is he giving them a voice (which
is generally denied them elsewhere in Classical literature), and is he often sympa-
thetic to them? In their representation of females male writers are frequently guilty
of over-simplifying and producing stereotypes, like woman as whore, woman as
destroyer and woman as gullible victim (see Ginsburg 106ff.; Gorsky and Blinder-
man in Cornillon 28ff. and 55ff.). So you should always consider how individual
and complex the writers in the Heroides are. You should also always bear in mind
that with mythical characters, and even with genuine historical figures (compare
Ginsburg 9ff.), the portrait serves a literary purpose, and in line with that end the
author colours his account and manipulates material, emphasizing traits, repeating
themes, omitting details and so on.
Ovid is a famously flippant and witty author, but he was also a master at creating
pathos (a mood of sadness in a piece of literature) and arousing sympathy for his
characters. These are important elements in many of the poems in this collection
and so merit quite detailed analysis here. The story of what happened to Phyllis is
in itself moving, but our poet’s presentation of it makes it still more moving, as he
builds on the basic outline in various ways. With regard to plot, Ovid drops the
rather off-putting detail found in some versions of Phyllis causing Demophoon’s
death (see below); and he alone makes the hero arrive with his ships badly dam-
aged and has the queen herself (rather than her father) hand over her kingdom to
him, so as to heighten his ingratitude and our outrage at it and pity for her. The
poet chooses to take up the tale at a very sad point. He also goes in for an emotive
opening to his poem, making us really feel for the queen from the very start, where
she is kind and loving but also deceived, miserable and despairing. And we feel for
her throughout Heroides 2. This is partly thanks to her isolation: her father is appar-
ently dead; there is no mention of any other relatives or friends or servants who are
close to her; and she has alienated some of her subjects too (81ff.), because of her
affection for Demophoon. And the characterization of her is consistently affecting
(and realistic): in particular, she is gentle, hospitable and very loving (even now,
despite everything); she is also a young girl, inexperienced and naive; she was very
trusting too, and is now incredulous at his maltreatment of her and ashamed of her
own behaviour. We are also sorry for her throughout because Ovid’s Demophoon
is shown again and again as such a villain, an exploitative and immoral predator,
who makes her look even more noble and vulnerable beside him. The conclusion
of the poem has a bleak impact as well, with its sudden and saddening revelation of
imminent suicide. Placement also plays its part, increasing the poignancy by means
of the contrast with Heroides 1, as we progress from a crafty and amusing letter to
an ingenuous and pathetic one, and from the mature Penelope who has years with
her husband ahead of her to the young woman here who will never see her lover
again and who will shortly die.
In myth there are many more females who help men like this and several of
them appear later on in the Heroides. This kind of Helper is an important type
of figure in the collection, and so we will fill out the picture by presenting a
well-known example from Homer’s Odyssey – Nausicaa, the captivating young

princess who lived in the land of the fairy-tale people called the Phaeacians, and
who assisted Odysseus on his way home from Troy. In addition, comparing Phyllis
with Nausicaa highlights some more Ovidian techniques for producing a mourn-
ful mood. In the Odyssey, in contrast to Heroides 2, we see that a female can offer
aid without pain and misery, and the whole episode is light and charming: there is
just a glancing contact between the hero and heroine, with delicate hints of a mar-
riage that might take place rather than an actual wedding, and Nausicaa does not
get involved emotionally or sexually with Odysseus, and so is not devastated over
his departure. As you read the account below, see if you can find more differences
in the way in which Homer and Ovid present their stories and so sharpen further
your perception of the pathos in Phyllis’ epistle.
At the end of Odyssey 5 the shipwrecked hero, after a long struggle, manages to
get ashore on the Phaeacians’ island and falls asleep, exhausted, near a river mouth.
At the start of book 6 the goddess Athena goes to the room of the lovely princess
Nausicaa and appears to her in a dream, telling her to go and wash her clothes,
which she has been neglecting, as she will soon need beautiful clothing when she
gets married. Next morning Nausicaa asks her beloved father for the use of a wag-
gon, so she can go and do the family washing (too shy to mention her thoughts of
her own marriage). Her fond father agrees, knowing that she is really thinking of
clothes for her own wedding. Her mother gives her a picnic lunch, and she rides
off to the river with her maids. They do the washing, eat and play ball, with Nausi-
caa singing and keeping time for their game, and looking like the goddess Artemis.
When the ball falls into the river, they all shriek, waking up Odysseus. As a result
of the shipwreck he is naked, so he puts a branch in front of himself to conceal his
private parts and, all grimy with salt, advances on the girls, like a mountain lion.The
maids run off in a panic, but the princess bravely stands her ground. In an eloquent
speech Odysseus artfully compliments her, saying that she looks like a goddess, and
remarking on how happy her family must be with her, and how the happiest of
all will be the man who marries her. He begs her to give him some clothes and
tell him the way to town, so he can get help there. Sympathetic and self-possessed,
Nausicaa replies:
‘Stranger, for you don’t seem to be a bad man or a fool,

and Olympian Zeus himself assigns prosperity to men
(to the good and the bad, to each as is His will)
and perhaps he inflicted this on you, which you must just endure. 190
Now, since you have come to this city and land,
you won’t want for clothes or anything else that
an unfortunate suppliant can expect from those he meets.
I’ll show you the town and tell you who we are.
The men who live in this city and land are called Phaeacians, 195
and I am the daughter of great-hearted king Alcinous,
who is the source of the people’s might and strength.’
She then calls the maids back, tells them to give Odysseus food and drink, as it
is important to offer hospitality to those in need, and orders them to bathe him.
He is embarrassed at the latter idea and goes off to bathe on his own. Athena makes
him more handsome and tall and sturdy. When he returns, Nausicaa gazes at him
in admiration, wishing that she could have such a godlike man as her husband. As
he eats, she tells him to follow her in her waggon to the city; when they reach it,
he must turn aside and wait for a while in a grove, because she is afraid that if the
people in the town see him in her company, they will gossip and ruin her reputa-
tion, imagining that the tall and handsome stranger with her must be her future
husband; then he must make his way to the palace and go through the great hall
to her mother, as she is the one to ask for help to get home. Odysseus duly follows
her waggon and waits in the grove, as Nausicaa proceeds to the palace and retires
to her quarters. At this point she drops out of the narrative, as Odysseus goes on
to ask the queen for aid. He is hospitably received, and the next day attends some
splendid games and then a banquet. There we glimpse Nausicaa for the last time, as
her encounter with Odysseus ends with a touching brevity and dignity (8.457ff.):
Nausicaa in her heaven-sent beauty

was standing by the doorpost of the well-built hall.
She looked at Odysseus, full of admiration,
and spoke, sending her words winging to him: 460
‘Good luck, my friend. When you get back to your own country,
remember me, because it’s chiefly to me that you owe your life.’
Resourceful Odysseus said to her in reply:
‘Nausicaa, daughter of great-hearted Alcinous,
may Hera’s husband, Zeus The Thunderer, grant 465
that I do see the day of my return and reach my home.
Then I would pray to you there all my days as though
to a god: for you gave me life, young lady.’
At the banquet he is urged to tell the story of his adventures so far, and does so
at length (in books 9–12), before finally being taken on to his native island of Ithaca
by a Phaeacian ship and crew.
In the Odyssey there are lots of distracting mundane details and even some
gentle humour, but Heroides 2 concentrates solely on the tragedy. Ovid also
achieves emotional impact by keeping the focus entirely on the suffering heroine
(whereas in Homer lots of other people figure, and Nausicaa is not prominent
from the start and all the way through the episode) and by giving her a whole
free-standing poem to herself (while Homer makes Nausicaa’s help just a short
interlude in a long series of adventures recounted in a lengthy epic). In the Odys-
sey there is third person narrative as an account is given by the uninvolved and
fairly detached poet, but in Heroides 2 Ovid comes up with a version coloured by
the thoughts and feelings of someone who was deeply involved in events, to draw
us in and touch us more.
We don’t hear very much about Phyllis elsewhere in Classical literature (for
what we do have see Jacobson 59 and Fulkerson 24), but there are a few extra items
of information that fill out her story. In a tradition deliberately ignored by Ovid,
as Demophoon left, Phyllis gave him a casket and told him not to open it until he
had abandoned all hope of returning to her. He went off and settled on the Greek
island of Cyprus. When the time appointed for his return went by without him
appearing, she called down curses on him and killed herself. He opened the casket,
was struck by fear and galloped off wildly on a horse, which stumbled, throwing
him on to his sword and killing him. Another author says that when he did not
return Phyllis ran down to the shore looking for him nine times, as a result of which
the place was named Nine Roads. After her death her parents erected a tomb for
her, and trees grew there, which at a fixed time shed their leaves in mourning for
Phyllis (hence the Greek word phylla, meaning ‘leaves’). According to a third writer
Phyllis hanged herself in despair and was turned into a leafless almond tree; but
Demophoon did come back, although too late, and he embraced the tree, which
grew leaves as if aware of the return of the hero. The possibility that Demophoon
might actually return (as in this account) makes Phyllis’ impending suicide in Her. 2
even more terrible.
Of references to Phyllis elsewhere in Ovid the most substantial is at Remedia
Amoris 591ff., where he takes us on to her death:
What else harmed Phyllis but the secluded forest?

The cause of her death is certain – lack of company.
She rushed along, as barbarians do with dishevelled hair
when they celebrate a festival of Thracian Bacchus;
and now she gazed at the vast ocean, where she could do that, 595
and now she lay down on the shore, exhausted.
‘Demophoon, you traitor!’ she shouted to the deaf waves,
her words broken by sobs as she spoke.
There was a narrow path darkened by long shadows,
along which she often made her way to the sea. 600
As she walked on it for the ninth time, the poor girl said:
‘On his head be it!’ She turns pale, looking at her girdle
and the branches. She hesitates, shrinking from the reckless
act, and moves her trembling fingers to her neck.
Phyllis, I really wish you hadn’t been alone at that point: 605
then the trees wouldn’t have shed their leaves in mourning for you.
Going by Phyllis’ example, beware of too much seclusion,
lovers hurt by their girl, and girls hurt by their man.
Typically our versatile poet makes some changes when he revisits Phyllis. The
depiction of her end is in itself moving, and Ovid shows a delicate restraint in
not describing the actual hanging. But there is also a light-hearted aspect and a
typical tonal blend. Phyllis is here used as an example of the dangers of solitude
for a flippant piece of advice in a frivolous poem on the trivial subject of how to
terminate a love affair successfully. The advice is that when you have broken up
with a girl, you should not go off on your own (because you will be miserable and
think of her) and you should avoid lonely places; you need company, and should
always have a friend with you. The heroine is cited to prove all this, but in an
unserious way, because the Phyllis that we know was in such deep despair that the
presence of a companion would certainly not have stopped her from killing herself
sooner or later.
Heroides 3
BRISEIS TO ACHILLES
This is a letter by Briseis, the captive awarded to Achilles as his prize by the Greek
army after he took her city and killed her husband and three brothers. At the start
of Homer’s long epic poem called the Iliad king Agamemnon, the commander-in-
chief of the Greek forces at Troy, is forced to return his captive girl Chryseis,
to save the army from a plague visited on them by a god because of his earlier
refusal to give her back to her father. The king demands immediate compensa-
tion, quarrels with Achilles and claims his slave Briseis as recompense for the loss
of his own prize. In his rage Achilles nearly kills Agamemnon, but is checked by
the goddess Athena (Minerva). He retires to his hut, refuses to fight any more
and asks his mother (the sea-nymph Thetis) to get Zeus (Jupiter) to make the
Greeks start losing, so the king will realize how mad he is not to respect the
Greeks’ best fighter. When the Trojans later get the upper hand, in book nine of
the Iliad, a desperate Agamemnon sends an embassy to lure Achilles back, offering
to return Briseis and give him very generous gifts by way of compensation. Still
proud and angry, Achilles rejects the offer and threatens to sail home at dawn on
the next day. It is at this point that Briseis (who has fallen in love with Achilles,
has apparently persuaded herself that he loves her and longs to be reunited with
him) writes her epistle, adding her appeals to those of the ambassadors. Her letter
does not succeed. On the next day the Greeks suffer further serious reverses, and
Achilles allows his great friend Patroclus to masquerade as him by wearing his
armour and drive the Trojans off. But when he does this, Patroclus is killed. Achil-
les is distraught and set on taking revenge on Hector, the Trojan prince who dealt
the fatal blow to Patroclus, even though he knows that his own death will follow
soon after Hector’s. He and Agamemnon end their quarrel, and Briseis and the
gifts are produced, but Achilles has only thoughts for vengeance now and goes off
and kills Hector.The Iliad ends with Achilles restoring Hector’s body to his father
(king Priam) and with the funeral of Hector, Troy’s finest warrior.
Heroides 3: Briseis to Achilles 33
In contrast to the previous poem, Her. 3 is not a despairing announcement of

imminent suicide but an attempt to persuade the addressee to bring about reunion
with the writer. In addition, unlike Phyllis, Briseis will be reunited with her man,
who did not deliberately go off and abandon her, but was pressurized into handing
her over to another unwillingly, and who only threatens to sail away. Further differ-
ences in the two heroines’ situations are discussed below.
What you’re reading comes from stolen Briseis,

written in a foreigner’s clumsy Greek.
Whatever smears you see were made by tears,
but tears are also as weighty as words.
If I may complain briefly about you, my master and my man, 5
I will complain briefly about my master and my man.
Since the king claimed me, it’s not your fault that I was
swiftly surrendered; but it also is your fault.
For the moment that his two heralds asked for me,
I was immediately handed over to go with them, 10
which made them look at each other, silently
wondering what had become of our love.
You could have stalled, pleased me by postponing the pain.
Ah, I went away without giving you a kiss.
But I kept on and on crying and tearing my hair. I was 15
miserable, I felt I’d been taken captive all over again.
I’ve often wanted to slip by the guards and return to you,
but the enemy was there, to seize your timid Briseis.
I was afraid that if I left at night I’d be caught and be
given to one of Priam’s daughters-in-law as a slave. 20
You had to give me up, but I’ve been away all these nights,
not demanded back. All you do is rage on and on.
When I was handed over, Patroclus himself whispered to me:
‘Why are you crying? You’ll be back here soon.’
You don’t demand me back. Worse than that, you actually oppose 25
my return. Call yourself an ardent lover after that?
Achilles, your cousin Ajax and your comrade Phoenix
and Ulysses (son of Laertes) came to you, offering
great gifts to reinforce their coaxing pleas,
trying to secure my return to you, accompanied by 30
twenty ornate cauldrons of yellow bronze and
seven tripods of equal weight and craftsmanship;
added to those were ten talents of gold and twelve
stallions that always win all their races
and something superfluous – Lesbian girls of outstanding 35
beauty, taken captive when their island was sacked,
and with all of that one of Agamemnon’s three daughters
34 Heroides 3: Briseis to Achilles
as your wife – not that you’re short of a wife.

You would have had to pay this to buy me back from
Agamemnon, but refuse to accept it as recompense! 40
What have I done to deserve your contempt?
Where has your fickle love for me fled so soon?
Or does bad luck dog its miserable victims permanently,
with no respite once trouble has started?
I saw the walls of my city (where I had been a 45
person of rank) levelled by your soldiers;
Achilles, I saw my three brothers fall,
comrades in birth and in death as well;
I saw my husband stretched out at full length on the
gory ground, his bloody chest heaving. 50
You were my compensation for the loss of so many:
you were my master and husband, you were my brother.
You personally assured me, swearing by your sea-nymph mother,
that being taken captive was a good thing for me –
only to reject me now, though I come to you with a dowry, 55
only to shun me along with the riches on offer.
What’s more, there’s even a rumour that tomorrow morning
you’ll spread your sails before the cloudy winds.
When I heard of that criminal plan, in my misery
and fear I went pale and fainted. 60
Ah, you’ll go, heartless Achilles, but who are you leaving me to,
who will gently comfort me when I’m abandoned?
May I be swallowed up by some sudden earthquake or
incinerated by a flying thunderbolt’s bright-red fire
before your oars churn up the sea without me on board 65
and I see your fleet sail off and leave me!
If you’re now set on returning to your ancestral home,
I’m not a heavy load for your ship to carry.
I’ll follow my conqueror as captive, not as a wife;
my hands are skilled at spinning soft yarn. 70
The most beautiful woman in Greece by far will enter
your bedroom as your bride (and let her!),
worthy of your father (the grandson of Jupiter and Aegina),
and worthy of Nereus (your mother’s aged father).
I, as your humble slave, will spin the wool I’m told 75
to spin, drawing the thread from the full distaff.
Only please don’t let your wife persecute me
(I know she’ll be hard on me somehow),
don’t let her tear my hair in front of you, while you
disown me as just another girl who used to be yours. 80
Or do let her, provided you don’t spurn me and leave me.
Ah, fear of that makes me shudder in misery.

But why are you waiting? Agamemnon repents his anger,
and Greece lies at your feet, in tears.
Conquer your pride and rage, as you conquer everything else. 85
Why is Hector still busily ravaging Greek troops?
To arms, Achilles! But take me back first. With Mars
on your side, rout the enemy and press them hard!
As your rage began, so let it finish, because of me;
let me cause and end your sullenness. 90
Don’t think it degrading to yield to my pleas:
his wife’s pleas persuaded Meleager to fight.
I’ve only heard the story, you know it. When he killed her brothers,
his mother cursed him – her own son, her hope for the future.
There was a war. He defiantly laid down his arms, 95
withdrew and stubbornly refused to help his country.
Only his wife changed his mind. She’s luckier than me:
my words have no weight and are wasted.
But I’m not resentful, and I’ve not acted like a wife because
I’ve often been called to my master’s bed as a slave. 100
I remember, a captive girl called me ‘mistress’;
I said: ‘That word makes my slavery harder to bear.’
But by my husband’s bones, which were only half-buried
in haste, but will always be revered by me,
by the brave souls of my three brothers (gods to me), 105
who died nobly for their country as it died,
by your head and mine, which shared a pillow,
by your sword, a weapon my relatives knew well,
I swear that Agamemnon has never been in my bed.
If I’m lying, leave me, with my blessing! 110
You’re red-blooded. If I asked you now to swear that
you too have not had sex, you’d refuse.
The Greeks think you’re moping – you’re strumming a
lyre, in the warm embrace of a willing girlfriend.
If anyone asks why you won’t fight – fighting hurts, 115
but the lyre and song and love are enjoyable.
It’s safer to lie on your couch with a girl in your arms
and play a tune on the Thracian lyre
than to hold a shield and a sharp-pointed spear
and support a heavy helmet on your head. 120
You used to prefer illustrious exploits to safety
and get pleasure from the glory won in warfare.
Did you only favour fierce war so you could capture me?
Was the end of my country the end of your prowess?
God forbid! I want you to hurl your spear with that 125
mighty arm of yours right into Hector’s side.

Greeks, send me as your envoy! I’ll plead with my master
and give him lots of kisses along with your message.
I’ll achieve more than Phoenix, more than eloquent Ulysses
and more than Ajax, believe me. 130
To put the arms he knows so well around his neck and let him
see me in person and remember me – that’s no small thing.
You may be pitiless, more savage than your mother’s waves, but
even if I don’t speak, you’ll be broken by my tears.
I pray that your father lives out his full span of years 135
and your son enjoys your good fortune as a warrior,
so have some thought for your poor, worried Briseis now, brave Achilles,
don’t keep on cruelly tormenting me by doing nothing.
If you’ve wearied of me and don’t love me any more, instead of
making me live without you, make me die. 140
What you’re doing now will kill me. I’m thin and pale;
only my hope of you sustains what life is left in me.
If that goes, I’ll rejoin my brothers and husband;
but leaving a woman to die is no great achievement.
But why just leave me to die? Draw your sword, stab 145
me in the chest: there’s still blood in my body to be shed.
Stab me with the sword that you would have plunged in
Agamemnon’s chest, if Minerva hadn’t stopped you.
Ah, rather save my life, which you spared when victorious:
I’m asking as a friend for what you gave me as your enemy. 150
Neptune’s Troy has better people for you to kill:
look for victims for your sword among the enemy.
Whether you’re preparing to sail off or are remaining here,
as my master just order me to come to you.
As part of an intricate network of links in the collection Ovid here makes

connections with the two earlier Heroides, although typically he does also go in
for enlivening variation. For a start, this is a sad letter, like Her. 2, and again we
feel great sympathy for the heroine. In the Iliad (on which Ovid draws heavily:
see Mack 73ff.) Briseis is a pawn in a male struggle over status. Although Achilles
claims to love her at 9.335ff., he is exaggerating to heighten the insult in Agam-
emnon’s seizure of her. He does not really love her, but is more concerned with
his honour and with Patroclus (the one for whom he does have strong feelings). So
in her absence he sleeps with another captive girl (9.664f.). When he is reconciled
with the king (at 19.56ff.), he says that he wishes that Briseis had died rather than
causing the deaths of so many Greeks because of his withdrawal from the fighting,
and he is not bothered about getting her back, but is intent on revenge instead.
When she is returned to him he pays no attention to her, and there is no emotional
reunion (there is only a brief reference to him sleeping with her at the end of the
poem). In line with all that, there is no reason to think that Ovid’s Achilles has
much genuine affection for Briseis either (so this letter fails to persuade him to get
her back). But Ovid gets added poignancy by bringing out how much she loves
him. Ovid seizes on and makes much of the brief and lone aekous’ (= ‘unwilling’)
in Iliad 1.348, when Briseis is taken away to Agamemnon unwillingly. That word
may imply affection for Achilles, but Ovid makes her definitely and very much in
love with him, plausibly enough, as he is handsome, brave and manly, and showed
her some kindness (see lines 53f.), and is now the protector on whom she is reliant
(for the psychological insight in this early instance of the ‘Stockholm Syndrome’ see
Kelly). Tragically her talk of his love for her is self-delusion, as she virtually admits
herself (at lines 5f., 26, 42 and 111ff.), hurt by his inactivity. Her world crumbled,
all she has now is Achilles and she is in the terrible situation of being in love with
the man who killed her husband and brothers. At this point she is totally isolated,
uncertain and afraid for her future, as he is doing nothing to get her back. She longs
to be reunited, but is too timid and vulnerable to speak up strongly and comes out
with only mild reproach, carefully combined with a show of devotion and servile
humility. She will rejoin Achilles very soon, but not because of this epistle, and she
will return only to find that her friend Patroclus is dead (see below for her great
grief over that).
Look for the wide variety of appeals throughout the poem, indicating how
desperate Briseis is, and look at the opening and closing to see how the poet builds
up pathos at those significant points. Consider also how Ovid (who loved to set
himself challenges) actually manages to top himself, making Heroides 3 even sadder
than 2. Do this before going on to the next paragraph, where we mention some of
the major differences in circumstances which make Briseis an even more affecting
figure than Phyllis.
Phyllis was married to her man, whereas Briseis is a concubine, a sex-slave forced
(initially at any rate) to have intercourse with Achilles. Phyllis kept her status and
freedom, unlike Briseis. In contrast to Phyllis, Briseis has witnessed the deaths of
her husband and brothers, and will soon have to deal with two more deaths. When
she wrote her letter, Phyllis was on the point of escaping from her misery, but for
Briseis the suffering will go on, and get worse.
There is a link with Heroides 1 as well, via another Homeric heroine and more
Homeric subject-matter. Again Ovid takes epic material and puts an amatory spin
on it, giving the woman real prominence and presenting an elegiac retelling (for
more on this elegiac aspect and on the extra layer in the clever play with the themes
and language of elegy see Bolton). Again Ovid provides us with the point of view
of a female involved in the action, who is made to speak out for herself (in place of
the third person male narrator Homer). Rather as he developed the Penelope of
the Odyssey, our poet really builds on the Briseis of the Iliad (a distinctly minor
character in that epic), giving her considerably more of a voice, letting us learn what
she (as opposed to Achilles) feels about her seizure, and turning a pawn and a plot-
device into a person. He also offers us an interesting and touching new take on the
quarrel, with the stress on love rather than anger and pride.
But this is a much more provocative poem than Heroides 1. Ovid had rather
irreverent fun with Penelope there, but here the treatment of Achilles is tart and
there is pointed criticism of him. Heroides 3 is not just sympathetic to Briseis but
also diminishes Achilles. It amounts to a love poet’s indictment of the epic hero, the
greatest of the Greeks at Troy. This letter comes right after the embassy to Achilles.
By the Homeric code he was unreasonable in refusing the offer of recompense
made by the official envoys, but on top of that he turns a blind eye to this personal
plea. This epistle clarifies for him Briseis’ sorry state, showing him the massive
impact their separation has had on this loving woman who is totally dependent on
him, and it contains a whole series of desperate appeals to tug at the heart-strings.
When he ignores all of that, he has to appear very cold, callous and selfish. He is
undermined in other ways too. Amid constant complaints and sniping, we see not
Achilles the splendid warrior but Achilles the defective lover. The stress is on him
as an inactive non-fighter rather than a vigorous fighter (the only feat of his men-
tioned appears at 47ff., and that is turned into a reproach). At 113ff. there is under-
cutting mockery of his momentous withdrawal from the war. And Ovid cheekily
uses reminiscences of Homer to debunk the Homeric hero. For example, at 23f. he
picks up the detail of Patroclus comforting Briseis (Iliad 19.295f.) to make Achilles
look bad by way of contrast. At 57ff. he makes much of Achilles’ brief threat to sail
home, showing the awful prospects for her resulting from that, which were appar-
ently not even contemplated by the self-centred hero. And at 111ff. he seizes on
and develops censoriously Homer’s mention of him sleeping with another captive
while deprived of Briseis.
Compare and contrast the handling of Achilles by Ovid at Metamorphoses
12.64ff., where he encounters an invulnerable enemy and is comically slow on the
uptake and frustrated in his attempts to engage him in proper epic combat.
Not much has come down to us from antiquity about Briseis (see Jacobson
12ff. for what there is), and in surviving Classical literature Ovid alone fleshes her
out, giving us here much more than the shadowy outline of the affectionate and
mourning beauty that we find elsewhere. He also adds new twists at Remedia Amoris
475ff. and 777ff., where he makes Agamemnon fall in love with her and copulate
with her, airily correcting Homer, whose king denies having sex with her, and also
contradicting the claim of chastity by his own Briseis here. The two fullest pictures
of her outside of Ovid occur in Greek epic. At Iliad 19.282ff. Homer describes her
sorrow when she returns from Agamemnon to find Patroclus dead (Ovid would
have expected his Roman readers to be familiar with this passage and so be aware
of the grief awaiting her shortly after this letter):
But then Briseis, who looked like golden Aphrodite,

saw Patroclus mangled by the sharp bronze spears.
She flung herself on top of him with a piercing scream and tore
with her hands at her breasts, her soft throat and her lovely face, 285
as beautiful as a goddess. In tears she said:
‘Dear, darling Patroclus, my heart is broken.
When I went from this hut, I left you alive,

but now I return to find you dead, my prince.
For me one grief always follows on another like this. 290
I saw in front of our city mangled by sharp bronze spears
the husband to whom my father and queenly mother gave me
and my three brothers (the same mother bore us all),
my beloved brothers, who all met their day of doom.
But when swift-footed Achilles killed my husband 295
and sacked the city of godlike Mynes, you would
not let me weep but said that you’d make me
godlike Achilles’ wedded wife and take me by ship
to Greece and give me a marriage-feast among his people.
You were always kind, so I’ll mourn your death forever.’ 300
In about the third century ad Quintus of Smyrna wrote an epic called the
Posthomerica which told of the fall of Troy and filled in the gap in events between
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. At 3.551ff. he depicts Briseis a little later on, after Achil-
les has been killed in the fighting. He often echoes scenes from the Iliad, and here
clearly has in mind the above passage, but makes her love and lamentation more
intense for her man than for her friend.
Most of all, in an agony of grief, Briseis, who had

shared the bed of the great warrior Achilles, kept
circling the corpse, tearing her beautiful flesh
with both hands and screaming. She raised
bloody bruises on her breasts as she struck 555
them – it looked like crimson gore had been poured
on milk. But even as she mourned bitterly, her beauty
retained its radiant allure, and grace was all around her.
Groaning in misery, Briseis said:
‘Ai! I’ve never felt agony like this before. 560
I wasn’t as crushed by the killing of my brothers
or the sacking of our spacious city as I am by
your death. For me you were the blessed day,
the light of the sun and my life’s sweetness,
my hope of good, my great protector against adversity, 565
more important to me than all my beauty and my parents.
Although I was your captive, you alone were everything to me.
You freed me from my servile duties and made me your wife.
But now some other Greek will take me on his ship
to fertile Sparta or to thirsty Argos. As his 570
slave I’ll be absolutely miserable and suffer
terribly, separated from you. I wish I’d died
and been buried before setting eyes on your death.’
Such were her words of lament for the dead Achilles,

as she mourned her lord and her man, along with the 575
miserable slave-girls and grieving Greeks. The painful
tears dripped from her eyes to the floor, and
never stopped.
Whereas Ovid deliberately moved away from Homer, gave his heroine more of
a personality and used her for more than just pathos, Quintus’ Briseis may seem
to you so close to the beautiful mourner in the Iliad as to be repetitious. You may
also feel that the misery and love in the Posthomerica are overdone, and the rela-
tive restraint in Homer is more effective. Or do you think that Quintus gets more
impact?
Quintus (7.723ff.) relates that when Achilles’ son (Pyrrhus) turned up at Troy,
he found Briseis among the slaves of his father whom he took over, but we do
not learn of any later event than that. Come up with your own version of how
Briseis’ story ended, and compose a reminiscence by her near death looking back
over her life.
Women often figure in myth as prizes and rewards (e.g. Andromeda, Hippo-
damia and Philonoe, who was given to Bellerophon as a wife). In this category
should be included captives of war, the spoil taken by the victor. Briseis is just
one of many enslaved in the course of the fighting at Troy. We are best informed
about the Trojan royal family and their chilling fall from eminence into servi-
tude. The fifth-century Greek tragedian Euripides wrote three powerful plays
on their plight (Hecuba, Andromache and The Trojan Women), and a little before
him Aeschylus in his famous tragedy Agamemnon handled the end of Priam’s
daughter Cassandra. She was raped at the fall of Troy, and then was taken back
to Greece by Agamemnon as his concubine, where she was murdered along
with the king by his wife (Clytaemnestra) and her lover. Priam’s aged wife
Hecuba, after losing so many of her sons and daughters, was also allocated as a
slave, but was turned into a snarling bitch (see especially the grim narrative in
Ovid Metamorphoses 13.439ff.).
Hector’s wife Andromache was taken as booty too, after her young boy Asty-
anax had been flung from the battlements of Troy to his death, and was given
as a captive to Pyrrhus. The Roman poet Virgil has a poignant account of her
experiences in the third book of his epic Aeneid. There the Trojan hero Aeneas,
who survived and escaped with other Trojans, is telling of his adventures after
he sailed off in search of a new home. In the course of his voyage he lands in
Greece and hears an extraordinary story – that Helenus (one of Priam’s sons)
was a king there and had Andromache as his wife. When Aeneas goes to investi-
gate, he meets Andromache. For our first glimpse of her Virgil shows a sorrowful
figure still devoted to Hector (despite being married to the Trojan prince Hele-
nus) and performing a sad rite all on her own in a gloomy grove, in an attempt
to get some sort of contact with her beloved husband. While summoning the
dead, she is thrown into shock when she suddenly sees Aeneas and his men. She
is incredulous, reasonably imagines that they might be ghosts, and, if they are,
immediately wants to know where Hector’s spirit is.
I set out from the harbour, leaving behind the ships and the shore. 300
Just then by chance in a grove before the city, by a counterfeit
river Simois, Andromache was offering a ritual feast,
a gift of grief, to Hector’s ashes and was summoning his ghost
to the empty tomb (a mound of green turf, which she had
consecrated along with two altars as a place for tears). 305
When she saw me approaching and the Trojan warriors
with me, she was astounded and frightened out of her mind.
She stiffened in mid-gaze, went cold all over and
fainted. After a long time she barely managed to speak:
‘Son of Venus, is it really you, with news for me, not some 310
phantom? Are you alive? Or if the kindly light of life has left you,
where’s Hector?’ With that she burst into tears, and filled the
whole grove with her cries, distraught.
Aeneas assures her that he is real, and asks what has happened to her since she
lost her noble husband. Her reply makes it clear that she has loathed her life since
his death. She actually envies Priam’s daughter Polyxena, who was beheaded as an
offering at the tomb of Achilles, but at least remained at Troy and unviolated, in
contrast to all of Andromache’s suffering. This included impregnation by a hated
enemy (and she gets no comfort for the loss of Astynanax from the product of
a rape). She is so broken that she does not give any sign of pleasure over escap-
ing from Pyrrhus by being passed on to Helenus or exulting over Pyrrhus’ death.
All she has is a pathetic and unsatisfying reproduction of Troy. The only point at
which she becomes animated is when she asks Aeneas about his young son Asca-
nius, showing that she still has a maternal instinct and is worried that he might have
died like her own Astyanax.
She looked down and said in a low voice: 320

‘Ah, Priam’s virgin daughter was the luckiest of us all:
she was sentenced to die at her enemy’s tomb beneath
Troy’s lofty walls, and didn’t endure being drawn by lot
and didn’t enter her conquering master’s bed as a captive.
But I, when Troy burned down, was taken over distant seas, 325
endured young Pyrrhus’ haughty arrogance and bore him
a child in slavery. He then pursued marriage to a Spartan,
to Leda’s grand-daughter Hermione, and passed me on
as a possession to Helenus, one slave to another slave.
But Pyrrhus was stealing the intended bride of Orestes. 330
Fired with love, and driven by the madness brought on by his crime,
he caught Pyrrhus off guard and killed him at his father’s altars.
At his death part of the kingdom passed by bequest

to Helenus, who called the plains Chaonian and
the whole area Chaonia after Chaon of Troy, 335
and built on the ridge here a Pergamum, our own Trojan citadel.
But what winds, what destiny brought you sailing here?
Or did some god drive you, all unknowing, to our shores?
What about Ascanius? Is he still alive and breathing,
the boy who now Troy for you . . . 340
But does the boy ever think of the mother he lost?
Do his father Aeneas and the thought of his uncle Hector
awake in him the old-time courage and manliness at all?’
As these words poured out, she was crying, weeping
useless tears, on and on.
At this point Helenus turns up and takes Aeneas and his comrades back to his
city. He is delighted to see them and entertains them for several days, until Aeneas
feels that it is time to move on. He asks Helenus, who is a prophet, for advice about
the journey ahead of him. Helenus prophesies at length, and then is also very gener-
ous with gifts for the Trojans as they prepare to depart. Andromache now reappears
in the narrative. She has presents too, for Aeneas’ son Ascanius. This is a thoughtful
touch (so the boy does not feel left out) and a poignant one (because he is a sub-
stitute for her Astyanax), and she has selected special gifts, to make him think of
her and home (Troy). Again Hector is still in her thoughts (and despite her other
husbands she still sees herself as his wife), but Astyanax dominates the end of her
speech, and we are left with a final picture of her missing her son terribly and about
to lose the only living image of him that she has.
Andromache too, sad at the final parting, and not to be

outdone in showing honour, brought robes embroidered with
gold thread and a Trojan cloak for Ascanius.
She loaded him down with these woven gifts and said: 485
‘Have these too, my boy, as reminders of my handiwork
and tokens of the enduring love for you of Andromache,
Hector’s wife. Take them, the final gifts from your people.
Ah, you’re the only image left to me now of my Astyanax.
He had the same eyes, the same hands, the same expression. 490
He would have been your age now, growing up to manhood like you.’
Heroides 4
PHAEDRA TO HIPPOLYTUS
After the last two mournful epistles Ovid produced by way of relief the amusing
and outrageous Heroides 4 (in which he indulges in levity in connection with the
grave crime of incest). This time we have a letter of seduction, as an older woman
(who flatteringly refers to herself as a ‘girl’ in line 1 below) propositions a young
man (her own stepson), trying to start rather than resume a relationship, and this
time the writer is not physically separated from the addressee, but there is a gulf
between them due to character and outlook.
Phaedra was the daughter of Minos (king of the Mediterranean island of Crete)
and Pasiphae, who notoriously fell in love with a bull, had intercourse with it while
concealed within a fake cow and gave birth to the Minotaur, a monster that was
half-man and half-bull. Phaedra’s sister was Ariadne, who helped the Athenian hero
Theseus kill the Minotaur and eloped with him, only to be abandoned by him on
a Greek island. Subsequently Phaedra was given in marriage to Theseus and had
two sons by him. But she became infatuated with his earlier son by an Amazon
queen. This was Hippolytus, who devoted himself to Diana, the virginal goddess of
hunting and the wilds, and scorned Venus and women and love. In a famous play
called Hippolytus, the fifth-century Greek tragedian Euripides made the goddess of
love punish Hippolytus by causing Phaedra to fall disastrously in love with him, and
Ovid’s Phaedra also talks darkly of his neglect of Venus and suggests that a curse has
been put on her family by Her (53ff., 88). Heroides 4 represents a missive sent to
Hippolytus trying to entice him into an affair, while Theseus is away, staying with
his great friend Pirithous in northern Greece.
What happens after this is well known. The chaste and prudish Hippolytus is
horrified at the proposal and angrily turns Phaedra down. Afraid that he might
reveal her advances to Theseus, she tells her husband on his return that Hippolytus
had raped her (in many versions she does this in a letter).Theseus believes her, ban-
ishes his son and calls on the sea-god Neptune to punish him. As Hippolytus goes
44 Heroides 4: Phaedra to Hippolytus
off along the coast into exile in a chariot, a huge bull comes from the sea, terrifies
the horses and makes them bolt; the chariot crashes and, entangled in the reins, he
is dragged along and fatally injured. Phaedra also dies, committing suicide in one
tradition after she sends her accusing letter to Theseus, in another after she learns
that she has brought about the death of Hippolytus.
From the Cretan girl to Hippolytus: I hope that all is well

with you; all being well with me depends on you.
Read this through – what harm will there be in reading a letter?
You may even find something here to please you.
Writing transmits secrets over land and sea; 5
even enemies accept and look at letters from their enemies.
Three times I tried to speak to you; three times my tongue froze
and failed me, and the words died on my lips.
Love should be combined with decency, where they can and do go
together;
love made me write what it wasn’t decent to say. 10
It’s not safe to disregard anything that Love orders:
He is supreme and controls even the almighty gods.
At first I hesitated, but He told me to write:
‘Write! His hard heart will soften and yield.’
May He come and grant my wishes by shooting you, 15
just as His avid fire burns me to my very marrow.
I won’t break my marriage vows just out of promiscuity:
my reputation (just ask!) is above reproach.
The later it comes, the harsher love is. I’m on fire inside,
on fire, and my heart has a hidden wound. 20
As the steer’s tender neck is chafed by its first yoke
and a captive colt fresh from the herd resists the reins,
so my inexperienced heart can hardly, scarcely bear love,
and that burden does not sit well on me.
A person who learns to misbehave from early on becomes adept 25
at love; one who comes to it late suffers.
You’ll reap the first-fruits of my unsullied reputation;
we’ll both be equally guilty.
It’s something to pluck fruit from an orchard’s heavily-laden branches
and to pick the first rose with one’s delicate nails. 30
If the purity of my blameless life so far had
to be sullied by some novel stain,
it’s good that I’m smitten with someone of my own rank:
a discreditable lover is worse than an adulterous affair.
If Juno offered me Jupiter (her husband and 35
brother), I think I’d prefer Hippolytus.
Now (you’ll hardly believe it) I’m turning to pastimes new to me.
Heroides 4: Phaedra to Hippolytus 45
I feel the urge to go off hunting wild animals.

The chief goddess for me now is Diana, famed for her curved
bow. I share your preference for Her. 40
I like going to the woods, driving deer into the nets,
urging on swift hunting-hounds over the highest ridges
or vigorously hurling a quivering spear
or lying down to rest on the grassy ground.
I often enjoy driving a team of galloping horses, pulling 45
on the reins to turn them and churning up dust.
Now I rush along like Bacchantes driven by their frenzied god
or Cybele’s Trojan devotees shaking their tambourines
or women touched by the Dryad nymphs or horned
Fauns and crazed by their divine power. 50
When my frenzy has passed, they tell me all this;
I say nothing, knowing it’s love that burns me.
Perhaps my love is due to a curse imposed on my family
by Venus, and she wants the whole line to pay.
Our family originated with Europa, and she was loved 55
by duplicitous Jupiter, in the form of a bull.
My mother inside a fake cow was mounted by a bull
and gave birth to a shameful child – the Minotaur.
Theseus escaped the Labyrinth by following the guiding thread
that my sister gave him, but later broke his word to her. 60
Now, see, I’m the latest to encounter the fate laid down for all
my line, to make it clear that I’m one of that family.
It was also fated for one house to entice two women:
I fell for your beauty, Ariadne fell for your father.
Theseus and Theseus’ son have two sisters as conquests: 65
set up a double trophy over our house.
That time your father and I went to Eleusis (Ceres’ city) –
I wish now I’d never left my own land of Crete:
I’d found you attractive earlier, but it was then in particular
that a violent love took root deep inside me. 70
You were dressed in white and wore a garland of flowers;
a modest blush had tinged your bronzed cheeks;
the face that other women call hard and harsh
to my eye was not hard but strong.
I want nothing to do with girlishly glamorous youths: 75
a handsome man shouldn’t do much to enhance his looks.
That hardness of yours, your artless hairstyle and the
light coating of dust on your splendid face suit you.
If you ride a stubborn and spirited horse in the ring,
I marvel at how you steer it in a small circle. 80
My gaze is drawn to your fierce and powerful arm,
whether you hurl a tough javelin with it

or grasp broad-headed hunting-spears of cornel wood.
In short I enjoy watching whatever you do.
Just leave your ruthlessness behind on the wooded ridges. 85
I’m not prey to be tracked down and killed by you.
What’s the use of devoting yourself to the huntress
Diana and depriving Venus of her dues?
Relaxing now and then renews strength and refreshes
tired limbs. Without that nothing lasts. 90
Model yourself on Diana’s weapons: a bow will grow
slack if you never stop stretching it.
Cephalus was a famous hunter in the woods who
brought down many animals with his arrows,
but he did well to make himself available as Dawn’s lover, 95
and it was sensible of her to go to him from her old husband.
Venus and Adonis often lay down together
on some grassy spot underneath oak trees.
Meleager burned with love for Atalanta and showed it
by awarding her the hide of the Calydonian boar. 100
Let’s join all these people as soon as possible!
Without love your forest has no refinement.
I’ll hunt with you as your attendant, undaunted by rocky lairs
or boars with dread sideways-slashing tusks.
Two seas hurl their waves at an isthmus, and that narrow 105
strip of land hears the roars of both of them.
I’ll live there with you in Troezen, the city ruled by Pittheus;
it’s already more precious to me than my homeland.
Opportunely Theseus is away and will be away for a long time,
staying in the kingdom of his dear Pirithous. 110
Unless we deny the obvious, Theseus has preferred
Pirithous to Phaedra and Pirithous to you.
And this isn’t the only wrong that he has done to us.
We’ve both suffered major harm at his hands.
With a knotted club he smashed my brother’s bones in a spray 115
of splinters, and left my sister as prey for wild animals.
The bravest of the axe-wielding Amazons bore you,
a suitable mother for such a vigorous son.
If you ask where she is – Theseus drove his sword into her side;
producing such a great son didn’t save her life. 120
And she wasn’t even married to him, no formal wedding for her,
clearly so you couldn’t inherit his kingdom, as a bastard.
He also fathered your brothers on me, and he was the one who
acknowledged them all as his legitimate sons (not me).
Oh, you lovely, lovely boy, I wish my womb had split open 125
in childbirth before it could harm you like this.

Such a deserving father! Now show respect for the marriage
which he abandons and renounces by his own actions!
You see me as a stepmother who would bed her stepson,
but you shouldn’t let empty names frighten you. 130
Such old-fashioned respect for family was unsophisticated way
back in the Golden Age and died out soon after that.
Jupiter equated devotion to family with pleasure; his marriage to
his sister means that no action is immoral.
Ties of kinship are only firm when Venus herself 135
strengthens them with her own bonds.
We’d be doing wrong, but it’s not hard to hide our love:
the label ‘relative’ can conceal our misconduct.
If anyone sees us embracing, we’ll both be praised;
they’ll say I’m a stepmother dedicated to her stepson. 140
You won’t need to slip in at night through some hard
husband’s front door or elude a watchman.
We were and will continue to be under the same roof;
you kissed and will continue to kiss me openly.
You’ll be safe with me, and you’ll win praise for your misconduct, 145
even if you’re seen in my bed.
Just hurry, start our affair soon! If you do, then may
Cupid (who’s so harsh to me now) go easy on you!
I’m not above humbly begging and pleading. Ah,
where’s my pride now and my haughty words? Fallen. 150
It was definite (if anything is definite in love): I’d put up
a long fight against doing wrong and not give in.
But I’m beaten and begging, imploring you, even though
I’m a queen: lovers are blind to propriety.
I’ve lost all shame, my shame has deserted and fled; 155
forgive my confession, and soften your hard heart.
Even though my father is Minos, who rules the seas, and I’m
descended from Jupiter who hurls the thunderbolt,
and my grandfather is the Sun with his crown of pointed rays
and the glittering chariot that brings the warm daylight, 160
love tramples on noble birth. Pity my ancestors, and if
you won’t have mercy on me, have mercy on them.
My dowry is Crete, the island where Jupiter was raised;
let my whole court serve my Hippolytus!
Give in, you savage! My mother managed to seduce a 165
bull – will you be crueller than a fierce bull?
Spare me please, in Venus’ name (she’s here with me in all her power).
If you do, may you never love a girl who could spurn you,
may swift Diana help you when you hunt in remote glades,
may the deep forest supply you with game to kill, 170
may the Satyrs and Pans (those mountain gods) show you favour,
may you bring down boars head-on with your spear,
and may the nymphs (even though they say you hate girls)
give you water to quench your parching thirst.
I’m adding tears to my request.You’re reading the 175
request; picture the tears in your mind’s eye.
We have already touched on the elegiac spin given to material taken over from
epic in connection with Heroides 1 and 3, but here the flavour of elegy is much
more developed and significant. Phaedra’s world is in important respects like that
of the Latin elegists, a world of love letters, deceived husbands and furtive love
affairs (see especially 141f.). Phaedra herself is in many ways a creature of elegy.
She resembles the standard elegiac mistress: in the very first couplet she calls herself
puella ‘girl’, a word commonly applied to such females, even though she is an older
woman and mother of two; and her advanced views on morality, her sexual avail-
ability and her propensity for infidelity also recall them. In addition, with lively
switches, at several points she also recalls the elegiac poet-lover, coming out with
learned mythological parallels (93ff.) and professing humility towards the beloved
(149ff.) as he frequently does, and often writing like Ovid in particular. So she
shows an Ovidian contempt for rusticity and old-fashioned morals (102, 131f.),
and her idea that men should not take pains over their appearance parallels Ovid’s
advice in the Art of Love (1.509, 523f.). So too she often demonstrates his type of
elegant expression: see, for instance, the balanced arrangement, pointed repetition
of words and melodious sound at 112 (in the Latin Pirithoum Phaedrae Pirithoumque
tibi) and 144 (in the Latin oscula aperta dabas, oscula aperta dabis). For more on this
elegiac aspect see Armstrong 2006 261ff.
This aura of contemporary elegy is incongruous in connection with a mytho-
logical character and subverts the figure of the queen familiar from tragedy. All of
this has its playful side. There is also much else that is clearly intended to amuse in
what is in fact an often ludicrous letter, which Phaedra presumably wrote blinded
by passion. To appreciate this fully, you need to have a proper idea of the kind of
character that she is propositioning here. In Euripides’ Hippolytus the young prince
is intolerant and rather fanatical, a virginal misogynist who will have nothing to do
with love or sex. In that play it is Phaedra’s nurse who reveals to him that Phaedra
loves him, presumably expressing herself much more moderately and discreetly
than the queen does here, but that still evokes revulsion and a furious denunciation
of the whole female sex by this extremely moralistic young man, who at 616ff. says
to her:
‘Zeus, why did you inflict this plague on mankind, why

place women on earth with their fake glitter?
If you wanted to produce human beings,
you shouldn’t have done it by means of women;
instead men should deposit in your temples 620

bronze or iron or a mass of gold
to buy children (each one paying as
much as he can afford) and live in
their homes free from the female sex . . .
Obviously women are a plague: the man 627
who fathers and raises one gives away a dowry and
sends her to a new home to get rid of trouble for himself;
and the poor husband who takes this poisonous creature 630
into his home gets pleasure from putting fine jewellery
on this foul idol and gives her lovely clothes as the
finishing touch, gradually exhausting the family fortune . . .
It’s easiest for the man whose wife is a nonentity (although 638
no good comes of a stupid woman enshrined in your house).
But I hate a clever female. I wouldn’t give house room to 640
a woman who’s more intelligent than a woman should be.
Aphrodite makes the clever ones more promiscuous,
whereas a simpleton because of her lack
of brains is saved from immorality.
Slaves should not have access to a woman. 645
Instead women should be housed with wild animals
that bite but lack speech, so they can’t talk to
other people or get a reply back from them.
But as things are evil females sit at home devising evil
schemes, and their servants go out to further them. 650
That’s how you’ve come to fix up an unholy
affair with my father’s wife, you evil creature.
I’ll pour water into my ears and wash away
your words. How could I be evil like that,
when just hearing the proposal makes me feel dirty? . . . 655
I curse all women. I’ll never have my fill of hating 664
them (even if I’m accused of always talking about 665
them), because they never stop being evil.
So someone should teach them to control themselves
or let me trample them underfoot for all time.’
There is nothing that Phaedra could have said that would seduce such a charac-
ter. But comically she makes a real mess of her attempt. She does not just come out
with remarks that are hardly likely to impress him or win him over (like claims of
illustrious ancestry). She writes things that would actually put him off: for example,
in 15 she pictures Cupid shooting him; at 55ff. and later she talks of her amorous
family, which includes a mother guilty of bestiality and a monstrous brother; at 73ff.
she puts herself across as some sort of stalker, obsessively observing the young man;
and at 125f. she conjures up the grotesque image of her womb bursting.Worse than
that, she includes material that would have him writhing in embarrassment, shame
and disgust. So there is obvious phallic symbolism at 91f. in the reference to the taut
bow (his revered Diana’s own weapon). In 107 she pictures herself shacked up with
him. At 109ff. she suggests outrageously that Theseus is off having an affair with his
friend Pirithous. At 129ff. she is shamelessly cynical about incest. And at 139ff. she
dilates on how easily she and Hippolytus could get away with an incestuous liaison
and depicts them embracing, kissing and in bed together. Imagine the reactions of
the chaste and prudish youngster as he reads all this! And the length of the letter
means he would go on and on squirming.
There is more to the facetiousness than that.The queen indulges in absurd exag-
geration, lies and fantasy, posing as a virgin (30), maintaining that she goes hunting
(37ff.) and envisioning her stepson as wanting her along with him when he hunts
(103f.). There is irony too: for instance, in 4 she thinks that there may be something
to please Hippolytus in this letter; in 39 she claims allegiance to the virginal Diana,
while trying to seduce the young man; and at 113ff. she complains that Theseus has
done her wrong while she is in the process of trying to wrong him. There is also
dark wit in the extensive foreshadowing. Hippolytus will turn down Phaedra, and
she will then write a very different kind of letter, accusing him of attempted rape
(so her question in 3 about what harm there is in reading a letter is grimly amusing).
What happens after that is hinted at by numerous references to chariots, horses, bulls,
the sea, Neptune and death.There is lots more humour, which you can now find for
yourself (look in particular at lines 17, 18, 33f., 85f., 97f., 148, 161f., 167 and 168).
The above seems to me a valid assessment of Heroides 4, but another approach
is also feasible. In The Resisting Reader Judith Fetterley advocates a feminist reading
that resists the male point of view and has one enter the text from a new critical
direction, not thinking as a man but identifying its patriarchal assumptions and
ideas and the role that it assigns to women, perceiving how the female in the text is
excluded, undermined, denigrated etc., rejecting its tacit inducement to make her
think and behave in a particular way, and pointing out how a woman feels when
she tries to make something of the piece of writing. Essentially this kind of analy-
sis (always very relevant to the Heroides) looks at what is said about women, how
they are represented and what is assumed about them and recommended for them
implicitly or explicitly. In the case of Her. 4 a resisting reader would see Ovid (who
could have made changes to the story) as taking over and being complicit with a
myth that reflects male fear of female sexuality, wants the heroine to conform to
a patriarchal society’s standards and reinforces ancient stereotypes (women lack
rationality, find it hard to restrain themselves sexually and are bad when they do not
act in the family’s interest). Such a reader might well object to Ovid’s depiction of
the queen (as scheming, shameless, undignified, subservient to a man etc.) and take
exception to his levity in general and mockery of Phaedra in particular.
As an exercise compare and contrast Ovid’s treatment of the theme of incest at
Metamorphoses 9.454ff. (Byblis).
Heroides 4 is paired with Heroides 2. What are the major links between the two
poems, and in what ways does Ovid also achieve enlivening variation?
There were many other versions of Phaedra both before and after Ovid, and
it is fascinating to see how this character changes from creator to creator and is
employed in very diverse ways. We only have the space to pick out for comment
here some of the more famous and interesting representations of the queen and
her story. For much more on Phaedra in literature, music and film see Mills 109ff.,
Mayer 75ff., James & Jondorf 89ff. and Grafton & Most & Settis 707f.
Three fifth-century tragedies were concerned with her story – the Phaedra of
Sophocles (of which we know very little, as most of it is lost) and two plays called
Hippolytus by Euripides (of which only the second has survived intact). Going by
the fragments of the first Hippolytus and ancient references to it, we gather that in it
Phaedra was an immoral and shameless woman who approached the prince in per-
son and tried to seduce him; and, when he turned her down, acted out of anger and
in self-defence (in case he told Theseus) and accused him of rape or attempted rape.
Ovid obviously had an eye to that depiction of the heroine; but he also looked to
the second Hippolytus (on the relation of Her. 4 to these tragedies see Jacobson 142ff.
and Armstrong 2006 271ff.). In that second play we see a very different Phaedra, a
highly sympathetic character. Now she is an honourable and virtuous woman, who
has been tormented by her love for her stepson and bravely tried to resist, but has
been unable to master it. She has kept silent about her passion, and only reveals it
under intense pressure from her old nurse. At 392ff. she tells her and the chorus of
her intention to starve herself to death rather than yield to dishonour in a moving
speech that shows clearly her anguish, integrity and nobility:
When love wounded me, I looked for the best way

to endure it. I began by saying nothing
about my sickness and keeping it secret.
For there’s no trusting the tongue: it knows how to 395
criticize other people’s ideas, but when you talk about
your own failings, you do yourself a lot of damage.
My next plan was to master this madness by using
self-control and endure it successfully that way.
Then, when I didn’t manage to overcome my 400
passion by that means, I decided to die –
the best course, as all will agree.
I don’t want lots of people to see me behaving shamefully,
just as I do want them to notice when I act honourably.
I knew my sickness and its consummation were disgraceful, 405
and I was also well aware that I was a woman,
something everyone hates. I wish the most agonizing
of deaths on the wife who first defiled her
marriage-bed with other men. This evil that infects
the female sex originated with the aristocracy: 410
when noble ladies approve of shameful conduct,
the lower classes will certainly think it’s respectable.
I also hate women who profess purity but in

secret have the effrontery to behave scandalously.
Sea-born queen Aphrodite, how do they look 415
their husband in the face and not shudder for fear
that the darkness (their accomplice) and the house’s
timbers might some day reveal what they have done?
That’s why I’m going to commit suicide, my friends,
so I’m not found guilty of bringing disgrace on my husband 420
and children, and so they can live and flourish in
glorious Athens as free men, speaking out freely,
their good name not tarnished by their mother.
When a man learns of crimes committed by his mother or father,
even if he’s bold-hearted, he feels demeaned, like a slave. 425
They say you only hold your own in life’s struggles
if you have a just and honest character.
Sooner or later Time holds up a mirror (like a
young girl’s) to show what bad people are really
like. I don’t want to be seen as one of them, ever. 430
After this the well-meaning but misguided nurse, in an attempt to save her mis-
tress’ life, acts against Phaedra’s instructions and tells Hippolytus of the queen’s feel-
ings for him. He thinks this is a proposition that comes from Phaedra and launches
into the furious tirade against women at 616ff., which was translated above. The
queen fears that he will speak out about what has happened, and so she hangs her-
self, leaving a letter for Theseus accusing Hippolytus of rape, to discredit what he
will say and to protect her children’s reputation. After Theseus banishes and curses
his son, the dying Hippolytus is brought on stage, and the goddess Artemis (Diana)
appears to explain his innocence, leaving Theseus in agony. Phaedra is a particularly
tragic figure as she is just a pawn and the helpless victim of a vastly superior power.
Because Hippolytus neglected her, the goddess Aphrodite (Venus) avenged that
slight by making Phaedra fall violently in love with him, which resulted ultimately
in him being wrongfully discredited, banished by his father and suffering an appall-
ing end (and incidentally in Phaedra dying too). This is a gloomy, disturbing and
thought-provoking play. We witness human blindness, frailty and total inferiority
(to the gods). We see a chillingly callous and vindictive Aphrodite. And we are left
to deduce things like the need to achieve balance (not be one-sided and intolerant)
and to recognize and not suppress the sexual side of our nature. Those who wish to
go into this play in more detail should consult Mills.
In the first century ad the Roman writer Seneca produced another bleak tragedy
based on this story. His Phaedra combines elements of the versions of the heroine in
Her. 4 and Euripides’ Hippolytus: she propositions her stepson in person, but she is
essentially a good woman, who is initially repelled by her own desire and wants to
resist it. The gods are hardly in evidence in this play, and the humans are the victims
of their own feelings, which are what really do the damage. As a Stoic philosopher
Seneca believed that if the passions (intense emotions) are allowed to outweigh rea-
son, that leads to irrational acts and madness, and here he shows us the terrible things
that happen in that situation. We witness the moral degeneration of Phaedra, as her
self-control is overwhelmed by a mad desire which makes her do bad things. And
Theseus also succumbs to passion (anger and a lust for revenge), and that makes him
bring about his own son’s death and leaves him at the end a broken man.
After Phaedra tells the nurse of her longing for the prince and proves unable
to master it, the nurse makes an indirect approach to him unsuccessfully, and then
Phaedra openly confesses her love to him. He is outraged and flees in horror,
dropping his sword. To protect her mistress’ reputation, the nurse pretends that he
tried to rape the queen and points to the dropped sword as proof of his violence.
When Theseus returns, Phaedra weeps and tears her hair to gain credibility, and
with seeming reluctance claims that she was raped. Enraged, he curses his son, and
Neptune sends the bull from the sea. When the fragments of his severely mangled
body are returned to Theseus and brought on stage, he grieves, and then Phaedra
enters. The sight of the corpse brings to her the reality of what she has done. She
comes to her senses again and reverts to being a basically good person. At 1159ff.
she confesses to her deception, asserts Hippolytus’ innocence and tries to atone and
recover some of her honour by killing herself. Her speech, in the grand style of
tragedy, arouses both pity and admiration:
It’s me you should attack, me, savage lord Neptune,

send against me the monsters of the blue deep – 1160
all that the remotest sea has in its inmost
recesses, all that the ocean hides in its furthest
waters, enveloped in its wandering waves.
Theseus, you’re always cruel, you’ve never returned without
harming your relatives.Your son and father paid for your 1165
homecomings with their deaths.You always wreck your family,
destroying them through love or hatred of your wives.
Hippolytus, is this your face, did I make it look
like this? Has some savage Sinis or Procrustes torn
you limb from limb? Were you ripped apart by some 1170
Cretan bull-monster, some ferocious horned beast
filling the Labyrinth with its massive roars?
What happened to your beauty, and your eyes (my
stars)? I can’t believe you’re lying there dead.
Be with me for a little while, listen to my words 1175
(none of them shameful). I’ll make amends, plunging the
sword into my black heart with my own hands,
freeing myself from life and guilt together,
and I’ll follow you frantically across the waters and lakes
of the Underworld, across the Styx and the river of fire. 1180
Let me placate your ghost: accept this hair stripped
from my head, cut from the brow I’ve scratched in grief.

We couldn’t be united in love, but at least we can be in
death. [To herself] Die – if faithful, for your husband; if not,
for your lover. Should I return to the marriage-bed which my 1185
criminal conduct defiled? One crime I avoided – pretending innocence
and sleeping there as if my honour had been vindicated.
Death is the only remedy for my evil love and it will bring
me the greatest glory now that my honour is ruined.
Death, give me refuge, opening wide your merciful arms. 1190
Hear me, Athens, and you, Theseus, a father deadlier than a
deadly stepmother: I didn’t tell the truth, I made it up,
I lied about the sinful coupling that I had obsessed over
in my madness.You punished your son for a fiction,
and this pure youth lies here the victim of an impure accusation, 1195
chaste and innocent. [To Hippolytus] Have your real character back.
It’s right to bare my evil breast to this sword.
My blood is a funeral-offering to a good man.
[She stabs herself]
After that Theseus gives his son due mourning and a proper cremation at length,
but ends the play with just two lines for Phaedra, telling his slaves to bury the
woman and praying that the earth weigh heavily on her wicked body. For more on
Seneca’s play see Mayer.
The famous seventeenth-century French playwright Jean Racine looked to both
Euripides and Seneca in creating his Phèdre, which many regard as his masterpiece. He
followed the main outline of the myth, while adapting it to suit the current vogue for
politics and love in drama and also the sensibility of his audience. He adds a political
dimension by having Theseus believed to be dead at one point, so that there is a dynastic
struggle over who will succeed to the throne. He develops the love interest by intro-
ducing a new character – Aricia, who is a princess in a rival Athenian royal family that
Theseus has suppressed, and who loves Hippolytus and is loved by him (which means
that he is no longer misogynistic or prudish but a young lover). Phaedra’s character is
also softened, in line with the contemporary French sense of decorum. She feels great
horror over her love for the prince, and had earlier fought it by getting Theseus to send
him away from Athens, so that temptation was removed. She only reveals her attraction
to Hippolytus when she thinks that Theseus is dead and there would be nothing wrong
any more in a relationship. And as well as not accusing him of rape herself (the nurse
alone does that) she begs Theseus to relent when he curses his son. There is extra suf-
fering for her too, when she learns of the love of Aricia and Hippolytus and feels deep
pain and also jealousy. For more information on this tragedy (best read in the free verse
translation by Ted Hughes) consult James & Jondorf.
June Rachuy Brindel’s Phaedra: A Novel of Ancient Athens (published in 1985) gives
the myth a decidedly feminine focus (via the female narrator, who concentrates
on Phaedra) and a feminist slant. The story is told by Aissa, a servant who looked
after Phaedra, and who recounts a version of events different from the standard tale
that has come down to us (a tale which consists of lies put out by Theseus’ palace).
Phaedra was still a child when the brutal and duplicitous Theseus took her from
Crete, after he had conquered and plundered the island. He wanted her to become
his queen so that he could ensure power for himself in Crete through this member
of the Cretan royal family. She was also a representative of the old worship of the
mother-goddess and had the mystic power to speak for that deity as her incarnation.
The violent hero scorned that peaceful matriarchal religion and wanted to control
Phaedra as part of his campaign to wipe it out. But the goddess still had many wor-
shippers, and they fought back, and Phaedra and Aissa (and Hippolytus) were drawn
into that dangerous struggle.
Sarah Kane’s play Phaedra’s Love (first performed in London in 1996) is an ‘in-yer-
face’ modern adaptation of the myth, based very loosely on Seneca’s Phaedra. Kane
has been grouped with other contemporary writers under the label of the New
Brutalists, and her play is fairly brutal, with its violence, sexuality, coarse language
and nihilism. It opens with Hippolytus watching TV and eating a hamburger, and
then blowing his nose on one sock and masturbating into another (note that the
socks are discarded and he is not wearing them at the time). Hippolytus is the dra-
ma’s focus, and he is a spoiled, jaded and cynical prince, overweight and smelly, and
cruelly truthful. This Hippolytus is not a virgin or a prude (in fact he indulges in
lots of sex, but gets no pleasure from it), and he is not a simple misogynist (although
he takes out his frustrations on women, he hates all people, men included). In this
play Phaedra is rather different too. She comes with presents for the prince from
the people (it is his birthday), and he tries to make her hate him, asking her when
she last had a fuck and why she married into all this shit in the palace (was Theseus
a great shag?). She explains that she loves him despite the fact that he is moody,
bitter, fat, decadent and selfish, and adds: ‘You’re in pain. I adore you.’ She wants to
change him, to make him happy by means of her love. For his birthday present she
performs oral sex on him, but during it he watches television and eats sweets, and
he has nothing to say to her after it is over, reducing her to tears.When she says that
she wants to have full intercourse with him, he tells her to fuck someone else and
imagine it is him.Then he informs her that he had sex with her daughter and made
her come, and that he has gonorrhoea, and asks her if she hates him now. She says
no, but subsequently hangs herself, leaving a note which claims that he raped her.
The people riot in anger over the queen’s death, but Hippolytus refuses to deny the
charge of rape (life is a void for him and he is waiting for death to take him away
from it). In jail he refuses the help of a visiting priest, denies the existence of God
and lures the priest into fellating him. Subsequently on his way to the law court he
is torn apart by an angry mob. A woman cuts off his genitals and throws them on
to a barbecue. A child takes them off and hurls them at another child, amid much
laughter. Finally they are thrown to a dog. Hippolytus dies, and a vulture descends
and begins to eat his body. This is a provocative and disturbing play, which probes
violence, the nature of love and belief in god. Kane also described it as ‘my comedy’,
and there is a savage humour in Hippolytus’ cynicism and brutal honesty.
Heroides 5
OENONE TO PARIS
Paris was the son of king Priam of Troy and his queen Hecuba. When she was
pregnant with Paris, she dreamed that she gave birth to a flame which burned
down Troy. This was interpreted to mean that the child when born would cause
the destruction of the city. So when she gave birth to Paris, he was left on
Mount Ida nearby to die. But a shepherd found him and brought him up as
his own son. Acting as a humble herdsman, Paris grew up to be so handsome
that a local nymph and daughter of a river-god called Oenone fell in love with
him and married him. Subsequently his true identity was revealed and he was
welcomed back into the royal family. When the three goddesses Juno, Minerva
and Venus asked him to judge which of them was the most beautiful, Venus
bribed him by offering him the most beautiful woman in the world and he
accepted the bribe. The woman in question was Helen, wife of Menelaus, who
was the king of Sparta (in Greece), and Paris sailed there, seduced Helen and
took her back to Troy as his new wife. The Greeks demanded her return, and
it is at this point that Oenone writes this letter to Paris, urging him to renew
their relationship and give Helen back. He did not return her, so a huge Greek
expedition led by Agamemnon (Menelaus’ brother) besieged Troy for ten years
to get her back, and finally captured it and burnt it down. Shortly before that
Paris was severely wounded and appealed to Oenone to heal him with her
great medical skills. After the way he had treated her, she refused. But then she
relented and wanted to heal him, but found that he had already died, and so she
committed suicide.
By way of a change the writer of this letter is a minor goddess rather than a
human (and she is very much on her dignity instead of humiliating herself). There
is no question of incest here, and she is already in a relationship with the addressee,
which she is trying to revive (rather than undermining the institution of marriage).
Heroides 5: Oenone to Paris 57
And in this letter the man is the adulterous one, and he is in so many respects oppo-
site to the prudish, virginal and misogynistic Hippolytus.
Are you reading this? Or won’t your new wife let you?
Read on! This isn’t a letter from Agamemnon.
It’s from Oenone, your girl (with your leave), a water-nymph of
real renown in the local forests, complaining of your betrayal.
Is some powerful god opposing my desires? Am I 5
being punished for some crime by losing you?
Suffering that is deserved should be endured calmly;
punishment that is unmerited rankles.
You weren’t so grand when I (a nymph and daughter of a
mighty river) was content to have you for my husband. 10
Priam’s son now, you were a slave then (I won’t suppress the truth
out of deference). Though a nymph, I deigned to marry a slave.
We often rested under a shady tree among the flocks,
with the grass and leaves providing a bed for us.
We often lay on straw or in deep hay, 15
protected from the hoar-frost by a humble hut.
Who used to show you the glades good for hunting and the
rocky lairs where wild animals hid their young?
I often went with you and spread out the meshed nets,
I often drove on your swift dogs over the long ridges. 20
My name is still there on the beeches inscribed by you,
and people read oenone carved by your blade;
as the trunks grow bigger, so does my name; 25
trees, grow tall and straight, and make me famous!
Please live on, you poplar planted on the bank of Xanthus
with this couplet on your wrinkled bark:
when paris can leave oenone and survive without her,
this river will turn and flow back to its source. 30
Xanthus, turn, flow back, and quickly reverse your course:
Paris has abandoned Oenone and can bear it.
That day spoke doom for poor Oenone, the awful storm
of blighted love began for me on that day
when Venus, Juno and Minerva (who’s more attractive with 35
her armour on) came to be judged naked by you.
When you told me of this, my heart lurched in shock
and a cold shudder ran through my hard bones.
I was really terrified and consulted male and female elders.
They all agreed that it was very bad. 40
Firs were felled, planks were cut, ships were built
and caulked and launched on the blue sea.
58 Heroides 5: Oenone to Paris
You wept as you left – don’t deny that at any rate;

we were both miserable and mingled our tears. 46
The elm isn’t clasped by the clinging vine as tightly
as my neck was embraced by your arms.
Ah, how often your crew laughed when you complained
about the wind (which was favourable) detaining you! 50
How often you sent me away, then called me back for more
kisses! How hard you found it to say ‘goodbye’!
A gentle breeze stirred the sails that hung from the rigid
mast, and your oars churned the water into foam.
My sad eyes followed your sails as long as they 55
could, and soaked the sand with tears.
I prayed to the green sea-nymphs for a swift return,
oh yes, for a swift and ruinous return.
So, you came back for the benefit of another, not me?
Ah, my persuasive prayers helped a sinister rival. 60
A massive crag that has tumbled down faces the
boundless sea, forming a natural breakwater.
From there I first recognized your ship’s sails, and I
felt an urge to rush through the waves to you.
I held back, then glimpsed a gleam of purple up on the prow; 65
I became very scared: you didn’t wear purple.
In the swift breeze your ship approached and reached land;
with a trembling heart I saw a woman’s face.
Worse than that (why was I mad enough to stay there?),
the slut was clinging to you, your mistress. 70
Then I ripped my dress, beat my breasts and tore
my tear-drenched cheeks with my hard nails,
filling holy Ida (my mountain) with howls of
outrage and going back there in tears.
I hope Helen weeps like that, abandoned by her man, 75
feeling the pain and suffering that she caused me.
Now you’ve a taste for women who leave their lawfully wedded
husbands and sail away with you over the open sea.
But when you were a poor herdsman, Oenone (and nobody
else) was your wife, poor though you were. 80
I’m not impressed by your wealth, I don’t care about your palace
or being called a wife of one of Priam’s many sons –
not that he’d refuse to have a nymph for a daughter-in-law,
not that Hecuba would have concealed our relationship:
I am worthy of becoming a powerful lord’s spouse; 85
my hands could add lustre to a sceptre.
Don’t look down on me because I lay with you on beech
leaves: I’m better suited to a bed of royal purple.
Lastly, my love is not dangerous: it doesn’t lead to war

or an avenging fleet coming across the waves. 90
Armed enemies demand the return of runaway Helen –
this is the dowry that arrogant bride brings with her.
Ask your brother Hector or Deiphobus and Polydamas
if she should be given back to the Greeks;
find out the advice of stern Antenor and Priam himself, 95
who have learned things in their long lives.
Don’t begin as prince by valuing your spoil above Troy.
You should be ashamed; her husband is right to fight.
If you’ve any sense, don’t count on fidelity in one who
so quickly turned to you and fell into your arms. 100
Menelaus roared out in rage at the violation of his marriage,
wronged and pained by her love for a stranger,
and you will too. Purity, once spoiled, can’t possibly be
restored; it’s lost and gone for good.
She burns with love for you? She loved gullible 105
Menelaus like that too, and he now sleeps alone.
Lucky Andromache, happily married to faithful Hector!
You should have been a husband like him to me.
You’re more lightweight than dried out, sapless
leaves wispily drifting on a shifting breeze; 110
there’s less substance to you than there is to the tip of a corn-ear
burnt light and crisp by the sun day after day.
I remember, your prophetic sister once predicted all this
to me, with her hair streaming about her:
‘What are you doing, Oenone? Why sow seeds in sand, 115
uselessly ploughing a beach with oxen?
A Greek heifer is coming, to destroy you, your home and your
land. Ho, keep her away! A Greek heifer is coming.
Trojans, sink that ill-omened ship while you can!
Ah, it carries a heavy cargo of Trojan blood.’ 120
She was still speaking in an inspired frenzy when her slaves
hurried her off; my blonde hair stood on end.
I’m so miserable. Her prophecy was all too true:
see, that heifer has taken over my pastures.
However beautiful she is, she’s an adulteress (that’s clear): 125
she fell for her guest and betrayed the gods of marriage.
Someone called Theseus (unless I’m mistaken over the name)
stole her from her homeland before you.
Who’d imagine that passionate young man returned her still a virgin?
How am I so sure about this? I’m in love. 130
You can call it rape, using that word to conceal her guilt;
a woman so often abducted invited abduction.
But I am still true to my cheating husband, even though

by your rules I could have cheated on you.
Swift and shameless, the Satyrs ran round looking 135
for me (but I lay low, hidden in the woods),
and so did Faunus, with a wreath of sharp pine on his horned
head, on the vast slopes of swelling mount Ida.
Apollo, the illustrious lyre-player and builder of Troy’s walls, 145
loved me. He gave me access to his gifts:
I have all the potent remedial herbs and roots used by
physicians, wherever they grow in the whole world.
Poor Oenone – love can’t be cured by herbs.
I’m a skilled expert, but my skill fails me. 150
The earth that produces so many medicinal plants can’t help me, 153
nor can Apollo the Healer, but you can.
You can, and I’m entitled. Have pity on a deserving girl. 155
I don’t come with Greeks, bringing bloody war.
No, I’m yours; we were together when we were young,
and I want to be yours for the rest of time.
Ovid here gives prominence to another minor female character connected with
the Trojan War (like the contrastingly humble and timid Briseis in Her. 3), as he
seizes on and develops what is essentially something of a sideshow to the main
action. Oenone is in a rather awkward situation but handles it with style. Mortify-
ingly, she is a goddess in love with a human who has been jilted by that human, for
another mortal; and despite that she still loves him and wants him back. Here she is
trying to get him back, but she is careful to maintain her dignity while doing that
in a delicate balancing-act. Obviously she is hurt and angered by what Paris has
done, but she stays self-possessed and in control, and she will not lower herself by
begging. On the contrary she is proud and superior, feisty and combative, disdain-
ful and sharp-tongued. Ovid’s Oenone is very much a goddess (albeit a minor one)
and very intelligent (especially in contrast to the short-sighted Paris, who is about
to pass up this last chance to rejoin the nymph and escape war, a prolonged siege
and death).
All of this is evident from the very start of Heroides 5. At 1f. Oenone begins the
digs at Helen (undermining her rival as a domineering shrew) and Paris (with an
ominous allusion to the great trouble that the fool has brought on himself from
the Greeks). In 3f. she tartly reminds him of the established relationship which he
has betrayed (to make him feel bad) and highlights her superiority (to him and his
foreign mistress). In the next couplet disarmingly she intimates her love for him
and also tries to win his sympathy; but then at 7f. she works in a subtle barb (she
is innocent and suffering unfairly, whereas he is the one who has done wrong and
deserves to be punished). At 9–12 for emphasis she again brings out his inferior-
ity, cuttingly exaggerating the lowliness of his status in the past, and sniping at his
newly acquired grandeur now, while also toning down the condescension a bit by
means of further indirect indication of her love for him. The wistful dwelling on
their former happiness together at 13–20 is eloquent of her feelings for him, and it
also craftily shows him what he will be missing – an idyllic, peaceful and safe exist-
ence, a free, harmonious and relaxed way of life (in contrast to being a target himself
and enduring all the anxiety and misery of siege and warfare).
The rest of the letter is also consistently dense and pointed like this, and these
main lines of attack are picked up and developed further there, as you can see for
yourself. Look in particular for more of the overt digs at Helen and Paris (e.g. in 60,
70, 77f. and 91f.) and more of the cunning barbs (e.g. in 97, 105f. and the various
unflattering implications about Paris in the comparisons at 109–112). Later on in
this spunky performance Oenone adds extra thrusts, bringing in supporters for her
point of view at 93ff. and (Cassandra) 113ff., attempting to arouse jealousy at 135ff.,
and being more open in her appeals at the very end. There is an engaging tonal
blend in all of this, a bittersweet mixture of the amusing (in the snootiness, jibes
and innuendo) and the sad (in Oenone’s overall unhappiness, in the letter’s futility
and in the clear hint of the denouement at 147ff. with the references to absence of
a cure, Oenone’s skill achieving nothing and the appeal for help, which is about to
be turned down).
To sharpen your appreciation of how developed and lively the character of
Ovid’s Oenone is, compare and contrast her with the softer nymph in the poem
Oenone by the nineteenth-century English poet Tennyson.
In Heroides 5 the upcoming death of Oenone forms part of the gloomy under-
current.The late Greek epic poet Quintus Smyrnaeus brings out the sadness of that
fully in his account of her end in book ten of his Posthomerica (quoted below). After
he is shot, Paris is most unwilling to approach Oenone, but has to, because he can
only escape death if she is willing to help him. He goes to her, claiming feebly that
he did not willingly desert her but was led to Helen by inescapable fate, and ask-
ing her to save his life. She angrily refuses, telling him to go and ask Helen to cure
him. He departs and dies. When she hears the news, she bitterly regrets her refusal
to tend him and determines on suicide. At this point lots of pathos is built up. So,
for example, we are shown her continuing great love for Paris, whose death she
has helped bring about. Her unstoppable rush to his pyre through the atmospheric
moonlight makes for an awful sense of inevitability, although her actual arrival there
is held off for many lines, so there is a build-up to it. At his pyre there are nymphs
and shepherds mourning for Paris, which increases the overall poignancy. And then
there is Oenone’s brisk and resolute leap on to the blazing pyre, and the affecting
tribute to her made by one of the nymphs.
Groaning terribly, she said to herself:

‘Oh, I did wrong. Oh, I hate being alive.
I loved my luckless husband and had hoped for a 425
fine death with him in frail old age after a life
of harmony together. But the gods willed otherwise.
I wish black death had carried me off
before I was separated from Paris.

Even if he left me in his lifetime, I’ll join him 430
in death, undaunted. There’s no pleasure for me in living.’
As she said this, she wept piteous tears,
remembering her husband who had met his doom.
She melted with grief, like wax in a fire, but in secret
(wary of her father and the maids with their lovely robes), 435
until night rose from broad Ocean and flowed
across the glorious earth, bringing men release from toil.
Then while her father and the slave-girls slept
in the halls, she tore open the palace gates
and rushed off, like a storm-wind, sprinting. 440
Think of a heifer on heat, whose passion
drives her to rush along mountains on swift feet;
in her longing to couple with a bull she doesn’t fear
her herdsmen at all; an uncontrollable impulse carries her
along in the hope of seeing a mate in the thickets: 445
just like that Oenone sped over long paths,
keen to quickly mount the dreadful funeral pyre.
Her legs were tireless, and her speeding feet flew
along ever faster, spurred on by deadly Doom and
Aphrodite. And she had no fear of the shaggy beasts 450
she met in the dark, though terrified of them earlier.
She trod every rock and crag of those overgrown
mountains and crossed every ravine.
The moon-goddess on high saw Oenone then and,
remembering her own lover (the noble Endymion), 455
pitied her speeding along so swiftly. She shone down
for her brightly and illuminated the long paths.
Oenone quickly made her way along a mountain to the
place where other nymphs were wailing round Paris’ pyre.
A huge blaze enveloped him still. 460
Shepherds had come from the various hills
and heaped up a great mass of wood, performing this
last sad service for their comrade and prince, streaming
with tears as they stood around him. When she saw him there
clearly, she didn’t groan at all, although broken-hearted, 465
but covered her beautiful face with her cloak and swiftly
leapt on to the pyre. And they gave a great groan.
She burned beside her husband. All the nymphs were
astounded when they saw her collapsed at his
side, and one of them said this to herself: 470
‘Paris was really wrong deserting a wife who was absolutely
devoted to him and coming back with a whore as his new wife,
bringing pain and death to himself and the Trojans and Troy,
the fool! He didn’t show any respect for his prudent wife’s
broken heart, while she revered him more than life, 475
even though he detested her and didn’t love her.’
Quintus adds that when the bodies had been consumed by the flames, their joint
ashes were collected in a golden urn and buried in a funeral-mound which had two
gravestones aptly facing away from each other.
Oenone is one of the nymphs (on whom see especially Larson).They were minor
female divinities, usually very long-lived, or even immortal. There were nymphs of
the sea and of islands at sea, and there were also nymphs of the countryside, who
inhabited streams, rivers, trees, woods, mountains and whole regions. They were
mainly benevolent, often consorting with and helping herdsmen (like Paris) by
protecting and increasing their flocks (see Larson 78ff.), and also aiding hunters.
But they did sometimes assume a sterner aspect, punishing, for instance, those who
violated their habitat and also unresponsive lovers. Sometimes they had the power
of prophecy (as Oenone did according to other authors). In general they led a life
of great freedom (dancing, singing, hunting, weaving and reveling, as they wished),
and frequently they acted as the attendants of a major goddess (such as Diana) or
god (such as Bacchus). In myth and literature they are closely connected with love,
and they are the willing or unwilling partners of various divinities (see Larson 91ff.)
and humans (like Paris), being pursued and raped, and also having consensual sex, and
also abducting and detaining handsome youths and men whom they fancy (like
Hylas and Ulysses). In Ovid’s poetry they have a predominantly erotic function,
and rapes (successful and unsuccessful) of nymphs are particularly common, with
the mood varying from frivolous (e.g. Daphne and Io at Metamorphoses 1.452ff. and
588ff.) to sad (for example, Callisto at Met. 2.406ff.) and a combination of both
(for instance, Juturna and Lara at Fasti 2.585ff.). Examine Met. 4.285ff., where the
nymph Salmacis is the would-be rapist, and look for humour there and clever twists
to the normal situation. On the topic in general see Murgatroyd 63ff.
Paris reappears in Heroides 16 and 17, and he refers to Oenone at 16.96ff. He
is trying to seduce Helen with what he writes to her there, but his smugness and
unloving dismissiveness show him in a bad light again:
It’s not just the daughters of kings and chieftains who have courted me: 95
nymphs too have cared for me and loved me.
Who was there to surpass Oenone’s marvellous beauty? After you
nobody in the world is more worthy of being Priam’s daughter-in-law.
But I despised all of those females once I was
given the hope of marrying you, Helen. 100
The negative portrayal of Paris begins with Homer. In the Iliad he appears
overall as a rather unheroic figure, more of a lover than a fighter, one who excels
in beauty and the gifts of Aphrodite. He can be brave and fight well, especially
when rebuked and shamed by his brother Hector; and he does accept those
rebukes gracefully. But he tends to be dilatory in battle and emerges badly from
the contrast with his more serious and heroic sibling. Paris’ weapon was the bow,
which was regarded as somewhat unmanly (the spear was the standard weapon
of the warrior), and in book 3 of the Iliad he performs poorly in a duel with
Menelaus. At 3.15ff. Paris challenges the best of the Greeks to combat (a typi-
cally showy and thoughtless gesture), but when Menelaus immediately steps out
to meet him, Paris slinks back into the Trojan ranks. When taunted by Hector
as a pretty boy who disgraces the Trojans with his cowardice, he agrees to fight.
A formal truce is established so the duel can take place. Both heroes hurl their
spears ineffectually. Then Menelaus draws his sword and brings it down on Paris’
helmet, only for the weapon to shatter. He seizes Paris by the helmet and drags
him towards the Greeks, choking him with the strap, which is pulled tight. But
Aphrodite snaps it, snatches Paris away from death with the greatest of ease and
sets him down in Helen’s perfumed bedroom. Helen rounds on him, telling him
she wishes he had been killed by Menelaus, a much better man. The insouciant
Paris says in reply that Menelaus has beaten him for the time being with divine
help, but will himself be beaten by Paris at another time. He then takes Helen
to bed and makes love to her, while back on the battlefield Menelaus is prowl-
ing through the ranks trying to find Paris and continue the duel (an eloquent
contrast between the two men). None of the Trojans can point out Paris to him,
but would if they could, because after all the years of warfare thanks to him they
hate him like black death.
After that the truce is broken and battle is joined again. The Greeks begin to do
very well in the combat, and so in book 6 (237ff.) Hector slips back to Troy to get
the women to make an offering to Athena in the (vain) hope of persuading her to
help the Trojans. While there, he encounters Helen and Paris, and accuses him of
shirking combat. Paris says he will rejoin the fighting and, if Hector goes ahead,
he’ll arm and then catch up with him. Hector sets off, but meets his loving wife
Andromache with his baby son at the city walls. She anxiously begs him to stay
inside the walls. He explains that his code of honour would make him ashamed
to do such a thing, and also that he knows that Troy will fall some day and is most
tormented by the thought of her being dragged off to slavery. When he reaches
for his son, the baby shrinks back, terrified by his helmet with its nodding plume,
and the husband and wife burst out laughing. Hector takes off his helmet, kisses his
son and prays (futilely) for him to grow up a great warrior and king, a much better
man than his father. He hands the boy to Andromache, who is laughing and crying
simultaneously. Pitying her, he tells her that nobody will kill him before his time
is up and sends her back to their house. She goes off, weeping and looking back
at him. When she reaches home, she and the maids mourn for Hector as if he is
already dead (which he soon will be).
The light-hearted Paris breaks in on this serious scene, looking particularly
lightweight in contrast. As Hector stands there, his brother (by now armed) comes
rushing up to him, and is compared to a horse (at 6.506ff.):
Just as a stallion in his stable breaks his halter after feeding

at the manger and gallops over the plain with thudding hooves
to a lovely river (where he likes to plunge in the water),
exulting and confident in his beauty, his head
held high and his mane rippling over his shoulders, 510
as he speeds along to the horses’ familiar pastures,
so Paris, son of Priam, strode down from the lofty citadel,
glittering in his armour like the sun, and laughing,
as he sped along. He quickly came up on his brother, glorious
Hector, who was still lingering before turning away 515
from the spot where he had been talking intimately
with his wife. Godlike Paris was the first to speak:
‘Dear Hector, you’re in a hurry, and I must have kept
you waiting by not coming quickly as you told me.’
Hector of the flashing helmet said in reply: 520
‘You strange man. No reasonable person would underrate
what you actually do in battle, as you are a good fighter.
But you’re too ready to hang back and refuse to fight,
and it pains me to hear the contemptuous remarks made about
you by the Trojans, who have so much trouble because of you. 525
But let’s be off. We’ll settle our differences later,
if Zeus ever allows us to honour the immortal gods
with a feast in the palace to celebrate our freedom
after we’ve driven the Greek warriors away from Troy.’
As well as cutting a brilliant figure as he speeds along up to his static and sober
brother, flippant Paris (who actually jokes) seems particularly trifling beside the
diplomatic Hector with his moving attempt at optimism. The simile (comparison)
of the horse at 506ff. is economically suggestive: like the stallion Paris is sated, has
left home and is moving quickly; he is also similarly handsome (and knows it),
strong, proud, confident and self-centred; and he goes to war as the animal goes
to the river and the pastures – carefree, thoughtless and lacking in seriousness. The
simile at 513 is also effective, implying that like the sun Paris is dazzling, but can also
be tiring, dangerous and destructive.
Heroides 6
HYPSIPYLE TO JASON
Jason was the son of Aeson (who was a king in Thessaly, in northern Greece), but
Aeson’s kingdom (Iolcus) was taken from him by his half-brother Pelias. When he
grew to manhood, Jason came to ask for the kingdom back, and Pelias agreed to
restore it, if Jason would get for him the Golden Fleece. This was the fleece of a
mythical golden ram, which belonged to a fierce oriental king (Aeetes, who lived in
remote Colchis, at the east end of the Black Sea), and which was guarded by a huge,
unsleeping serpent. Jason sailed off on that very dangerous quest on the ship Argo
with fifty heroes as companions (called the Argonauts). On the way they stopped
off at the island of Lemnos. There the women had killed their husbands, who had
rejected them (in one version because they neglected Aphrodite, who made their
bodies smell by way of punishment) and had taken up with some female captives
taken from nearby Thrace instead. The Lemnian women killed the captives and all
the males on the island, except for the unmarried Hypsipyle, who secretly saved her
father’s life and smuggled him away to safety. He was king Thoas, and as his daugh-
ter she had been made queen. The women of Lemnos had been without men for a
while now and needed to ensure their survival by means of children, so they gave
the Argonauts a warm welcome. According to Ovid, Hypsipyle married Jason and
became pregnant by him. After a lengthy stay he had to sail off on his quest, before
she gave birth to twin boys. Once the Argonauts reached Colchis, Aeetes agreed to
let Jason have the Fleece if he performed some tasks – yoking the bronze-footed,
fire-breathing bulls of Mars, ploughing a field with them and sowing some dragon’s
teeth (from which ferocious armed men would grow).This too was meant to be the
end of Jason, but Aeetes’ daughter (the beautiful and powerful witch Medea) fell in
love with him and was persuaded by him to help him, thereby betraying her father.
Her help was vital. She gave him a magic drug (so the bulls’ fiery breath could not
harm him) and told him how to deal with the armed men (he threw a rock among
them and they killed each other fighting over it). Even though Jason had performed
Heroides 6: Hypsipyle to Jason 67
the tasks, Aeetes wouldn’t give him the Fleece. So Medea used her magic to put the
guardian snake to sleep and Jason grabbed the Fleece. He sailed back to Thessaly
with it, taking Medea with him and marrying her on the way. She did him another
important service on the journey back. She had her brother Apsyrtus with her, and
when Aeetes pursued them, she killed the boy, hacked him to pieces and scattered
them around, so Aeetes would stop to pick them up and they could escape. Jason
and Medea got back to Thessaly safely (avoiding Lemnos), and it is when Hypsipyle
hears news of all this that she writes this letter to Jason.
From the goddess Oenone we are now taken back to a human letter-writer.
Although there are some similarities between this epistle and the last one, there
are also distinct differences. With regard to situation, Hypsipyle has two children
by her husband. Rather than returning with another wife before her eyes, her man
has sailed off to another woman and gone out of her life totally, never to be seen
by her again, and this time the rival is portrayed as much more sinister. There are
differences in personality too. Hypsipyle is less intelligent and subtle than Oenone,
and although she tries to stay in control and maintain her dignity at the start, that
breaks down, and she humiliates herself, becomes increasingly angry and is espe-
cially venomous at the end.
I hear you’ve sailed back safely to Thessaly’s shores,

a rich man, thanks to the Golden Fleece.
I congratulate you, not that you make it easy –
you should have written to me with news of that.
Maybe you wanted to stop off at my kingdom (which I 5
pledged to you), but didn’t have the right winds;
but, however unfavourable the wind, people do write:
I’m Hypsipyle, I deserved to be sent a letter.
Why did I hear, before getting a letter from you, a rumour
that Mars’ sacred bulls were yoked, 10
the dragon’s teeth were sown and produced a crop of
warriors who didn’t need you to slaughter them,
and the ram’s Golden Fleece (which was guarded by a sleepless
serpent) was bravely seized by you?
Oh, if I could say to those who doubt this, ‘He wrote me 15
this himself,’ I’d be really somebody!
Why complain of my dilatory husband’s neglect of his duty?
If I’m still yours, then you’re very kind to me.
I’m told that some barbaric witch came with you
and shares your bed (which was promised to me). 20
Lovers are credulous. I hope that people will say that
I was rash and wrongfully accused my husband.
A stranger from Thessaly came here recently. He’d
scarcely set foot in my palace when I asked him:
‘How’s my Jason?’ He was embarrassed, at a loss, 25
68 Heroides 6: Hypsipyle to Jason
his eyes fixed on the floor in front of him.

At once I jumped up, tore the front of my dress in grief and shouted:
‘Is he alive, or must I now join him in death?’
‘He’s alive,’ he said. Lovers are fearful. I made him swear
by the gods, and even then hardly believed you lived. 30
I calmed down and began to ask about your exploits;
he said Mars’ bronze-footed bulls had ploughed,
the dragon’s teeth had been sown in the earth as seeds
and suddenly armed warriors grew from them,
earthborn men who died fighting each other 35
and lived out their lives in a single day;
and the snake had been conquered. I asked again
if Jason was alive, hoping and fearing in turn.
He told me all about you, eagerly running on, and
in his naivety revealed something that wounded me. 40
Ah, what about your promise of fidelity, the bonds of marriage
and the wedding-torch (that should rather light my pyre)?
We didn’t have a furtive affair: the marriage-gods were there –
Juno and Hymen with garlands on his head.
No, it wasn’t Juno or Hymen but a grim and bloody Fury 45
that carried the ill-omened wedding-torch before me.
What did the Argonauts and the Argo have to do with me?
Why did your helmsman steer the ship here?
The ram’s spectacular Golden Fleece wasn’t here,
and Aeetes didn’t have his capital on Lemnos. 50
At first I was determined to drive off the armed strangers with
my female fighters, but an evil fate drew me on.
The women of Lemnos know all too well how to defeat men;
I should have defended my land with such brave troops.
You got help from my city, I took you into my home and heart, 55
and you stayed while two summers and winters sped by.
At harvest-time in the third year, pressured into sailing away,
you said to me in a suitable flood of tears:
‘I’m being forced to go, Hypsipyle. Provided fate lets me return,
I leave as your husband, and I’ll always be your husband. 60
But I pray that the child of mine in your womb
survives and we both become parents.’
After that, I remember, the tears ran down on to your
lying lips and you couldn’t speak any more.
You were the last of the crew to board the sacred Argo, 65
which flew off, with its sails billowing in the wind.
The speeding keel churned the blue waves;
you gazed at the land, I at the water.
I rushed off to a tower with an all-round view of the sea.
My face and chest were drenched with tears. 70

I looked out through my tears, and my eyes (obliging
my loving heart) saw further than usual.
Also bear in mind my faithful prayers and fearful vows,
which (as you’re safe) I must repay, despite everything.
Should I repay my vows, for Medea to benefit by them? 75
I’m sickened, filled with rage and love.
Should I make offerings at temples for the survival of a man
who’s left me, and sacrifice in thanks for my loss?
Certainly I never felt secure and was always afraid your father
would choose a bride for you from some Greek city. 80
I feared Greek women – the damage came from a barbarian slut;
I was wounded by an unexpected enemy.
You’re not captivated by her beauty or her qualities: she knows
spells and gathers dread herbs with an enchanted knife.
She applies herself to bringing down the reluctant moon from its 85
course and shrouding the sun’s chariot in darkness;
she halts winding rivers, stops the flow of the water,
she makes woods and rocks come alive and move around;
she wanders among tombs, with her hair and robe unbound,
and gathers specific bones from still warm pyres; 90
she curses people in their absence, pierces wax images of them,
driving slender needles into their poor hearts,
and does things I’d rather not know. Character and beauty
should inspire love; it’s wrong to use magic potions.
Can you hug her, enjoy a quiet night’s sleep and not be 95
afraid when alone in the same bedroom with her?
Clearly she has tamed you as she did Mars’ bulls, and she
charms you with the sorcery used on the savage serpent.
What’s more, she’s keen to be attached to the exploits of you
and your men, diminishing her husband’s glory. 100
And one of Pelias’ supporters imputes your feats to her
magic (and has followers to believe him),
saying: ‘It wasn’t Jason, it was Medea from Colchis who
took down the ram’s Golden Fleece from the tree.’
Your mother (ask her advice!) and your father don’t approve 105
of a daughter-in-law who comes from the frozen north.
Medea should look for a husband in her own area – by the Tanais,
in marshy Scythia or on the remote banks of the Phasis.
Fickle Jason, more changeable than a breeze in spring,
why does your pledge to me count for nothing? 110
You left as my husband – why haven’t you returned as that?
Let me be your wife now you’re back, as I was when you went.
If you’re impressed by high birth and royal names, note that I
am famed as the daughter of Thoas, descended from Minos;

my grandmother was Ariadne, wife of Bacchus, who transformed 115
her and her crown into one of the brightest constellations.
My wedding-gift to you will be Lemnos, with its fertile soil,
and slaves (you can have me among them).
And now I’ve given birth too; congratulate us both!
I loved being pregnant by you, Jason. 120
I was also lucky in having twins, yes two
babies, with the help of the goddess of childbirth.
If you ask who they’re like, they’re the image of you,
just like you, apart from not knowing how to lie.
I very nearly had them carried to you as envoys for me, 125
but the thought of their savage stepmother stopped me.
Medea frightened me. Medea’s worse than a stepmother.
Medea can turn her hand to any crime.
Would my boys be spared by the woman who could hack up her
brother and scatter the bits all over the countryside? 130
But they say you prefer her to your wife Hypsipyle.
Oh, you’re insane, unbalanced by Colchian witchcraft.
That girl committing adultery with you was despicable:
we were joined together, you and I, in a faithful marriage.
She betrayed her father, I snatched mine from death; 135
she abandoned Colchis, I’m still on my Lemnos.
But so what, if a dutiful daughter’s going to lose out to some criminal,
who won herself a husband with a dowry of treachery?
I condemn what the women did here, but I’m not surprised:
such resentment turns even great cowards into warriors. 140
Tell me, if you and your crew had been driven here by adverse
winds and you’d entered my harbour (as you should have done),
and I’d gone to meet you with the two babies (no doubt
making you pray for the earth to open up and swallow you),
how would you have faced me and the boys, you criminal? 145
What sort of death would your perfidy have deserved?
You would have been safe and sound – I’d have seen to that –
not because you deserve it, but because I’m gentle.
As for your mistress, I’d have personally splashed her blood all over
my face and yours (which I no longer see thanks to her magic). 150
I’d have been a Medea to Medea! But if just Jupiter
on high looks at all favourably on my prayers,
let that successor to my bed be made to feel the agony
that I do by someone with a code of conduct like hers.
I’m deserted, a wife and mother of two, so let her lose 155
her husband after she’s had two children,
and not keep for long the man she’s stolen, and leave him worse off,
and go into exile, searching everywhere for refuge!

Let her be as cruel to her children and her husband
as she was to her brother and her poor father! 160
Unable to escape by land or sea, let her try the air, and
wander helpless, hopeless, red with the blood she’s shed!
I was cheated out of my marriage, so that’s my prayer.
Live on, man and wife, in your doomed relationship!
This is real tragedy here. After helping Jason, marrying him and becoming
pregnant by him, Hypsipyle has been forgotten by him, and supplanted by a rival,
an inferior and ominous rival in her eyes. She has had no word from him, and
will not hear from him or see him again ever. On top of that there is more misery
ahead for her. The women of Lemnos eventually found out that she spared her
father and wanted to kill her for her treachery. In one tradition they murdered
him and sold her into slavery; in another she fled but was captured by pirates and
sold. In either case she ended up as the slave of king Lycurgus in Sparta. In addi-
tion to her humiliating loss of status there was more danger for her there. She
was ordered to look after the king’s child, but at one point was distracted and
the child was killed by a snake. She was very nearly put to death for that, until
another king intervened, saving her life and winning for her a return to Lemnos
with her two sons.
The bulk of this epistle consists of appeals to Jason. It is sad to see a queen
reduced to this, and it is especially sad that these appeals never were likely to
work, as the queen does not realize how despicable a person Jason is (he later
goes on to drop Medea and his two children by her and marries a Greek princess,
because that will bring him more power, influence and money). At 1–8 she begins
with calm remonstrance, trying to make him feel embarrassed for not coming to
Lemnos or writing. She combines that with disarming congratulations and an
excuse for his non-appearance (5f.), so as not to be too heavy, but also a gentle
reminder that she deserved better treatment, as Hypsipyle (his wife and benefac-
tress), so that he will experience guilt and pity her. However, the fact that he has
not even bothered to write makes it clear that he does not care for her at all; and
someone as self-centred as Jason will not be touched by remorse or feel sympathy
for her. At 9–16 between plaintive references to the absence of a letter she lists his
exploits, dwelling on them in celebration and suggesting that she still relishes the
news of her brave man’s great personal achievements. But poignancy is wasted on
him, and he will know how vital Medea was to his success; and Hypsipyle spoils
all this flattery at 97f. by openly ascribing it to her. At 17–22 reminders that they
are married and (in 19f.) an attempt to shame him and turn him off Medea (as
a ‘barbaric witch’) are toned down by humility in 18 and an easy way out for
Jason at 21f. However, apart from the fact that it would not be a good idea to
show weakness like this, the polygamist is obviously not at all concerned about
their marriage, and would not be embarrassed by his infidelity, and has actually
found Medea and her magic very useful to him rather than repellent. As you can
discover for yourself, Hypsipyle continues like this for most of the rest of the let-
ter, running on and on with such patent, humiliating and feeble appeals, vainly
using the same ploys with the same aims.
Her emotional state adds to the futility, as it leads her to undermine her pleas
thoughtlessly. At the start of the epistle she is trying to control herself, but the more
she writes (and mulls over the situation) the more animated and angry she becomes.
Her continuing love for Jason is clear throughout, but she is incensed about Medea,
who intrudes as early as line 19. Strong emotions break out at 41ff. and there is an
even more irascible outburst at 75ff. From line 75 on Medea and the queen’s hatred
and fear of her dominate the letter, and giving vent to her feelings makes Hypsipyle
write things that would have alienated Jason (see 97f., 124, 132, 139f. and 149f.).Then
in an emotional crescendo Hypsipyle loses control totally at 151ff., where she ends
with savage curses (cursing Jason as well as Medea) that represent no sort of appeal to
her husband but would completely subvert all her earlier entreaty and scare him off.
There is tragic irony too, in the whole letter (aimed at getting back as terrible a
husband as Jason) and in Hypsipyle’s great sadness at the departure of such a person
(67ff.). It is also grimly ironical when she complains of his treachery and wishes
exile on Medea, as she herself will soon suffer exile for betraying the cause of the
Lemnian women. And by the end of the letter she has degenerated into something
as bad as her hated rival: after calling Medea a barbarian and a murderess, who
curses people and dooms them to death, at 149ff. Hypsipyle herself imagines splash-
ing Medea’s blood all over her face and Jason’s, and she herself curses Medea and
dooms her and Jason.
So far we have been concentrating on the emotional impact, but there is also
an important intellectual element, as usual in Ovidian poetry, and the lines affect
the head as well as the heart. Sophisticated readers who know the story in full and
are acquainted with earlier treatment of it will find much more in Heroides 6 and
will see beyond the obvious pathos to more subtle aspects.There is an admixture of
cleverness, even some wit and humour, and much of literary interest as well.
There is ingenuity in the setting for this epistle: Ovid makes Hypsipyle complain
about the disregard of her marriage and threaten her treacherous husband and his
new woman on the island of Lemnos, where because of conjugal violations her sub-
jects killed their unfaithful spouses and the female captives they took up with instead.
Ovid has also been adroit in making Jason here abandon the queen and his two
children for someone more helpful to him when he is married to Hypsipyle (which
he is not in other accounts) because that makes him act in keeping here with what
he will do with his later wife Medea and his two children by her, so that there is a
sort of pre-echo of his coming maltreatment of his Colchian bride. As well as neat
symmetry there is also contrast, as in Her. 6 we see not the standard picture of Medea
as the wronged wife enraged with her rival, but Medea as the rival, and Hypsipyle
as the wronged wife enraged with her rival. And Ovid has been clever in the curse
on Medea that he ascribes to Hypsipyle at 151ff., as much of it comes true later on.
There are also some facetious touches for the detached reader to appreciate.
When you read Heroides 12 and learn how exactly the story continues you will be
able to see more of this kind of thing in this poem, but some of it will be appar-
ent to you now. For example, at 79f. actually Hypsipyle’s fears about Jason having a
Greek bride are justified, as Jason will take a Greek wife (after Medea). In connec-
tion with 107f. it really would be much better for Medea to look for a husband in
her own area (rather than marrying Jason). At 115f. rather quaintly Hypsipyle brags
that her granny is a star! In connection with 136–40 she prides herself on still being
on Lemnos (but she won’t be for long) and condemns the Lemnian women (when
she will have more grounds for complaint against them soon). See if you can find
more instances of this on your own (consider, for instance, the wit in 151 and the
pictures conjured up of the great heroes at 51ff. and of Medea at 95f.).This humour
is most often dark and grim, so as not to be too jarring amid all the tragedy.
From a literary point of view, Ovid here will naturally have been looking to an
episode in a very famous and influential predecessor and will have expected his
readers to have an eye to that too, so that they could spot the differences in the
Ovidian account. In the third century bc a Greek called Apollonius of Rhodes
wrote an epic on Jason’s quest for the Golden Fleece. In that the Lemnos encoun-
ter was essentially a brief, light-hearted fling enjoyed by both Hypsipyle and Jason,
a matter of sexual attraction and pleasure rather than deep passion. Here is Jason’s
departure in Apollonius (1.886ff.):
. . . as Jason was leaving, Hypsipyle took hold of

his hands and prayed, in tears at losing him:
‘Go. May the gods bring you and your comrades home
again unharmed with the Golden Fleece for the king,
granting your dearest wish. This island and my 890
father’s sceptre will be waiting for you, if after you
return from Colchis you want to come back here.
You could easily collect a host of followers from
other cities. But you won’t want to do that,
I don’t foresee that happening myself. 895
But remember Hypsipyle when you’re far away and after
you get home. And leave me your instructions (which I’ll
gladly carry out) if heaven allows me to become a mother.’
Jason appreciated her words and said in reply:
‘Hypsipyle, may the gods make all that turn out well. 900
But don’t get your hopes up about me, because it’s
enough for me to live in my own country, with Pelias’
permission, if only the gods set me free from my ordeals.
But if I’m not fated to return to the land of Greece
from my distant voyage, and you give birth to a boy, 905
send him when he grows up to Iolcus in Thessaly
to console my parents for their grief over me (if he
finds them still alive), and to care for them at their
own hearth and home well away from king Pelias.’
With that he boarded the ship first. The other heroes 910
followed him on board, sat down at their benches and took
hold of the oars. The helmsman released the mooring-cables,
which were attached to a sea-beaten rock. Then they
struck the water vigorously with their long oars.
Apollonius’ queen there (as throughout the episode) is a gentle character: she is
upset but resigned, tells Jason to go, wishes him well and accepts that he probably
won’t return to her. She is also only possibly pregnant by him, not married to him
and not passionately in love with him (in fact he has only been with her for a couple
of days, not for years). Ovid’s Hypsipyle is very different from that in personality
and circumstances, as our poet goes for a version that is sad and bitter, and turns the
queen at the end into the single most vicious and violent heroine in the Heroides.
If you compare the above lines with the description of the actual parting in Ovid
(57ff.), you will find many significant discrepancies which highlight the pathos in
the Latin poem. Also of interest is the fact that we get a new point of view for
the episode, as here only in extant literature are we shown things from Hypsipyle’s
perspective; and nowhere else in what has survived does she learn about Medea or
write to Jason.
Hypsipyle is queen of a society of women without men, and the male poet Apol-
lonius represents them as vulnerable and in need of males. All of this recalls the Ama-
zons, mythical female warriors who lived on the borders of the known world. They
generally shunned and hated men, using them only for breeding purposes, then kill-
ing or mutilating any male babies that they produced, while raising female ones as
fighters, and removing their right breasts, so they could better handle a bow and a
spear unimpeded (hence supposedly the Greek name A-mazon = ‘No-breast’). In
literature they are presented as bizarre, inferior and barbaric, because they invert tra-
ditional Greek norms for women by having sex as they please, ruling themselves
and going off hunting and fighting, rather than being chaste, submissive to men and
staying at home and looking after their family. Many heroes fought them, and always
beat them, showing the triumph of (male-centred) Greek civilization over barbarism.
One of the most memorable Amazons was another queen without a man –
Penthesilea. Quintus Smyrnaeus in book 1 of his Posthomerica presents a stirring and
moving picture of Penthesilea and her Amazons taking part late on in the Trojan
War on the side of Priam. When she arrived at Troy, the Trojans flocked out to see
her and were amazed at her beauty, which was both glorious and terrible, and at
her entrancing smile. At dawn the next day she rode into battle with her Amazons,
leading a great horde of Trojans. Lured on by Doom, she was relentless, driving the
Greeks in terror before her, hurling spears and hacking down men with her huge
battle-axe. But then Achilles confronted her. He disdainfully reminded her of his
great prowess and told her that her final hour had come. Then (at 1.592ff.):
So saying, he charged, brandishing in his powerful hand

the long, murderous spear made for him by Chiron,
and quickly wounded warlike Penthesilea above

her right breast. Her dark blood spurted out. 595
Immediately the strength left her body and she
dropped the great battle-axe from her hand. Black night
clouded her eyes, and she felt agony deep inside her.
But even so she was still breathing and saw her enemy
now about to drag her from her swift horse. 600
As she wondered whether to draw her sword and fight on or yield, Achilles
impaled her and her horse with his spear (at 1.619ff.):
. . . Achilles’ eager spear went right through

Penthesilea and her magnificent horse. 620
She quickly fell to the ground and her death. But there was
nothing unbecoming as she tumbled in the dust, nothing shameful
to bring discredit to her fine body. She lay on her swift horse,
stretched out face-down, transfixed by the long spear, convulsing.
When the Trojans saw that she had been struck down they fled to Troy in terror,
weeping for her. Achilles stood over her and spoke exulting words. Then (1.654ff.):
So saying, Achilles wrenched his ashen spear out of

the swift horse and dread Penthesilea. They both 655
gasped their life away, killed by the same lance.
He pulled from her head the helmet that glittered
like the rays of the sun or Zeus’ radiant lightning.
As she sprawled there in the dust and blood, the face
revealed beneath her lovely eyebrows was beautiful, 660
even though she was dead. The Greeks thronged around and
were amazed when they saw her, looking like a blessed god.
She lay in her armour on the ground like Zeus’ daughter
Artemis sleeping, when that relentless huntress is tired
from shooting arrows at swift lions on long mountain-ridges. 665
Aphrodite crowned in splendour, mate of mighty Ares,
personally made her a wonder of beauty even in death,
so that the noble Achilles would feel some pain too.
Many of the Greeks prayed they might have a wife
like her to sleep with when they returned home. 670
Achilles was filled with endless grief because he had
killed her and not taken her as his glorious bride
back to Phthia, that land of fine horses (for in stature
and beauty she was flawless, like an immortal).
For more on Amazons see Lefkowitz 15ff. and Blok.

Heroides 7
DIDO TO AENEAS
Placed right after Heroides 6, this epistle forms a natural pair with it: in both poems
we find a queen who gave hospitality and help to a voyaging hero and had an
amatory relationship with him but subsequently left by her lover, who sailed off to
success on his quest. But Ovid rings the changes and demonstrates his versatility
by producing here a different tone in his treatment of the same basic situation (see
further below on all the irreverent levity). Monotony is also avoided by means of
divergence in points of detail (e.g. this time the hero is a moral man, who has not
yet departed; there is no other woman involved; and the outcome is dissimilar, as
this heroine goes on to commit suicide very soon).You should be able to spot fur-
ther differences for yourself as you read Heroides 7.
Virgil had recently depicted the love affair between Dido and Aeneas in the
opening books of his famous epic the Aeneid, where the Trojan meets her, tells
her of his adventures so far and enters into a doomed relationship with her. Ovid
here assumes readers’ knowledge of that account. At the fall of Troy, when further
resistance was futile, Aeneas (son of Venus) escaped from the burning city, accom-
panied by his wife and his young son (Ascanius), and carrying on his shoulders his
aged father (Anchises), who held the statues of the gods of Troy. He had agreed to
meet with their servants at a shrine outside Troy, but when he got there he found
that in the haste and confusion his wife had disappeared. Distraught, he rushed
back into Troy to try to find her, and a mysterious phantom of her appeared to
him and informed him that it was the will of heaven that she remain there. When
he rejoined his father and son outside Troy, he found many other Trojan survivors
gathered there. He sailed off with them as their leader, seeking a new home, and
for seven years they roamed the Mediterranean Sea in their search for it. During
that time Anchises died, and it was revealed to them that the promised land for
them lay in Italy, in Latium, the area around the river Tiber where Rome was
eventually built.
Heroides 7: Dido to Aeneas 77
Italy proved elusive, but the Trojan fleet was finally nearing Latium when their
arch-enemy the goddess Juno caused a massive storm, which drove the ships all the
way to north Africa.There they were given a warm welcome by Dido, queen of the
rising city of Carthage. She had been very happily married to Sychaeus, but her evil
brother Pygmalion had killed him in the hope of acquiring his wealth. Dido and
her supporters had fled with the treasure and landed in Africa, where she founded
her splendid city, surrounded by enemies. She had sworn to remain faithful to
Sychaeus, but fell deeply in love with Aeneas, because (to ensure that the Trojan was
safe at Carthage) Venus sent her other son (Cupid) to inspire an irresistible passion
for Aeneas in the queen. Then Juno, hoping to capitalize on the situation and keep
the hated hero from Latium, engineered the start of an affair. When the Trojans and
Carthaginians were out hunting together, she caused a storm, and Aeneas and Dido
fled for shelter to the same cave, and began their relationship there. Feeling guilty,
the queen called it a marriage, although there was no formal wedding, and Aeneas
did not view himself as her husband.
At first they were happy together, but a rejected suitor (the African chieftain
Iarbas) complained to Jupiter about their liaison, and Jupiter sent down Mercury
to remind the Trojan of his fated mission to found a new settlement in Latium and
to order him to leave. Terrified by the god, Aeneas decided that he had to obey
the divine command, but he was in agony over Dido. He got his men to prepare
the fleet secretly, while he waited for the best moment to approach her. But she
found out first, attacked him for treacherously abandoning his wife, angrily rejected
his defence and stormed off. But then, as she watched the fleet’s preparations, the
love-sick queen felt that she had to try to win him over again. It is at this point
that Ovid has her write this letter and send it to him (in Virgil she sends her sister
Anna, who had encouraged her to begin the affair with the Trojan, to make a final,
futile appeal). Aeneas was visited by Mercury again and ordered to leave once more.
When he did obediently sail off, Dido committed suicide, mounting a funeral pyre
and throwing herself on his sword (which he had given her as a gift). Aeneas did
settle in Latium, and eventually from his line came Romulus and Remus, who
founded Rome.
This is like the song of a dying white swan

that has collapsed in the moist grass by the river Meander.
I’m not writing to you in the hope that pleas of mine could
move you – a god’s against this letter I’ve started.
But as I’ve wasted my kindness, reputation, fidelity and 5
chastity for nothing, wasting words doesn’t matter.
Are you determined to go nonetheless and abandon miserable Dido?
Will your ship and your pledge to me both be whisked away by the wind?
Aeneas, are you determined to cast off your mooring-ropes and your wife
in search of a kingdom in Italy (you know not where)? 10
Doesn’t new Carthage touch you or its rising ramparts
or the sceptre of sovereignty ceded to you?
78 Heroides 7: Dido to Aeneas
You shun what you’ve done, look for things to do, leaving the land
you’ve found and ranging the world to find another.
Suppose you find it – who will hand it over to you as yours? 15
Who will give their territory to strangers to occupy?
No doubt there’s another lover waiting for you, another Dido,
and there’s another pledge for you to make, and break.
When are you likely to found a city as splendid as Carthage
and survey your subjects from your citadel on high? 20
Even if your prayers all come true and don’t keep you waiting,
where will you get a wife to love you like me?
I burn for you, like candles of wax coated with sulphur,
like incense devoutly placed on a smoking altar.
Aeneas is before my eyes all the time I’m awake; 25
at night in sleep my thoughts return to Aeneas.
True, he’s ungrateful and indifferent to my kindness;
if I had any sense, I’d want to be rid of him.
But I don’t hate Aeneas, though what he plans is wrong;
I resent his treachery, but resentfully love him more. 30
Venus, spare your daughter-in-law; Cupid, embrace your
brutal brother and make him a soldier of yours.
I started it (I’m not ashamed), so let me do the loving,
and let him be around for me to care about.
I’m deluded, that’s a delusive fantasy I’m conjuring up; 35
he doesn’t have Venus’ temperament.
No, you were born from rocks and mountains and oaks
growing on lofty crags and from savage wild animals
or a sea like the one you see here churned up by gales again –
and yet you’re ready to run away across these hostile waves. 40
Where to? Through a storm. (I hope that ally can stop you for me.)
See how the East Wind heaves up the seething water!
Let me owe to the gales the favour I’d rather owe to you;
the wind and the waves are more just than you.
To be fair to you (why am I being fair?), I’m not worth dying for 45
while you run far away from me across the sea.
You’re indulging a very, very costly hatred,
if death means nothing, provided you’re free from me.
Soon the winds will fall, the waves will be flat and level
and the god Triton will skim the sea on his blue-green horses. 50
I wish that you too were changeable, like the winds!
And you will be, unless you’re harder than oak.
As if you didn’t know what the frenzied ocean can do!
Why trust it, after all your bad experiences at sea?
Even if the sea grows invitingly calm and you cast off, 55
that immense expanse of water holds many terrors.
Those who’ve broken their word shouldn’t brave the sea:

that’s a place where perjury gets punished,
especially when a lover’s been wronged, as Venus, the Cupids’ mother,
was born naked from the waves at Cythera, they say. 60
I’m afraid to harm as you harm, or to destroy my destroyer;
I’m frightened my enemy may be shipwrecked and drown.
I pray you survive, as that will destroy you better than dying:
instead of that you’ll be well-known for causing my death.
Come on, imagine you’re caught in a violent tornado (don’t 65
let this be an omen!) – what will go through your mind?
Your thoughts will turn at once to your perjured, lying tongue
and Dido forced to die by Trojan treachery.
Before your eyes will stand the spectre of the wife you deceived,
miserable, bloodstained, her hair unbound in grief. 70
What makes it worth having to say then, ‘I deserve it, forgive me!’
(thinking the falling thunderbolts are hurled at you)?
Wait a little for the sea’s savagery and yours to abate:
a safe voyage will be a great reward for delaying.
You may not care about that, but spare the boy Ascanius! 75
It’s enough for you to be famous for killing me.
What have the boy and Troy’s gods done to deserve such an end?
Will the sea engulf the statues you saved from the flames?
But you don’t have them, you traitor.You didn’t carry your father
and their images from Troy, as you boast to me. 80
You’re all lies, and you didn’t start the deceit with me.
I’m not the first to be hurt by you.
If anyone wonders where handsome Ascanius’ mother is –
she died, alone, abandoned by her brutal husband.
You told me this, which should have warned me. I deserve the pain 85
as punishment (which won’t be as great as my mistake).
I’ve no doubt in my mind that your gods condemn you:
you’ve been tossed at sea and on land for seven winters.
You were cast ashore, and I gave you a welcome and a safe anchorage;
I’d hardly heard your name when I gave you my throne. 90
But I wish I’d been content to be no more obliging than that
and the rumour about our love making had been buried.
The damage was done on the day when that dark rainstorm’s sudden
downpour drove us into a sloping cave.
I heard a sound, and thought the nymphs had cried out, 95
but it was the Furies signalling my doom.
My lost virtue, punish me! Sychaeus’ violated. . . .
to which I’m going, ah, full of shame.
In a marble shrine covered in front with foliage and white wool
I have a statue of Sychaeus, which I regard as sacred. 100
I heard myself summoned from there by his well-known voice

four times; he said himself faintly, ‘Dido, come!’
I am coming, I’m coming right now (I’m bound to you in marriage),
but slowly, because of shame at my offence.
Pardon my crime: I wasn’t deceived by someone unworthy, 105
thanks to him that lapse of mine is not something hateful.
He has a divine mother and dutifully carried his aged father,
so I hoped he’d do the right thing and stay on as my husband.
If I had to do wrong, the wrong I did was for a respectable reason:
if only he was faithful, I’d have nothing to regret. 110
My destiny follows the same course right up to the end,
still with me during the final hours of my life.
My husband was cut down at the altar inside our home,
and my brother enjoys the profits of that terrible crime.
Driven into exile, I left my homeland and my husband’s ashes; 115
I had a fraught journey, pursued by my enemy.
I escaped the sea and my brother, landed on these shores
and bought the coastal strip I gave you, you traitor.
I founded a city and set in place wide-reaching walls
that arouse envy in neighbouring regions. 120
There was a swell of war, war to test the female foreigner;
I only just provided myself with troops and crude city-gates.
I attracted a thousand suitors, who have now merged their forces,
complaining I married some nobody rather than them.
Why not hand me over in chains to African Iarbas? 125
I’d hold out my arms and let you commit that crime.
And there’s my evil brother, who longs to spatter his hands
with my blood, as he spattered them with my husband’s.
Put down those sacred statues of the gods: your touch profanes them,
it’s wrong for a man with unholy hands to worship them. 130
Since you were destined to worship those gods if they escaped
the flames, they’re sorry they escaped the flames.
You’re abandoning me when I may be pregnant too, you criminal,
with a part of you concealed inside my body.
The poor child will share in its mother’s doom, 135
and you’ll be responsible for the death of your unborn son.
Ascanius’ brother will die along with his mother, and a
single calamity will carry off the two of us together.
‘But the god commands me to go.’ I wish He’d ordered you not
to come and Trojans had never set foot in Carthage. 140
This must be the god who guided you into wasting many
years on wild seas, tossed by hostile winds.
You’d hardly expend so much effort to return to Troy,
if it still was as it was when Hector was alive.
You’re headed for the Tiber, not your native Simois, and of
course even if 145
you reach the land you long for, you’ll be a stranger there.
Italy hides, conceals itself and avoids your ships:
you’ll grow old in your quest and be lucky to find it then.
Stop your wandering and instead accept as your dowry my people
and the treasure that Pygmalion wanted but I brought here. 150
You’d be better off transferring Troy to Carthage
and holding royal power and the sacred sceptre here.
If your heart is hungry for war, if Ascanius wants somewhere
to fight and win the right to a victory-parade,
I’ll provide an enemy for him to beat, so he lacks for nothing: 155
there can be warfare here as well as terms of peace.
I beg you, by your mother, by your brother Cupid’s arrows,
by Troy’s sacred gods that are with you in exile
(and I hope that those Trojans who were spared by savage Mars
in the war live on and you lose no more of them, 160
and Ascanius prospers for all the years allotted to him
and the body of aged Anchises rests in peace),
spare this house, which hands itself over to your control.
What do you accuse me of, apart from loving?
I’m not some Greek from Thessaly or mighty Mycenae; 165
no husband or father of mine stood against you at Troy.
Call me hostess, not wife, if you’re ashamed of marriage to me;
provided I’m yours, I’ll put up with being anything.
I know the seas that break on the shores of Africa:
at fixed times of the year they permit and prevent sailing. 170
When the breeze permits sailing, you’ll spread your canvas before the wind;
for now your ship stays beached behind the light seaweed.
Let me watch for the right time; your departure will be safer,
and I myself won’t let you remain, even if you want to.
Your men demand a rest as well, and your mangled fleet 175
is half-repaired, necessitating a short delay.
You’ve been kind to me, and may be generous again, and I’m
pregnant (I hope), so I ask for a little time
while the sea and my love calm down, and with time and practice
I learn how to manage to bear my misery bravely. 180
Otherwise I intend to pour out my life:
you can’t be cruel to me for long.
I wish you could see what I look like as I write this!
I’m writing with your Trojan sword here in my lap,
and tears roll down my cheeks on to the drawn sword, 185
which will soon be soaked with blood instead of tears.
How well this gift of yours fits with my doom!
It’s not costing you much to set up my funeral.

This isn’t the first time my heart’s been pierced by a weapon:
it already bears the wound of savage love. 190
Anna my sister, my sister Anna, my guilty accomplice in sin,
soon you will make the final offerings to my ashes.
sychaeus’ dido won’t be inscribed on my marble tomb,
when I’m cremated; my epitaph will be merely this:
aeneas provided her reason for dying and the sword;195
dido’s own hand struck the fatal blow.
A more detailed examination of Virgil’s treatment of this tale will make clear
the poignancy of his account (against which Ovid was reacting here). In the Aeneid
the epic poet deliberately makes us feel for Dido from the start, so we will become
involved and appreciate properly the tragedy of her death. We are given our first
glimpse of her in book 1, when Aeneas is exploring the coast of Africa to which his
ships have been blown by the storm caused by Juno. His mother Venus appears to
him, disguised as a local huntress, directs him to Carthage for help and tells him the
story so far of its queen. It is a very positive picture of Dido that she presents, one
that suggests sympathy and admiration on the goddess’ part, and thereby encour-
ages the same reactions in readers. Virgil’s narrative technique increases the force
of a tale that is gripping and moving in itself. He induces us to pity his heroine
from early on, and to respect her more and more as the passage progresses. He also
gives us in her brother Pygmalion a real villain to hate, to engage us further, and
includes various realistic and vivid details, to make the story come alive. He lingers
on Dido’s love for her husband, on his murder and the subsequent deception of
the queen and on the appearance of her husband’s ghost to her (so all of that has
its full impact on us), and he then picks up the pace, in line with Dido’s briskness
and vigour as she sails off with followers to a new home. This is what Venus says to
Aeneas at 1.338ff.:
‘You see the kingdom of Carthage, Tyrians and Agenor’s city.

But the bordering land is the Libyans’, that untameable warrior nation.
Dido reigns as queen. She came from the city of Tyre, 340
fleeing her brother. It’s a long story of crime, a long
complicated tale, but I’ll tell you the main events in outline.
Her husband was Sychaeus (the man with the most gold in Phoenicia),
and he was loved by that poor woman deeply and passionately.
Dido was a virgin when her father joined her in wedlock to him, 345
and that was her first marriage. But the king of Tyre was her brother
Pygmalion, a monster surpassing all other men in evil.
Madness came between them, dividing them. Blinded by love
of gold, the impious king caught Sychaeus off guard at his altar
and killed him with his sword in secret, ignoring his sister’s love. 350
He concealed his crime for a long time, made up many stories

and with empty hope cruelly deluded the distraught loving
wife. But in a dream the ghost of her unburied husband
actually came to her, raising his face, which was strangely pale.
He showed her the savage altar and the wound in his chest made 355
by the sword, revealing all the house’s hidden evil.
Then he urged her to hurry away, to leave the land of her fathers;
and to help her on her journey he unearthed an ancient treasure –
a mass of gold and silver known to nobody else.
That roused her to get herself and some followers ready to flee. 360
They gathered, those who felt a savage hatred for greedy
Pygmalion or feared him intensely; they seized some ships which happened
to be ready for sea, loaded the gold and sailed,
taking the tyrant’s treasure with them. In command was a woman.
They arrived at this place, where now you will see the mighty 365
walls of new Carthage and its citadel rising high.’
The Trojans are given a warm welcome by Dido thanks to Jupiter, who
instils in her friendly feelings for Aeneas and his men. But Venus is fearful
because of Carthage’s association with the Trojans’ enemy Juno. To make sure
that Aeneas is safe there, she sends Cupid to fire the queen to a frenzy of passion
for the hero. When Dido puts on a banquet for her guests, Cupid is substituted
for the boy Ascanius, carrying marvellous gifts from Aeneas. At 1.712ff. in a sin-
ister, doom-laden scene the sympathetic poet lingers on the terrible moments
of this disastrous infatuation. There is horror in the childishness and (perverted)
affection of what is in fact a mighty and callous divinity, in the psychologi-
cal attack on the heroine (playing on her frustrated maternal desires), in the
mysterious vagueness over the actual process of possession, and in the insidious
effacement of the memory of Sychaeus. Horrifying too is the response of the
unwitting Dido, who is fascinated with Cupid and actually takes him on her
lap, again and again.
Most of all ill-fated Dido, doomed to the

imminent plague of love, can’t get her fill and catches
fire as she gazes, affected as much by the boy as the gifts.
After hanging from Aeneas’ neck, embracing him and sating 715
the great love of the man who thinks he’s his father, he goes
for the queen. Her eyes and all her attention are fixed on the boy,
and she fondles him on her lap, several times. Poor
Dido’s unaware that a powerful god’s possessing her. Remembering
his mother Venus’ wishes, he begins to obliterate gradually 720
the memory of Sychaeus and tries to preoccupy with a living love
her long dormant affections, her heart that’s unused to passion.
One of the really sad things about this whole Carthaginian episode in the Aeneid
is the fact that Dido is a pawn, a victim of gods with conflicting interests. Her violent
and ultimately fatal love for Aeneas was caused by an external supernatural force, which
she was powerless to resist – Cupid, who was dispatched unnecessarily by the over-
protective Venus. Next Juno, trying to hinder the Trojan from reaching Latium, con-
trived the intimate meeting in the cave – without which the affair might well never have
started (otherwise why did Juno set it up?).Then Jupiter got involved (after Iarbas’ com-
plaint) and in concern over Aeneas’ mission sent down Mercury to order him to leave.
In Aeneid 4, when Dido discovers, before Aeneas can break the news gently to
her, that he is secretly preparing to sail away, she goes raving through the city and
then attacks him in an extremely emotional speech. Initially her rage dominates,
but she is soon making a futile attempt to get him to stay. The proud queen in her
desperation is forced into using various appeals, showing humility, revealing her
dependence on him and trying to arouse pity:
‘Traitor! Did you actually hope you could keep your terrible 305
crime secret, leave this land of mine without a word?
Can nothing keep you here? Not our love? Not the pledge you
once made to me? Not the cruel death in store for Dido?
And are you working hard to ready your fleet in winter weather,
hurrying to sail across the sea in the midst of northern gales? 310
You’re cruel. Tell me, if it wasn’t some foreign land and unknown
home that you’re bound for, and ancient Troy was still standing,
would you be sailing for Troy over this heaving sea?
Is it me you’re running from? By these tears and your pledge
(I’m a poor fool who’s left herself nothing else to appeal by), 315
by our wedding, by the marriage we entered on, I beg you,
if I’ve shown you any kindness, or anything about me was
pleasing to you, pity my falling house, and, if
it’s not too late for pleas, give up this plan of yours.
Because of you the peoples of Libya and Numidian chieftains 320
hate me, the Carthaginians are hostile; and because of you
I’ve lost my honour and the good name that I had, my only hope
of immortality.You’re leaving me to be killed (by who?),
my guest – I can only call you that, not ‘husband’ any more.
What am I waiting for? For my brother Pygmalion to destroy my 325
city or for African Iarbas to take me away as his captive?
At least if before you ran off I’d had a child by you,
if some little Aeneas was playing in my palace
with a face to recall yours in spite of everything,
I wouldn’t feel completely deceived and deserted.’ 330
Deeply upset, Aeneas defends himself on the grounds that they are not married
and the gods are forcing him to go to Italy against his will. She rounds on him
furiously, accusing him of ingratitude and cruelty, telling him to go off to Italy, but
expressing the hope that he will be punished by shipwreck on the way, and threat-
ening to haunt him after her death. The anguished Aeneas returns to his fleet, obe-
dient to heaven’s command, and his men eagerly get ready to depart. At this point
Virgil’s queen is forced by her passionate love to initiate another approach to the
hero. She is reduced to humility again, and is this time even more humble (but in
vain). Sadly now Aeneas has degenerated further, from a guest to a seeming enemy,
and Dido has given up on the idea of him staying on permanently and just wants
him to delay his departure, so she can learn how to cope. She appeals to her sister
Anna to help her in a speech for which Ovid substitutes his letter:
‘Go, sister, and make this humble appeal to my arrogant enemy:

I did not swear with the Greeks at Aulis to exterminate 425
the Trojan race or send a squadron of ships to Troy,
and I didn’t tear up the ashes of his dead father Anchises from his grave;
so why does he close his callous ears to my appeals?
Where’s he rushing? As a final gift for his poor lover
let him wait for a favourable wind and smooth sailing. 430
I’m not begging any more for the marriage we once had and he betrayed
or for him to forgo glorious Latium and give up his kingdom there;
I’m asking for nothing – just time, rest and respite for my passion,
until my fortune teaches me how to lose and grieve.
Pity your sister. Tell him I’m begging for this final 435
favour, which I’ll repay with interest when I die.’
Virgil was widely recognized as a master poet, and his Aeneid was the national
poem (about the illustrious Trojan origins of the Roman race), said to rival the Iliad
itself. Ovid did feel respect for his renowned predecessor; but Virgil did also represent
a challenge (a great author to top) and provide a tempting target (the lofty and revered
Aeneid). There is supreme cheek in our young poet taking on the sublime Virgil and
a major and tragic episode in his epic, and being so flippant and subversive while
doing so. Ovid intentionally draws attention to his source by means of lots of echoes,
as he puts his own stamp on it. He gives it a new form (the letter) and a new narra-
tor (Dido), and he makes numerous variations, twists and additions to Virgilian words
and details. All of this tinkering with a sacred text baffles and outrages some readers,
while others find it stimulating and amusing. There is pathos in Heroides 7, but Ovid
was too intelligent to try to compete with Virgil in that area. Instead he caps him in
other ways and works in lots of irreverent levity, making for a piquant mixture. So, for
example, at Aeneid 4.9 Virgil made Dido address Anna as Anna soror ‘Anna my sister’,
so Ovid improves on that in 191 by making the queen write to her Anna soror, soror
Anna ‘Anna my sister, my sister Anna’, producing a doublet that is wittily apt, as this
is the second time that Dido so addresses her. He deflates the divine guidance for
Aeneas in Virgil’s epic by means of the sarcasm at 141f., and he mocks the Aeneid’s
idea of Rome being Troy reborn with the notion of Rome’s great enemy Carthage as
Troy reborn in 151. He even works in some obscene verbal play in 134, where in the
context of pregnancy the wording easily conjures up (as well as a baby) penetration
by a penis. But Ovid has most fun with Dido and Aeneas.
He creates his own Dido, building on his predecessor’s version. He tops Virgil
by giving the new, improved heroine all the arguments that she used on Aeneas
at Aeneid 4.305ff and 424ff. and extra ones. So at 9ff. and 145ff. she points out to
him that he already has a kingdom and a loving wife (so why go off to somewhere
unknown, where he won’t found as splendid a city as Carthage or get a wife as
loving as Dido?); she warns him that perjurers are often punished by storms at sea
(57ff.); and at 75f. and 153ff. she claims that she has Ascanius’ welfare and happiness
at heart. The Ovidian Dido is also an elegiac figure rather than a majestic queen of
epic, employing much of the vocabulary and imagery of elegy (for instance, with
a metaphor common in love poetry, she pictures the warrior Aeneas as a soldier in
Cupid’s camp in line 32). She is also a stylish writer, as is highlighted at the start of
the letter with some neat turns at 5–6, 8, 9 and especially the couplet at 13–14 (with
its repetition of words and sounds, beginning in the Latin with facta fugis, facienda
petis). Such stylistic elegance for a distraught lover has its droll side, and there is also
sly humour in some rather undignified aspects to Ovid’s Dido. She shows a comi-
cal ignorance in 31 and 36, as she does not know that Venus is largely responsible
for her problems and has a callous attitude to her. And, getting carried away, she
is inconsistent (contradicting 79f. at 107, 131f. and 158) and seems to exaggerate
and tell fibs at 115f. (according to Virgil she was not driven off, but left of her own
accord, and she was not pursued by her brother), at 121f. (there was no actual war
in the Aeneid), in 123 (in the epic she did not have anything like as many as a thou-
sand suitors) and at 175f. (in Virgil at this stage Aeneas’ ships were already repaired
and his men were keen to leave Carthage rather than stay on and have a rest there).
There is also playfulness in connection with Aeneas, the venerable ancestor of the
Roman race (and of the emperor Augustus himself), as Ovid gleefully seizes on his
rather questionable action of parting from Dido and aggravates the problem.Virgil tried
to exonerate somewhat the proto-Roman and hero of his poem, while bringing out the
tragedy of the situation and showing the hard choices necessary and the pain involved
in starting a new life for one’s people. He made it clear that there was no marriage, that
Aeneas still loved the queen deeply, and that he was agonized at leaving her and did so
against his will (a devout man intimidated by the gods and mindful of his destiny and
his son’s future). But he did still leave her, turning away from and causing the death of
a woman who was passionately in love with him and had done so much for him and
his men; and a hero with a mission should not have allowed himself to enter into an
affair in the first place. Ovid provides a much less sympathetic picture of the Trojan. His
Dido writes to him at far greater length than she spoke in the Aeneid, and this facilitates
increase of her criticism of him. As in Virgil, she attacks his ingratitude, treachery and
cruelty, but does so more extensively, and she also posits other faults, calling him unjust,
a liar and (the dutiful Aeneas!) someone who does not care for his father and the gods.
And this time Aeneas does not get to defend himself and the poet does not attempt
to excuse him. So there is a much more negative presentation of him here, as Ovid
employs Dido to really snipe at and undermine the great hero. In particular our poet
makes Aeneas look even worse for quitting Carthage. This Dido is even more pitiful
and pleading than Virgil’s, underlining her love and kindness at many more points than
in the epic; but he still goes. In place of a vague hint that she might possibly commit
suicide in Virgil (Aen. 4.308, 323) here she openly announces, more than once, that she
definitely will kill herself, and dwells on her upcoming suicide at the end; but Aeneas
still departs. And whereas Virgil’s heroine had wished that she had a child by him, the
Ovidian queen represents herself as quite possibly pregnant (at 133ff. and 177f.), so
that his departure may well cause the death of their son as well; but without waiting to
establish if she is with child, Aeneas sails away.
Virgil didn’t finish with Dido and her story in the fourth book of the Aeneid.
Surprisingly she (or rather her ghost) reappears in book 6, when Aeneas goes down
to the Underworld to meet the spirit of his father and receive important instruc-
tions from him. As he makes his way through the land of the dead he comes to the
Mourning Plains, a region for the souls of those who have died of love. There is a
forest there, where they hide away, among them Dido. We really feel for the queen,
just a faint phantom now, wandering disconsolately, and suggestively enclosed by
gloom and dwarfed by the huge wood. As Aeneas speaks to her, she starts to move
off, but halts when he asks her to, and finally has to wrench herself away. This sug-
gests that amidst all her anger, hatred and hurt she still has not totally escaped her
profound love for him, although she does now manage to control that passion; and
she will not look at the hero, probably in part because she does not trust herself
to do that. At least she is reunited with her beloved Sychaeus there, although her
wandering and stopping to listen to Aeneas leave one wondering if her love for her
old husband is entirely unadulterated and unclouded.
Virgil also wants us to feel sympathy for Aeneas. He shows us how much his
hero still loves Dido and how distraught he is over having left her and caused her
death. Aeneas is desperate to explain his actions to her and to exonerate himself, but
fails. On top of the upset of seeing her in that terrible place, she is bitterly hostile
to him and will not talk to him or even look at him. And in a final rejection of him
she runs away and rejoins Sychaeus in what has to be a close relationship, whereas
the Trojan now has no lover.
At line 450 he catches sight of her among other heroines who were destroyed
by love:
Among them Phoenician Dido wandered in that vast wood, 450

her wound still fresh. The Trojan hero stopped beside
her and just recognized that dim figure amid the gloom,
as a man sees or thinks he has seen the moon
rising amid the clouds at the start of the month.
Immediately he spoke words of sweet love to her, in tears: 455
‘Poor Dido! So it was true, the news I heard, that you were
dead, that you’d put an end to your life with a sword?

Ah no, was I responsible for your death? I swear by the stars,
by the powers above, by anything sacred in the world below,
I did not leave your shores of my own free will, my queen. 460
No, it was the stern commands of the gods that drove me,
as they force me now to pass through the gloom, this jagged
wasteland, this abyss of night; and I just couldn’t believe
that by going away I would cause you such terrible agony.
Stop! Let me look at you a little longer. Who are you running 465
from? Fate won’t let me talk to you ever again.’
With these words Aeneas, in tears, tried
to soothe her burning, glaring rage. She
kept her eyes fixed on the ground, turned away from him,
and when he began to speak her face remained unmoved, 470
like solid, hard flint or a crag on Mount Marpessus.
Finally she wrenched herself away and ran, still hostile, back
into the shadowy wood, where her husband of former days,
Sychaeus, responded to her anguish and returned her love.
Despite that Aeneas, horrified at her unjust fate, gazed 475
after her from afar, weeping and pitying her as she went.
On Dido in subsequent literature and in music and art see Grafton & Most &
Settis 268f.
Heroides 8
HERMIONE TO ORESTES
Hermione was the daughter of Menelaus (king of Sparta in Greece) and Helen
(who eloped with the Trojan prince Paris when Hermione was a little girl). While
Menelaus was off besieging Troy for ten years with a huge Greek army to get his
beloved wife back, Hermione’s grandfather Tyndareus betrothed her to her cousin
Orestes (son of Agamemnon, commander-in-chief of the Greek forces at Troy and
brother of Menelaus). Hermione and Orestes were married, but subsequently, while
still at Troy, in ignorance of that fact Menelaus promised her to Pyrrhus (son of
Achilles, who was the greatest of the Greek warriors in the Trojan war, until he was
killed by the god Apollo). After the fall of Troy Menelaus returned with Helen, and
Pyrrhus turned up to claim Hermione, seizing her and carrying her off against her
will. In this letter she appeals to Orestes to get her back. Her appeal was successful
and he did recover her on the death of Pyrrhus (killed by Orestes himself or by
another person or persons).
For clarity other allusions made in the course of Her. 8 require brief explanation.
Andromache (line 14) was the widow of the Trojan hero Hector, and when Troy was
taken her son was murdered and she was enslaved. At 47f. and 117 reference is made
to the ancestry of Hermione and Orestes, which stretched back all the way to Jupiter:
he had a son called Tantalus, who fathered Pelops, and one of Pelops’ sons was Atreus,
who was the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus. At 49ff. Hermione touches on an
unpleasant bit of family history: when Agamemnon got back from Troy, he was mur-
dered by his wife and her lover Aegisthus, and later Orestes got revenge for his father
by killing the two murderers. At 66ff. other relatives of Tantalus are mentioned –
Helen’s mother Leda, who was raped by Jupiter in the form of a swan; and Hippoda-
mia, the wife of Pelops, who won her in a chariot race and drove off with her.
Pyrrhus, who’s as haughty as his father Achilles, holds me 3

prisoner here contrary to the laws of gods and men.
90 Heroides 8: Hermione to Orestes
I did what I could – refused to be held here willingly – 5

but I’m a woman, not strong enough to do more than that.
I said: ‘What are you doing, Pyrrhus? I have a man,
a lord and master, who will punish you.’
Deafer to that than the sea, he dragged me into his palace,
as I tore my hair in grief and shouted your name. 10
If a barbarian horde had taken Sparta and carried off
the women, would I have suffered worse than this as a slave?
When the Greeks won the war and set wealthy Troy on fire,
they didn’t maltreat Andromache as badly as this.
But if you care for me, as a husband should, 15
boldly claim what’s yours by right, Orestes.
If someone opened your stalls and stole your cattle, you’d fight;
but you’ll hold back when your bride’s been stolen?
Follow my father’s example of claiming back an abducted wife;
he went to war for her, as a husband should. 20
If he’d done nothing, snoring away in the palace she’d left,
my mother would still be married to Paris.
Don’t muster a thousand ships with swelling sails
or an army of Greek warriors – come yourself!
Even so you could have done that to get me back: there’s nothing wrong25
in a husband enduring fierce fighting for a beloved bride.
Then again we have the same grandfather – Atreus, son of Pelops:
if you weren’t my husband, you’d be my cousin.
Husband, please help your wife; cousin, help your cousin!
Both your titles press you to do your duty. 30
With all the authority of his age and way of life, revered
Tyndareus gave me to you, as was his right as my grandfather.
My father didn’t know that and promised me to Pyrrhus;
my grandfather acted first, and so takes precedence.
When I was married to you, my wedding harmed nobody; 35
if I become Pyrrhus’ wife, you will be hurt.
And my father Menelaus will pardon this love of ours:
he himself yielded to winged Cupid’s arrows.
As he let himself love, he’ll allow his son-in-law to do that too;
his love for my mother will be a useful precedent. 40
You are to me what he is to her, and Pyrrhus plays
the part once played by the Trojan stranger Paris.
Let Pyrrhus take endless pride in Achilles’ exploits:
you too have a father with achievements for you to recount.
Agamemnon ruled all the Greeks, including Achilles himself: 45
he was commander-in-chief; Achilles was just one of the soldiers.
Like Pyrrhus you are in a fifth generation descended from Jupiter,
Heroides 8: Hermione to Orestes 91
if you count back through your great-grandfather Pelops and his father.
And you’re brave. The killing you did was awful, but you had
no choice – your father put the weapon in your hands. 50
I wish you’d had a better occasion for showing courage in action,
but the cause was imposed, not chosen by you.
But you did it all, cutting Aegisthus’ throat, so he bloodied
the palace which your father had bloodied before.
Pyrrhus criticizes you for this, finding fault with what should be 55
praised, and despite doing that doesn’t avoid my eyes.
I burst with anger, both my heart and my face swell,
my breast is scorched painfully by pent up rage.
After someone has maligned Orestes in front of me, am I
just a weak woman, without a savage sword in my hand? 60
I can cry at least; my rage comes out in tears;
tears flow down my chest like a stream.
They’re all I have; I have them always, and shed them always;
my cheeks are wet and unsightly from the constant flow.
There couldn’t be a family curse, straying down to my time, that 65
makes all us female descendants of Tantalus ripe for ravishing, could there?
I won’t complain about Jupiter disguising himself as a swan of the river
and tell how he deceived Leda with his plumage.
Where Corinth’s long isthmus keeps two seas apart,
Hippodamia was taken away on a stranger’s chariot. 70
Helen was carried off across the sea by her guest Paris, 73
making the Greeks go to war to get her back.
I hardly remember it myself, but I do remember. The whole 75
palace was filled with grief, filled with anxiety and fear.
Her father, sister and twin brothers were in tears, while her
mother Leda appealed to her own Jupiter and the other gods.
I myself tore my girlishly short hair and kept on shouting:
‘Are you going away without me, mother, without me?’ 80
(For my father was away.) To prove I’m a member of that family,
see, I’ve been provided as prey for Pyrrhus.
I wish his father hadn’t been shot by Apollo:
he’d condemn the outrage committed by his son.
Achilles didn’t like back then and wouldn’t like now to see 85
a man weeping for the wife taken from him.
Ah, has some crime of mine turned the gods against me
or should I be complaining of some unlucky star harming me?
When I was little I didn’t have my mother, and father was at war;
both were alive, but I was an orphan twice over. 90
Mother, during my childhood you weren’t there for me
to lisp girlish words of love to you.
I never tried to clasp your neck with my tiny arms,

you never enjoyed having me sit on your lap.
You didn’t fuss over my appearance, and when I got married 95
you didn’t get the new bedroom ready for me.
I went to meet you when you came home, and – honestly –
I didn’t know what my mother’s face looked like.
I realized you were Helen because you were so beautiful;
you asked which one was your daughter. 100
Marriage to Orestes is the only bit of good luck that I’ve had;
I’ll lose him too, if he doesn’t stick up for himself.
Pyrrhus holds me captive, though my father returned victorious:
that’s the gift I got out of the destruction of Troy.
I’m miserable, but in the daytime, when the Sun drives his 105
bright chariot on high, I enjoy some freedom from pain;
at night, shut in the bedroom, wailing and groaning
bitterly, I lie down on my bed of sorrow
and, weeping instead of sleeping, as much as I can
I shrink from the man, as if from an enemy. 110
Dazed by pain, and forgetting how things are and where I am,
I’ve often touched Pyrrhus’ body unwittingly;
when I sense the terrible thing I’ve done, I recoil from him,
thinking my hands defiled by that hateful contact.
I often come out with your name instead of his 115
and treasure my verbal slip as a good omen.
I swear by our luckless family, by our ancestor Jupiter,
who makes earth, sea and his own sky tremble,
by the bones of your father (my uncle) lying in his tomb,
which got revenge thanks to your bravery, 120
I’ll either die young, killed before my time, or I’ll be your wife,
and we two descendants of Tantalus will be united.
As with Her. 7, we are again involved in the aftermath of the Trojan War. But
there are obvious differences in the character and circumstances of this heroine, and
in the purpose and effect of her letter.The tone diverges too: the extensive frivolity
of 7 has gone now. This cannot be a tragic epistle in view of the happy outcome,
but it is a very affecting one, thanks to the main thrusts of Hermione’s appeal
to Orestes. She is touchingly afraid that he will not tackle a savage like Pyrrhus,
and so she spends a lot of the letter trying to psych him up, stressing his bravery,
maintaining that his ancestry is as distinguished as Pyrrhus’ and so on (see further
Jacobson 48ff.). But she tries even more to arouse pity for herself. So she points
out that she was deprived of her father and especially her mother when she was a
child, something that she goes on about twice and at length (at 75ff. and 89ff., in
a flashback that gives us a brand-new take on Helen’s elopement and a picture of
a letter-writer’s girlhood that is unique in the Heroides). To appreciate properly the

pathos in those two passages, note the nature and number of sad details highlighted,
the emotive adjectives and nouns, and the repetition of significant words (including
negatives). On top of that earlier loss Hermione is now deprived of her beloved
Orestes, when marriage to him was the only good thing in her life (101). And this
gentle, weak and sorrowful young woman is in the power of the vicious Pyrrhus.
Contemporary readers would have particularly felt for her because of the recent
depiction of Pyrrhus in Virgil’s Aeneid, where during the fall of Troy he plays a bru-
tal role in the attack on Priam’s palace and the death of the king himself. A survey of
Virgil’s lines (spoken by Aeneas as he recalls what he witnessed on that final night of
his city) will bring out what a terrifying and cruel monster now holds poor Hermi-
one captive (and what a formidable opponent faces Orestes). At the start of 2.469ff.
the sinister Pyrrhus is outside the palace, dancing about with nervous energy and
in his eagerness to get inside and start killing, and he is all glittering bronze (almost
non-human). By way of reinforcement he is compared to a dangerous, deadly and
repulsive snake. As he breaks in he is a figure of violence and fury, unstoppable and
pitiless, not given pause by pathetic and helpless females (like Hermione), and once
inside he goes mad slaughtering people.
In front of the entrance-hall itself, right in the gateway, Pyrrhus

prances, exulting, aglitter with gleaming weapons of bronze, 470
like a swollen snake that has fed on poisonous herbs and hidden
away underground during the cold winter, but now has
shed its skin and is young again and glistening,
coiling its slippery back into the light, its chest upreared,
towering up to the sun, darting a three-forked tongue from its mouth. 475
With him huge Periphas and warlike Automedon
(Achilles’ charioteer), with him all the young warriors from Scyros
advance on the palace and hurl firebrands on to the roof.
Pyrrhus himself at their head seizes an axe and tries to
smash through the stout door and tear the bronze doorposts 480
from their sockets. Now he has hacked out a panel
and made a huge, gaping hole in the tough oak.
The heart of the palace stands revealed, the long halls are exposed;
the inner rooms of Priam and the kings of old stand revealed;
they see armed defenders standing just inside the doorway. 485
The interior is chaos and tumult, groans and anguish;
deep within, the vaulted building wails with the howls
of women; their cries rise to strike the golden stars.
Terrified mothers wander about in the vast palace, clinging
to doorposts, embracing them and kissing them goodbye. 490
Pyrrhus drives on with all his father’s violence; bars and even
guards can’t withstand him; under a battering-ram’s repeated
blows the door totters and falls forward, wrenched from its sockets.
Violence forces an entry. Greek troops burst in, charging,
butchering the guards and filling the entire building, 495
more frenzied than a foaming river that overflows, bursting its
banks and overwhelming the dykes with its flood, and rushes
into the fields in a mass, dragging cattle and their
stalls all over the plains. With my own eyes I saw in the
doorway Pyrrhus in a killing frenzy and the two sons of Atreus, 500
I saw Hecuba, her hundred princesses and Priam over an altar,
polluting with his blood the flames which he had consecrated himself.
That reference to the killing of Priam is elaborated at 2.526ff. The king has gone
to an altar in his palace for sanctuary along with his wife (Hecuba) and his daugh-
ters, but there Pyrrhus is responsible for the death of one of his sons right in front
of him (and the women), after running the youth down (and quite possibly play-
ing with him, like a cat with a mouse). When the old man bravely attacks Pyrrhus
verbally and feebly throws a spear at him, instead of being understanding and just
brushing him aside, Pyrrhus is contemptuously curt in his reply (and actually jokes),
before butchering this venerable king cruelly (in his own son’s blood, before his
wife and daughters) and sacrilegiously (at an altar, in a grim parody of a sacrifice).
Look – Polites, one of Priam’s sons. He had escaped death at

Pyrrhus’ hands, but now fled down the long colonnades amid
enemies, amid weapons, and ran through the empty halls,
wounded. Pyrrhus pursued him hotly, on the point of seizing
him, pressing him hard with a spear that was poised to strike. 530
Finally he emerged before the faces and eyes of his parents
and collapsed, pouring out his life in a river of blood.
Although clutched tight in death’s grip, Priam didn’t
hold back or keep quiet, curbing his rage.
He shouted: ‘If there’s any righteousness in heaven that cares 535
about such things, may the gods show you fitting gratitude and
give you your due reward for this monstrous crime, this
outrage! You made me witness my own son’s murder in
person, you defiled a father’s eyes with the sight of death.
You claim Achilles was your father.You liar! He didn’t treat his 540
enemy Priam like this. No, he respected my rights as a suppliant
and my trust in him, he gave me back for burial Hector’s
bloodless corpse and allowed me to return to my city.’
So saying, the old man hurled his weak, unwarlike spear.
It was immediately repelled by the clanging bronze 545
shield and hung uselessly from the top of its centre.
Pyrrhus said: ‘Very well then, you’ll go as a messenger to my
father Achilles with news of all this. Remember to tell him

about my deplorable conduct and the degeneracy of his son.
Now die!’ While speaking, he dragged Priam to the actual altar, 550
trembling and slipping in pools of his son’s blood.
He entwined Priam’s hair in his left hand, while with the right
he raised his flashing sword and buried it to the hilt in his side.
This was the end of Priam’s destiny, this was the doom
that carried him off, seeing Troy in flames and his 555
citadel in ruins, this man who was once the proud lord
of so many peoples and regions of Asia. He lay on the shore, a mighty
trunk, the head hacked from his shoulders, a nameless corpse.
To supplement the emotional impact of Heroides 8, there is some typical Ovidian

cleverness and complexity in kaleidoscopic play with character. Ovid’s Hermione
is Hermione, but she also takes on the guise of other heroines. She depicts herself
as a second Helen at 19, 23ff. and 41f. In that role some of what she writes is very
much what one would expect of that personage: a Helen of Troy would be against
a large Greek force being sent to fetch her back (23f.) and would be critical of the
Greek warrior Pyrrhus and want him to be opposed and thwarted. But there are
also piquant inversions, in a Helen of all people objecting to being abducted and
claiming to be unhappy over sharing a bed with her abductor, and in her loving her
husband, counting marriage to him the one good thing in her life and asking him
to get her back.
Hermione also recalls Orestes’ sister Electra, who in the tragedy by Euripides
called Electra (at 668ff. and 963ff.) had to embolden her cautious and irresolute
brother to get him to kill their father’s murderers (first Aegisthus and then their
mother Clytaemnestra). In Her. 8, as in Euripides’ Electra, we find a female relative
shoring up the courage of Orestes when he has done nothing so far, urging him
(successfully) to act against an adulterer and (at 49ff.) condoning the execution of
Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra. Again there are some interesting twists. This Electra,
unlike Euripides’ heroine, is passive, inert and totally reliant on Orestes. This is also
a gentler Electra: in contrast to her Euripidean counterpart, she does not hate her
mother for treating her badly, and she does not press Orestes to commit murder
specifically.
In Heroides 3 Briseis is involved with Agamemnon and Achilles. Hermione, who
is involved with the son of Agamemnon and the son of Achilles, also resembles
her. Like Briseis, Hermione is a young woman high-handedly taken away from a
Greek hero whom she loves by another Greek hero, and she writes to her man,
on whom she is completely dependent for release, asking him to stir himself and
recover her. Once more Ovid rings the changes. For instance, whereas Briseis is a
foreigner, slave and concubine, Hermione is a Greek, of free birth and a wife, so that
Pyrrhus’ abduction of her would have been viewed as more serious and shocking.
And while Briseis was taken from Achilles by Agamemnon, Hermione was taken
from the son of Agamemnon by the son of Achilles, so there is a sort of tit for tat,
as history repeats itself with a spin. Try to find some more parallels and variations,
and see what you think of the remarks in Fulkerson 87–102 on the connection
between Heroides 3 and 8.
Not much has survived of ancient literature about Hermione, but we do have
one other extensive depiction of her, and it is a very different Hermione in a
divergent version of her story that we find there. Euripides in his tragedy entitled
Andromache tells how Pyrrhus came back from the Trojan war with Hector’s sor-
rowing widow as his captive and impregnated the poor woman. Then in his desire
for a legitimate heir he married Hermione, but she was unable to get pregnant. She
blamed this unfairly on magic by Andromache, and persecuted her and her son.
While Pyrrhus was away at Delphi, Hermione and her father tried to kill the child
and Andromache, who had taken refuge at a temple of the goddess Thetis. However,
Pyrrhus’ grandfather (Peleus) arrived, rescued Andromache and drove off Menelaus.
Without her father’s support Hermione was afraid to face Pyrrhus and feared that
he would kill her for the attempted crime. At that point her cousin Orestes turned
up, and she begged him to take her away with him to save her from Pyrrhus’ rage.
Orestes announced that he had been promised Hermione before Pyrrhus, and took
her off to marry her, having already arranged for the murder of Pyrrhus at Delphi.
Hermione’s first appearance on stage at 147ff. sets the tone for what follows
and establishes her from the start as a most unsympathetic figure. She is harsh and
haughty, flaunting her wealth and royal authority, reminding Andromache of her
servile status and piling on the humiliation. Her accusations are unreasonable, and
in her speech there is an unpleasant mixture of snobbery, contempt, spite, envy and
bigotry.
This sumptuous, splendid crown of gold and the

richly embroidered robe that I am wearing
are mine, not some present to honour me
from the house of Peleus and Achilles: 150
my father Menelaus from the land of Sparta
gave them to me together with a large
dowry, and so I can say what I like.
But you, a slave-woman, a captive taken in war, 155
want to get rid of me and take possession of this
house; you make my husband hate me, because
my womb is barren and dying due to your potions.
You Asiatic women are experts in that
sort of thing; but I’ll put a stop to it. 160
This temple of Thetis, its altar and inmost shrine,
won’t help you at all; you’re going to die.
Suppose some god or mortal did want to save your life –
you must stop being proud as if still rich,
and cower humbly, and grovel at my feet, 165
sweep my house and sprinkle with your own

hands river water from my golden pitchers,
realizing where you live now.You have no Hector here,
no Priam, no gold. This is a Greek city.
You slut, you’re so perverted that you bring yourself 170
to go to bed with the son of Achilles, who killed your
husband, murdered your man, and to bear him a
child. That’s the way all you barbarians are:
fathers sleep with their daughters, sons with their mothers,
sisters with their brothers, very close relatives slaughter 175
each other, and no law prevents any of this.
Don’t you introduce that kind of thing here. It’s
immoral for a man to have charge of two women at once.
Anybody who wants to lead a decent life
is content to look to a single sexual partner. 180
Ovid has an eye to Euripides’ heroine also. As early as line 14 he makes Hermi-
one write of Andromache being maltreated by Greeks, which is an obvious pointer
to the maltreatment of her by Hermione herself and her father in the tragedy; and
by way of reinforcement at 55f. he clearly echoes Pyrrhus’ criticism of Orestes for
murdering his mother at Andromache 977. As part of his play with character Ovid
presents a young woman who is diametrically opposed to the Euripidean version.
In place of the hard and arrogant figure who relished her royal power Ovid gives us
a gentle, meek and weak person. In Her. 8 she is held against her will and longs to
escape the union with Pyrrhus, whereas in the Andromache she wants to live on in
the palace as queen and is keen to stay married to Pyrrhus. And Ovid’s Hermione
is cruelly oppressed instead of being a cruel oppressor herself.
With his sad lines on Hermione as a little girl Ovid was working within a liter-
ary tradition of achieving pathos by means of children that went all the way back
to Homer. In book 6 of the Iliad Hector leaves the battle to get the women of Troy
to pray to Athena for help in the fighting, and while in Troy he encounters his
wife Andromache and his baby son Astyanax. The boy will later be killed by Greek
warriors when Troy falls, so there is a melancholy undertone to lines 466ff. There
Hector reaches for the child, but Astyanax shrinks back crying, frightened by his
father’s helmet with its horsehair crest nodding grimly from its peak. Hector and
Andromache burst out laughing at that. Then the hero takes off his helmet, dandles
his son in his arms and prays to the gods for the boy to grow up to be a mighty king
of Troy and for people to say that he is a much better man than his father when he
returns from war with bloody armour taken as spoil from the enemy, making his
mother glad.
Ovid made similar use of a father and son in book 8 of his Metamorphoses. At
195ff. he depicts the boy Icarus watching his father (the wonderful craftsman Dae-
dalus) making wings for their arms so they can escape by flying away. The inno-
cent Icarus smiles as he playfully tries to catch feathers stirred by the breeze and
softens the wax with his thumb – all of which foreshadows the climax, when the
child, despite his father’s anxious warnings, gets carried away with the exhilaration
of flight and flies too close to the sun, which melts the wax holding together the
feathers for his wings. Ovid catches the awful moment as the boy moves his now
bare arms up and down, but without wings can get no purchase on the air. He calls
out to his father, before plunging to his death in the sea. Daedalus cannot find him
and keeps on frantically shouting ‘Icarus’ until he sees the feathers on the water, and
curses his own skill.
Literary epitaphs for children can also be very moving. Callimachus produced
one with an eloquent brevity and simplicity (Greek Anthology 7.453):
Philippus buried here his twelve-year-old son,

Nicoteles, his great hope.
Martial (11.91) wrote a longer and more harrowing one for a young slave girl:
Aeolis’ daughter Canace lies buried in this tomb;

her seventh winter was the last one for this little girl.
How unjust, how criminal! You, traveller, on the verge of tears,
must not complain about the brevity of life in this case.
Sadder than her death is the manner of her death: a hideous 5
infection disfigured her face and settled on her tender mouth,
and the cruel disease ate away her very kisses,
and only a part of her lips were left for the black pyre.
If the Fates had to come swooping down so swiftly,
they should have come some other way. 10
But death was quick to block the path of her charming voice,
so her tongue couldn’t soften those pitiless goddesses.
Still more harrowing is Tacitus Annals 5.9. In the first century ad a man called
Sejanus achieved a position of great influence in the court of the Roman emperor
Tiberius, but suddenly fell from power and was killed. Tiberius then attacked
Sejanus’ allies and family, including a son and daughter. In describing the children’s
end (strangled by a noose) Tacitus employs pathos as part of his criticism of the
callous emperor:
They were taken off to prison. The boy understood what was going to hap-
pen, but the girl was so unaware that she kept on asking where they were
dragging her and what she’d done wrong. She said she wouldn’t do it any
more, and she could be warned off by a spanking. Contemporary authors
report that, since it was believed to be unheard of for a virgin to be subjected
to capital punishment, she was raped by her executioner, next to the noose.
Then they were strangled, and their young bodies were thrown on to the
Gemonian Steps.
Heroides 9
DEIANIRA TO HERCULES
The last wife of the super-hero Hercules during his time on earth was the Greek
heroine Deianira. To win her hand, he had to fight a rival suitor, the river-god
Achelous, whom he defeated, breaking off the deity’s horns as he wrestled with
him. When returning home with his bride, Hercules came to the river Evenus,
which was severely swollen by heavy rains. A Centaur (half-man, half-horse) called
Nessus offered to carry her over the river on his back while Hercules made his own
way. The hero agreed and swam across, but then heard her cry and looked back to
see Nessus trying to rape her. He promptly shot the Centaur with an arrow. To get
revenge, as he was dying Nessus gave Deianira his tunic soaked in his blood, telling
her that the blood had the power to revive waning love. Years later Hercules con-
quered the Greek town of Oechalia, killing its king (Eurytus) and taking his daugh-
ter Iole captive. But he fell in love with her and had her go on ahead of him back
to his home.There Deianira became aware of his feelings for Iole, when she arrived,
and so she sent him a tunic smeared with Nessus’ blood. At this point, confident
that his love for her would be renewed in this way, she writes this letter, in which
she reprimands him for his infidelity and mocks him for his undignified carryings-
on. However, while she is still writing, news reaches her that Nessus’ blood is in
fact an agonizing poison, which is burning and killing Hercules (who has put on
the tunic), and she resolves to commit suicide at the end of the epistle. She did go
on to kill herself. Hercules died too, having made a pyre on the top of Mount Oeta
and mounted it as it burned. The fire purged his mortal elements, and he mounted
to heaven and became a god. The story is told in full at Ovid Metamorphoses 9.1ff.
In the course of this poem Deianira makes numerous references that need
explaining. Hercules was the illegitimate son of Jupiter and Alcmene, the wife of
king Amphitryon (who passed as the father of Hercules).The god joined two nights
together to extend his love-making and father a mighty son. His wife Juno hated
her rival’s child, and when he was still a baby sent two snakes to kill him, but he
100 Heroides 9: Deianira to Hercules
throttled them in his cradle. He grew up to be a great benefactor of mankind, trav-

elling widely and cleansing the earth of various wild animals, monsters and other
enemies of humanity. At the implacable Juno’s instigation king Eurystheus (who
ruled over Hercules as one of his subjects thanks to a ruse of hers) imposed the
twelve Labours on him. These supremely difficult tasks included killing an invul-
nerable lion at Nemea (he strangled it, skinned it and wore its impenetrable hide
ever after); exterminating the Hydra, a monstrous snake with several heads, each of
which grew back twofold when severed; bringing back alive to Eurystheus a huge
boar that lived on Mount Erymanthus; fetching the man-eating mares of the savage
king Diomedes; seizing the cattle of Geryon, a giant with three bodies; and going
down to the Underworld to carry off Cerberus, the three-headed dog that guarded
Hell. Hercules successfully performed all these assignments. He also supported the
sky on his shoulders, while the giant Atlas (who normally held it up) went to get
the golden apples of the Hesperides for the hero as another one of his Labours.
Hercules put to death Busiris too, a cruel king of Egypt who sacrificed strangers,
and Antaeus, an African giant who was invulnerable as long as he was in contact
with the earth (so he was hoisted off the ground and throttled). As well as alluding
to all that, Deianira complains that her husband demeans these achievements by
his many love affairs, and she dwells in particular on his erotic entanglement with
the beautiful oriental queen Omphale. Hercules was forced to serve as her slave,
and got involved in some undignified cross-dressing in the process. She made him
do women’s work (spinning) and dress in women’s clothes, while she wore his
lion-skin and carried his weapons. Towards the end of Heroides 9 Deianira refers to
her own ill-fated family, including her brother Meleager. When he was born, his
mother was told that it was fated for him to die if a particular log was consumed by
fire. She hid the log in a chest to protect his life, but when he killed her brothers in
an altercation, she burned the log; she then committed suicide in remorse.
I’m pleased that Oechalia’s been added to the list of our achievements;
I’m upset that the conqueror’s been conquered by his captive.
A disgraceful rumour has suddenly reached the cities of Greece
(and you need to do something to disprove it) –
that the man who Juno and an endless series of labours 5
never broke has been subjugated by Iole.
Eurystheus would want this to be true, and so would your stepmother
Juno (who’d be delighted at this stain on your life’s work),
but not Jupiter, who supposedly found just one night of
love-making too short for fathering as great a hero as you. 10
Venus has harmed you more than Juno did: Juno’s persecution spurred
you on;Venus humiliates you, her foot on your neck.
Look at the world, the expanses of land surrounded by the blue
Ocean – all pacified and protected by your mighty hand.
Peace on earth and safety at sea are due to you; you have 15
done an immense amount of good in the east and the west.
Heroides 9: Deianira to Hercules 101
You’ve already borne the heavens that will bear you,

substituting for Atlas until he supported the sky again.
If you crown your former achievements with a stigma,
all you’ve done is publicize your contemptible disgrace. 20
Are you the one they say gripped and throttled the two snakes
when in your cradle, already a child worthy of Jupiter?
You began well, but end badly; your last deeds don’t match the
first; the man you are and the boy you were are different.
The hero who a thousand wild animals, hostile Eurystheus 25
and Juno couldn’t defeat is defeated by Love.
But they say I married well because I’m called Hercules’ wife
and my father-in-law thunders on high in his swift chariot.
Mismatched bullocks don’t plough well together; so too a woman
who’s inferior to her great husband is overshadowed by him. 30
That seems an honour, but damages those burdened with it;
if you want a suitable marriage, marry an equal.
My man is always away (more of a guest than a husband)
in pursuit of terrifying wild animals and monsters.
At home, on my own, I busy myself with chaste prayers, tormented 35
by the fear that he’ll be killed by some savage enemy,
and anguished by thoughts of snakes, boars, ravening lions
and dogs that will fasten on him with their triple jaws.
Insubstantial images in my dreams and omens sought in the
secrecy of night and at sacrifices worry me. 40
In my misery I snatch at unreliable whispered rumours;
my fear is killed off by wavering hope, my hope by fear.
Your mother’s away, sorry she ever attracted mighty Jupiter;
your father Amphitryon and your son Hyllus aren’t here either.
I’m the one affected by unjust Juno’s lasting anger 45
and Eurystheus being in control thanks to her trickery.
As if that’s not enough for me to endure, you have affairs
when you’re away, ready to impregnate any woman at all.
I’ll say nothing about Auge, who you raped in Parthenius’ valleys,
or the child of yours born to the nymph Astydamia; 50
I won’t criticize you for king Thespius’ fifty daughters,
not one of whom was left untouched by you.
I will mention one mistress (a recent offence) – the Lydian
queen Omphale, mother of your son Lamus.
The river Meander, which winds constantly through the same regions 55
and often makes its weary waters twist back on themselves,
saw necklaces hanging from the neck of Hercules
(which had supported with ease the weight of the sky).
Weren’t you ashamed to put gold bracelets around your strong arms
and to cover your solid muscles with jewels? 60
And those were the arms, of course, that killed the deadly Nemean
lion, whose skin you wear now over your left shoulder.
You actually put a woman’s turban on your shaggy hair!
Your usual garland of white poplar suits it better.
You don’t feel it was degrading to wear 65
a Lydian girdle like a promiscuous girl?
Didn’t you think of your victory over vicious Diomedes,
the savage who fed his horses on human flesh?
You conquered Busiris, but if he’d seen you dressed like that,
he’d certainly have been ashamed of having such a conqueror. 70
Antaeus would have ripped the ribbons from your hard neck
to avoid the mortification of having lost to a she-man.
They say you held a wool-basket among Ionian slave-girls
and were really scared of your mistress’ threats.
Those hands were victorious in countless labours, but you 75
didn’t refuse to touch a smooth basket with them,
and you used your strong thumb to spin your portion of coarse wool,
giving back the full amount as thread to your notorious mistress?
As you twisted it into strands with those hard fingers,
your mighty hands shattered the spindle again and again. 80
At your mistress’ feet . . .
you told of your feats (which you should have concealed) – 84
no doubt how as a baby you throttled those immense snakes, 85
which as they died wrapped their tails around your hands,
and how the boar that had its lair on cypress-clad
Erymanthus dented the ground with its great weight.
You also mentioned the heads nailed up on Diomedes’ palace,
and his horses, which were fattened on men he killed, 90
and that threefold monster with his great herd of Spanish cattle –
Geryon, a single person, but with three bodies –
and Cerberus, the dog with three heads branching from one body,
and with menacing snakes entwined in his fur,
and the Hydra, reproducing when wounded and amply reborn, 95
growing two snaky heads for every one cut off,
and the giant Antaeus, who you held up, pinned between
your left arm and your left side, strangling him,
and the Centaurs, mistakenly confident because they had hooves and
human arms, and routed by you on the ridges of Thessaly. 100
How could you tell of all that while wearing a distinguished purple
dress? Didn’t your clothes make you hold your tongue?
Omphale even adorned herself with your arms –
famous trophies taken from her captive.
Go on – take on airs, enumerate your brave exploits; 105
she was the real man, you have no right to that title.
Greatest of heroes, you’re inferior to her, in so far as it was

a greater feat to conquer you than those you conquered.
All your achievements are credited to her; hand over what was
yours; your girlfriend is the inheritor of your glory. 110
Oh, the disgrace! She covered her soft flank with the
rough pelt of the shaggy Nemean lion.
You’re mistaken without realizing it: that’s spoil taken from you,
not the lion; you beat the animal, and she beat you.
Scarcely strong enough to carry a spindle loaded with wool, 115
a woman carried your arrows black with the Hydra’s venom,
armed herself with the club that fells wild animals and looked
at herself in a mirror equipped like my husband!
However, I merely heard all that, and could disbelieve the rumours;
the pain I felt from what came to my ears was bearable. 120
But with my own eyes I saw a foreigner (my rival Iole)
brought here, and I couldn’t conceal my suffering.
You didn’t let me turn away; that captive came right through
the centre of the city, so I had to look at her despite myself.
And she wasn’t like a prisoner, with unkempt hair 125
and a suitably sad face eloquent of her misfortune.
She strutted around, a vision thanks to all that gold,
dressed just the way you were with Omphale.
Head held high, she presented her face to the crowd as if you’d
been defeated, her town still stood and her father was alive. 130
Perhaps you’ll drive away Deianira (a fellow-Greek), and Iole
won’t be called your mistress but will be your wife.
An infamous marriage will unite a disgraceful pair –
Hercules of Thebes and the daughter of Eurytus.
Warning myself of this makes my mind reel; I go cold 135
all over, and my hands lie limp in my lap.
You’ve loved me and many others, but me as your lawful wife.
You fought over me twice (don’t feel regret at that!):
the river-god Achelous sadly gathered his horns on his wet bank
and bathed the brow you tore them from in his muddy water; 140
and you shot down the Centaur Nessus in lotus-bearing Evenus,
and he dyed that river red with his horse-blood.
Enough of that! As I write this, news has reached me that
my husband is dying from that poisoned tunic of mine.
Ah, what have I done? What has my mad love driven me to? 145
Deianira, you’re a bad wife; why hesitate to die?
Your husband’s being mangled amid Mount Oeta’s heights –
will you live on, when you’re responsible for such an awful crime?
If I’ve done anything so far to make people think that I am
Hercules’ wife, I must prove it now by killing myself. 150
Meleager will see how clearly I am a sister of his.

Ah, our family’s cursed: my uncle seized the high throne of my father,
who is now alone, destitute and crushed by old age;
my brother Tydeus is an exile in some foreign land, 155
while Meleager’s life depended on a fateful firebrand;
and my mother plunged a sword into her own heart.
All I pray, by the very sacred bonds of our marriage, is that
you don’t think your death is due to some plot of mine. 160
When Nessus’ lustful heart was struck by your arrow,
he said: ‘This blood has the power to inspire love.’
But it was poison, and I sent you a tunic smeared with it.
And now farewell, my old father, my sister Gorge, my 165
native land, my exiled brother, and today’s light
(the last that I’ll see); and farewell to you, my husband
(oh, if only you could fare well!), and to you, Hyllus, my son.
There is the usual variation, in connection with tone (pathos does not predomi-
nate this time) and situation (there is no Trojan War link now; and there is another
woman in the background here). So too the addressee is the vigorous Hercules,
who has already achieved so much, in contrast to the inert Orestes, who still needed
to be urged to act. This is also the only one of the Heroides to feature a refrain (the
repeated line at 146, 152, 158 and 164). And it is the only one in which there is
a dramatic development as news suddenly reaches the writer of an event in the
outside world (Hercules being killed by the tunic); and this takes the epistle off in
a surprising new direction and gives it a novel twofold thrust (initially it is aimed
at ending the affair with Iole, but then it turns into reaction to the news about the
tunic).
This is one of the Heroides whose authenticity has been challenged, and critics
have maintained that large parts of Her. 9 or even the whole poem were the work
not of Ovid but of an imitator. There seems to us no good reason for doubting
that Ovid composed the letter (for the arguments against Ovidian authorship and
for convincing rebuttal of them see Jacobson 228ff. and Fulkerson 108). However,
this controversy does concern issues which are very relevant to the overall inter-
pretation of the piece, and it usefully encourages readers to probe the purpose
and weighting of Deianira’s words. Scholars have been perplexed by and critical
of substantial portions of the epistle, and raise important questions in connection
with them. Why is there such a long passage on the former affair (now over) with
Omphale (which has been classified as a long inorganic digression)? Why is there
so much about Hercules’ Labours and other feats (seen by some as tediously repeti-
tious)? And how effective or otherwise is the refrain (which has been characterized
as a makeshift device to render unnecessary a description of Deianira’s grief)? Our
answers to these questions will emerge in the following paragraphs. But you should
consider them for yourself now and make up your own mind about what the point
is in each case.
At the time of writing this letter Deianira has already sent to Hercules the tunic,
which she assumes will have restored his feelings for her. But he could, of course,
love Iole as well as Deianira, and he could have a liaison with the former while
being in love with the latter, so this epistle is initially intended as a reinforcement
to the tunic, to make him give up his affection for his captive. To achieve that end
she utilizes various ploys. She shows him that she loves him (e.g. by identifying with
him in the very first line, by going on and on admiringly about his exploits, and at
35ff. by highlighting her fears for his safety). She tries to make him pity her too (for
instance, at 2, 29ff., 45ff. and 119ff.). Above all she tries to make him feel ashamed of
his philandering and see that he thereby disgraces himself. She does this by claiming
that in committing adultery he is not living up to his great feats (repeated reference
to them also drives home that point) and by dwelling at 53ff. on her best example
of his humiliation due to love (the entanglement with Omphale) and bringing out
forcefully, memorably and at length how demeaning that was (and no doubt this
incident still rankles and she wants to let off steam about it too). In this way she will
be hoping to dissuade him from degenerating and degrading himself further, with
Iole (see 3ff., 7f., 12, 19f. and 23ff.). When the news about Hercules’ death-throes
arrives at 143, she keeps on with her letter, but the purpose of her writing changes.
In particular now she is keen to let Hercules know that sending the tunic was an
innocent mistake on her part and she tries to steel herself to commit suicide (hence
147f., 149f. and the refrain). Her final farewell at 165ff. intimates that she has suc-
ceeded in that attempt.
Obviously this is a sad story, and the two deaths are particularly tragic. To help
you appreciate the full force of them, here are detailed accounts of them. The fifth-
century bc Greek tragedian Sophocles produced a play based on this incident called
the Trachiniae. In it Hyllus, the son of Deianira and Heracles (the Greek name for
Hercules), is with his father when he puts the tunic on, and he goes on home ahead
of the dying Heracles and in all ignorance denounces his mother as a murderess
and describes his father’s torment. As a result Deianira kills herself at 900ff. First
she roams the palace, hiding in shame, and looking at familiar people and things
for the last time. Next she rushes into her bedroom, where she reveals how very
important her marriage was to her, and then commits suicide briskly and resolutely.
The pathos is increased at the end by Hyllus’ lamentation, which underscores the
tragedy of her death and shows his guilt and misery over mistakenly accusing her
and precipitating it.
When she went into the palace, on her own, 900

and saw her son in the courtyard preparing a stretcher
to take back with him when he went to meet his father,
she hid herself where nobody could see her.
She fell on the altars, crying out that they would now
be neglected, and the poor woman wept whenever she 905

touched any of the household things that she’d used in the past.
She wandered from room to room in the palace,
and if she saw any of her beloved servants,
she wept as she gazed at them,
crying out miserably at her own fate. 910
Suddenly she stopped, and I saw her 912
rush into the bedroom she shared with Heracles.
I concealed myself and stayed out of sight,
watching her. I saw her take blankets and 915
make up the bed she shared with Heracles.
When she’d finished doing that, she jumped up
on to the bed and sat down in the middle of it.
She broke into floods of hot tears and
said: ‘My bridal bed, my bedroom, goodbye 920
now forever: I’ll never come back again
and sleep here with my husband.’
That was all she said. Then, with tensed
hands, she unfastened her dress, by pulling
out the gold pin above her breasts, and 925
uncovered all her left side and arm.
I ran as fast as I could and
told her son what she was planning.
I rushed there and we raced back, only to
find that meanwhile she had driven a two-edged 930
sword through her side into her heart.
When he saw this, her poor son screamed. He knew
that his anger had driven her to that, and
he had learned, too late, from the palace servants that
she had acted in innocence, tricked by the Centaur. 935
Then the boy sobbed over her in his misery,
and went on and on wailing and kissing her,
and threw himself down at her side
and lay there, groaning again and again
that he had accused her unjustly and cruelly, 940
in tears because he would now live the rest
of his life deprived of both his father and his mother.
When it comes to Hercules’ end, Ovid at Metamorphoses 9.159ff. catches

well the horror as well as the poignancy. After the tragic irony of an act of
piety activating the poison that kills Hercules, there is a full and vivid picture
of its awful effect on the brave hero. Not sparing his readers, Ovid appeals to
various senses and presents a flurry of precise and telling details that have great
cumulative impact.
As soon as the fire was lit, he offered prayers and incense

and poured wine from a bowl on to the marble altar. 160
The virulent poison was warmed and released by the fire;
it seeped away and spread through his entire body.
As long as he could, he stifled his groans with his usual courage.
When the pain became unendurable, he pushed over
the altar and filled wooded Mount Oeta with his shouts. 165
At once he tried to rip the deadly tunic off. Where it was
torn away it tore away skin, and (writing this makes me shudder)
some of it stuck to his body, resisting his attempts to pull it off, while
what did come away exposed lacerated limbs and his massive bones.
The burning poison made his very blood hiss and boil, 170
like a white-hot strip of metal dipped in a trough of cold water.
On and on, the greedy flames sucked up his vital organs,
dark sweat poured out from his whole body,
his scorched sinews crackled and the invisible venom
melted his marrow. 175
There is pathos in Heroides 9 too. In addition to those deaths looming in the

background, sympathy for Deianira is built up. She feels eclipsed by her husband
(29ff.), and his adventuring leaves her isolated and fearful (33ff.). She has been badly
treated by him, despite being a loving wife, and his repeated adultery obviously
upsets her deeply. And when she tries to remedy the situation with Iole, she makes a
terrible mistake, which causes her great grief and leads her to end her life. However,
our irreverent poet also reacts against the inherent sadness of the story and serious
literary treatments of it. Here again we find a lively admixture of humour, wit and
irony, to ensure that the poem does not lapse into mawkishness and engages the
head as well as the heart.
Although Deianira is making a serious point about Hercules disgracing himself,
she does so with an amusing mockery and tartness that is intended to really get to
her husband, and so the dilation on his stay with Omphale and on his achievements
also has a droll aspect. She ridicules him at length with her description of his incon-
gruous and grotesque cross-dressing and spinning, working in especially entertain-
ing taunts in 66, 71f. and 74. There is as well much bitter joking in the humiliation
of the great conqueror being conquered himself and being subjugated by a woman
and love, with witty verbal play in 2, 25f., 107f. and 113f.
All of that is deliberate on the part of Deianira. Her words are also often unin-
tentionally funny and ironical. It is horribly inappropriate for her to attack and
poke fun at her husband, given that she is in the process of ending his life in a par-
ticularly painful way. A major topic that she pursues is the addressee brought low
by a female and by love, when she is herself a female bringing him low because of
her love for him. She dwells on him as a conqueror and killer too, unaware that she
is herself conquering and killing him. This kind of thing operates in connection
with individual lines as well. In 17 she speaks of him reaching the heavens, when
she has sent him the tunic that gets him there (deified), sooner than she expects.
In 33 she complains with exaggeration that he is always away, while ensuring that
he really will be permanently away. At 57ff. she writes at length about feminine
attire that humiliated him, having sent him masculine attire that will destroy him.
At 74 he is said to have been afraid of his mistress’ threats, but he should rather have
been afraid of his wife’s gift of the tunic. See if you can spot for yourself this kind
of irony at 11, 23f., 35f., 37, 47, 99f., 102, 113, 116, 122 and 129f. There are other
facetious touches too. At 9f. Deianira ineptly cites the archetypal adulterer Jupiter
(to a product of one of his affairs) as one who would disapprove of his passion for
Iole. And there is a comic coincidence at 141ff., as she talks glibly of the death of
Nessus and his blood and then immediately receives news of its deadly effect on her
husband.There are even diverting elements at 145ff. In connection with the refrain,
after going on and on about what a bad husband Hercules was, she now has to go
on and on about what a bad wife she is; and by spending time saying repeatedly
‘why hesitate to die?’ she is in fact delaying her death. Also, if one bears in mind the
bigger picture, the end of Hercules’ mortal existence led to his deification (and to
the end of Juno’s persecution of him), which was a definite improvement for him,
so that Deianira’s grief and suicide are ultimately inappropriate.
Heroides 9 fits into a long literary tradition of frivolity regarding Hercules. In
ancient literature he was a far more versatile and interesting character than the
stereotypical strongman depicted on television and in the cinema, and we find a
host of different versions of the hero there (see Galinsky 1972). For example, as
well as being big and brawny, he could also be ingenious, or stupid, a civilizer and
benefactor of mankind, a man of great appetites (for food, wine and women), a
compassionate person, a savage, a jolly good fellow, a role model thanks to his vir-
tue and fortitude, a figure of pathos and a figure of fun. In the latter connection he
was often portrayed on stage in comedies and satyr plays (which had a pronounced
comic element).
In Aristophanes’ Frogs the god Dionysus intends going down to the Underworld
because he longs to bring back to earth his favourite poet, Euripides, who has
recently died. He applies for directions to Hercules, who had already gone down
there to bring back Cerberus. No intellectual, this Hercules is baffled by his long-
ing, until Dionysus compares it to the hero’s craving for pea soup; then he immedi-
ately grasps the seriousness of the situation. When the god asks about the quickest
way down to the Underworld, Hercules flippantly suggests that he hang himself,
poison himself or jump off a high tower; but then he tells him the route down for a
living person, while mischievously stressing its horrors (such as numerous monsters
and a lake of liquid excrement in which sinners have to lie).When he does get into
the Underworld, Dionysus finds that the hero had made a big impact when he
went down. He dined at an inn there (!), where he devoured sixteen loaves of bread,
twenty orders of stew, lots of garlic, huge quantities of fish, masses of cheese and the
baskets containing it.When the two women who ran the inn asked for payment, he
bellowed in rage, drew his sword and chased them, forcing them to hide in the loft.
And when he left, he stole the mattresses.
Euripides wrote a drama called Alcestis, which performed the function of a satyr
play and contained its lighter elements. In it we see again an amusingly undignified
Hercules. Queen Alcestis dies, but when the hero turns up at the palace, on his way
to perform one of his Labours, her husband conceals her death from him, making
him think that the dead person is just some orphan whom they have taken in. He
does this because he is a good host and wants his guest to enjoy himself properly. He
insists on giving him food and drink, and Hercules indulges his appetites to the full.
One of the servants, who misses his mistress deeply, comes out on stage to complain
about Hercules’ riotous behaviour inside the palace, and then Hercules comes out,
tipsy, and annoyed that the slave is miserable and frowning. Like many drunks, he
wants others to be happy too and tries to snap the man out of his sullenness. Also
like many drunks, he imagines that he has found the secret of life and is keen to pass
on his findings. He is genial and hearty, and also rather patronizing, as he solemnly
reveals his great ‘wisdom’ (after giving it a careful build-up at 779–81). In reality his
observations are obvious, and his message is simply that one should enjoy oneself
while one can (drinking and making love), which does make sense, but is hardly
very profound, hardly amounts to impressive philosophy and was in fact trite and
commonplace (and so the servant’s immediate response to this speech is: ‘I know
that’). Imagine Hercules slurring his words as he comes out with the following:
Come over here, so I can impart some wisdom.

Do you know the nature of our mortal lot? 780
I think not. How could you? Well, listen to me.
Death is a debt that all men must pay,
and there is no mortal who knows for sure
if he is going to live through the morrow.
For Fate moves in mysterious ways, 785
which cannot be taught or grasped by any craft.
So, now that you’ve listened and learned all this from me,
cheer up, have a drink, think of each day that you live
as yours but everything else as belonging to Fate.
And give honour to Aphrodite, the loveliest, sweetest of 790
gods to humans. For she is a kindly goddess.
Forget everything else and take my advice,
if you think I’m speaking sense, as I imagine
you do. So, no more of this excessive grief!
Rise above this trouble, put a garland on your head 795
and have a drink with me. I’m absolutely certain that
the wine will ambush you, assault your sense and
put an end to this clotted sullenness of yours.
We are mortals and should think like mortals.
As for all those solemn types with knitted brows, 800
in my judgment at least, their life isn’t
really a life at all, it’s catastrophe.
As far as we can tell from surviving literature, within this tradition such humour
in connection with the death of Hercules (and Deianira) was not found before
Ovid, so there is typical novelty here. Ovid was also apparently the first to intro-
duce the god Faunus into the Omphale episode in a clever and entertaining reprise
of that incident at Fasti 2.305ff. (on which see Murgatroyd 84f., 223f. and 253ff.).
Heroides 10
ARIADNE TO THESEUS
Ariadne was the beautiful young daughter of Minos, who was king of the large
Greek island of Crete. A son of his called Androgeos died during a visit to main-
land Greece. Minos held the Athenians responsible for his death, and by way of
punishment demanded that they sent to Crete each year a tribute of seven young
women and seven young men, who were devoured by the monstrous Minotaur.
Minos’ wife Pasiphae had been afflicted by a deity with an irresistible passion for a
bull, which she gratified by getting the bull to mount her (concealed inside a fake
wooden cow). The offspring of this mating was the savage Minotaur, which had
the body of a man and the head of a bull, and was shut up in an inextricable maze
called the Labyrinth.
Theseus (son of the Athenian king Aegeus) ended the tribute by going as one
of the seven young men and putting the Minotaur to death. When this handsome
hero arrived on Crete, Ariadne fell deeply in love with him. Greatly concerned for
his safety, she helped him by giving him a ball of thread to let out behind him as he
entered the Labyrinth and to follow back to get out of the maze after conquering
the monster. In return he promised to marry her and spend the rest of his life with
her. He killed the Minotaur, and to escape Minos’ anger quickly sailed off with
Ariadne. On the voyage back to Athens they spent the night on an island (Dia), but
Theseus callously abandoned her while she was still asleep, and she woke to see his
ship disappearing in the distance. Shortly after that she wrote this letter.
Elsewhere we learn that she prayed to Jupiter to punish Theseus, and her
prayer was granted. Theseus’ father Aegeus had been very worried about his son’s
chances on Crete and had sent him off on a ship with a black sail, telling him to
replace it with a white one if he was successful. Theseus was made to forget to
change the sail. When his father saw the ship coming back with a black sail, he
assumed that Theseus was dead and committed suicide. So the hero returned to
his father’s death and to misery and mourning. But there was a happy ending for
112 Heroides 10: Ariadne to Theseus
princess Ariadne. The god Bacchus turned up on Dia in a tiger-drawn chariot

with his companions (his female worshippers called Bacchantes and the minor
country divinities named Satyrs). He saved her, claimed her as his bride and
carried her off to live on Olympus with him. In some versions she was made
immortal; in others she or her golden crown (a wedding present) was raised into
the sky to become a constellation.
I’ve found every species of wild animals gentler than you.

Better to have entrusted myself to any of them rather than you.
I send the letter you’re reading, Theseus, from the shore
where you left me behind when you sailed away,
where I was brutally betrayed by my sleep and by you, 5
with your insidious crime against me while I slept.
It was the moment when the earth is first sprinkled with crystal
frost and the birds begin their plaintive song amid the leaves.
Not properly awake, and languid from sleep, I turned on my
side and reached out to take hold of Theseus – 10
he wasn’t there! I moved my hands back and tried again,
feeling all around the bed – he wasn’t there!
I was lying on my own. Fear shook me awake,
and I leapt up, absolutely terrified.
Immediately I beat my breasts, loudly, and 15
tore my hair still tangled from sleep.
In the moonlight I looked for something other than shore;
there was nothing for my eyes to see but shore.
I ran this way and that, haphazardly,
my girlish feet slowed down by the deep sand. 20
Meanwhile I shouted ‘Theseus’ all along the shore;
the concave cliffs echoed your name.
The place itself called out to you as often as I did:
the place itself wanted to help poor Ariadne.
There was a mountain – a few bushes are visible on its peak, 25
from which hangs a cliff, eroded by roaring waves.
I climbed up (given strength by the state I was in) and then
looked out, scanning the deep sea far and wide.
From there – for I found the winds cruel as well as you –
I saw your sails stretched tight by a southerly gale. 30
After seeing what I thought I didn’t deserve to see,
I was colder than ice and half-dead.
But my grief didn’t let me languish for long; it roused me,
roused me, and I called out ‘Theseus’ at the top of my voice.
‘Where are you rushing off?’ I shouted. ‘Theseus, you criminal, 35
come back! Turn the ship round! It’s a person short.’
As these cries didn’t reach you, I beat my breasts too,
Heroides 10: Ariadne to Theseus 113
flailing and wailing out words as well.

So you could at least see me, if you didn’t hear me,
I signalled with wide waves of my hands, 40
and I placed my white dress on the end of a long branch,
to remind those who had clearly forgotten about me.
And now you were snatched from my sight. Then I finally wept;
before that my tender eyes had been paralyzed by pain.
What was there for my eyes to do except cry for me, 45
when I couldn’t see your sails any more?
Either I wandered around alone with streaming hair,
like a worshipper of Bacchus spurred on by the god,
or I sat, chilled, on a rock, looking out to sea,
as stony as the stone on which I sat. 50
I often went back to the bed which we’d shared,
but wouldn’t be seen sharing again,
and touched your imprint (all I could touch in place of you)
and the bedding which grew warm from your body.
I threw myself on to it, and drenched it with tears, shouting: 55
‘Two people lay down on you – give back two people!
We both came here – why don’t we both leave together?
Treacherous bed, where’s my other, and greater, half?’
What am I to do? Where should I go, alone on an uninhabited
island? I see no sign of ploughing by men or oxen. 60
There’s sea on every side of the land, no sailor anywhere,
and no ship to sail off on an uncertain course.
Suppose I was given companions and a boat and winds –
where should I make for? My own country won’t have me.
Even if I have a successful voyage over peaceful seas, 65
even if Aeolus controls his winds, I’ll be an exile.
I won’t visit my homeland, that island of a hundred cities,
well-known to Jupiter, who spent his childhood there,
since by my actions I betrayed my just father Minos
and his kingdom of Crete (names so dear to me). 70
When I gave you the thread as a guide to lead you back,
so you wouldn’t die in the maze after beating the Minotaur,
you said to me: ‘I swear by the very dangers facing me
that you’ll be mine as long as we’re both alive.’
We’re alive, and I’m not yours, Theseus – if a woman is alive 75
who’s been buried by the deceit of a perjurer.
You criminal, you should have clubbed me as well as my brother:
killing me would have freed you from your pledge.
Now I’m not just thinking about what will happen to me and all
the things that can happen to any abandoned woman: 80
I’m picturing death in a thousand forms,
and dying isn’t as bad as waiting to die.

At any moment, I suspect, here or over there
wolves will come to tear my flesh with greedy fangs.
Who knows if this land also nurtures tawny lions? 85
Perhaps the island has savage tigresses too.
They say the sea casts ashore huge seals! And who’s
to prevent me being stabbed in the side by swords?
So long as I’m not captured and bound in cruel chains,
and made a slave, with masses of wool to spin – 90
for my father is Minos, my mother is a daughter of Apollo and
(something that stands out more in my memory) I was betrothed to you.
Whenever I’ve looked at the sea and the land with its long shoreline,
to me the land and the water are very threatening.
There was the sky, but there I fear divine apparitions. 95
I’m abandoned, prey and food for ravening animals.
But if men do live here and plough the fields, I don’t trust them:
maltreatment has made me fearful of foreigners.
If only Androgeos was alive, and Athens hadn’t paid for
its crime by sending its youths to their deaths, 100
and your right hand hadn’t been raised on high, Theseus,
to kill the Minotaur with that knotty club,
and I hadn’t given you the thread to show you your way back,
the thread that your hands often took up again and tugged!
Personally I’m not surprised that the victory was yours 105
and the beast was brought crashing down to the ground.
Your heart of iron couldn’t have been pierced by his horn,
your chest was safe, even if unprotected:
you had flint there, you had adamant there,
there you have a Theseus harder than flint. 110
Cruel sleep, why immobilize me? If I had to sleep,
I should have done so for ever, plunged in endless night.
Winds and breezes, you were cruel as well, far too
ready to blow, and concerned to make me cry.
The hand was cruel that has killed me and my brother, as was 115
the ‘pledge’ (meaningless term) that you gave when I asked for it.
Sleep, wind and that pledge conspired against me,
a single girl, betrayed by those three agents.
So, I won’t see my mother weeping when I’m about to die,
and there won’t be anyone to close my eyes? 120
My sorrowful soul will pass from me into this foreign air,
and no friend will lay me out and anoint my body?
Will sea-birds perch on my unburied bones and be
my tombs? My kindness deserved better than that.
You’ll go to Athens’ harbour and be welcomed home, 125

you’ll stand there proudly, before the gaze of your people,
and you’ll tell a fine tale about the man-bull’s death
and about the rocky Labyrinth’s confusing maze.
Tell of me too, abandoned on a deserted island.
I mustn’t be quietly removed from your roll of honours. 130
Your father isn’t Aegeus, you’re not the son of Pittheus’
daughter Aethra: rock and sea were your parents.
I wish the gods had made you see me from the top of the stern:
my sad figure would have brought tears to your eyes.
Look at me now – you can’t with your eyes, but in your mind – 135
clinging to a rock that’s pounded by the restless waves.
Look at my hair, loosened as though I were mourning the dead,
and my clothes heavy with tears like rain.
My body is shivering, like a crop of corn swept by northerly gales,
and the letters traced by my quivering fingers are shaky. 140
I won’t base pleas on the help I gave you (as it turned out badly for me);
don’t be grateful at all for what I did.
But don’t punish me either! Even if it wasn’t true that I
saved you, you have no reason for causing my death.
In my misery I’m stretching out to you over the broad sea 145
these hands that are weary from beating my mournful breasts;
I’m sadly showing you what’s left of the hair that I’ve torn in grief,
and I’m begging you by these tears, caused by what you’ve done: 150
Theseus, turn your ship round and sail back here!
If I die before you arrive, you’ll take my bones with you.
One can understand perfectly why the abandoned Ariadne is distraught and
fears for her life, but in fact nothing bad happens to her. So this is another epistle
which is both affecting and amusing, and which is written by a heroine who
is ignorant of how things will turn out and so comes out with unintentionally
comic remarks. But this time the levity is deceptively delayed, so that for the
first 34 lines there is straight pathos, which makes a change from the tonal mix
in Her. 9; and this time there is no dark humour. The background circumstances
and purpose of this letter differ too, and there is a favourable outcome in store
for this writer.
Ovid is here again reacting to a literary forerunner. Catullus (approximately
84–54 bc) in his poem 64 had recently produced a memorable version of Ariadne
abandoned on the island of Dia, complaining at length and praying for punishment
for Theseus.This should have readily sprung to mind for those reading Her. 10, and,
to make sure that it did, Ovid included many echoes of the lines of Catullus (see e.g.
Jacobson 215ff.), so that readers would assess the Ovidian piece in the light of its
model. Catullus’ depiction of Ariadne waking up on the beach as Theseus sails away
(64.52ff.) is one of the most moving passages in ancient literature and is especially
relevant to Her. 10.
For, looking out from the wave-sounding shore of Dia,

Ariadne with the wild frenzy of love in her heart
gazes at Theseus sailing away on his swift ship;
even now she does not believe what is before her eyes, 55
naturally, as she has only just woken from treacherous sleep
and sees herself abandoned, miserable, on the lonely shore.
With no thought for her the youth flees, his oars beating the waves,
leaving behind his empty promises for the gale to dissipate.
From afar, from the seaweed line, Minos’ daughter, like a marble 60
statue of a Bacchante, stares at him, ah, stares at him with
sad eyes and is tossed on great waves of anguished emotions.
She has lost the delicate headband from her blonde hair
and the light dress that covered her chest
and the smooth band that bound her milk-white breasts – 65
all these have fallen everywhere from her whole body
and the waves are playing with them at her feet.
But at that moment she did not care about her floating
dress and headband, but, ruined, was hanging on you,
Theseus, with all her mind, all her heart, all her soul. 70
Ah the poor girl, driven mad with constant grief by Venus,
who sowed thorny cares in her breast,
from the time when fierce Theseus, after leaving
the winding shores of Athens’ port,
reached the Cretan palace of unjust Minos. 75
Catullus begins his narrative at the most dramatic and poignant point of the whole
story. At 53f. for pathos he brings out the fact that Ariadne is still madly in love,
contrasting her with Theseus, who feels nothing for her and, after using her, is get-
ting away from her as fast as he can. The poet builds up further sympathy for her at
55f., where she can’t believe her eyes because she has just woken up, confused and
defenceless, and still loves Theseus and thinks he feels the same way, and in 57 with
the combination of three sad details in rapid succession. Effectively the spotlight in
this whole passage is very much on the heroine, although at 58f. there are two lines on
Theseus (this is a contemptuous brevity: he does not deserve more than the briefest
mention – just enough to make the situation and his cruelty clear). Line 60 underlines
Ariadne’s separation from him, and depicts her as having wandered down from higher
up on the beach (where they slept) to the edge of the sea, trying to see the ship better
and/or get closer to her man. She is then compared to a statue of a female worshipper
of Bacchus. Like a statue she is silent and unmoving, with a fixed stare, and impervious
to the weather. She also has the disordered clothing and frenzied emotions typical of
Bacchantes (and like them she will soon be protected by and devoted to Bacchus, as
his wife). At 61f. Catullus repeats for stress the verb ‘stares’ (this futile action is all she
can do now) and adds her mournful eyes (picture them!) and his own exclamation
of sympathy (‘ah’) to encourage the same reaction in his readers. He then includes a
metaphor which suggests that Ariadne was in a turmoil, helplessly tossed to and fro by
successive waves of powerful emotions. At 63ff. the loss of clothing (flimsy garments
loosened for sleep and caught by the gale) makes her seem vulnerable, as Catullus
reminds us that she is a beautiful princess with fine clothes, so that we will view her
as somebody special and feel for her more. At 68–70 there is psychological insight: she
does not care at all about her nakedness and her lovely clothes being spoiled because
she is so wrapped up in the lover who is callously abandoning her (note the emphasis
in the triple mind, heart and soul). In 71 the poet again shows his own involvement
and encourages ours by referring to her as ‘the poor girl’. He also brings out the
wildness and painfulness of the passion that she felt for the hero from first seeing him
in that line and in the metaphor in 72, which represents Venus as digging into the
heroine’s breast and then thrusting into it sharp, spiky thorns.
In Heroides 10 Ovid starts at the same point in the tale and also puts the focus on
Ariadne, and it seems initially (at 1–34) that he is producing another sad account.
In fact he expands on Catullus there to heighten the emotional impact. At 1–6
he adds the plaintiveness of the princess’ protests to Theseus. At 7ff. he catches the
moment of waking vividly and in more detail, and makes her speak, so that we can
see (and hear) the scene in all its poignancy. At 25ff. he brings out even more the
abandonment and isolation, as this Theseus has put even more distance between
Ariadne and himself (she has to climb a cliff to see his sails). So it looks as if in his
response to Catullus 64 Ovid is not just giving the narrative a new (epistolary)
form but also aiming at outdoing the pathos in his source. And he does achieve
that at 1–34, to show that he can do it. But he is also mischievously misleading us
there with a lengthy tease about his real attitude to this episode. At 35–42 he sud-
denly undercuts the mournful mood, as (mindful of the happy ending) he brings
in a flurry of frivolous points and starts to give his version a different (tragicomic)
tone. The levity begins with Ariadne’s cries at 35f. directed at the parting ship and
pointing out that it was a person short (as if Theseus could hear her all that way off,
and as if he didn’t realize that he had sailed away without her!). It continues with
her actions in the following lines. At 37f. as her words are not loud enough to get
to him she supplements them by beating her breasts, but the hero is hardly likely
to hear those blows if he could not catch her shouts, and she must have been really
pounding away if she wanted the sound of that to reach his ears (and Ovid works
in some flippant verbal play in verbera cum verbis, which I have rendered with ‘flailing
and wailing’). At 39f. she engages in vigorous (and patently pointless) semaphore.
At 41f. she resorts to a flag (which is equally futile, and looks like a witty twist by
Ovid to the white sail that Theseus forgot to raise), and she is still labouring under
the preposterous misapprehension that he could somehow have risen from the bed
where he slept with her and then simply forgotten her.
In the rest of the poem amid the obvious pathos there are many more face-
tious flashes. The poet inserts grotesque touches in the picture conjured up in 77
of Theseus clubbing Ariadne to death, her references to the monstrous Minotaur

as her brother (77, 135), the idea of seabirds eating her corpse and so becoming
her tombs (123f.) and the (surreal) enormously long hands that she stretches out
over the sea to Theseus in Athens at 145f. The princess herself indulges in sarcastic
wit over Theseus’ heart being so hard that it would be proof against the Minotaur’s
horns (107ff.) and over the honour he won in deserting her (130). More often she
says unintentionally amusing things. So in 75 she wonders if she is alive, when she
is alive enough to be composing this letter. In 87, with real bathos, she is terrified
of being attacked by seals. In 136 she ludicrously depicts herself as penning this
epistle while clinging to a sea-beaten rock (and so it’s no wonder that she is shiver-
ing and producing shaky writing at 139f.) and then portrays herself (so alluringly!)
as partially bald in 147. See if you can spot similar silliness at 55–8 and 111–18. In
addition, many lines are entertaining when one bears in mind the ending of the
episode. So at 59–63 the answer to her questions about what should she do and
where should she go is do nothing at all and stay exactly where you are (as Bacchus
will be along shortly); when she complains that there is no sailor and no ship there,
we recall that there will soon be a god there with a chariot; and when she speculates
about possibly being given companions, we know that she will be given Bacchus
and his companions any minute now. At 79f. she maintains that she is thinking
about all the things that can happen to any abandoned woman, but she does not
envisage what will happen to her. And at 133 she wishes that the gods had made
Theseus look back and see her from his ship, but one of the gods will do much
more than that for her in a moment. Look for similar irony and humour based on
the actual outcome of the story at 48, 83–6, 95, 96 and 119–24.You might also ask
yourself why Ovid subverts Catullus 64. Is it because he is incorrigibly lightweight
and frivolous, or are there sound literary reasons for this?
Ovid was obviously taken with Ariadne as a subject and he returned to her in
his poetry several times, relating different parts of her story, with different spins.
In book 1 of his Ars Amatoria (a jocular poem of instruction on how to conduct
a successful love affair) he introduces her in a digression, to show that Bacchus is
a lover himself (and as such is favourable to love, providing the gift of wine and
thus facilitating dinner-parties, which present numerous opportunities for advanc-
ing an affair). There the poet plays the same trick on readers about his attitude to
the heroine, but not at such length. He begins this account with an air of supreme
sympathy and sadness at the plight of the abandoned princess, and with several
reminiscences of Catullus 64.52ff. to suggest that this version will be in the man-
ner of his predecessor. Then, going for a gradual and smooth transition to humour
this time rather than a sudden switch, he gives a few hints that he might not be
so serious after all. At 533f. he talks of Ariadne’s tears suiting her (passing such an
odd and jarring comment on her attractiveness at this point makes one suspect that
he can’t be entirely in earnest); and in 535 he notes that the breasts that she was
beating in grief were extremely soft (that voluptuous and appreciative comment is
subtly disruptive and suggests that he isn’t all that sorrowful).Then in 537 as soon as
her question (about what will happen to her) is out of her mouth it is answered, as
Bacchus’ retinue makes a dramatic entrance and we are reminded at once of what
will happen to her (she will be carried off by the god). Now the levity surfaces
fully, and gaiety and fun dominate the remainder of the passage, with particularly
diverting touches in the antics of drunken Silenus (an old, Satyr-like divinity of the
countryside), in Ariadne’s melodramatic swoon at 539f. and her inappropriate reac-
tion later to Bacchus (her saviour and future husband) and in his handling of her
(the god turns out to be a fast worker and a smooth operator, eloquent and master-
ful). By way of a change from Heroides 10, this time after the deception is over there
is just humour (with the addition of lots of farce), and in this narrative the poet
concentrates on the advent of Bacchus and his attendants and the happy ending.
The girl from Crete was wandering, distraught, on unknown sands,

where tiny Dia is pounded by the sea’s waves.
Just as she was, straight from sleep, dressed in a loosened
tunic, barefoot, her blonde hair unbound, 530
she kept on shouting ‘Cruel Theseus!’ to the deaf waves,
as an undeserved downpour of tears drenched her tender cheeks.
She kept on shouting and weeping together, but both suited her;
she was not made less attractive by her tears.
Beating her breasts (which were extremely soft) again, she said: 535
‘That traitor has gone away – what will happen to me?’
As she said ‘What will happen to me?’ cymbals sounded along
the whole shore and tambourines struck by frenzied hands.
She fainted from fear, breaking off what she’d just been saying;
the blood drained from her swooning body. 540
Look – Bacchantes, their hair tossed on to their necks;
look – lively Satyrs, the retinue that precedes the god;
look – drunken old Silenus only just keeps his seat on a sagging
ass and skilfully grips and holds on to its mane.
While he pursued the Bacchantes, and they ran away
and towards him, 545
while the poor horseman urged on his mount with a stick,
he slipped from the long-eared ass and fell on his head;
the Satyrs shouted: ‘Come on, dad, get up, get up!’
Now in his chariot canopied with grape-clusters the god
held the golden reins loosely over his team of tigresses. 550
Ariadne went pale, forgot Theseus and lost her voice;
three times she tried to flee and was restrained by fear.
She trembled, like barren corn-ears stirred by the wind,
as a light reed shivers in a watery marsh.
To her the god said: ‘Here I am – a more faithful lover. 555
Don’t be afraid.You’ll be Mrs. Bacchus from Crete.
Have the sky for your gift: there you’ll be gazed at as a star;
you’ll often guide ships in doubt, as the Cretan Crown.’
So saying, in case she was scared of the tigresses, he jumped down

from the chariot (the sand gave way to his foot’s impress). 560
Enfolded in his arms (not strong enough to fight), she was
carried off – gods can manage all kinds of things.
Some sing the wedding-song, some shout Bacchic cries,
as the god and his bride come together in the sacred bed.
There are two other significant references to this myth in Ovid, where the
poet again rings the changes. At Metamorphoses 8.169–82 he presents a summary
of events from the Minotaur being shut up in the Labyrinth to Bacchus’ rescue of
Ariadne and her crown being turned into a constellation. There he covers more
incidents than he does in any of his other accounts of this episode, and he adroitly
packs them all into just 14 lines, with a much reduced role for the princess this
time, and a witty compression of her lengthy complaints when deserted into just
two words (multa querenti in 176). He concludes with a novel focus – on the actual
process of her diadem’s metamorphosis.
At Fasti 3.461ff. Ariadne is used in a different way – to explain the origin of
the Cretan Crown constellation, whose rising has just been mentioned by Ovid in
this poetic calendar. He takes her story further on here in a sequel which has no
parallel and looks like a brand-new addition of his own. In this passage the heroine,
now married to Bacchus, scolds herself for being upset over Theseus’ ingratitude,
as that had a fortunate conclusion for her. But then Bacchus returns from his con-
quest of India with a beautiful princess whom he finds very attractive and seems
to have abandoned his wife for her. Ariadne goes off on her own and walks along
the beach, weeping and complaining to herself at great length about her husband’s
treachery, wishing he would be true to her, asking him why he saved her on Dia
and protesting that he used to promise her heaven. At the end (507ff.) it is suddenly
revealed that the god had actually been there all along, quietly walking behind her
and listening to her whining on about him and addressing him, and he kisses her
tears away and now does actually give her a place in heaven, and transforms
her crown into a group of nine stars. In addition to the comical picture conjured
up, there is humour in Bacchus behaving rather as Theseus had but making things
turn out well for Ariadne once more, and in the heroine criticizing herself for her
ultimately inappropriate reaction to Theseus’ treatment of her but then reacting in
exactly the same ultimately inappropriate way all over again in connection with
Bacchus’ treatment of her (not having learned her lesson). There are also lots of
clever and complex connections with the narratives in Catullus 64, Heroides 10 and
Ars Amatoria 1 (on which see Murgatroyd 264ff.).
On later treatments of Ariadne see Grafton & Most & Settis 67f.
Heroides 11
CANACE TO MACAREUS
Now we are taken on to a letter which is consistently serious and sad, and which
takes the form of a suicide note (compare Heroides 2) rather than a plea for the
return of the addressee. This time the love is incestuous (compare Heroides 4), and
a child has been born as a result of the affair, and taken off to die. And here there is
no prospect of marriage and no happy ending in store.
Canace, daughter of Aeolus (the king who controlled the winds), fell in love
with her brother Macareus and got pregnant by him. When the baby was born, her
father found out about its birth and was furious. He ordered the child to be taken
out to a lonely spot and left as prey for the wild animals, and he sent her a sword so
she could kill herself. She writes this letter to Macareus as she is about to commit
suicide, asking him to bury the remains of her son with her in a common tomb.
In a version of the story which may well have been known to Ovid and his read-
ers Macareus approached his father and won a reprieve for Canace, then ran to tell
her that, but arrived too late, and put an end to his life with the same sword that she
had used on herself. So there could be added poignancy here, if we are to imagine
that while Canace is writing this Macareus is winning a pardon from Aeolus for her
and rushing to her with the good news, but not quickly enough.
But if any of my words are unclear due to illegible smears,

it will be my blood that’s smeared my letter.
My right hand holds a pen, my left holds a drawn sword,
and an unrolled scroll of paper is placed on my knees.
There’s a picture for you of Canace writing to her brother, 5
one that I think might please my hard father.
I could wish he was here in person to see my death and to
examine the suicide he’s responsible for with his own eyes.
He’s cruel, and much more ferocious than his winds,
122 Heroides 11: Canace to Macareus
so he’d have looked on my death-wound with dry eyes. 10

Living with the savage gales under his command has to have
an effect, and his character now matches theirs.
He controls the South Wind, the West, the Thracian
North and the winged and violent East.
Ah, he controls those winds, but doesn’t control his furious temper: 15
his faults are even more extensive than his realm.
What good to me is my link to heaven via my ancestors
and being able to count Jupiter among my relatives?
Does that make the sword I hold any less harmful (this
deadly gift, this weapon unfit for a woman’s hand)? 20
Oh, Macareus, how I wish that I’d died
before we were joined together as one!
Brother, why did you ever love me as more than a brother,
why was I to you what a sister shouldn’t be?
I burned too, warming to you, and feeling some god in my 25
heart, exactly as I’d often heard Him described.
My face was pale; I’d lost weight and grown thin;
I was eating very little, forcing it down;
sleep wasn’t easy, each night was as long as a year,
and I kept on groaning, though not in physical pain. 30
I couldn’t explain to myself why I was doing all this;
I didn’t know what a lover was, but I was one.
My old nurse first sensed what the trouble was;
my nurse first said to me: ‘Canace, you’re in love.’
I blushed and looked down at my lap in embarrassment – 35
indicative enough of a confession, even though I said nothing.
Then, no longer a virgin, I was pregnant. My womb was secretly
swelling, weighing me down and making me tired.
My nurse brought all kinds of herbs and all kinds
of medications and boldly inserted them, 40
to abort (this was my only secret from you)
the foetus that was growing inside my womb.
Ah, too full of life, the child resisted the techniques
used against him by his hidden enemy and survived.
Now after nine months a new Moon (the Sun’s exquisite 45
sister) was driving her glittering chariot across the sky:
I didn’t know the reason for the sudden pains inside me;
I was a raw recruit, with no experience of childbirth.
I cried out, couldn’t keep quiet. My old accomplice said: ‘Don’t
give your guilty secret away!’ and covered my mouth. 50
Ah, what could I do? The pain made me groan, but the
nurse and my fear and shame itself told me not to.
I stopped groaning, tried to take back the words I’d let slip
Heroides 11: Canace to Macareus 123
and forced myself to swallow my tears.

Death was before my eyes, the goddess of childbirth wouldn’t
help me, 55
and, if I died, my death would also reveal my great guilt;
but you leaned over me (your tunic and hair torn in grief),
pressed your chest on mine, warming me back to life,
and said to me: ‘Sister, live, my dear, dear sister, live;
don’t kill two people by letting one body die! 60
Take strength from hope of something good: you’ll marry your brother
and be his wife as well as the mother of his baby.’
I was dead, believe me; but I revived at your words,
and gave birth to that child of sin.
Why so glad? Aeolus was seated in the heart of the palace, 65
and we had to sneak away from him the proof of my sin.
My nurse carefully concealed the infant under corn-ears,
white olive-branches and slender headbands,
pretended to be performing a rite and spoke words of prayer;
the people and my father himself made way for the rite. 70
She was near the doorway – the baby cried, revealing himself,
betraying himself, and my father heard.
Aeolus snatched up the infant, exposing the fictitious rite;
the palace resounded with his roars of fury.
As the sea ripples when grazed by a light breeze, 75
as an ash-tree’s branch quivers in the warm south wind –
you’d have seen my pale body trembling just like that;
I set the bed quivering beneath me.
He rushed in, shouting about my disgrace for all to hear,
and scarcely keeping his hands off my miserable face. 80
I was ashamed, and speechless. All I could do was weep;
my tongue was paralyzed by chilling fear.
Now he’d ordered his little grandson to be abandoned
in some lonely spot, as prey for dogs and birds.
The poor boy wailed – you’d have thought he understood – 85
and begged his grandfather, the only way he could.
How do you think I felt then, brother –
you can gather that from how you feel yourself –
when I watched my enemy take my own flesh and blood into
the towering forest, to be eaten by mountain wolves? 90
He left the room. Then finally I could beat my
breasts and tear my cheeks with my nails.
Meanwhile one of my father’s attendants arrived, with a sad
look on his face, and spoke these shameful words,
handing me a sword: ‘Aeolus sends this, and says what 95
you’ve done must make you realize what it’s for.’
I do realize, and I’ll use that savage sword bravely,

burying my father’s present in my chest.
Is this the gift that you give me away with, father?
Is this the dowry that will make your daughter rich? 100
Marriage-god, you’ve been foiled; take your wedding-torches
and run far away from this evil place in horror.
You black Furies, bring me your torches and
light my funeral pyre with their flames.
My sisters, I hope you have better luck and are happily married; 105
but remember me after death takes me from you.
The child’s a few hours old – what crime did he commit?
He’s scarcely been born – how has he harmed his grandfather?
How could anyone think he could possibly deserve to be killed?
Oh, the poor boy’s being punished for my crime. 110
Ah, my son, how I grieve for you – the prey of frenzied wild
animals, torn apart on the day you were born.
Son, you pitiful proof of a doomed love, this
was your first day of life and this was your last.
I wasn’t allowed to shed over you the tears I owe you 115
or to offer shorn locks of my hair at your tomb;
I didn’t lean over you and take kisses from your cold lips.
Ravenous wild animals are rending my own flesh and blood.
I’ll stab myself and follow the ghost of my baby;
I won’t be called a mother or bereaved for long. 120
Macareus (the husband your poor sister hoped for pointlessly),
please gather up the scattered remains of your son,
bring them back to his mother and put them with me in my tomb;
let one urn, however small, hold the ashes of us both.
Live on, remembering me, and shed tears on my wound; 125
lover, don’t recoil from the body of the girl who loved you.
Please carry out the instructions of the sister you cared for
too much; I will obey the instructions of my father.
In Ovid’s day most people viewed sexual relations between close relatives with
revulsion, and marriage between them was prohibited in law. So accusations of
incest were used to attack political opponents. In the middle of the first century
bc, to raise a laugh and to smear his personal enemy Clodius, Cicero in his speech
Pro Caelio implied an incestuous connection between Clodius and his sister Clodia,
referring to him as ‘the woman’s husband – I’m sorry, I mean brother – I always
make that slip.’ Incest is also part of the negative tradition concerning several of
the emperors, like Caligula and Nero in the first century ad. Agrippina engineered
the succession of her young son Nero, so that she could be the power behind the
throne, but he became estranged from her. According to the historian Tacitus it
was said that she tried to retain power through incest, offering herself to her son
when he was drunk, and exchanging lascivious kisses with him (and when he
subsequently murdered her he examined her dead body and praised its beauty).
Some years before that Caligula was supposed to commit incest regularly with
each of his three sisters in turn. The biographer Suetonius has lots of anecdotes
in that connection. He tells us that Caligula’s favourite sister was Drusilla, and he
ravished her while he was still a minor and was caught in bed with her by their
grandmother. Later, when she married, he took her from her husband and openly
treated her as his wife. When she died, he declared a period of public mourning,
during which laughing, bathing and dining with one’s family were punishable by
death. Afterwards, whenever he had to swear a public oath, he swore by the divinity
of Drusilla. He didn’t love the other sisters so much, and often let his boyfriends
sleep with them.
Ovid, who was interested in unusual and perverse forms of love, had handled the
rather lurid topic of incest in Heroides 4 and would return to it in the Metamorphoses.
As you know, he liked to set himself challenges and demonstrate his versatility. So
here, after being outrageously flippant about Phaedra’s passion in Her. 4, he turns
things right around and is serious about the subject. He also builds sympathy for an
incestuous lover (a figure most would find repellent). Look at the letter again to see
for yourself how he does that, and then move on to the next paragraph, where we
offer our analysis of that process.
Ovid uses a range of techniques to make someone who is guilty of incest (and
pregnant as a result) not just acceptable to readers but also affecting. For a start there
is omission of potentially alienating material: there is nothing on the actual act of
sex, no sensuality, no sloppy endearments and, although the heroine does accept
that what she has done is wrong, there is no condemnation of it as something repul-
sive and terrible (rather she and Macareus are very much in love and want to get
married). The timing of the letter is significant too: their misdemeanours are in the
past, and the princess is now on the point of suicide, after all the upset of the failed
abortion (attempted out of fear), the painful and dangerous birth, the discovery of
the baby, the death-sentence for her and the loss of the child she has come to love,
without even a chance to bury or mourn for him. Placement is also effective: this
epistle is even sadder for coming right after Her. 10 with its humour and happy
ending in the background; and Canace seems still more innocent and touching in
contrast to the earlier incestuous female in the collection (the experienced, lust-
ful and harmful Phaedra of Her. 4). Aperture plays a part: Canace foregrounds her
enforced suicide and the cruelty of her father, creating compassion for herself for
twenty lines before she even mentions her relationship to her brother. And from
line 73 to the end of the poem (providing an aptly gloomy frame) the emphasis is
on Aeolus’ murderous rage, which extends to his own daughter and an innocent
infant. There is cumulative impact in such a long passage on that, and there is par-
ticularly poignant closure at 111ff. The narrator is important too, as the heroine
obviously gives her own colouring to her presentation of events and depicts herself
in a positive light (much more a victim of her father than an incestuous lover).
Many critics have been moved by the Canace on show here, and Jacobson 163
characterizes her as ‘loving, gentle, delicate, pitiful, yet with a carriage of dignity,
quiet resolve, and resignation.’We would add that she also comes across as naive and
vulnerable, and tragically feels guilty over her part in her baby’s death (110). That
self-portrayal is reinforced by the sympathy shown for the heroine by the nurse and
by Macareus, which subtly encourages a similar reaction in readers.
Ovid returned to the topic of incest later and handled it differently yet again,
taking a whole new tack. At Metamorphoses 10.300ff. we find the tale of Myrrha, a
beautiful Arabian princess who fell in love with her own father and had sex with
him in his darkened bedroom (without the king knowing who the girl in his bed
really was).When he finally found out, she fled to escape his homicidal fury and was
subsequently turned into the myrrh-tree. Her story is told by Orpheus, the famous
musician of Thrace, who failed to recover his dead wife from the Underworld, and
who then turned his back on women, singing a series of songs which celebrated
love for boys and showed females in a much less favourable light. The extensive
contrasts with the treatment of incest in Her. 11 make Ovid’s mitigating techniques
in the epistle stand out clearly. In the Metamorphoses passage we see a deeply critical
attitude to incest and to the incestuous girl, put in the mouth of an unsympathetic
narrator (unlike Canace). He gives a very negative thrust to his account at the start,
and he constantly describes Myrrha’s behaviour as evil and invests it with revulsion.
Orpheus begins his narrative as follows:
‘This story is horrific. Daughters and fathers, keep well away from it; 300
or, if you can’t resist my song, give no credence to this
part of it, don’t believe that this happened; or, if you do
believe that it happened, believe that it was punished too.
However, if nature allows an outrage like this to be witnessed,
I congratulate the people of Thrace and this part of the world, 305
I congratulate this land, on being far away from those regions
which engendered such evil. Arabia’s myrrh surpasses all
its balsam, cinnamon and costum, its frankincense exuded
from trees, and its other flowers, but the crime that was
involved in acquiring this new tree was too great. 310
Myrrha, Cupid personally denies that his arrows wounded you
and says that his torch had nothing to do with your offence.
One of the Furies blasted you with a firebrand from Hell
and her venomous vipers: it’s a sin to hate a parent,
but your love is a greater sin than hatred.’ 315
Orpheus goes on to say that when she realized that she was lusting after her own
father, Myrrha tried to talk herself out of it, but used specious arguments against
the criminality of incest and did not succeed in suppressing her passion. She veered
this way and that over what to do, couldn’t sleep and decided to end her shame
by hanging herself. Her old nurse, on guard outside the bedroom door, heard her
preparations for suicide and rushed in to stop her.When she pressed Myrrha, to find
out why she wanted to kill herself, the princess finally confessed to her wicked love
for her father.The nurse shuddered in horror and tried to persuade her to give it up.
But Myrrha said she would kill herself if she couldn’t satisfy her desire, so the nurse
decided to help her. While the queen was away at a festival, the nurse informed the
king that there was a beautiful young girl who wanted him, and he told her to bring
the girl to his bedroom that night. Myrrha was made uneasy by a presentiment of
evil, but set off at midnight to commit the crime. At this point Orpheus builds
atmosphere, an aptly dark and ill-omened atmosphere:
‘She was coming to her crime. The golden moon fled from the sky,
which was totally black; the stars hid behind dark cloud, and of them
the two which first covered their faces were Icarus and Erigone 450
(who’d been raised to the heavens for her devoted love for her father).
Three times Myrrha was checked by an inauspicious stumble; three
times a funereal screech-owl sang its ominous song of death.
But she went on, her shame lessened by the shadows and black night.
Her left hand clung to her nurse, and she moved her right hand in front 455
of her, blindly feeling her way. Now she reaches the bedroom,
now she opens the door, now she’s led inside. But her knees
shake and give way, the blood drains from her face, she
goes pale, and her courage fails her as she advances.
The closer she is to the crime, the more she shudders, regretting 460
her rashness, wishing she could go back unrecognized.
As she hesitated, the old woman led her by the hand to the
high bed. As she handed her over, she said: ‘Take her,
Cinyras, she’s yours,’ and brought the doomed couple together.
The father took his own flesh and blood into that bed of horror, 465
encouraging the frightened girl and calming her fears.
And perhaps he called her ‘daughter’ (in keeping with her youth)
and she called him ‘father’, so words would compound the crime.
Filled with her father, she left the bedroom, bearing his evil
semen in her hideous womb, the child conceived in sin. 470
They committed the same crime the next night, and on others after that.
Finally Cinyras, eager to know the mistress with whom
he’d copulated so often, brought in a lamp and saw his
daughter and the terrible thing he’d done. Speechless, appalled,
he snatched the gleaming sword from the scabbard hanging nearby. 475
Myrrha ran off, and escaped death thanks to the
night’s murky darkness.’
Orpheus then tells how she wandered beyond her father’s kingdom, exhausted,
afraid of death but sick of life. Finally she prayed to the gods, saying that she repented
and saw that she deserved a dreadful punishment, but asking them to change her
into another form, in case she contaminated by contact the living if she survived
and the dead if she died. A god heard her and changed her into the myrrh-tree.
When she went into labour, the goddess of childbirth split the tree-trunk, and so
her baby was born – the beautiful Adonis (whose story Orpheus goes on to tell).
Before that passage Ovid had also handled the theme of incest at Metamorphoses
9.454ff. (on Byblis’ love for her brother). The usual variation is in evidence. Con-
trast the narratives about Myrrha and Byblis, looking for differences in connection
with the narrator and his attitude, the characterization of the heroine and the actual
events of the two episodes. If you need help with this or want to go into it in more
detail, see Nagle.
There would have been added interest for Ovid’s Roman readers in comparing
his Aeolus with another version of that character, in Virgil’s Aeneid, and Ovid care-
fully directs us to that epic Aeolus by means of a clear verbal echo in line 65 (media
sedet Aeolus aula ‘Aeolus was seated in the heart of his palace’ recalls Aeneid 1.56
celsa sedet Aeolus arce ‘Aeolus is seated on a lofty peak’). Typically Ovid goes in for
modification (Virgil’s king of the winds is a bachelor and submits to a female) and
especially deflation (the Virgilian Aeolus is a god; he comes across as a very impres-
sive figure in view of his power over the mighty winds and the momentous storm
that he causes; and he is not depicted as cruel and nothing more than a stern father).
In book 1 of the Aeneid Juno, the queen of the gods and an implacable enemy
of Aeneas and the other survivors of the fall of Troy, catches sight of them sailing
close to Italy, where they are destined to settle and prosper. She is incensed at that,
and decides to attack the Trojan fleet with a violent storm (even though she cannot
stop what is fated, she is malevolent enough to want to cause them major problems
and delay them). To achieve this, she approaches Aeolus, the minor god in charge
of the winds.
Turning over these thoughts in her blazing heart, the goddess 50

came to Aeolia, the land of clouds, a region filled with
frenzied gales. Here king Aeolus masterfully
curbs and confines and keeps imprisoned in a huge cavern
the battling high-winds and bellowing hurricane-blasts.
As they roar resentfully round the barriers, the mountain reverberates 55
with mighty rumbles. Aeolus is seated on a lofty peak,
holding his sceptre, and soothes their passion and restrains their rage.
If he didn’t, they’d certainly seize and rush away with
land, sea and boundless sky and sweep them through space.
Almighty Jupiter, fearing this, hid them away 60
in a gloomy cave and settled soaring, massive mountains
on top and assigned a king who’d keep to a fixed agreement
and know how to rein them in and let them run free, as ordered.
Chillingly the proud queen of heaven hates the Trojans so much that she is
prepared to lower herself and coax a lesser deity. In the speech to Aeolus that fol-
lows she is calculating and employs a variety of approaches. Initial friendliness and
flattery are combined with subtle reminders of her status and power. Next she uses
strong language to make her request forceful, and rather intimidating too. Then
comes the offer of a lovely nymph as a wife, well aimed at a lonely bachelor. In
his appropriately shorter speech Aeolus shows some self-importance, but above all
awe and deference, and readily accepts Juno’s offering. Ominously she has now
succeeded in enlisting the help of another god to get her way, and now a terrible
tempest is unleashed by Aeolus to fall on the Trojan fleet and drive it all the way to
Africa (to Dido’s Carthage).
Juno now used on him these words humbly:

‘Aeolus, the father of gods and king of men gave you 65
the power to calm the waves and raise a swell with the wind.
A race that is my enemy is sailing the Etruscan Sea,
transporting into Italy Troy and its conquered gods.
Batter your winds berserk, smother and sink their ships,
or scatter those aboard and strew the sea with their bodies. 70
I possess fourteen nymphs with exquisite bodies,
and out of them all the loveliest one is the beautiful Deiopea.
I’ll unite you in lasting wedlock and formally make her yours.
To repay the great favour I ask, she’ll live with you for all
the years to come and make you the father of beautiful children.’ 75
Aeolus replied: ‘Oh, your majesty, your task is
to decide what you want; my duty is to perform your commands.
I owe to you this little realm of mine, this sceptre
and Jupiter’s goodwill. It’s thanks to you I can feast with the gods.
You make me the lord of storm-clouds and hurricane-blasts.’ 80
So saying, he reversed his spear and struck the side of the
cavernous mountain. Like an army in line, the winds whirled out
through the exit provided, swirling and sweeping across the land.
They swoop on the sea. Together the South and East Winds
and the South-West Wind with squall after squall heave all of it up 85
from its lowest depths, and roll to the shore enormous waves.
Now men are screaming and rigging is screeching.
Clouds abruptly snatch away the daylight and the sky
from the eyes of the Trojans. Black night settles on the water.
There’s thunder from pole to pole, and the sky keeps flickering with fire. 90
It all holds out the threat of instant death for the men.
As you are working from a version of the Heroides in English rather than from
the original Latin, it is important for you to have an idea of this translation’s aims
and methods and to realize that there are different types of translations.You should
also be aware of the potential hazards of relying on translators, who have their own
strengths, weaknesses and agendas (you are at their mercy, and this serves you right
for not learning Latin!). Examination of a sample passage from Heroides 11 should
be illuminating.
Look first at this literal translation (keeping very close to Ovid’s Latin) of lines
55–66:
Death was before my eyes, and Lucina denied aid 55

– and, if I had died, death too would have been a serious indictment of me –
when, leaning over me, with torn tunic and hair,
you warmed back to life my chest pressed by yours
and said to me: ‘Live, sister, oh my dearest sister,
live, and don’t destroy two by means of the body of one. 60
Let good hope give strength; for you are going to be married to your brother.
You will be the wife also of the man through whom you are a mother.’
Dead (believe me), nevertheless I revived at your words,
and the crime and burden of my womb was born.
Why do you congratulate yourself? Aeolus sat in the middle of his palace; 65
my crime had to be secretly removed from the eyes of my father.
Obviously that literal translation is at several points clumsy, stilted and obscure
(which Ovid’s Latin was not), and in this way it actually erects a barrier between
the reader and the poem. The version in our book is aimed primarily at Classi-
cal Civilization students and is meant to be reliable but also readable and readily
intelligible. Consequently it works in some brief explanation of references (like
Lucina), but it does not introduce anything that is not present or implicit in
the Latin. It does not omit anything significant either. It goes for a couplet for
couplet correspondence and tries not to sound too prosaic or flat. Compare our
version (reprinted below) with the literal translation above to see how well it
meets those aims.
Death was before my eyes, the goddess of childbirth wouldn’t help me, 55
and, if I died, my death would also reveal my great guilt;
but you leaned over me (your tunic and hair torn in grief ),
pressed your chest on mine, warming me back to life,
and said to me: ‘Sister, live, my dear, dear sister, live;
don’t kill two people by letting one body die. 60
Take strength from hope of something good: you’ll marry your brother
and be his wife as well as the mother of his baby.
I was dead, believe me; but I revived at your words,
and gave birth to that child of sin.
Why so glad? Aeolus was seated in the heart of the palace, 65
and we had to sneak away from him the proof of my sin.
There are also other kinds of non-literal translation. So, for example, the English
poet John Dryden (1631–1700) produced a rendering of this poem which in terms
of elevation and imaginative use of language far surpasses the one in this book.
However, it is not as easy to read or as close to the Latin, as you can see from his
lines representing the same passage.
Death was in sight, Lucina gave no aid;

And e’en my dying had my guilt betray’d.
Thou cam’st, and in thy count’nance sate despair;
Rent were thy garments all, and torn thy hair:
Yet feigning comfort, which thou couldst not give,
(Prest in thy arms, and whisp’ring me to live:)
For both our sakes, (saidst thou) preserve thy life;
Live, my dear sister, and my dearer wife.
Rais’d by that name, with my last pangs I strove:
Such pow’r have words, when spoke by those we love.
The babe, as if he heard what thou hadst sworn,
With hasty joy sprung forward to be born.
What helps it to have weather’d out one storm?
Fear of our father does another form.
High in his hall, rock’d in a chair of state,
The king with his tempestuous council sate.
Through this large room our only passage lay,
By which we could the new-born babe convey.
Dryden wanted to produce versions which would be pleasant and entertaining

for people of good sense who were not scholars, and which would be eloquent and
graceful, indulging in some liberty of expression where necessary, while convey-
ing the sense of the Latin and the spirit of the author. In the above lines he went
for what contemporary readers would have viewed as poetry. This involved quite
lofty diction and rhyme (hence the insertion of the third and fifth lines above,
which are not in Ovid). Hence also the ‘noble’ sentiment in the gratuitous addi-
tion of the verses on the power of words and the baby springing forward to be
born. Dryden also tried to minimize any offence to delicate sensibilities by omit-
ting Ovid’s remarks about Canace being the mother of her brother’s baby and the
child being the crime of her womb. Dryden’s final four lines represent a lengthy
expansion to explain the point of Ovid’s reference to Aeolus seated in the palace,
so that readers can follow the drift more easily, and he also takes the opportunity to
introduce some more sublimity there while he is at it. Compare Dryden with the
literal translation to see if you can spot more of this type of thing.
Heroides 12
MEDEA TO JASON
In contrast to Heroides 11 this much longer letter is not a meek suicide note, and is
not purely tragic (but has much dark humour as well as pathos). The situations are
dissimilar too (Medea is far from her family, and is not in an incestuous relationship,
but has been jilted by her husband), and so are the natures of the writers (Medea is
hard, pro-active and powerful).
For the earlier part of Jason’s quest for the Golden Fleece see the introduction to
Heroides 6. Because she had fallen in love with Jason, Medea agreed to the request to
help the Argonauts made by her sister Chalciope (whose sons had been rescued by
the Greek heroes and had joined them), and she enabled Jason to perform the tasks
set by her father Aeetes and to seize the Fleece, and then she sailed off with him
back to Greece, getting married to him on the way. However, when Jason presented
the Golden Fleece to Pelias in Thessaly, the king went back on his word and refused
to give up his kingdom. Medea then pretended to quarrel with her husband, took
refuge with Pelias’ daughters and got friendly with them. She offered to use her
magic to make Pelias young again if his daughters killed him, but when they did
that, she did not rejuvenate him. She and Jason fled and ended up in the wealthy
city of Corinth in central Greece. They settled there and had two sons, but after all
Medea’s help Jason suddenly left her to marry Creusa, daughter of Creon (the king
of Corinth). Medea was enraged and began to make threats, so was sentenced to
exile by Creon along with her children. She pretended to accept banishment for
herself, but begged Jason to see if he could persuade the royal family to let the boys
escape exile. She persuaded him to go with them to Creusa with gifts from her – a
fine robe and crown, ostensibly to win her over. In fact the robe and crown were
impregnated with a napalm-like magic substance, and when she put them on they
stuck to her and burned her to death. Creon turned up and in his grief embraced
his dead daughter, only to be burned to death too by the same substance. Medea
set the palace on fire, and then, to hurt Jason further, she killed their two sons, and
Heroides 12: Medea to Jason 133
denied him access to the bodies, flying off to her refuge in Athens on a chariot
drawn by dragons, which her grandfather (the sun-god) had given her.
Heroides 12 is written just as Medea is starting to utter the threats that lead to the
decree of banishment from Corinth and before she has finalized her plans for revenge.
But (I remember) though a princess of Colchis, I found time

for you when you asked me to help with my magic.
The Fates, who spin the thread of a mortal’s life,
should have ended mine and killed me then.
I could have died well then. All my life 5
since that time has been punishing.
Oh, why did the Argo ever go in quest of the
Golden Fleece, rowed by its young crew?
Why did we Colchians ever set eyes on that ship
and you Greeks drink from our river Phasis? 10
Why did I find your blond hair and good looks
and your charming, lying tongue all too attractive?
But I did. Otherwise when that unfamiliar ship
with its bold heroes had reached our shores,
thoughtless Jason would have gone against the bulls’ flaming 15
breath and scorched mouths without magic protection
and would have sown the dragon’s teeth (every one an
enemy) only to be cut down by his own crop.
So much treachery would have died with you, you criminal,
and I’d have been spared so much suffering! 20
I’ll take what pleasure there is in attacking the ingratitude of
someone who’s been helped – the only joy I’ll get from you.
You were told to sail your untried ship to Colchis
and landed in our prosperous kingdom.
I was there what your new bride is here; 25
my father was as rich as hers is.
Hers rules Corinth with its two seas, mine everything as far
as snowy Scythia at the far end of the Black Sea.
Aeetes welcomed you young Greeks hospitably,
and you reclined on his embroidered couches. 30
It was then that I saw you and found out what you were;
that was the start of my mental collapse.
I saw you and died, I burned with a fire new to me,
like a pine-torch burning on an altar to mighty gods.
You were handsome, I couldn’t resist what was fated 35
for me, and my eyes were ravished by yours.
You realized, you traitor. Who succeeds in hiding love?
It flares up clearly, giving itself away.
You were told you had to put a yoke on the hard necks of
134 Heroides 12: Medea to Jason
the fierce bulls, which weren’t used to ploughing. 40

They were Mars’ bulls, with cruel horns and muzzles;
they breathed forth terrifying fire;
they had feet of solid bronze and nostrils sheathed in bronze,
which was also blackened by the blasts of their breath.
You were also ordered to scatter all over the field with your 45
doomed hand seeds that would produce a horde of men
meant to attack you with weapons born along with themselves –
a harvest hostile to the one who sowed it.
Last of all you had to elude by some ruse or other the
sleepless eyes of the snake guarding the Fleece. 50
When Aeetes had finished, you all got up sadly from the
purple couches, and the whole company retired.
What help to you then was mighty Creon, his daughter
Creusa and her dowry – the kingdom of Corinth?
You went off, despondent. I watched you go with tears in my 55
eyes, and with a faint murmur I wished you well.
I went to bed in my room, badly wounded by love,
and spent the whole night long crying.
I saw before my eyes the bulls and the evil harvest;
I also saw the serpent that never sleeps. 60
I felt both love and fear, and the fear increased the love.
Next morning my dear sister came in
and found me lying face-down, with dishevelled
hair, and everything wet with my tears.
She asked me to help the Argonauts; I granted Jason her 65
request, and gave him what she begged.
There’s a dark grove of pines and leafy oaks,
which the sun’s rays can scarcely penetrate;
in it there is – or was – a shrine to Diana, with a golden
statue of her sculpted by foreign hand. 70
Do you recognize the place, or have you forgotten it as well as me?
We met there, and you spoke first, treacherously:
‘Fortune has given you complete control over my wellbeing;
and my life and death are in your hands.
To be able to kill is enough, if you take pleasure in power itself; 75
but you will win greater glory by saving me.
I beg you, by my troubles (which you can end), by your noble
lineage and your divine grandfather (the all-seeing Sun),
by the triple face and secret rites of Diana,
and by any other gods you Colchians may have, 80
young lady, have pity on me, have pity on my men;
help me, and make me yours forever.
If by some chance you don’t spurn a Greek for a husband
(but how could the gods be so very kind to me?),

I’ll die, and my spirit will vanish into thin air, 85
before I take to my bed any bride but you.
Let Juno the goddess of marriage be my witness
and Diana whose marble shrine this is.’
Your speech (and this is just a small part of it) and the clasping
of my hand touched my naive, girlish heart. 90
I also saw tears (they played their part in your deception);
and I was just a girl, quickly taken in by your words.
You yoked the bronze-footed bulls without being burned,
and ploughed the hard earth, as ordered,
and sowed in the furrows not seeds but envenomed teeth 95
which produced warriors with swords and shields.
Even I, who’d given you the magic salve, sat there
pale at the sight of the sudden armed men,
until (a miracle!) those earthborn brothers drew
their weapons and fought each other. 100
Suddenly the sleepless sentinel, bristling with rustling
scales, swept across the ground, coiling and hissing.
Where was your rich dowry and royal bride then
and the Isthmus of Corinth that separates two seas?
I am now a barbarian in your eyes, after everything, 105
I now seem to you a pauper, and malignant;
but I was the one who closed its fiery eyes in a magic sleep
and gave you the Fleece to safely steal away.
I betrayed my father, gave up my throne and my country;
my reward is being able to live here in exile. 110
A pirate from overseas plundered my virginity; I left
behind a wonderful sister and a mother I loved.
But I didn’t leave you behind, my brother, when I fled
(this is the only place where my pen falters).
What I dared to do I don’t dare to write down; 115
I should have been hacked apart too, along with you.
With nothing to fear after that, I wasn’t afraid to trust
myself to the sea, though only a woman, and now a criminal.
Where is heaven’s power? We deserve to be punished at sea –
you for being deceitful, I for being gullible. 120
The Clashing Rocks should have crushed and smashed us,
clamping us together in a bony embrace!
Or ravening Scylla should have drowned us as food for her dogs
(Scylla should have harmed ungrateful men)!
Charybdis, who sucks in and spews out sea three times a day, 125
should have drawn us under the waves off Sicily.
But you returned victorious and unscathed to Thessaly’s cities
and laid the Golden Fleece before your country’s gods.

Need I mention Pelias’ daughters, who harmed their father out of
devotion, their girlish hands hacking his body? 130
Though others criticize me, you must praise me:
I’ve been forced to do wrong so often because of you.
You dared – I’m so angry (rightly angry) that the proper words
fail me – you dared to say: ‘Leave my royal home!’
I left your home, as ordered, taking along our two sons 135
and my love for you (which is always with me).
Suddenly I heard the words of a wedding-song
and saw brightly gleaming torches,
and a flute played the wedding-march for you two,
a sound more mournful than a funeral dirge for me. 140
I was terrified. I didn’t yet believe such wickedness existed,
but still my heart was all cold with fear.
A crowd rushed up, shouting the wedding-chant repeatedly:
the nearer the cry, the worse it was for me.
My slaves turned away, weeping, and hiding their tears: 145
who’d want to pass on such terrible news?
It was better too for me not to know, whatever it was;
but my heart was sad, as if I did know.
My youngest boy, either just by chance or because
he was keen to see, stood at the front door. 150
He said: ‘Mother, just come here! Father’s leading a
procession, dressed in gold and driving a chariot.’
Immediately I ripped my clothes and beat my breasts
and scratched my face in grief.
I felt an urge to plunge into the crowd and tear 155
the garlands from their neatly combed hair.
I scarcely restrained myself from tearing my hair, shouting
‘He’s mine!’ and grabbing hold of you.
I hope this delights the father I wronged, the Colchians I abandoned;
let my brother’s ghost accept this offering to him – 160
me deserted and deprived of my throne, country, home
and husband, who was on his own everything to me.
So, I managed to subjugate serpents and mad bulls,
but I could not subjugate this single man.
I repulsed fierce flames with my magic expertise, 165
but I can’t escape the fire of love myself.
My very skills and spells and herbs are deserting me;
my powerful Hecate and her rites are quite useless.
I loathe the daytime, my nights are wakeful and hateful,
soft sleep abandons me in my misery. 170
I can put to sleep a serpent, but not myself;
everyone profits from my industriousness more than me.

My rival is caressing the body I saved from death;
she is enjoying the reward for my hard work.
Perhaps too, when you’re trying to show off to your stupid 175
wife and say things my enemy would like to hear,
you come up with new criticisms of my looks and my foreign ways.
Let her laugh and take pleasure in my faults!
Let her laugh, lying on her purple couch, exalted –
she will weep, burnt even worse than me. 180
So long as I have a sword and fire and magic potions,
no enemy of Medea will escape vengeance!
But if by any chance pleas touch your heart of steel,
hear what I have to say now, curbing my pride.
I’m begging you, as you often begged me; 185
I’m kneeling at your feet without hesitation.
If you despise me, show some thought for our boys:
a stepmother will be cruel, a terror to sons of mine.
They really look like you, I’m touched by the resemblance,
and whenever I see them, my eyes fill with tears. 190
I beg you, by the gods, by my grandfather the Sun,
by the boys (our mutual pledges) and all I’ve done for you:
be my husband again (I gave up so much for that, madly),
be true to your word and repay my help to you.
I’m not asking you to face bulls and warriors or to use 195
your powers to conquer and quiet a serpent;
I want you – I’ve earned you, you gave yourself to me
and I became a parent along with you.
Do you ask where’s my dowry? I paid it out on the
field that you had to plough to win the Fleece; 200
and the spectacular, thick Golden Fleece is my dowry
(if I asked for that back, you’d refuse);
and the survival of you and your crew is my dowry.
Go on, compare the wealth of Corinth with that, you bastard!
It’s thanks to me that you’re alive and actually able to be 205
ungrateful and have a powerful wife and father-in-law.
Soon you’ll all be – but why tell you your punishment in
advance? My rage will give birth to massive menace.
I’ll go where rage takes me. I may regret what I do,
but I also regret looking out for my unfaithful husband. 210
I’ll leave that to the god who now has my thoughts in a turmoil.
My mind is definitely devising something drastic.
Sadly, if understandably, love is not much in evidence in this letter. Medea does
mention her love for Jason, but usually sets it in the past, and only twice and briefly
does she say that she still feels that way about him (at 136 and 166, and in the lat-
ter case she wants to escape her passion). Love is overshadowed by other powerful
emotions, like injured pride, jealousy, indignation, suspicion and bitterness. So most
of the epistle is taken up with complaints and criticisms of Jason, and she does not
get around to asking for a reconciliation until late in the letter. She has reached the
point where love is nearly dead, hatred and desire for vengeance have nearly taken
over and entirely justified anger is getting the better of her (this happens firstly at
175ff., and then more strongly at 207ff., so that the poem closes aptly and omi-
nously with rage and revenge).
Medea’s motivation for writing Heroides 12 is rather complex. As she herself
states at 21–2, she wants to let off steam and get some satisfaction from giving Jason
a piece of her mind. It would appear that she also wants to make him feel bad and
hurt him, and worry him with her threats. She seems conflicted as well. She says that
she still loves him, and she does ask him to get back together with her (at 183–206),
but consciously or unconsciously she makes it very probable that he will refuse her
request. She undermines it in advance with all the alienating censure and abuse. She
surrounds it with threats, at 180–2 and 207–12, and Jason would come away from
the letter with that latter passage (at the very end) uppermost in his thoughts. And
as well as leaving it late she words her appeal in a way unlikely to win him back:
she does not try to convince him that she will give up her resentment (in fact she
makes digs during the appeal itself) or that she really loves him or that they will
be happy together again, but unflatteringly demands him back as someone she has
earned, and for the sake of the children. It looks as if this is his last slim chance for
reconciliation and an escape from vengeance, and in her heart of hearts she would
really rather he did not take it. He would then realize subsequently that he brought
retribution on himself by his ingratitude and could actually have avoided it by
accepting the offer in this letter, so that he might feel some personal responsibility.
That is all very sad and grim. Jacobson 109ff. sees only that in the poem, and as
a result criticizes it for sameness and simplicity and calls it ‘unfortunately dull’. But,
as so often with Ovid, there are layers and nuances that make for interest and bite.
This is in fact a typically dexterous and ingenious performance by the poet, and
in addition to the emotional impact there are also important intellectual aspects.
If Heroides 6 was a tragicomedy with the stress on the tragic, Heroides 12 is a tragi-
comedy with an emphasis on the comic (the darkly comic). His Medea is serious,
but Ovid himself is having fun.
One of the interesting things that Ovid is doing here is giving us a new per-
spective. In Heroides 6 we had Hypsipyle’s point of view, and she (naturally enough)
gave us an entirely negative picture of Medea as a barbarian slut, a repellent witch,
a treacherous, dangerous and murderous woman.What we get now is a much more
positive version, as Medea tells her own story with her own colouring. She fore-
grounds her royalty and kindness, her misery and her regret at helping Jason, put-
ting them at the start of her letter to give them prominence. She plays up all she has
done for him and how badly he has treated her by going on at length about all that
and returning to it repeatedly. She plays down the questionable and bad things she
has done (the betrayal of her father and the murders of Apsyrtus and Pelias), passing
over them quickly, and also intimating that her love for Jason was to blame in each
case. She presents herself as a naive and vulnerable young girl who was taken in
by his seductive words, and who has subsequently been caused great pain by being
abandoned by him for a new wife.
This is all rather involving and provocative.Two (male) critics are not convinced
by Medea’s words here. Isbell 104f. describes her as ‘a perfect model of depravity’
and claims that she is not rehabilitated in the eyes of the reader and her argument is
so flawed that she cannot be pitied. Jacobson 113 and 118–20 calls her a ‘dastardly
villain’ and says that there is little good to be said for her and her personality is con-
temptible. What do you think? Is there truth in what Medea says here? Do you feel
sorry for her at this point in her story to a greater or lesser extent? Is she the only
(or the real) criminal in all of this? Use the text of Heroides 12 to support your case.
There are further connections between Heroides 12 and 6. For a start, there are
obvious similarities. Both are letters to Jason written by heroines upset that they
have been abandoned by him, along with their children, despite being married to
him; and in Heroides 12 we find yet another woman who has fallen for his charm,
tears and lying assurances. Readers may find these correspondences saddening and/
or amusing (these princesses never learn!). Certainly there is diverting irony in
these links: for instance, Hypsipyle thinks herself so superior to the barbarian, but
in fact she is much closer to her than she realizes; and Medea is enraged at being
supplanted by a royal successor, but (as these parallels bring out) she herself is a royal
successor who supplanted and enraged another. There are clever and entertaining
twists too: for example, at 6.83ff. Hypsipyle complains that Medea enthralled Jason
by means of magic, but at 12.163f. Medea complains that she could not do just that;
and at 6.149f. the Greek wishes that she had committed murder, killing her rival,
while in 12 we are reminded that the barbarian has already committed murder, and
she will before long go on to kill her rival, exactly as she threatens in her letter.
There are many other ties between 6 and 12, which you can find and explore for
yourself. For some more of them, and for different ways of looking at them, see
Lindheim 125ff. and Fulkerson 43ff.
There are funnier aspects, for those who have a nasty sense of humour. There
are so many clear hints of what Medea is going to do that we are invited to feel a
gleeful anticipation, reflecting on what a crazy fool Jason is to mess with a woman
like this and how he is going to get his richly deserved come-uppance very soon.
In particular the frequent references to fire, heat and burning are witty, in a way that
makes you both cringe and smile, as they foreshadow the incineration of Creusa,
Creon and their palace. The black comedy is in evidence from the very beginning
of the poem in all the point and play and spin there. Look back at the first twenty
verses and note the following. Lines 1–2 lead us to reflect that Medea will find time
for Jason again soon, and will use her magic to hurt him rather than help him. At
3f. a murderess wishes that she had been killed herself! In connection with 5, if she
didn’t die well then, she can at least kill well (efficiently). In 6 she is talking of her
life being punishing for her, but there will be more punishment, for Creusa, Creon
and Jason. Along with Medea at 7–10, many others will wish that the Argo had
never sailed to Colchis. In line 12 she criticizes Jason’s charming, lying tongue not
long before she charms him with her lies about the robe and crown being gifts to
win over Creusa. At 15–18 there is the irony of Medea saving Jason’s life only for
him to ruin hers. In 18 the killer makes a joke about killing, with grim play on the
crop cutting down rather than being cut down. In 19 she accuses another of being
treacherous and a criminal! And 20 prompts the thought that many others would
have escaped suffering too (at her hands).
The rest of the poem also contains the same kind of bleak humour and wit,
often centring around her treachery, deceitfulness and ruthless murders. Examine,
for example, Jason’s speech at 73–88 for irony in him saying all that to Medea in the
light of what he went on to do and what ensued from that (her attitude, actions and
mastery of the situation in Corinth). And look at the words put into her mouth at
129–42, prefiguring the daring crimes that she will shortly commit.
There are variant versions of the rest of Medea’s story. According to Ovid in
his Metamorphoses, while taking refuge in Athens with king Aegeus, she married
him. But when his illegitimate son Theseus turned up, she tried to poison Theseus
unsuccessfully, and had to use her magic to summon up clouds or a mist so that
she could escape death (it is not clear exactly how). Ovid leaves her disappearing
mysteriously like that and says no more about her subsequent career. Other authors
tell us that she went to the east, where Medus (her son by Aegeus or by an oriental
king) became the founder of the powerful people called the Medes, and that she
returned to Colchis, where her father had been dethroned, and returned him to
royal power. At the end of her life she went to the paradise called Elysium and there
married and lived with the great Greek hero Achilles.
It is interesting and instructive to consider the ethical aspects of the Medea
myth and to ask ourselves if women should view Medea as an empowering role
model. She does rise above gender stereotypes, asserting herself and exacting a well-
deserved vengeance. But many would view her actual methods of avenging herself
and the extent of her revenge as problematical. These are complicated issues.
Is Medea a feminist in Heroides 12? You can’t get any more provocative than
that when talking about the protagonist of this letter. On the one hand, Medea
comes off as a woman demanding to be on an equal footing with Jason (at times
seeing herself as a hero, e.g. at 181f.), but, on the other hand, she wishes to be
restored as the hero’s wife (so re-establishing her subordinate status). Some femi-
nist readings unconvincingly see the duplicate nature of Medea’s characterization
as a means on the part of the heroine to re-attract Jason: Medea portrays herself
at one moment as innocent like Jason’s current love interest (Creusa), and in the
next as a strong, independent woman like Jason’s previous wife Hypsipyle (see
further Lindheim 125ff. and Fulkerson 49). But Medea insults Creusa whenever
she does mention her, so any parallel of naivety is lost (and is slim at best with
only two references to Medea’s innocence (99ff. and 111), which are placed in
the past); and Jason abandoned Hypsipyle, so why would Medea compare herself
to a loser? What’s more, these readings do not take into account Medea’s attacks
on Jason – is Medea really trying to win the hero back, when she frequently hurls
vitriolic remarks in his direction?
Clearly there is a two-sided depiction of Medea and, to a lesser extent, of Jason
in Heroides 12, whereby each undergoes a reversal of gender roles. A long-standing
tradition of gender-switching can be found in the Greek tragedies of Euripides and
Aeschylus to reinforce the importance of the realities of people’s roles in society, as
Foley 148ff. has noted. But what about Ovid? This poet likes to push the envelope
and, occasionally, poke fun at the idiosyncrasies of his characters. Here in Medea’s
appeal to Jason the reversal of the protagonist’s role appears to be on steroids! It
may well be that Ovid is ridiculing the tradition itself. In hyperbolic fashion, then,
Ovid appears to be exploring the limits to which his character is both masculine
and feminine.
The feminine persona of Medea unmistakably comes across in the varied and
extreme emotions that she experiences and expresses in her letter. Complaints
mixed with grief, fear and threats suggest that this heroine may not be entirely
stable (an understatement!) now that Jason has rejected her. She even mentions
the fact that upon meeting Jason her mental collapse started (at 32). She begins by
complaining about how punishing life has been since she met and fell in love with
Jason (5ff.). Medea recalls the inner turmoil she endured imagining Jason’s defeat
at the hands of her father (57ff.), her naive willingness to help him win the Fleece
(89ff.) and her jealousy over Jason’s repudiation of her and subsequent marriage to
Creusa (133ff.). Fear for her children’s future results in Medea’s pleas to him to take
her back (183ff.), but these pleas are quickly replaced by vindictiveness – she calls
Jason a bastard who would be nothing without her (204). Finally, her vindictiveness
culminates in a warning that her rage is uncontrollable, and is rather in the hands
of the gods (211f.). Throughout, Medea oscillates between sorrow, panic and rage,
with the rage taking over by the end of the letter.
Ovid further defines Medea as feminine by her role as ‘other’.The poet plays up
her aspect as a sorceress and her foreign background, traits that portray the heroine
as strange or different, qualities which ultimately cast Medea in a negative light
and, as a result, in a feminine one. So, repeated reference is made to Medea’s use of
magic, and her ability or inability to wield it.The letter opens with her aiding Jason
by using her magic (2). She refers to her help as ‘magic protection’ (16) and a ‘magic
salve’ (97), and tells how she defeated the obstacles placed before Jason with ‘magic
sleep’ used against the serpent at 107 and ‘magic expertise’ used against the flames at
165. Mention of Diana/Hecate, the goddess of magic (at 69, 79 and 88) and refer-
ence (at 167f.) to how ineffective her magic powers are now at keeping Jason with
her similarly point to Medea’s strangeness and thus her otherness.
With almost equal frequency Ovid draws attention to Medea’s otherness by
allusions to her foreign background. In the opening line of the letter Medea calls
herself a princess of Colchis, pointing to her status as a foreigner head on and sug-
gesting that, even as this second-rate outsider, she still felt obliged to help Jason. She
goes on to mention Colchians/Colchis four other times (9, 23, 80 and 159), really
driving home the point that she is not Greek, unlike Jason’s current squeeze. In
comparison to Creusa, Medea charges that she herself is a barbarian in Jason’s eyes
(105) and imagines how he and his new wife mock her ways as foreign at 177.What
sets her further apart is the label ‘exile’ (110) which Medea applies to herself. True,
she is an exile from her homeland – that comes with the territory of betraying her
father and killing her brother – but now she is an exile from her home and Jason,
so she is ‘other’ even more than she thought she ever would be.
If Ovid portrays his Medea as feminine by means of her riotous emotions and
otherness, then he wittily turns everything on its head when at the same time he
also depicts her as masculine with aggressive and heroic qualities. She is a powerful
figure – she repeatedly reminds Jason that it was her magic that enabled him to
succeed. But Medea is powerful in other ways too. Despite her current regret, she
writes how she was responsible for her brother’s brutal murder (13ff.), she does not
hesitate to mention how she opposed her father (109 and 159) and she warmly
(pun intended!) refers to Creusa’s upcoming demise at her hands (180).
Nowhere does Medea appear more masculine than when she seemingly presents
herself as the hero. Three times the sorceress refers to Jason’s tasks (15ff., 39ff. and
93ff.), each time with greater description and growing horror, and with each men-
tion of them Medea points out either Jason’s hopelessness or just how she enabled
his success. Medea’s masculine side comes across even more when she muses on
how both she and Jason should have died a heroic death at sea – killed by the Clash-
ing Rocks or Scylla or Charybdis (121ff.). Finally, Medea exclaims at 181f. that no
enemy will escape her vengeance while she carries, of all things, a sword, and later
at 197 she claims that she earned Jason; the sword, the word ‘enemy’ and the prize
in the form of a person all belong to the very masculine heroic world in which
apparently Medea sees herself.
Jason, on the other hand, comes across as a rather feminine character and, as a
foil, contributes to our viewing the protagonist Medea in a masculine light. For
instance, Jason is passive, even humble, at times. When Jason learns of the tasks,
he is saddened (51) and despondent (55), and when he asks Medea for her help,
Jason begs her (77ff.) and is described as having tears in his eyes (91). Moreover,
any heroic qualities are absent from Jason. For instance, Jason’s accomplishment of
the tasks set by Aeetes is based on Medea’s aid, and, when the tasks are described,
the hero’s contributions are minimal (e.g. the epic encounter between Jason and the
earthborn men at 99f. is reduced to the earthly creatures only attacking each other;
contrast Apollonius of Rhodes 3.1340ff.). Lastly, rather than giving a description in
glowing terms, Medea refers to Jason as a criminal (19), a traitor (37), a treacherous
speaker (72), deceptive (91 and 120), ungrateful (206) and unfaithful (210) – all
negative terms more suited to the standard characterization of a feminine figure.
Finally, special attention ought to be given to the close of the letter, wherein
Ovid manages an amusing coup de grâce regarding his characterization of Medea.
The poet has spent a great deal of time craftily portraying the sorceress as a fig-
ure whose feminine traits are often overshadowed by masculine behaviour. Actu-
ally, up to this point Medea has been significantly masculinized, primarily by her
own actions, not to mention the lacklustre description of Jason. But at 204ff. the
heroine is shown at her worst/best, and, make no mistake about it, the illusion of
a hermaphroditic Medea is shattered by the very feminine creature depicted there.
Medea is irrational, mentioning her rage twice and claiming that her thoughts are
in a turmoil. In her eyes, Jason is not only a bastard but also ungrateful and unfaith-
ful. Lastly, she is menacing, threatening that what she is preparing is going to be
horrific (in her words, massive and drastic). Ovid has built Medea up as heroic,
more so than even Jason, so we may have anticipated a close with a masculinized
Medea, but the poet quickly dispels this notion, playfully offering up an extremely
off-putting, negative and, accordingly, incredibly feminine portrayal of Medea.
Do we have here an instance of feminism gone awry?
What do you think about Medea’s killing of her children? We tend to gloss
over the fact that Creusa is going to be murdered, and many readers might applaud
Medea for the bad-ass she is for giving what for to Creusa, but what about her
kids? Ovid doesn’t describe the impending murder but rather alludes to it instead,
allowing the reader to imagine the upcoming horrific fate of the hero’s children.
For all that Medea is a pathetic creature, treated poorly by her husband, abandoned
after everything that she has given up and done for him, do you sympathize with
her knowing that what she is about to do is so awful? Do you suppose that killing
one’s children was as horrible a crime in ancient times as it is today? And what do
you think specifically of a mother being the culprit?
Here are a few things to consider as you develop your own thoughts about the
crime. As Patterson 104f. astutely notes, while it is true that infanticide was practiced
among the Greeks without penalty, the killing of a child already recognized as a
member of the oikos (house) was subject to the laws of homicide. Sealey 278 takes
great pains to point out that a homicide warranted different punishments depending
on whether it was intentional or unintentional. In Classical Athens, the perpetrator of
an intentional homicide was subject to death by the state, whereas a person guilty of
involuntary murder was exiled, though a pardon could be sought afterwards.
In the western world today, the murder of a child, infant or otherwise, is con-
sidered a homicide, and the punishment varies depending on extenuating circum-
stances. But the mother as murderer adds a different dimension to the discussion.
When we hear on the news that a mother has murdered her child, our first reaction
tends to be one of stunned disbelief, followed by the question ‘How could she do
that to her own child?’ We are outraged and find the act morally repugnant. The
media tend to stay with the story for a few days, perhaps because of the incom-
prehensibility of the act, and further investigation often uncovers issues of mental
illness.This revelation, of course, is followed by judicial procedures and some sort of
penalty. In the case of Medea, however, it is worth noting that she is never punished
for her children’s murder by a court or by the gods. Actually, as the myth goes, she
flees to Athens and devises other schemes of self-interest, and when she does die she
marries Achilles and remains with him in the Elysian Fields (Apollonius of Rhodes
4.811–15).
It may come as a shock to learn that Medea is not punished, but she is, in fact,
no longer a part of the society in which such punishment would take place. In
ancient Greece, whether she was a daughter, sister or wife, the place of a woman
was in her oikos (house). Women did not vote, nor did they have many duties or
responsibilities outside of the home (aside from religious activities), especially if
they were of the upper crust. So, a look at Medea through this sociological lens
would reveal a woman who has long removed herself from her oikos and, accord-
ingly, the constraints of society (see Foley 148ff. for more on the female/house vs.
male/city in drama). Despite her present remorse, as indicated in the letter at 113ff.,
Medea willingly abandoned her role as daughter by betraying her father in order to
help Jason – she deserted her oikos and, as a result, her place in society. So, when she
murders her brother, it should come as no surprise.
While it is true that she does become Jason’s wife, and so re-establishes herself
within the oikos, it seems that once you abandon the oikos and society’s norms,
there is no return. Medea laments angrily the fact that Jason has ordered her and
their children out of the oikos (133ff.), and it is now at this critical state of flux
that we see the sorceress plotting. There is no going back to being a daughter, and
though she begs to be a wife again to the hero, the insults that Medea spews at Jason
(knowingly) undermine her efforts. What’s left to her is her role as a mother, but
because she is out of the oikos (as are her children) she appears not to be bound by
her maternal role nor by society’s laws which govern mothers. And so, by the end
of Heroides 12 our last glimpse of Medea as she alludes to the imminent murder of
her children is of her in her role as ‘other’.
Medea was a very popular subject for ancient poetry, and interesting accounts of
different parts of the myth were produced by famous authors like Pindar, Euripides,
Apollonius of Rhodes, Seneca and Valerius Flaccus (on these see further Griffiths
14ff. and Clauss & Johnston). Ovid in particular was clearly fascinated by her. In
addition to Heroides 6 and 12, he wrote a tragedy called Medea (of which sadly only
two lines survive). He also devoted a whole poem (Tristia 3.9) to her murder of her
brother. In it he describes how, after eloping with Jason and the Fleece, she slowed
down her father’s pursuit of them by killing and dismembering Apsyrtus, strewing
his limbs far and wide, so they would take a long time to collect, and setting up his
pale hands and bloody head on a high rock, so that her father would see them and
stop to recover the body. Ovid also told her story from Jason’s arrival to her disap-
pearance after the attempt on Theseus’ life at Metamorphoses 7.1–424, showing us in
more detail the naive and vulnerable young girl who got entangled with a smooth
operator and because of him and her experiences with him went to the bad herself
(although here she already possessed in herself the seeds that led to her degenera-
tion, like passion, pride and problems over self-control).
We will go into Metamorphoses 7 in more detail, to give you a fuller picture
of Ovid’s Medea and of some of the incidents only briefly mentioned or alluded
to in the letter. In that long narrative the epic hero Jason is debunked from the
start. His exploits on the way out to Colchis are minimized in the opening lines.
So too, when it comes to the trials performed by him for Aeetes, his actions are
played down, while the vital importance of Medea’s aid is played up. Something
similar happens when it comes to the seizing of the Fleece (which was hung up
in a tree) prior to the return to Iolcus (the port in Thessaly from which Jason set
out) at 7.149ff.:
The remaining task was to drug with magic herbs the sleepless snake,
a striking sight with its crest and three-forked tongue and 150
hooked fangs, the dread guardian of the Golden Fleece’s tree.
After she had sprinkled on it a herb’s soporific juice
and recited three times words which bring peaceful slumber,
which check heaving seas and rapid rivers, sleep came to
those eyes which had never known it. The heroic son of Aeson 155
seized the Fleece and, proud of this spoil, and taking with him
as additional spoil the woman who gave it to him,
he returned in triumph to the port of Iolcus with his wife.
Here the female is the real achiever, while Jason is undercut. Ovid begins by stress-
ing how formidable the snake is, and then has Medea dispatch it (she is the one act-
ing, and her even more formidable powers predominate). She takes them there and
deals with the guardian, while Jason just nips in at the end to profit by all that. In
view of that the designation of him in 155 seems decidedly mock-solemn. In the
final few lines he starts to assert himself, but again he is undermined: he is absurdly
proud of another’s achievement; he regards her as a prize (a mere thing, on a par
with the Fleece); he apparently does not thank her; and their marriage is minimized
and passed over very quickly, suggesting something hurried and perfunctory.
When they are back in Greece, Ovid begins to stress still more the powerful
sorceress side of Medea. When Jason begs her to extend the life of his aged father,
she uses her magic to perform the miracle of rejuvenation, seeming more and more
awesome, and a little frightening too. Then her evil aspects come to the fore, and
she is depicted as chillingly manipulative, calculating, sadistic and ruthless, as she
murders Pelias (for no stated reason) and employs his daughters (who have done
her no harm at all) in the killing. There is real horror here, but also black humour.
She pretends that she has broken up with Jason, takes refuge with Pelias’ (comically
gullible) daughters, wins their hearts with a show of friendship and is careful to
mention the rejuvenation of Aeson. As their own father is old, they ask her to do
that for him too (in fact begging her to slaughter their father, if they only knew it).
She agrees, and then carefully sets up a trial run, killing a ram by cutting its throat,
plunging it into a cauldron containing a magic mixture and swiftly and painlessly
transforming it into a very young and healthy lamb. This performance is intended
to impress and reassure the girls and to get them to countenance the murder of
their father. It succeeds, and they beg her again to give him back his youth. Now
we see how (deliciously) cunning and callous Medea is. She keeps the daughters in
suspense for three days before proceeding with the operation (to make them keener
to act). She puts Pelias to sleep, so they will find it easier to stab him. She comes out
with a strong speech, urging them to action and playing on their devotion to their
father. She allows Pelias at the end to awake from his magic sleep, so that he will
see that he is being stabbed to death by his own daughters. And there is a final bit
of cruelty, when she plunges Pelias into the cauldron, so that the girls will expect
his rejuvenation, in vain.
And now the king (and with him his guards) lay relaxed
in a sleep like death, which had been produced by
incantations and the power of Medea’s magical tongue. 330
His daughters, as ordered, entered the room with her and stood
around his bed. She said: ‘Cowards! Why hesitate now?
Draw your swords and drain his old veins,
so I can refill them with young blood!
Your father’s life and age are in your hands. 335
If you have any love for him, and your hopes for him are real,
do your duty by your father, use your weapons to free
him from old age, stab him and make his blood flow!’
That made those who loved him most the first to harm him,
thinking it a crime not to commit this crime. But none could 340
bear to watch herself wounding him. They averted their eyes,
turned away and struck at him fiercely and blindly.
Though streaming with blood and half-butchered, he raised
himself on his elbow and tried to get out of bed. Encircled by
so many swords, he stretched out his pale arms and said: 345
‘Daughters, what are you doing? Who gave you weapons to kill
your father?’ Their courage and their hands faltered.
Medea cut short his words by cutting his throat
and plunged his mangled body into the hot water.
Again the girls are absurdly naive, not questioning why they rather than Medea
should have to kill Pelias, or why they should all have to stab him and inflict
many wounds, whereas a single stroke slit the ram’s throat. And there is a grimly
comic picture of them hacking away at him blindly in 341f. Medea’s nasty sense of
humour is also in evidence, as she has fun about their father’s life in their hands in
335 and teases them about their hopes in 336. We can also see the poet’s own wit
here, in the verbal play at 339f. and 347f., and in the stupid question that he puts
in the mouth of Pelias at 346 (question: ‘Daughters, what are you doing?’ answer:
‘We’re killing you, daddy.’).
Mischievous as ever, after leading his readers to expect a full account of the
deaths of Creusa and Creon and the boys (foreshadowed at the end of our letter),
Ovid passes over them very quickly at 7.394–7. Euripides in his tragedy entitled
Medea is much more full, in particular over the first two deaths, which are reported
to Medea by a messenger. He tells how Jason and his sons went to Creusa with
the marvellous robe and crown and he asked her to accept the gifts and persuade
her father not to banish the boys. The narrative that follows is carefully ordered.
At 1156–66 the tension starts to mount as Creusa puts the presents on. Look for
(believable) realistic touches there and irony and foreshadowing of her death. At
1167–77 there is a dramatic progression as the princess feels the effect of the robe
and crown. Examine those lines for vivid and small points of detail that bring out
the horror. At 1177–82 there is a brief respite, to lower the emotional pitch (why?),
and it looks as if Creusa is dead (why does Euripides mislead us like this?). But then
she comes to, and we get more and more horrific details at 1183–1203. Analyze the
various elements that give those lines real impact. Finally at 1204ff. there is another
death, when Creon turns up and is killed because of his love for his daughter and in
a grotesque parody of affection. Look for various instances of pathos in that passage.
When she set eyes on the finery, she gave in

and agreed to everything he had asked, and before
Jason and his boys had gone far from the palace,
she took the exquisite robe and put it on,
and placed the golden crown on her head, 1160
arranging her hair in a bright mirror,
and smiling at her lifeless reflection.
Then she got up from her chair and walked across
the room, taking delicate steps with her white feet,
thrilled at the presents, looking back again and again 1165
to see how the robe hung at her ankles.
But then we saw something terrifying.
She goes pale, staggers back sideways,
shaking all over, and only just manages to
collapse on to her chair, nearly falling to the floor. 1170
An old servant, thinking (I suppose) that a frenzy
from Pan or some other god had come upon her,
gave a cry of joy, until she saw the white froth
oozing from her lips, her eyes starting from
their sockets and her body draining of blood. 1175
Then she changed her cry of joy to a great
shriek. At once servants rushed off to Creon’s rooms
and to Jason, to report the awful thing that
had happened to the new bride. The whole
house rang with lots of running footsteps. 1180
And now a sprinter running the return leg of a course
of two hundred yards would be reaching the finish-line
when the unfortunate girl broke her silence and opened
her eyes, coming to with an appalling groan.
She was being attacked by twofold agony: 1185
the golden diadem around her head was
streaming awesome, all-consuming fire,
and the delicate robe (the gift of your children)
was eating into the poor girl’s delicate flesh.
She leapt up from the chair and ran off, 1190

on fire, tossing her head this way and that,
trying to shake off the gold crown. But it stayed
firmly stuck to her, and when she tossed her
hair, the fire only blazed up twice as much.
She collapsed on the floor, crushed by catastrophe; 1195
she was unrecognizable, except to her father.
Her eyes looked unnatural, her lovely
face was gone and blood mixed with
fire was trickling from the top of her head,
and the flesh was dripping from her bones 1200
(like leaking resin), invisibly devoured by your poison.
It was a hideous sight. We were all afraid to touch
the corpse, in view of what had happened to her.
Her wretched father, not knowing how she had died,
suddenly entered and threw himself on the body. 1205
He immediately sobbed, put his arms around it
and kissed it, saying: ‘My poor girl, some
god must have made you die this degrading death,
taking you from me when I’m old and close to the grave.
Ah, my child, I wish I was dead too.’ 1210
When he had finished groaning and wailing,
the old man wanted to get up, but he
stuck to her delicate dress, like ivy clinging
to laurel-branches. Then a grim wrestling began.
He wanted to stand up, but she clung 1215
to him; and when he pulled hard, he kept on
tearing strips of aged flesh from his bones.
Finally his suffering was too much for the poor
man and he breathed his last, snuffed out.
The girl and her old father lie next to each other, 1220
corpses. A catastrophe! Enough to make anyone weep.
Euripides had built up a lot of sympathy for Medea in his play, but these
two horrific deaths, described in detail and vividly, raise a moral issue (do we
condone murder?) and mean that our sympathy for Medea must be diminished.
It is diminished still further when she leaves the stage and slaughters her two
children. This time Euripides employs a different technique for putting across
death. Conventionally, in Greek tragedy an act of extreme violence could not
be shown on stage, but it was an acceptable way of representing it to have some-
body on stage reacting to it as it happened off stage. So at 1271ff. the children
cry out for help as they are being killed, while the (intimidated) chorus dither
over going to their assistance and end up too late to do anything. This is all stark
and effective enough: much is left to our imagination; there is the grim silence
of Medea throughout; and the boys’ cries are soon stopped, so that the murder
is over with chilling speed.
The final scene of the play provides a bleak and dispiriting close. Medea appears
aloft in a chariot drawn by dragons and, as a final blow, refuses to let Jason have
his sons’ bodies. Then two of the most famous lovers of myth begin trading insults
while their children’s corpses are still warm, and the impotent Jason is reduced to
ineffectual appeals, as Medea disappears, and we witness one evil overcome by a
stronger evil. If you want more on this powerful and thought-provoking tragedy
see Grube 147ff. and Allan.
That play and adaptations of it have been put on for thousands of years (see e.g.
Hall & Macintosh & Taplin 1ff.). A 1972 version by a Romanian director was set
in a café basement (into which the audience were led by candle-bearing actors)
and had a chained Medea cursing in Greek and a Jason who spoke only in Latin,
to bring out the gulf between the two characters. In 1974 H. Müller’s Medeaspiel
had Medea (tied to a bed on stage) giving birth and then ripping up the child and
hurling its limbs and intestines at Jason. Jackie Crossland’s 1992 play Collateral Dam-
age is a feminist retelling of the story with comic elements that depicts Medea as an
innocent victim falsely accused of being a murderess.
Medea has also proved to be an immensely popular subject for many genres of
post-Classical literature outside of tragedy, and also for opera, ballet, film and art
(see Hall & Macintosh & Taplin 4, 100ff., 144ff., Clauss & Johnston 297ff., Griffiths
103ff. and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medea). There is a great mass of material
which really repays investigation and shows how this fascinating figure has been
constantly reinterpreted and redeployed.
In literature Christa Wolf ’s Medea: Stimmen (translated by Cullen) is a new take
on the myth with multiple narrators and lots of modern relevance (especially to the
collapse of East Germany). This Medea is not a killer and not a witch, but a healer
and wise woman. Brown-skinned and woolly-haired, she and some others from
Colchis are refugees in Corinth, where she and her children fall victim to intrigue
and xenophobia. This is a novel of ideas, which has much to say, about things like
male power, state control, the immigrant experience and the pretensions and arro-
gance of ‘civilization’.
For an interesting dance version of the story see Medea: A Ballet in One Act per-
formed by the orchestra and ballet troupe of the Tbilisi Z. Paliashvili Opera and
Ballet State Theatre (available on DVD from Kultur), especially scenes 14 (Creusa
receives the fatal cloak), 15 (Medea’s triumph and tragedy) and 16 (Jason’s despair).
Two films in particular are worth seeing, in their different ways. Jason and the
Argonauts (released by Columbia in 1963) is an enjoyable ‘Sunday afternoon movie’.
It has lots of action (including a climactic fight with skeletal earthborn men), and it
is often unintentionally amusing (for instance, the Argonauts seem to wear diapers,
and Aeetes has a very silly beard which his mother obviously knitted for him). Not
surprisingly, given when and where it was made, this cinematic version demotes and
diminishes Medea (so that the typical Hollywood hero is not upstaged by her but
performs his great feats with minimal help from her), presenting her as a saccharine
and colourless bimbo. Essentially she is a female with a pretty face and prominent
chest, while Jason is a handsome and neat male. They are Ken and Barbie, and this
is Ken and Barbie’s Greatest Adventure. Much more serious, and much more dif-
ficult and challenging, is the 1970 film Medea (in Italian, with subtitles), directed by
Pasolini. This is a free adaptation of Euripides’ play, which, like its source, questions
civilization and ponders the human psyche. But Pasolini takes all that off in a new
direction with a radical updating. He depicts the clash between two cultures – the
primitive, instinctual culture of the Colchians (typical of the third world) and the
more advanced and rational culture of the Greeks (typical of the modern western
world). He shows that the latter culture exploits the former, stealing from it and
devaluing what it takes, and that the two cultures cannot co-exist harmoniously, so
that catastrophe results when they come into contact. In this deliberately disturbing
film Pasolini jolts us into thinking, brings out the strangeness and savagery of the
myth and alienates us in line with his own feelings of alienation. He gives back to
Medea a major role in the action and really develops her character, especially her
dark side (she is sensual, barbaric and cruel, and also strange and enigmatic).
Medea is as fascinating in the visual arts. Her power as a sorceress was a popular
theme of sixth- and early fifth-century bc Attic vase paintings, and, interestingly,
these vases are the first evidence we have of the death of Pelias. Medea is recogniz-
able on the vases with this theme from her dress, her tall headdress and especially
the box of drugs she holds. In the particular scene on the Pelias hydria (type in
Pelias hydria in the Google Images search engine and view the first image) the
sinister aspect of the rejuvenation (i.e. Pelias’ murder) is not foregrounded, as Medea
appears to be convincing Pelias himself of the merits of a quick dip in her cauldron
filled with some nice refreshing herbs! And so, as in the earliest vase paintings, the
interest lies in Medea’s power.
One of the most striking vase paintings from the late fifth century bc (a bell
crater of about 400 bc) shows Medea in her finest barbarian garb (type in Flight
of Medea in the Google Images search engine and view the first image). She is
in the magical chariot given to her by her grandfather, the Sun, and her position
above the other characters reinforces her distance from everyone, and her status as
a woman foreign to Greek culture. Her dress, outer garment and tiara are oriental
(her headdress is very Phrygian) in their decoration and they add to her portrait
as a non-Greek – she is in fact entirely ‘other’ in this painting. Elements of the
fantastic and supernatural are played up with the wingless dragons that draw her
chariot, itself encircled by a huge sun, and the presence of hideous Furies on either
side of her (reminding us that the boys’ murder will be punished). True to the play
by Euripides that has influenced this image, Jason helplessly and pitifully looks on,
as his dear sons lie slain on the altar (in the play Medea carries them away in the
chariot, and on the vase this change also helps to stress her distance from those who
should be closest to her). The pathos of the situation is stressed via the placement
of Jason’s clothing, which seems to be almost slipping down, and his expression of
humiliation and grief due to his former wife is evident. The anguish of the chil-
dren’s tutor and nurse adds to the tragedy of the scene, as these characters clutch at
their hair in disbelief and horror. In the vase paintings subsequent to the production
of Euripides’ tragedy the emphasis shifts to this type of portrayal in which the focus
is on Medea as a child murderer – the same association that we still have today with
her name.
Equally interesting is a later fourth-century bc volute crater attributed to the
Underworld Painter (type in Underworld painter Medea in the Google Images
search engine and view the first image). The dense crowding of figures illustrates a
clear shift in artistic taste, as the image of Medea on the cusp of stabbing one of her
sons (at the bottom left) is not the central image; instead the unsuccessful attempt to
remove a poisonous crown from Creusa’s head inside her father’s palace dominates.
This type of vase painting, which shows many scenes of a myth in multiple registers
(here Medea’s Corinthian escapades), is regularly believed to have been inspired by
tragedy and is typical of Southern Italian vases influenced by the theatre. The full-
ness of the painting seems almost overwhelming in contrast to the power of a single
dramatic moment so effectively captured in the bell crater mentioned above. As in
the earlier image, Medea is again sporting a very eastern mode of dress, complete
with headdress, outer garment draped over her shoulder and tunic with decorated
sleeves, all of which signal her foreignness. The horror of Medea’s sinister nature is
played up in the image of her seizing the boy’s hair as he stands on an altar, a place
of refuge. To add further to the poignancy of the scene, Jason is prevented from
reaching his son as Frenzy bearing torches in his serpent/dragon-drawn chariot
waits to carry Medea off. As in the preceding image, the focus remains clearly upon
the ‘otherness’ of Medea, who is altogether different from the rest of the female
figures in the painting.
Medea has remained a very popular subject in all artistic media to this day. The
1836–8 painting of Medea by the French artist Eugene Delacroix (type in Medea
Eugene Delacroix in the Google Images search engine and view the first image) is a
magnificent example of the continuing fascination with the heroine, her unnatural
act of child-murder and her iconoclasm. Delacroix’s decision to capture her on the
point of slaying her sons illustrates this continued interest in her deviation from
female norms.The artist’s own brief comments on the painting indicate that Medea
is being pursued, as does her backward glance and lengthy stride. A quick look at
the painting may leave us wondering whether she has clasped her sons tightly to
her body to rescue them from their pursuer, but a more careful examination con-
veys to the viewer Medea’s unstable emotional state, effectively communicated in
a number of ways. Her physical form has marked masculine aspects. She has broad
shoulders, and her musculature is accentuated by the use of chiaroscuro, as the
whiteness of her flesh contrasts with the shadows cast. Her angular jaw-line is also
accentuated by the shadow-play. The painting has a pervasive darkness, with the
sole light entering the cave in the upper left corner, thus lending itself to the overall
ominous atmosphere. Furthermore, the three figures are foregrounded against a
gloomy and indistinct area, so that the knife which will stab the boys is nearly lost.
The lack of movement in the background is in stark contrast to the writhing of
the children and their mother’s movement as the children try to escape from her
violent clutches. Though Medea’s breasts are bare, there is no suggestion of sensual
femininity or nurturing concern for her sons, and the rigidity of expression on
her face illustrates rather her resolve and defiance. Delacroix’s choice of colour for
clothing in the painting requires little comment. The redness of her cloak is natu-
rally suggestive of impending bloodshed, and the choice of rose for her dress creates
a neat contrast between notions of femininity and the character of Medea.
Also stimulating is the striking 1964 metal sculpture entitled Medea by Eduardo
Paolozzi (type in Eduardo Paolozzi Medea in the Google Images search engine
and view the top row of images). There is much that is intriguing and suggestive
here. For example, the piece is extraordinary and mysterious; it is nearly seven feet
tall (as Medea towers over lesser figures) and made of (hard) welded aluminium;
and the square centre looks like (powerful, relentless) machine parts. Do the legs
remind you of any particular creature, and how relevant is that creature to Medea
and her story?
Heroides 13
LAODAMIA TO PROTESILAUS
By way of a change we now move on to a consistently sad letter from a loving

wife (who has no rival to worry about) to a loving husband (who parted from her
unwillingly), and instead of complaints, criticisms and threats of death we find here
affection, solicitude for the man’s wellbeing and horror at the idea of him dying.
Like Her. 11, this is a mournful epistle by a powerless female, with no happy ending
in store, and the writer’s suicide in prospect, so the two poems form a purely tragic
frame around the tragicomic Her. 12, with all its dark humour.
The young heroine Laodamia married Protesilaus, a king in Thessaly (northern
Greece).After a brief period together married (in one tradition only one day and night)
they were parted when he had to sail off to join the huge army that was gathering at the
Greek port of Aulis with the intention of getting Menelaus’ wife Helen back from the
Trojan prince Paris, with whom she had eloped when he stayed with them as a guest.
However, a contrary wind blew, and the fleet of a thousand ships could not sail off to
Troy. It is when she gets news of this that Laodamia writes this letter. She is miserable at
his absence, deeply concerned about what might happen to him at Troy (with its rivers
Xanthus and Simois, its Mount Ida, and the nearby island of Tenedos), and she begs him
again and again to be careful there and to come back safe to her.
The contrary wind was caused by the goddess Diana, who had been offended by
the commander-in-chief of the Greek forces (Agamemnon, the brother of Mene-
laus). She only relented and gave the Greeks the wind they needed for their voyage
when he sacrificed to her his own daughter Iphigenia, whom he lured to Aulis by
pretending that he was going to marry her to the mighty hero Achilles. The grim-
ness of all this was well brought out by the first-century bc poet and philosopher
Lucretius at 1.83ff. in an attack on religion, which he viewed as mere superstition:
Superstition has been the cause of criminal and impious actions –

for example, at Aulis the appalling defilement of
154 Heroides 13: Laodamia to Protesilaus
virgin Diana’s altar with the blood of Iphigenia 85

by the foremost heroes, the elite leaders of the Greeks.
The headband was tied around the girl’s hair
and hung down evenly over both cheeks.
She became aware of her father standing sadly in front
of the altar and attendants at his side hiding the knife 90
and her people in tears at the sight of her. Immediately
she sank to the ground on her knees, struck dumb with fear.
At such a moment the fact that she was the
king’s first daughter couldn’t help the poor girl.
Men’s hands lifted her up and led her, trembling, to the altar, 95
not so she could be escorted by a loud wedding-song
in the traditional solemn ceremony, but so that at the
time of her marriage she could fall a sinless victim
in a sinful rite, miserable at being sacrificed by her father,
so the fleet could sail off successfully and enjoy good luck. 100
Such was the wickedness that superstition managed to motivate.
So there was a sombre start to the expedition. The sombreness continued. There
was an oracle that the first Greek to touch Trojan soil would die. That person was
Protesilaus. In many accounts (which Ovid clearly had in mind at 65ff.) he was
killed by Hector, Troy’s great defender. It is possible that by the time that Laodamia
writes this letter the fleet has already got its wind and sailed away and Protesilaus
has died (the image of him that appears to her at 109f. might be his ghost, showing
the pallor of death and coming out with unspecific complaints). This would sud-
denly increase the tragedy and sense of futility here. Out of the different versions
of the heroine’s own subsequent death Ovid follows the one that involves a wax
statue of her husband that she kept to comfort her (see 155ff. and Remedia Amoris
723f.). Her father ordered it to be thrown on to a pyre, so that she would not tor-
ment herself any more, and she then jumped into the fire after it, unable to bear her
grief, and was burnt alive.
From loving Laodamia of Thessaly to her Thessalian husband.

Greetings. I wish I could come with this letter in person.
They say you’re still at Aulis, detained by a wind.
But where was this wind when you hurried off from me?
That’s when the waves should have obstructed your ship; 5
that was the right time for a savage sea.
I’d have given you more kisses and more final instructions –
there’s a lot that I wanted to say to my husband.
You were rushed away from here; the sort of wind that the sailors
wanted, but I didn’t, was there to summon your sails. 10
It was a wind that suited sailors, not a lover.
You released me from your embrace, Protesilaus,
Heroides 13: Laodamia to Protesilaus 155
I didn’t finish giving you my final instructions

and I scarcely managed to say that sad ‘goodbye’.
The north wind swooped, snatched and stretched your sails, 15
and now my Protesilaus was far away.
I took pleasure in gazing at my husband as long as I could,
and my eyes kept on following yours;
when I couldn’t see you, I could see your sails,
and I stared at your sails for a long time. 20
But when I didn’t see you or your speeding sails,
and there was nothing to gaze at but sea,
the light went along with you, and darkness engulfed me;
I’m told I paled, my knees gave way and I collapsed.
Your father, my old father and my dejected mother 25
only just managed to revive me with cold water.
They were kind, did their duty, but did me no favour:
I resent not being allowed to die in my misery.
I was brought back to consciousness, and to pain too:
wifely love gnawed at my faithful heart. 30
I can’t be bothered to let a maid comb my hair,
and I’ve no desire to wear robes of gold.
I’m agitated, driven this way and that, like Bacchantes
maddened (we believe) by their god’s vine-leafed wand.
The local ladies gather here and shout out to me: 35
‘Laodamia, wear your royal finery!’
Yes, of course I’ll slip on a costly purple dress,
while he wages war beneath Troy’s walls,
I’ll get my hair done while he has a helmet on,
I’ll put on new clothes while he carries hard weapons? 40
Let them say my neglected state is the only way of matching
your hardships. I’ll be in mourning throughout the war.
Deadly Paris, your handsomeness means ruin for your people;
you were a treacherous guest – be as poor a fighter!
If only you’d found fault with Helen’s face 45
or she hadn’t been attracted by yours!
Menelaus, your distress over your stolen wife is excessive:
ah, your revenge is going to make lots of people weep.
That’s a bad omen. Gods, please avert it from us; let my man dedicate
his weapons to Jupiter in thanks for a safe return! 50
But I’m afraid whenever I think of that appalling war,
and my tears flow like snow melted by the sun.
Troy, Tenedos, Simois, Xanthus, Ida – just the sound of
those names is almost enough to make me afraid.
Paris wouldn’t have dared to steal her if he couldn’t 55
defend himself: he knew his own might.
He was (they say) a splendid sight, covered in gold,

wearing clothes that showed the wealth of Troy,
and with a strong force of the ships and men used in fierce war –
how small a part of his princely power was with him? 60
Helen, daughter of Leda, I suspect that’s what won you over,
and I believe that can harm the Greeks. 62
Avoid Hector, whoever he is, if you love me: remember him, 65
and keep his name inscribed on your heart.
When you’ve evaded him, remember to evade others,
and imagine there are many Hectors there.
Whenever you get ready to fight, make sure you say:
‘Laodamia told me to save my life and hers.’ 70
If it’s fated for Troy to fall to the warriors of Greece,
it will fall just the same if you’re not wounded at all.
Let Menelaus attack the enemy head on when he fights: 73
a husband should win back his wife from the midst of the enemy. 76
Your case is different: you just fight to survive
and to return to your lady’s devoted arms!
Trojans, please spare one enemy out of so many,
don’t make my life-blood flow from his body. 80
He’s not suited to clashing with bare steel and presenting
a fierce breast to troops ranged against him.
He can make love much more vigorously than he makes war;
fighting is for others, loving is for him.
Now I confess – my heart moved me to call you back, I wanted to, 85
but I held my tongue, for fear of saying something ill-omened.
On the point of leaving your ancestral home for Troy,
you stumbled on the threshold – a bad sign.
When I saw that, I groaned and said to myself:
‘Please let this be a sign that my man will return!’ 90
I’m telling you this now so you won’t be bold in combat;
make this fear of mine vanish completely into thin air.
There’s also a prophecy marking someone out for an undeserved fate –
the first Greek to touch Trojan soil.
I pity the woman who’ll be the first to mourn her dead husband. 95
May the gods keep you from wanting to be keen!
Among the thousand ships let yours be the thousandth, the final
one to cleave the sea that the others have wearied.
And here’s another warning: leave your ship last!
The land you’re hurrying to isn’t Greece. 100
When you come back to me, use oars and sails together
and quickly set foot on your own shore.
Whether the sun has set or is high in the sky,
come to me quickly by day and by night,
but more so at night – nights are lovely for girls 105

who are lying with someone’s arms around their neck.
Alone in bed, I seek sleep with its deceptive dreams,
enjoying false pleasure in place of the real thing.
But why is the image of you that comes to me
pale, and why does it complain so much? 110
That jolts me awake, and I pray to the phantoms of the night.
I make offerings at all the altars in Thessaly.
I burn incense, which I wet with my tears, so
the flames flare up, as if sprinkled with wine.
When will I hold you, back home again, in my loving 115
arms, and melt and languish with happiness?
When will you go to bed with me, and tell me
about your glorious exploits as a soldier?
While you tell me, although I’ll enjoy listening,
I’ll kiss you and you’ll kiss me repeatedly. 120
Well-told stories are always interrupted like this;
such pleasant pauses make the tongue more fluent.
But when I think of Troy, I think of the winds and the waves;
anxious fears crush and kill hope of your return.
I’m also worried because you’re all preparing to sail off when 125
the winds forbid it and the ocean is against it.
Who’d want to return home when the wind forbids it?
But you’re leaving your homeland when the sea prohibits it!
Neptune himself bars the way to the city whose walls he built.
Where are you rushing? Go back home, all of you! 130
Greeks, where are you rushing? Listen to the winds prohibiting that!
This didn’t just happen, all of a sudden: a god is delaying you.
This massive war is just to get back some filthy slut!
Turn around, you ships of Greece, while you still can!
What am I doing? Recalling someone is a bad omen. I take it back. 135
May a gentle breeze waft you over a calm sea!
I envy the women of Troy: even if they’ll see the dismal
deaths of those they love, and have the enemy nearby,
the new bride there will personally put the helmet on her brave
husband’s head and hand him his weapons. 140
While handing him his weapons, she’ll kiss him
(the type of task they’ll both enjoy),
and she’ll escort him on his way and instruct him to return,
saying: ‘Be sure to bring back these weapons to Jupiter!’
He’ll remember his wife’s recent instructions and 145
fight cautiously, with his home in mind.
When he comes back, she will remove his shield, undo his
helmet and take his weary body in her arms.
But I know nothing for sure; anxious fear makes me

think that whatever could happen has happened. 150
However, while you’re off fighting in a remote region,
I’ve got a wax image to remind me of your face.
I speak coaxing words to it and the loving words that are
rightfully yours, and it accepts my embraces.
Believe me, the image is more than you might think: 155
give the wax a voice, and it’ll be Protesilaus.
I gaze at it, hold it in my arms instead of my real husband
and complain to it, as if it could reply.
I swear by your return, by you yourself (a god in my eyes),
by our wedding-torches and the fire in my heart (which is just as hot), 160
I’ll go to join you, wherever you summon me, 163
whether – ai! – my fears come true or you survive.
I’ll close this letter with a brief demand: 165
if you care for me, take care of yourself.
Ovid here employs various techniques of characterization and (we feel) dem-
onstrates much psychological insight in this realistic and touching depiction of a
young new bride. In Roman society of his day most females were about fourteen
when they first married, and in line with that we see in his Laodamia a girlish
naivety and vulnerability and typical raw emotions, raging hormones and deep
infatuation.
With regard to characterization, what we find here is the indirect method,
whereby the author does not state openly (directly) that someone has a certain
quality but leaves readers to infer it from the person’s words and/or actions.
Laodamia tells us a lot about herself here by speaking (writing) intimately and
at length, and she also mentions several revealing acts of hers (e.g. the swoon
when the sails disappear from view at 23f., the neglect of her appearance at 31ff.,
her pursuit of dreams of Protesilaus at 107f. and her behaviour with the wax
image at 153ff.). Ovid is also selective in his portrayal of the heroine. Writers
frequently give us the big picture, informing us about a character’s earlier history,
background, environment, accomplishments and so on, but our poet effectively
focuses on Laodamia at a particular moment and her feelings then. Contrast is
another useful tool in this connection, and Laodamia’s gentleness, passion and
conjugal devotion stand out even more after Medea’s violent rage, hatred and
almost total loss of love in Heroides 12. First impressions are important too in our
estimate of people, and repetition of a point or trait gives it emphasis. So at 1ff. we
are made very much aware of the heroine’s love (‘loving’ in 1, picked up by ‘lover’
in 11; and all the kisses in 7), her delight in her married status (there is relish in
her use of ‘husband’ in 1 and again in 8, and often later on in the poem) and her
concern for Protesilaus (evident in all the ‘final instructions’ she wanted to give
him in 7 and also in 13); there we see as well the tunnel vision of a wife (in 3,
where ‘you’ in the Latin is singular, and she thus ignores all the other Greeks) and
her inability even now to get over his departure, as she dwells on it, and complains
of the speed of it in 4 and once more in 9. Distinctive touches and telling details
(i.e. things that really get to you) make a character come alive and have impact –
like the extreme behaviour for a young woman in not being at all concerned
about how she looks at 31ff. (in a quite odd attempt to get close to her man), her
identification with him via the life-blood in 80, her fantasy at 137ff. (where, with
projection, the Trojan wife enjoying proximity to her husband is a substitute for
Laodamia herself) and her memorable and rather bizarre relationship with the
wax statue at 151ff.
As for psychological insight (on which see also Jacobson 202ff.), we have already
mentioned several life-like traits of Laodamia as the loving new wife. We can add
to that her fixation on her husband, who is now the most important person to her
in the world (her parents figure only briefly, at 25–7), and whom she tells to look
after himself at Troy over and over again, rather obsessively. But naturally after such
a short period married she does not yet really know Protesilaus: she claims at 81ff.
that he is not much of a fighter, but in fact he was (she betrays naivety about the
wider world too at 55ff., where she imagines that Paris is a great warrior and does
not know who Hector is). Ovid also presents a convincing picture of a girl who has
recently experienced an erotic awakening, and so shows a certain sensuality (in 83,
105f. and 115ff.) and sexual frustration (at 107f.), as well as missing hugs and kisses
(in 120, 154 and 157). She is too young, too much in love and too much in lust to
be able to cope with the loss of her man. Hence the sudden lurches to new topics
in her letter (rather than a smooth, calm progression) and her frequent lack of logic
(look for this especially in 44, 45f., 61, 79 and 137ff.). Hence in particular her great
gloom – evident not only in her anxiety and fear but also in the accumulation and
repetition (almost without relief) of elements such as tears, misery, pain, mourning,
darkness, ferocity, fighting and bad omens.
All of this makes for a dark tone for Heroides 13, and so does the overall futility
and the presence throughout of grim hints and sombre irony. Again and again there
is allusion to the deaths of Protesilaus and Laodamia (see, for instance, 28, 80, 87f.
and 93f.) and the heroine comes out with remarks which are sadly inappropriate
in view of the way things turn out (see, for example, 38, 67f., 95ff. and 115ff.). In
fact Ovid was working within a mini-tradition of dark depictions of Laodamia and
Protesilaus in recent Latin elegy.
Earlier Catullus (approximately 84–54 bc) had worked thought-provoking allu-
sion to this pair into a disturbed and moving poem of his (68). His Laodamia there
is essentially a very passionate figure, who cannot endure the loss of her beloved
husband (and so commits suicide, as is intimated at 83f.). He highlights her great
beauty in line 105, and at 107–30 he goes on at length about the ardour of her
amatory frenzy. She operates in the poem as an intriguing and depressing parallel
to his girlfriend (who is unfaithful to him). In this piece Catullus thanks his friend
Allius for providing a house where he could meet with his mistress for assignations
that had to be secret because she was married to another man. At 70ff. he depicts
his girl (calling her a goddess) as arriving there and then likens her to Laodamia
going to Protesilaus’ home. The comparison is richly suggestive and casts a shadow
over the poet’s liaison (see if you can see how, before moving on to our comments
after the translation).
My radiant goddess went there, stepping softly, 70

and set down her dazzling foot on the smooth threshold,
resting her weight on her shining sandal,
just as Laodamia, on fire with love for her husband,
once went to the house that Protesilaus had
begun building in vain, since he hadn’t appeased the Lords 75
of Heaven with the blood of an animal sacrificed to them.
(Goddess of retribution, may I never be so attracted to something
that is undertaken rashly without the consent of those Lords!)
How much the starved altar craves a bloody offering
Laodamia learned when she lost her man. 80
She was forced to let go of her new husband’s neck
before the coming of a couple of winters had satisfied
her hungry love in long nights, so she could bear
to live on when her marriage was cut short.
The goddesses of fate knew that this was not far off, 85
if he went to fight before the walls of Troy.
In the comparison of Catullus’ girl to Laodamia there is an implication that like

the heroine she is supremely beautiful, superior to ordinary mortals and a special
person. The poet underscores Laodamia’s passion here (and later in the poem), but
his mistress cannot be deeply in love with him in view of her infidelity, so he is
being pathetically optimistic over this aspect. Catullus also brings out here how dif-
ficult Laodamia found it to cope with losing her man, and he is thereby probably
being hopeful again – about his girlfriend finding it hard to deal with permanent
deprivation of him. He dwells on the unhappy side of the mythical marriage, so that
an ominous gloom is prominent, and attaches to Catullus’ own troubled relation-
ship. And, if his girl is equivalent to Laodamia, he would correspond to the tragic
and doomed Protesilaus (although he does try at 77f. to dissociate himself from that
hero and from the action that led to the separation).
Subsequently Propertius (an older contemporary of Ovid) also employed this
myth in connection with his liaison, but he changed the focus and the thrust. In
1.19 he concentrates on Protesilaus, implicitly comparing himself to the hero, and
alluding to the version of the story in which after his death at his request he was
allowed by the powers of the Underworld to come back to earth and be briefly
reunited with his dear wife (when he had to leave her, she pined away or commit-
ted suicide and went to join him in the land of the dead).The mythical figure again
denotes intense passion, but here Propertius uses Protesilaus as an example to show
that love can actually rise above and go beyond death (in contrast to Catullus 68,
where Laodamia cannot deal with her husband’s demise and so overcome death).
Protesilaus is cited to prove the poet’s point that like the hero he will still be totally
devoted to his woman (Cynthia) after he has died (although he does have fears
about her feelings for him then).
A powerful and challenging poem, 1.19 is addressed to and aimed at Cynthia,
and its purpose is to ensure that they have a blissfully happy affair while still alive
(25f.). Since (according to him) there is no doubt about his own involvement, he
must be attempting to get her to be more committed and loving. Typically Prop-
ertius (who has been called the first neurotic of European literature) goes about
achieving this in an extreme and morbid fashion. There is a seething mixture of
intense emotions here. He doesn’t just assure her of his lasting affection and flatter
her (13ff.), but tries to make her feel sorry for causing him worry about her and
to win pity by holding out the prospect of himself dead and in the Underworld
(and still in love). To bring home the reality of death and the afterlife, which he
will surmount, there is a build-up of grisly details and macabre language, which
produces a forbidding atmosphere. (Incidentally it is interesting to compare and
contrast Propertius 4.7, where Cynthia’s ghost comes back to him after her death
and complains of his lack of fidelity.)
My Cynthia, I’m not afraid now of the grim ghost-world,

I don’t care about my destined end on the final pyre,
but what I do dread more than the funeral rites themselves
is the possibility of being deprived of your love when I’m a corpse.
Cupid is firmly fastened on my eyes, so I couldn’t let slip 5
from my mind and lose my love for you when I am dust.
Down there, in the darkworld, the Thessalian hero
Protesilaus could not forget his delightful wife,
but, yearning to touch his darling with his phantom hands,
he returned to his ancient home as a spectre. 10
Whatever I am down there, I’ll always be called your ghost:
a powerful love crosses even the shores of death.
Down there, if a crowd of the beauties who the Greeks
won as spoil from Troy came to me,
I’d find none of them more attractive than my beautiful 15
Cynthia; and even if you’re fated to be kept from me
by a lengthy old age (may Earth be just and grant this!),
I’ll cry tears of joy and love your skeleton.
If only, while still alive, you could feel that for my ashes!
Then, wherever I was, death would not be bitter for me. 20
Cynthia, how I fear that cruel Cupid may make you spurn
my grave and drag you away from my dust
and force you against your will to dry your falling tears.
Even a faithful girl bends before continual threats.
So, while we can, let’s be blissfully happy lovers: 25
however long, no love is long enough.
Ovid would of course have been aware of these elegiac predecessors, and in
Heroides 13 he makes his own contribution to this mythical cycle. He follows them
both in spotlighting the deep love, but returns to Catullus’ focus on Laodamia.
However, he goes beyond external beauty and gets inside her mind, really develop-
ing her as a person (rather than a symbol of passion). He also creates a darker mood
than both Catullus and Propertius thanks to the length of his treatment and the
accumulation of gloomy material.
Laodamia conforms broadly to the standard figure of the Good Wife in myth,
but because her married life is so short, another tragic aspect of her story is the
fact that she does not have time to enter fully into that role and is denied various
elements of it. Typically such a Good Wife loves her husband with devoted fidel-
ity, and gives him help and support; she produces a child or children, and cares
for her offspring, performs various domestic tasks and supervises the slaves; she is
also quite capable of making a sacrifice for the good of her family or city. Famous
examples include Penelope (who stayed faithful to her spouse during his absence
for twenty years), Andromache (who was a loving mother and remained devoted
to her husband long after his death), Evadne (who was so distraught at the demise
of her man that she threw herself into the flames of his funeral pyre and died) and
Alcestis (whose husband, king Admetus, was allowed to escape death if he could
find another prepared to die in his place, and she was the only person ready to do
this for him).
At Euripides Alcestis 158ff. a servant describes how Alcestis readied herself for
death when the fatal day arrived. This passage highlights several aspects of married
life which Laodamia was sadly unable to enjoy, while also being very moving in
itself. At the start the queen puts on a brave face and demonstrates great self-control
and altruism as she herself prepares her body for her funeral. Then her piety and
loving concern for her children are in evidence, as she prays to numerous gods for
them (rather than for herself), deeply concerned about their future wellbeing even
at this point in her life. Once she enters her bedroom and is out of the public gaze,
realistically she does give way to her emotions, showing the importance to her of
her husband and her marriage, but not whining or complaining. She finds it hard to
leave the bedroom and face people again (quite possibly trying to hide from death),
but when she does manage that, we see how close she is to her two children and to
the servants, and how they love and respect each other.
When she realized that the appointed day

had come, she washed her fair skin with water
from the river, took out clothing and finery 160
from a cedar chest and dressed herself becomingly.
She stood in front of Hestia’s altar and prayed:
‘Mistress, as I am going beneath the earth,
I’ll kneel before you and pray this final time:
look after my orphaned children; give the boy 165
a loving wife and the girl a noble husband;
don’t let my children die before their time like their

mother, but let them prosper and enjoy a long
and pleasant life in their own fatherland.’
She went to all the altars in Admetus’ palace, 170
put garlands on them and prayed, plucking
foliage from the myrtle branches that she carried.
She didn’t cry, didn’t sigh, and her lovely face
didn’t go pale at the thought of the coming catastrophe.
After that she rushed into her bedroom and up to her bed, 175
and it was only then that she wept, saying:
‘Oh my marriage-bed, in which I lost my virginity
to the man for whose sake I am dying, goodbye.
I don’t hate you. But you’re responsible for a
unique sacrifice – because I won’t betray you and my 180
husband, I’m dying. Some other woman will acquire you;
she’ll be luckier perhaps, but not more virtuous.’
She fell on to the bed, kissing it and soaking
all of it with a flood of streaming tears.
When she’d finally had enough of weeping, 185
she tore herself from it and walked away, drooping.
Again and again, as she was leaving the room, she turned
round and flung herself back on to the bed once more.
The children kept on crying, holding on to their
mother’s dress. She took them into her arms and 190
kissed them goodbye in turn, as she was about to die.
And all the servants in the palace kept on crying,
out of pity for their mistress. She held out her right
hand to each one, speaking to even the lowest
of them, and they all spoke to her in reply. 195
Heroides 14
HYPERMESTRA TO LYNCEUS
There was a war over the kingship of Egypt between two Greek brothers – Danaus
(who had fifty daughters) and Aegyptus (who had fifty sons).The writer of this let-
ter, Hypermestra (one of the Danaids = daughters of Danaus), says that Aegyptus
and his sons seized the kingdom and drove Danaus and his girls into exile. They
fled to Argos in Greece. Aegyptus and his boys subsequently pursued them there,
and he forced his brother to marry the young women to their cousins (accord-
ing to one account to stop them wedding other men who might help them get
revenge, according to another so Aegyptus could have them in his power and kill
them). The marriages took place in the palace of Pelasgus (a current or former
king of Argos). Danaus secretly gave his offspring swords and told them to kill the
new grooms on their wedding-night when they fell asleep. All the Danaids did this
except for Hypermestra, who bravely and nobly spared her man (Lynceus), because
she regarded killing him as a crime and not the way a wife should treat her husband.
Out of fear of her brutal father she nearly put Lynceus to death, but, after veering
to and fro over what to do (see 53ff.), she woke him up instead and told him to
flee. He awoke to see her with a sword in her hand, and she didn’t have time to
explain it then, but got him to slip away under cover of darkness. The next morn-
ing Danaus was enraged when he discovered that Lynceus had escaped death and
imprisoned her in chains. At this point, certain that she will be executed, she writes
this letter, asking Lynceus to come to her aid or at least to give her a proper funeral
and a tomb with an inscription recording her good deed.There was a happy ending,
although there are different versions of what actually happened later. In one tradi-
tion Danaus relented and reunited his daughter with Lynceus; in another Lynceus
returned and killed Danaus and/or his other girls; while in another Hypermestra
was put on trial in Argos but was acquitted, and her sisters and father were con-
demned instead. It was also said that Hypermestra and Lynceus stayed married and
she bore him a son, who founded a royal dynasty in Argos.
Heroides 14: Hypermestra to Lynceus 165
In the course of her epistle Hypermestra links her own story to that of her
ancestress Io, claiming that she too must be a victim of Juno. Io (the daughter of a
river-god) was a beautiful young nymph loved by Jupiter. Juno changed her into a
heifer by way of punishment. Io wandered far and wide in distress over her altered
appearance, and also maddened by a gad-fly sent to sting her by Juno. Finally, the
god of the river Nile restored Io’s original form. She subsequently became a major
goddess (the Egyptian Isis).
There are obvious differences between this letter and the last with regard to
background-situation, purpose of the epistle and tone (especially in view of the
outcome there is not deep tragedy here). In addition, as Ovid is now nearing the
end of the single Heroides, he brings in some major changes to enliven and add
variety. So this is the only one of the poems that is not amatory (Hypermestra is not
yet in love with her husband), and it is also the only one in which one heroine tells
another heroine’s story at length. At the same time there are many correspondences
which pair this letter with Heroides 11 (on which see Fulkerson 79–82).
From Hypermestra to the sole survivor out of so many brothers

(the rest now lie dead, murdered by their evil brides).
I’m held prisoner in the palace, confined, loaded down with chains;
I’m being punished for my devotion to my husband.
Since I shrank from plunging a sword into your throat, I’m charged 5
with a crime; if I’d dared to commit one, I’d be praised.
Being charged is better than gratifying my father like that;
I don’t regret not having blood on my hands.
My father can burn me with the blazing marriage-torches that
I didn’t violate, he can aim them at my face, 10
or cut my throat with the sword he unscrupulously gave me,
murdering me in the way I wouldn’t murder my husband.
But he won’t make me say ‘I’m sorry’ as I die. A wife
who regrets her devotion to her man isn’t devoted.
He and my savage sisters should feel sorry, for their crime, 15
as people normally do after doing something bad.
When I remember that night defiled by blood, I get scared;
my hand suddenly trembles, making it hard to write.
You might imagine me capable of killing my husband, but I
shrink from even writing about the killing done by others. 20
However, I’ll try. Dusk had just fallen on the earth; it was
the final part of the day, the first part of night.
We sisters were led into mighty Pelasgus’ palace, where
Aegyptus in person welcomed his sons’ (armed) brides.
Everywhere gilded torches gleamed; in this unholy wedding 25
incense was sprinkled on reluctant altar-fires;
the crowd invoked the marriage-god, but He fled their invocations;
Juno herself departed from here (her favourite city).
166 Heroides 14: Hypermestra to Lynceus
Look – the grooms, fuddled with wine, escorted by noisy friends,

and with fresh garlands on their perfumed hair, 30
joyfully rush into the bedrooms (their tombs) and lie down
on the beds that can function as funeral-biers.
Now they lay there asleep, overcome by wine and food,
and there was deep sleep throughout unsuspecting Argos.
I thought I heard around me the groans of dying men, 35
and I did hear them; what I feared was a reality.
I went pale, my mind froze, my body grew cold
and I lay there on my new bridal bed, chilled.
Like slender corn-ears quivering in a gentle west wind,
like poplar leaves shaken by a chilly breeze – 40
that’s how I trembled, or even more than that.You yourself
lay helpless, in the grip of the sleep the wine brought on.
The thought of my violent father’s orders drove away my fear;
I got up and grasped the weapon in my trembling hand.
I won’t lie: my hand just managed to raise the sharp sword 45
three times, and each time it sank back down again.
I moved to your throat – let me tell you the truth –
I moved my father’s weapon to your throat.
But fear and devotion to you prevented that cruel crime;
my pure right hand shrank from acting as commanded. 50
In my anguish I tore my purple dress and tore my hair,
and then I said to myself quietly:
‘You’ve got a vicious father; carry out your parent’s
orders; let Lynceus here join his brothers.
I’m a female, a girl, gentle by nature and because of my youth; 55
my soft hands aren’t suited to fierce weapons.
No, come on, while he lies there, be as brave as your
sisters, who have probably all killed their husbands.
If this hand of mine was capable of committing a murder,
it would be covered in blood from killing me. 60
They deserved to be murdered like this for seizing their uncle’s kingdom
and making us helpless wanderers with our helpless old father.
Suppose they did deserve to be murdered – what have I done wrong,
to be punished by not being allowed to be a devoted wife?
I’m a girl. What do I want with a sword, with weapons of war? 65
Wool and the distaff are more fitting for my fingers.’
As I complained to myself like this, the words made me weep,
and the tears fell from my eyes on to your body.
You tried to throw your sleepy arms around me in an
embrace, and nearly cut your hand on the sword. 70
By now I was afraid of dawn arriving and my father
and his servants. I woke you up, saying:
‘Come on, Lynceus, up! You’re the sole survivor out of all your brothers.
If you don’t hurry, it’ll be night everlasting for you.’
You get up in a panic. All the torpor of sleep disappears. 75
You see a soldier’s sword in my fearful hand.
When you ask me why, I say: ‘Escape, while night lets you!’
While dark night lets you, you get away; I stay.
In the morning Danaus counts the sons-in-law lying murdered.
There’s one missing (you), making the crime incomplete. 80
He can’t bear the loss of the death of a single relative
and complains that not enough blood was shed.
I’m seized by the hair, dragged from my father’s feet
(my reward for my devotion to you) and imprisoned.
Obviously Juno’s anger continues, on from the time 85
when Io became a heifer and then became a goddess.
But it was punishment enough for that tender girl to moo,
no longer beautiful and able to attract Jupiter.
A new-made cow, she stood on the banks of her father’s river
and saw in his water horns she’d never had before. 90
She tried to complain, but mooed instead, terrified by
her appearance, terrified by her voice.
Poor Io, why so frantic, amazed at your reflection?
Why count the feet created for your new form?
Mighty Jupiter’s famous mistress, rightly feared by Juno, 95
you satisfy your great hunger with leaves and grass,
and drink at a stream, stunned to see what you look like in it,
and afraid you might wound yourself with your horns.
Recently you were so well-off as to seem worthy even of
Jupiter, but now you lie naked on the bare ground. 100
You speed across sea, land and rivers whose gods are related to you:
the sea, the rivers and the land let you through.
Why run away, Io, roaming over long stretches of ocean?
To escape your face? You won’t succeed.
Where are you rushing? You flee your horns and follow behind 105
them, leading yourself on and going along with yourself.
The Nile at its seven-mouthed estuary removed the form of
the maddened heifer and restored the features of Juno’s rival.
Why talk of things long ago told me by grey-haired old people?
Look, I’ve cause for complaint in my own life: 110
my father and my uncle are at war; we are driven from our
kingdom and home; we’re exiled to the ends of the earth.
Out of so many brothers only a single one survives. 115
I weep for those who were killed and for the killers.
As many sisters as brothers-in-law are lost to me:
let both those groups receive my tears.
See, because you survive, an agonizing punishment’s in store for me.

God help the guilty, when I face charges for a good deed 120
and die in misery, leaving just one brother alive
out of that depleted group of a hundred relatives!
But, Lynceus, if you care at all for your devoted cousin,
and deserve the gift of life that I gave you,
come and help me, or leave me to die and secretly 125
lay my dead body on a funeral pyre,
shed many faithful tears over my remains and lay them to rest;
and let a short epitaph be engraved on my tomb:
exiled hypermestra, whose devotion was unfairly punished,
for saving her cousin from death endured it herself. 130
I would write more, but the heavy chains are dragging my
hand down, and fear itself is draining my strength.
So far Ovid has poked fun at some of his heroines and has been sympathetic to
others. Now he shows great respect for one of them. His Hypermestra is a touch-
ing character for whom we feel pity, but above all she is an admirable figure who
possesses many sterling qualities.
She is highly moral. Of particular importance to her is pietas (which in her case
means a dutiful fidelity to her obligations to her new husband), and so the words
pius and pietas (translated as ‘devoted’ and ‘devotion’) recur throughout her letter.
So too she demonstrates integrity in dealing with an ethical quandary: a female
was also expected to have a sense of duty towards her father, but she reaches the
(humane) conclusion that his orders are wrong, as murder is a crime. She is also very
honest: she admits to Lynceus that she came close to killing him (while carefully
explaining why she came to have a sword in her hand when he awoke); and she
does not try to win him over by pretending that she spared his life because she loves
him (given the circumstances, it is not surprising that she does not feel love for him,
and if she had felt it so soon, she would surely have mentioned it; compare Jacobson
125f.). In addition to her morality, she also gives clear signs of independence. She
thinks for herself and is mentally strong, reaching her own decision about Lynceus
and acting on it (in contrast to her weak and passive sisters). And when she does act
(at 73–8), she is efficient: she copes well under pressure, and is brisk and command-
ing, telling the man what to do, and not wasting precious time then in explanation
of the sword in her hand but just making sure that he gets away safely. Of course,
she is also extremely brave, in standing up to her vicious parent when she knows
that she will be severely punished by such a person, and in facing the prospect of
death at 125ff. In her present predicament a quiet dignity is in evidence: she does
not whine or give way to paroxysms of grief or abjectly beg Lynceus to rescue her.
In fact she uses an indirect and subtle approach to him, with various ploys aimed at
him throughout the epistle, in line with her intelligence. For example, she stresses
her devotion (so he will reciprocate) and his unique survival (so he will feel par-
ticularly grateful), and she tries to win his sympathy by mentioning her past fears,
present maltreatment and awful prospects; and she tells the story of Io to represent
herself as under a grim family curse (persecuted by vindictive Juno), linking herself
with her ancestress, whose plight she brings out to gain pity for her own similar
sufferings as a latter-day Io (to whom Juno may yet do something equally drastic),
and touching on the nymph’s eventual salvation thanks to a male as an adroit hint
to Lynceus. Finally, just in case Hypermestra might appear a bit austere or hard or
calculating, Ovid puts across constantly (especially at 17ff., 55f., 65ff. and 116ff.)
what a gentle, sensitive and feeling young woman she is (and those qualities are
accentuated by the contrast with her callous and brutal father).
‘Authentic realism’ is a term applied to a particular way of looking at literature
about women which really involves the reader. With it the text is read as a means
of gaining insight into their lives (especially seeing how patriarchy limits their pos-
sibilities) and as a vehicle for change in women’s view of themselves. If the women
represented in the literary piece are in accord with the female reader’s idea of what
women are like, then they are deemed to be authentic and realistic (rather than
male stereotypes of the feminine). In addition, since female characters affect the
self-image of the reader of the same sex (who identifies with them), in the view of
the authentic realistic critic they should be positive figures for emulation (strong,
vigorous, resourceful etc.) rather than the silent and passive types that male writ-
ers often portray. On this reading strategy see further Mills & Pearce & Spaull &
Millard 51ff. In line with this approach examine Heroides 14 for the accuracy of its
representation of the female experience (e.g. in connection with parental authority
and moral dilemmas) and analyze Ovid’s Hypermestra as a role model (a resisting
and ultimately triumphant victim of a male oppressor etc.).
Ovid’s older contemporary Horace uses Hypermestra’s story in a different way
and takes a light-hearted approach to it. His Odes 3.11 is concerned with Lyde,
a sexually inexperienced young woman who is obstinately rejecting the poet’s
advances. He appeals to the lyre and the inventor of that musical instrument (the
god Mercury) for a poem that will seduce her. In so doing he lists the powers of
the lyre, which include (in the hands of the supreme musician Orpheus, as he sang
in the Underworld to get back his dead wife Eurydice) soothing Cerberus, hell’s
ferocious guard-dog, and charming the legendary sinners enduring terrible punish-
ments down there. There is witty exaggeration in the arch implication that Lyde is
as hard to affect and win over as them. Among the sinners mentioned by him are
the Danaids who for murdering their husbands were condemned to spend eternity
down there in futile attempts to fill with water a container that had holes in its base.
Horace playfully pretends that just by chance he has lit on the perfect story for Lyde
to hear, and at 25ff. he presents that myth with a message in a condensed, selective
version that suits his purposes. He begins with the Danaids, who show Lyde how
she should not behave and how sexual crimes are subject to severe penalties. There
is a mock-solemn equation here of Lyde’s refusal with their murderous conduct
and an over-the-top suggestion that she is as cruel as them and will undergo simi-
lar retribution. Having gained impact by putting that grim picture of crime and
punishment first, Horace next dwells at length on Hypermestra, making her an
appealing figure as he employs her to intimate how Lyde should behave (i.e. be kind
to her man and concerned about his wellbeing). Examine Horace’s characterization
of Hypermestra here and his presentation of her tale, bearing in mind that all this
is done for Lyde’s benefit.
Lyde must be told about the crime and notorious 25

punishment of those girls (the vat empty of
water, which leaks away through its base) and the
doom which, though delayed,
awaits crimes even down in the Underworld.
Those wicked women (what could be worse than what they 30
did?), those wicked women brought themselves to murder their
bridegrooms with pitiless swords.
One out of the many was worthy of the marriage-torch
and was magnificently deceitful to her
treacherous father, a girl who won 35
everlasting renown.
She said to her young husband: ‘Get up, get up,
or you’ll be put to sleep for a long time by those
you don’t fear. Escape your father-in-law
and my criminal sisters, 40
who, like lionesses pouncing on calves, are all
(ah no!) savaging their men. I am gentler
than them. I won’t stab you or lock
you up in this room.
Let my father load me down with cruel chains, 45
because I spared my poor husband out of pity,
or banish me on a boat to the furthest
regions of Numidia.
Go where your feet and the sea-breezes take you,
while night and Venus are on your side, go, and good 50
luck to you! Carve on my tomb a mournful epitaph
in memory of me.’
Earlier in the first century bc the poet and philosopher Lucretius had a differ-
ent take on the Danaids. In his On the Nature of the Universe he tried to free his
readers from the stifling influence of religion (which according to him was mere
superstition). In line with that he offered a rational explanation of the myths of
such punishments in Hades, claiming that the torments did not actually exist but
were allegories of what goes on in life on earth. At 3.1003ff. he maintained that the
daughters of Danaus symbolize people who are never satisfied:
Next, to be forever feeding an ungrateful mind

and never fill it and satisfy it with good things
(as when the seasons of the year come round, 1005

bringing us their fruits and various charms,
we are never filled with the fruits of life) –
this, I think, is the meaning of the tale of the girls
in their prime pouring water into a jar full of holes,
which cannot be filled by any method at all. 1010
What we have seen so far in Ovid and others about Hypermestra’s sisters is
very negative and not very informative. Aeschylus will now redress the balance
for us and give us fresh insight. In the fifth century bc he produced a tragedy
called the Suppliants which depicts the Danaids sympathetically at an early stage in
the story, before the murders. Here they have fled from Aegyptus and his sons to
Greece and have arrived at Argos, where they are given asylum, but Danaus sud-
denly catches sight of the ships of their brutal cousins pursuing them and intent
on taking them in marriage. When he tells them of this, the girls (who form the
chorus in the play) give voice to their terror and their yearning for escape and are
so distraught that they contemplate suicide. To add to the impact of the powerful
emotions, there is a macabre beauty in the lofty language, striking sound and spec-
tacle (picture this being performed in the theatre by fifty masked members of the
chorus in exotic costumes, singing the lines and dancing with expressive gestures
to the sound of a pipe).
Ah, land of hills, which we rightly revere, what will

happen to us? Where can we run to here in hope
of somewhere some pitch-dark hiding-place?
If only I could become black smoke, soar
towards the sky-god’s clouds, 780
completely invisible, imperceptible,
and dissipate like dust!
We cannot escape catastrophe any more.
My heart is dark and trembling. 785
I’m destroyed, crushed by fear of what father saw.
I’d sooner meet my fate in a knotted
noose than let a man I loathe touch
my flesh. I’d rather die 790
first and become one of Hades’ subjects.
Where can I find an airy throne, up there
where the rain-clouds turn into snow,
or a bare, lonely, beetling crag, above
goat-reach, a haunt of vultures, 795
a place past human perception,
which will witness me plummeting
down, down to escape a corrosive
marriage contrary to my wishes.
After that the dogs and birds of the area can prey 800
on my corpse and devour it – I don’t care.
For the dead are free from
adversity’s misery.
Let death come and claim
me before the marriage-bed does. 805
What path can I cut now
to escape, to evade marriage?
We have already mentioned the Ovidian Hypermestra’s motivation for recount-

ing what happened to Io and commented on how this reveals her intelligence. Over
and above that Ovid makes his character do this so that he can present a deftly
streamlined version of the myth of Io (with stress on her suffering and subsequent
rescue, i.e. aspects relevant to Hypermestra’s purposes), and also so that he can
add variety to the collection by introducing into it narrative embedding (telling
one story inside another). This inset facilitates some characteristically ingenious
and elaborate effects. There are numerous parallels to appreciate: both Io and her
descendant were tender girls and victims of Juno, who fell from positions of emi-
nence, were maltreated and felt fear. The lines on Io contain foreshadowing too,
of eventual salvation for Hypermestra as well. There are also enlivening contrasts:
in addition to differences in circumstances, time and setting, the embedded tale
constitutes a brief interlude which for a change switches right away from Hyperm-
estra’s situation and moves up on to the divine plane; and, although the heroine is
entirely serious there as in the rest of her letter, Ovid ensures that thanks to the way
in which she puts across events and Io’s reactions to them the uninvolved reader
may glimpse some unintentionally comic touches (at 91f., 94, 98 and 103–6).There
is also more complex play, as one mythological female tells another mythological
female’s story in the midst of telling her own. At 87 Hypermestra, who is being
punished severely, with worse in store, says that Io’s metamorphosis into a heifer
was punishment enough. At 91 our complaining heroine depicts her ancestress as
unable to complain. At 101ff. a girl who did not flee describes one who did flee
and tells her that fleeing is futile, and a static figure (a powerless mortal) portrays a
wide-wandering figure, who became a powerful immortal.
Heroides 15
SAPPHO TO PHAON
Ovidian authorship of Heroides 15 is hotly disputed. We are among those who

believe that the poem was composed by Ovid (for arguments see Jacobson 277f.,
Palmer 420ff. and Thorsen 96ff.; note also that the woman’s attempt here to win
over her man is consistently and comically inept in a way that is typically Ovidian,
rather like Phaedra in Heroides 4). Even if the letter was not in fact by Ovid, it is
well worth studying.
In contrast to Her. 14 this is an amatory epistle again, and it is disrespectful and
very funny. But the biggest change lies in the fact that this is the only one of the
Heroides in which the writer is not a mythological character but a real-life historical
personage, and the only one in which homosexual love figures.
Sappho was a famous lyric poetess (i.e. someone who produced poetry
which was sung to a musical accompaniment provided by the stringed instru-
ment called the lyre). She was born, apparently from an aristocratic family, in
about 630 bc on the Greek island of Lesbos (off the coast of Turkey). She had a
daughter, and so was presumably married, but on Lesbos she headed and possi-
bly instructed a literary and musical circle of young women, to whom she refers
in her verse with affection and love. Some critics have doubted that she was a
lesbian, but Ovid clearly saw her as one (see 15ff. and 201 below on her female
partners). This poem centres around what all scholars agree is an invented story
about her love for Phaon, who is never mentioned in the lines by her that have
survived. According to the tale he was a young ferryman who worked the route
between Lesbos and the mainland, and one day he conveyed in his boat Aphro-
dite (the goddess of love) disguised as an old woman, and did not charge her. In
return she made him the most handsome of men. He had an affair with Sappho,
but left her, moving on to the island of Sicily, off the toe of Italy. She subse-
quently threw herself into the sea from a cliff on the Greek island of Leucas,
hoping to be healed of her love for him, as was supposed to happen for unhappy
174 Heroides 15: Sappho to Phaon
lovers who survived the leap, but she did not survive it. Ovid has her write this
epistle as a final appeal to Phaon before she goes off to Leucas.
At 89f. she refers to Endymion, a beautiful young shepherd loved by the goddess
of the moon, who put him to sleep permanently, so that she could always visit him
for sex. See the glossary for the other mythological allusions below.
Tell me, when you looked at these words eagerly penned by me,
did you immediately recognize the handwriting as mine
or wouldn’t you know that this short letter comes from
Sappho, if you hadn’t read the writer’s name?
And perhaps you ask why I’m producing elegiac 5
couplets when I’m more suited to lyric poetry.
I must mourn my love – elegy is the genre of mourning;
lyric verse isn’t appropriate for my tears.
I burn with passion, like a fertile field blazing up when its crop
is on fire and wild east-winds drive on the flames. 10
Phaon, you’re far away in Sicily, near Typhos’ Etna;
I’m possessed by a heat as great as Etna’s fires.
I can’t come up with poetry to be accompanied by the lyre’s
orderly strings; that’s the product of a mind without worry.
The girls of Pyrrha and Methymna have no charms 15
for me, nor do those anywhere else on Lesbos;
I despise Anactoria, I despise fair Cydro;
I don’t find Atthis attractive any more
or the hundreds of others here who I have loved without reproach:
the love that many girls had is yours alone, you traitor. 20
You have beauty and are the right age for love’s fun
and games – o beauty that ambushed my eyes!
Pick up a lyre and quiver – you’ll be Apollo (an epiphany);
grow horns on your head – you’ll become Bacchus.
Apollo was Daphne’s lover, and Bacchus was Ariadne’s, 25
yet neither girl could write lyric verse.
But I am inspired by the Muses to write exquisite poetry,
and my name is now celebrated throughout the world.
My countryman Alcaeus doesn’t win more praise,
even though his lyric verse is loftier than mine. 30
If unkind nature has denied me good looks, offset that
lack by taking my talent into account.
I may be small, but I have a reputation that fills every
land on earth; I’m as big as my reputation.
I’m not fair-skinned, but Perseus found Cepheus’ Andromeda 35
attractive, and she was dark (from darkest Ethiopia);
and white doves often have mates of a different colour,
and black turtle-doves are loved by green parrots.
Heroides 15: Sappho to Phaon 175
If nobody can be your girl unless you think her beauty

worthy of yours, nobody will be your girl. 40
When I read you my poems, you thought me good-looking enough then;
you always swore my words made me supremely attractive.
I’d sing them, I remember (lovers remember everything),
and while I sang them, you’d give me stolen kisses.
You praised my kisses too, and I pleased you in every way, 45
but especially when we made love.
Then you particularly liked my sensuality and my
constant liveliness in bed and my sexy talk
and, after we’d reached a climax together, the deep,
deep languor of our exhausted bodies. 50
Now new prey – the girls of Sicily come to you.
What’s Lesbos to me? I want to be a Sicilian.
O send that runaway back to me from your island,
you young women and you older women of Sicily!
Don’t let his seductive, lying tongue deceive you: 55
what he says to you he said before to me.
Divine Venus, enshrined on Sicily’s Mount Eryx,
I’m yours, so protect your poetess.
Is misfortune still dogging me, continuing as it began,
inexorably set on its cruel course? 60
I was six years old when I shed tears on the ashes
of my father, cremated before his time.
My stupid brother was ensnared, burned with love for a prostitute,
lost his money and thoroughly disgraced himself.
Now he’s poor, and sails the blue seas, rowing hard, 65
trying to recoup his shameful loss in shameful ways.
Because I gave him lots of good, loyal advice, he hates me –
that’s what I get for my frankness and devotion!
And, as if there wasn’t enough to wear me out endlessly,
I’ve got my little daughter to worry about too. 70
And finally there’s you – yet another cause for complaint.
There’s no smooth sailing on the sea of love for me.
Look, my hair’s all over the place, hanging on my neck in a mess,
and I don’t wear any rings with sparkling stones;
my dress is shabby, I don’t have a gold hairpin in 75
and my hair isn’t perfumed by the gifts of Arabia.
I’m miserable. Who should I dress up for alluringly?
You’re the only reason for dressing up, and you’re not here.
My tender heart is susceptible to Cupid’s swift arrows;
there’s always a reason for me to be always in love – 80
whether the fates prescribed this as a rule for me at my birth
and didn’t spin an austere thread of life for me,
or writing poetry affects my personality, and Thalia (the Muse

who instructs me) makes my character tender.
Is it surprising if I’ve been swept away by someone of the age 85
when the downy beard begins and men can be captivated?
Dawn, I feared you’d carry him off, as you carried off Cephalus,
and you would, but Cephalus holds your affections.
If the Moon, who sees everything, saw Phaon,
she’d command him to sleep for all time. 90
Venus would have taken him to heaven in her ivory chariot,
but she sees that her Mars could also find him attractive.
Not yet a youth, no longer a boy (and so of service to me),
the pride and great glory of your generation,
come here, handsome, sail back to my arms! I’m not 95
asking you to love but to let yourself be loved.
As I write, the tears well up in my eyes and spill over:
see how many blots there are in this part of my letter.
If you were so set on leaving, you might have done so with more
decorum, and just said: ‘Goodbye, you girl of Lesbos.’ 100
You didn’t take with you my tears or kisses, you didn’t let me be
frightened of the heartache ahead by alerting me to it.
I have nothing of yours except the wrong you did me,
and you have no token to remind you of your lover.
I didn’t give you parting instructions, but I wouldn’t have 105
given any, except that you shouldn’t forget me.
I swear to you by our love (may it never be far from us!)
and by the nine Muses, who are my divinities,
that when somebody said to me: ‘Your sweetheart’s running away,’
I couldn’t weep or speak for a long time. 110
There were no tears in my eyes, no words on my lips;
my mind was numb with the cold chill of fear.
When my grief found its bearings, I felt no shame at beating
my breast, tearing my hair and shrieking
like a devoted mother who has lost her son and is carrying 115
his lifeless body to a heaped up funeral pyre.
My sorrow makes my brother Charaxus swell with joy,
and he parades before my eyes again and again;
so it seems there’s something disgraceful behind my grief, he says:
‘Why’s she upset? Her daughter certainly hasn’t died.’ 120
Modesty and love don’t go together. Everyone was watching.
I tore my dress in grief, exposing my breasts.
Phaon, you’re my darling. My dreams bring you back to me,
dreams more radiant than the beautiful daylight.
I meet you in them, although in reality you’re far away; 125
but the pleasure that sleep gives me doesn’t last long enough.
Often I dream that I rest my head on your arms,

often that I put my arms around your neck.
I recognize the kisses, tongue entwined around tongue,
which you used to give me and get back from me. 130
Sometimes I whisper sweet nothings, speaking words that
are almost real, with lips attentive to my feelings.
I’m ashamed to describe the rest, but we do it all,
and I enjoy it, and can’t help but be wet.
But when the sun reveals itself and the world, 135
I complain that sleep has deserted me so soon.
I go to the caves and the wood that witnessed my rapturous
love-making – as if caves and a wood could help me!
I rush there, my hair unbound, out of my mind,
like a woman touched by maddening Enyo. 140
I look at the caves (with their arches of rough volcanic rock),
which seemed to me as lovely as Mygdonian marble.
I find the forest which often provided a bed for us
and hid us under the shade of all its leaves,
but I don’t find the lord of the forest, and my lord; 145
it’s just a paltry piece of ground: he made it attractive.
I have recognized the well-known blades of grass,
bent over and pressed down by our weight;
I have lain down and touched the spot where you reclined;
the turf I once treasured has drunk my tears. 150
So too the trees have shed their foliage in mourning,
it seems, and no birds sing their sad, sweet songs,
except the nightingale – anguished Procne lamenting Itys,
the son she killed for unholy revenge on her husband.
The bird sings of Itys, Sappho of love deserted, and that’s all 155
there is to hear; otherwise it’s as silent as midnight.
There’s a sacred spring, which glitters, more transparent than
any glass (many people think a deity lives there);
above it a water-lotus spreads its branches wide (a grove
all by itself); the ground is green with soft turf. 160
When I lay down there, in tears and exhausted,
a water-nymph stood before my eyes.
She stood there and said: ‘You’re burning with unrequited
passion; so go to the region of Ambracia.
There Apollo in his temple on high looks down on all the 165
outspread sea which people call Actian and also Leucadian.
Deucalion, inflamed with love for Pyrrha, threw himself down
from there and hit the water without suffering harm;
in it his fire went out at once, love turned tail and fled,
and his heart became impervious to passion. 170
That’s the rule there. Go to the high cliff on Leucas

immediately, and leap from it without fear.’
Her words of advice faded away, and so did she. I got up,
terrified. I couldn’t contain my tears.
Nymph, I’ll go, off to the cliff you mentioned. May love’s 175
frenzy conquer my fear and drive it far away!
Whatever happens will be better than this. Breeze, blow beneath
my body and support it (it’s not heavy);
tender Cupid, put your wings under me as I fall, so I don’t
die and people don’t blame the Leucadian Sea for that. 180
In thanks I’ll dedicate to Apollo my lyre (the instrument
we both play), with two verses inscribed beneath it:
apollo, the poetess sappho gratefully dedicates to you
this lyre, an apt gift from her and for you.
But why send your miserable lover to the Actian coast, 185
when you could come back home again?
You can be better for my health than the Leucadian Sea; if you’re
kind to me, with your looks you’ll be Phoebus in my eyes.
Oh, you’re fiercer than any cliff or wave, but can you
bear to be called my killer, if I die? 190
Ah, how much better for my breast to be pressed to yours
than to be hurled headlong from a cliff.
Phaon, this is the breast that you used to praise,
that so often seemed talented to you.
I wish I was eloquent now. Grief hinders my art, 195
and my troubles have checked all my talent.
My old poetic power won’t come at my call, and my
lyre and plectrum are idle, silenced by grief.
My group of girls from Lesbos, married and yet to marry,
girls from Lesbos named in my lyric verse, 200
girls from the isle of Lesbos loved by me, notoriously,
don’t come to listen to my lyre any more.
Phaon has destroyed all the poetry you once enjoyed
(ah, I very nearly said just now ‘my Phaon’);
make him return, and your poetess will return: 205
my talent’s strength or weakness depends on him.
Are my pleas achieving anything? Is his uncouth heart moved,
or not? Are my words futile, swept away by the wind?
I wish it would bring you sailing back to me instead, you cold man.
That’s what you should do, if you had any sense. 210
If you’re coming back, and are making garlands for your ship
in celebration, why tear my heart apart by delaying?
Sail! Sea-born Venus makes the sea safe for a lover.
The wind will speed you on your way. Just sail!
Cupid himself will sit at the stern and steer your ship; 215
he’ll spread and furl the sails with his soft hands.
If you want to run far away from Sappho of Lesbos
(though you won’t find a good reason for running away),
at least tell me that in a cruel letter, so in my misery
I can seek my fate in the Leucadian Sea. 220
Sappho was the most renowned poetess of Greece and Rome. She was highly
regarded in antiquity, included in the canon of the nine major Greek lyric poets
and referred to as a tenth Muse (traditionally there were nine Muses, patron god-
desses of verse and song, who were themselves supremely skilled musicians). To
judge from what has survived, her writing was predominantly personal and erotic,
and was passionate and moving, so that it has a great emotional impact; but it also
has the intellectual appeal of melodiousness, subtlety and elegance. She influenced
a wide variety of subsequent authors, including Baudelaire, Byron, Catullus, Dur-
rell, H.D., Horace, Pound, Rilke, Swinburne and Verlaine. Because of constraints
of space we have to restrict ourselves to some of the most famous pieces by her
(mainly fragmentary) to fill out the picture, but for more on Sappho and her poetry
and on the reception of both see Johnson, Reynolds and Greene.
In the first fragment her depth of feeling embraces her daughter, in exchange
for whom she would (presumably) not take one of the richest kingdoms of the day
or some other place (like Lesbos) famed for its beauty. She includes a short simile
which implies a lot about Cleis (apart from the relevant properties of flowers in
general; note that gold had divine associations, and golden flowers grew in the
fabulous paradise called the Isles of the Blessed).
I have a beautiful daughter – my darling

Cleis, who looks like golden flowers; for
her I would not . . . all Lydia or lovely
Another fragment also contains an effective image (for violent mental distur-
bance caused by love), in which distracting ornamentation is absent, and every
word does duty (the wind would be particularly powerful on high, and the choice
of oaks for the trees implies a mighty struggle).
And Eros convulsed my

mind like a wind falling on oaks up a mountain.
Sappho also composed marriage-songs for performance at weddings on Lesbos.

A simile in one of them likened the bride to a sweet-apple and was melodious and
apposite (apples were love-tokens and were connected with the goddess of love
and with weddings). There are obvious correspondences between the girl and the
reddening sweet-apple in itself. Sappho also draws attention to the apple’s lofty
position, implying that the bride was special and superior. After that Sappho may
be lightly teasing her, raising the possibility that men had just forgotten about her,
but then quickly correcting that and stressing the third line; the natural inference is
that the bride had remained a virgin.
just as the sweet-apple reddens on the branch at the top,

on top of the topmost one; the apple-pickers forgot –
not forgot completely, but could not manage to reach it.
The next fragment tries to comfort the young woman Atthis in her separation
from a female companion who has gone to Lydia for some reason.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . often turning her thoughts this way
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . she . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you
as an unmistakable
goddess and enjoyed your singing most. 5
Now she stands out amid the Lydi-
an women like the rosy-
fingered moon (after the sun has set)
surpassing all the stars; light is spread
over the salty sea and 10
also over the flowerful fields;
the dew is sprinkled beautifully,
roses bloom and soft chervil-
plants and flowery honeyclover.
Often roaming, recalling gentle 15
Atthis with longing she doubt-
less eats out her sensitive heart.
Here Sappho produces remarks to console Atthis and also poetry to distract and
charm her. As well as portraying a picturesque nocturnal scene in lines 6–14,
Sappho implies that the absent friend is a pre-eminent beauty among a host of
lesser beauties, with her radiance denoted by ‘rosy-fingered’ (white roses are most
pertinent here, so the adjective will refer to pale moon-beams). Sappho will have
chosen the moon for her image because for people on Lesbos it rises in Turkey
(where the companion is); and perhaps the moon, which could be seen by Atthis,
was meant to act as a substitute for her friend, who could not, with 9–11 suggest-
ing the moonlight coming from Turkey to Lesbos and so forming a link between
the females. At 10–14 the wide spread of the moon’s light stresses the compan-
ion’s radiance still further, and the effect of the dew (supposedly produced by the
moon) may be intended to intimate that she had a similarly invigorating effect
on people.
In the next piece (a complete poem for a change) again the poetess is in love
with a female and is being rejected by her. So Sappho prays to the love goddess
Aphrodite, asking her to do now what she has done before – come, find out the
cause of the trouble and undertake to change the female’s mind. There is a solem-
nity that is apt for a formal prayer, but there is also intimacy here.
Elaborately-enthroned, deathless Aphrodite,

wile-weaving child of Zeus, I beg you,
don’t overwhelm my heart with pangs and
anguish, Mistress,
but come here, if you ever in the 5
past heard and paid heed to my voice from
afar and came, leaving your father’s
palace and yoking
your golden chariot; and lovely,
swift sparrows bore you over the black 10
earth, their massed wings whirling, down from heav-
en through the mid-air,
and they arrived quickly; Blessed One,
with a smile on your deathless face, you
asked what troubled me this time, what made 15
me call you this time
and what I wished you to do, with
all my mad heart. ‘Who must I persuade this
time . . . to your love? Who’s not being
fair to you, Sappho? 20
For if she shuns you, she’ll soon pursue;
if she spurns gifts, she’ll give them to you;
if she does not love, she’ll soon love too,
against her wishes.’
Come to me now too, set me free from 25
chronic anxieties, bring about
what my heart wants brought about, and fight
on my side yourself.
Critics have praised the graphic description of the chariot drawn by the goddess’
sacred birds at 9ff. and the lively depiction of the affectionate and informal Aph-
rodite at 13ff. But this poem is more remarkable as a human document. Cast as a
private prayer (on which we eavesdrop), it shows a person at a loss trying to hearten
herself (by turning to a superior power and recollecting that things came out well
in the past) and, despite emotional turmoil, not being over-familiar or pushy, but
deferential and restrained. So she does not over-emphasize her pain, although she
makes it clear early on. And she operates more by implicit than explicit appeals: we
deduce that she wants the goddess once again to come quickly, smile comfortingly,
chaff her reassuringly and above all solemnly promise to remedy the situation rap-
idly and completely.
Finally there is a very famous fragment addressed to a beloved female, in which

Sappho lists the symptoms of deep love that she experiences whenever she looks
at the addressee.
To me he seems to be the equal

of the gods, the man who sits oppo-
site you and listens, close by, to you
speaking sweetly and
loveably laughing; and that real- 5
ly jolts the heart in my breast. For when-
ever I glance at you, I simply
can’t speak any more,
but my tongue is . . . and silent,
fine fire has instantly raced under 10
my skin, my eyes simply can’t see, I’ve
whirring in my ears,
and cold sweat covers me, tremors seize
all of me, and I am paler than
grass, and I seem to myself not far 15
away from dying.
But it is all bearable since . . .
The pathos and the passion come across strongly there. The agonized state at 7ff.
stands out more thanks to the contrast with 1–5. For example, the opening (ordi-
nary) scene is followed by Sappho’s extraordinary reactions; she pairs the male and
female but isolates herself; and the addressee is speaking, while Sappho can’t speak.
The focus on speech and laughter at 4f. is suggestive (lovers are often particularly
fascinated by just one or two qualities). More powerfully, at 7ff. Sappho describes
a whole host of extreme effects, gaining impact by adding point after point. The
expression there is direct and sparing of adjectives and imagery. And so we find even
more striking the phrases ‘fine fire’ and ‘paler than grass’ (i.e. grass parched by the
sun: a sallow (Greek) skin’s pallor is similarly yellowish). At 7ff. Sappho also presents
her disordered state in a very orderly fashion. For instance, the first three symptoms
and the last three are groups which each form an increasing triad (a set of three in
which more space is devoted to the second symptom than the first, and then more
space is given to the third than the second); and those groups frame the central
group of three (in which each symptom is treated at exactly the same length). The
fact that Sappho demonstrated such control when she composed these lines high-
lights further her lack of control when she looked at the addressee.
Ovid presents a very different Sappho in Heroides 15 and subverts this rightly
revered poetess. How do you react to that subversion and what do you make of it?
Formulate your thoughts on this before reading on.
Some critics find fault with Ovid as a male all too readily taking over a tale that
denies a female her natural (lesbian) sexuality and usurping her poetic voice. So
Harvey (in Greene 84ff.) talks of ‘sexual mastery and theft’ and the ‘ventriloquistic
appropriation’ of Sappho’s voice, which Ovid subordinates to his own. Compare
also Lindheim 155ff., who views Ovid as using Sappho as a mouthpiece to take
away the potential for a woman’s multiplicity evident in her fragments and ‘control-
ling both her poetic expression and her expression of women’s desire(s)’. And it is
true that there is something of a Roman tradition of male writers making negative
comments about female homoeroticism.
Another line of approach to Heroides 15 would see Ovid as being light-hearted
and mischievous (rather than having a serious agenda), finding a tempting target in
the highly esteemed Sappho and having irreverent fun with her, just as he did with
the male authors Homer (in Her. 1) and Virgil (in Her. 7), and just as he jokes at his
own expense in Amores 3.7 (a whole elegy devoted to his embarrassing impotence
when in bed with a beautiful girl). We incline rather to this point of view, while
allowing that there is also validity in the feminist position outlined above. We feel
that Ovid is relishing the whole quaintly comical situation of this famous lesbian
totally rejecting females, in love with a man and having sex with a man, and of the
venerable Greek poetess talking dirty (45ff.), having wet dreams (133f.) and losing
her dignity by openly admitting that and by begging, flattering etc. (in Latin!). Our
playful poet also seems to us to be mocking his illustrious predecessor (but gently
mocking her: he shows respect for her at Tristia 3.7.20), especially by representing
this extremely intelligent woman as decidedly silly and by making this great writer
produce a thoroughly incompetent piece of writing.
Ovid’s Sappho has been surprisingly naive in the past, when Phaon was around:
when he claimed that her poems made her supremely attractive (41–4), he will
have been merely flattering her so that she would have sex with him (as she vir-
tually admits at 55f.; and he was obviously not that captivated by her verse, as he
interrupted her performance of it with kisses; and he did jilt her subsequently).
This Sappho is also foolish now. For a start she simply does not take into account
the fact that Phaon is just a ferryman, and so is uneducated. We can reasonably
assume that he would be unable to read or write, so that her question about him
recognizing her handwriting at 1f. and her request for a letter from him in 219
are fatuous. And it is hardly likely that he would know the difference between
lyric and elegiac poetry and so wonder why she was producing the latter (5f.).
In addition, it is absurdly misguided of her to be so critical of an errant lover. For
comments about his lying tongue (55), his lack of decorum (99f.), his inhuman
ferocity (189), his uncouth heart (207), his coldness (209) and his lack of sense (210;
which is particularly rich in her mouth) are scarcely going to win him back. She
also clumsily undermines her own position. She dwells on her brother’s failings (at
63ff. and 117ff.), which would make Phaon unlikely to want to have any connec-
tion with such a family. And she really highlights her own shortcomings. As well as
being naturally unattractive (33ff.), she is at present frumpy in her misery (73ff.), has
made an embarrassing spectacle of herself on Lesbos bewailing his departure (113ff.,
121f.) and is the kind of obsessive female that few men would want to be involved
with, having erotic dreams about him (123ff.), revisiting the place where they had
intercourse and lying down where he lay (137ff.). All of this would, of course, get
him rushing back to her!
Ovid’s Sappho also says laughably silly things. She calls this letter (of 220 lines)
‘short’ in 3. At 53f. she appeals to the women of Sicily to send back to her the
divinely handsome Phaon (as if they would!). She refers to herself (a married
woman with a child) as a ‘girl’ in 100. She addresses a breeze at 177f., and supposes
that it could hold up her body as she plunges from the Leucadian cliff; and she
thinks that the god of love will help her escape from love at 179f. See if you can
spot what is similarly silly in her remarks at 191f., 205, 213 and 218. On top of all
that, here the great poetess’ poeticisms are frequently inept (and Ovid seems to play
on that wittily at 195ff., where he has her complain of the loss of her talent through
grief). She cannot even manage an effective simile at 9f.: the blazing field to which
she compares herself there would soon burn out, unlike her fiery passion. So too
her analogies at 37f. are cloddish: birds are not a good parallel for humans, and
she actually likens Phaon to a parrot there, a green parrot at that. And she botches
the flattery in her mythological allusions at 87ff.: there is bathos in line 88 (which
does not in fact amount to a compliment); there is an obvious lack of logic in 89;
and 92 conjures up an image of the stern, virile god of war as a homosexual lover
captivated by a pretty boy when Venus is around! Look for the same kind of flaws
in the simile at 115f. (how apt, and how flattering to Sappho, is that?), the picture at
151–6 (how realistic, and convincing, is it?) and the flight of fancy at 215f. (visualize
the scene!). Actually, if you re-examine the whole poem, you will find many more
examples of all the above categories of humour.This is a constantly improbable and
amusing epistle.
As well as loving Phaon, Sappho was said to have had affairs with the lyric poets
Alcaeus (who was at least her contemporary) and Anacreon (who was born about
fifty years after her!). There were lots of such stories about Greek poets in antiquity.
They are in general unreliable, and many of them are quaint and comic. Supposedly
when Euripides fell asleep on Mount Helicon, a bee constructed a honeycomb
in his mouth, signifying the sweet song that issued from it (and suggesting that he
slept with his mouth open and was a pretty heavy sleeper). The god Pan was heard
singing one of Pindar’s poems, and the goddess Demeter appeared to Pindar in a
dream asking him to write a hymn about her. During a performance of Aeschylus’
tragedy called The Eumenides the actors playing the Furies (dread deities of venge-
ance from the Underworld) looked so terrifying that children fainted and pregnant
women had miscarriages. Aeschylus himself came to a sad end, when a (rather
short-sighted) eagle flying above him with a tortoise in its talons mistook his bald
head for a rock and dropped the tortoise on to it to smash its shell. There were also
sad ends for Philemon (who laughed himself to death), for the tragedian Sophocles
(who choked when he ran out of breath while reciting from a play of his entitled
Antigone) and for Alcman (who died of lice).
There were improbable tales about Roman poets too, many of them attached
to Virgil. As a learned man, who had written about magic and the Underworld in
his verse, he was believed in the Middle Ages to have been a wizard. Many of the
magic stories are connected with Naples, a city in which Virgil had stayed and in
which he was buried. He was said to have founded the city, and to have balanced it
on an egg (for some reason best known to himself). He also made for it a butcher’s
block which kept meat fresh indefinitely, and he created a bronze fly which made
ordinary flies stay away from Naples. He kept the local volcano Vesuvius in check
by means of a bronze statue of an archer threatening it with an arrow on his drawn
bow aimed at it, until a passing moron fiddled with the statue and fired off the
arrow.Virgil’s bones were placed in a castle overlooking Naples and surrounded by
the sea; if they were exposed to the air, the water became violently disturbed, clouds
gathered and a storm raged. His magic powers extended beyond Naples. At Rome
he constructed a beautiful palace containing statues which represented all the dif-
ferent lands in the Roman empire; each image had a bell in its hand, and when any
of the lands was about to revolt from Rome, its statue rang its bell, and a bronze
warrior on the roof of the palace brandished his lance at the place in question. Also,
while on the fabulous Mountain of Sorrows, Virgil was shown by a spirit a book
of magic under a corpse’s head; when Virgil opened the book, 80,000 demons
instantly appeared and put themselves at his disposal; whereupon the poet, bizarrely,
used them to pave a long street. And after Virgil died and his soul arrived at the gates
of Hell, the devils there would not let him in, because they were so frightened of
his powers as a sorcerer.
Heroides 16
PARIS TO HELEN
This is the first of the double Heroides, three pairs of letters in which a hero writes
to a heroine and receives a response from her. By means of this literary form Ovid
here gives a lively new twist to one of the most frequently treated stories in Clas-
sical literature, providing an intimate insight into the thoughts and feelings of two
very famous lovers as they are on the point of bringing about one of the longest
and deadliest wars in ancient myth. Some of the details mentioned in Heroides 16
may be unfamiliar to you, so do quickly scan the following paragraph, to ensure that
you comprehend fully and get the most out of this epistle.
When Hecuba, the wife of Priam (king of Troy, in the region of Phrygia) was
pregnant with Paris, she dreamed that she gave birth to a huge, flaming torch.
A prophet said that this meant that Troy (also known as Ilium) would burn with the
fire of Paris (i.e. he would be responsible for its fiery destruction). So when the baby
was born, he was left out in the open on nearby Mount Ida to die. But a herdsman
found him and brought him up as his own son.When Paris was still young, he drove
off some cattle-robbers, and so was given the extra name of Alexander (meaning in
Greek ‘one who wards off men’). Subsequently his true identity was revealed, and
he was welcomed back into the royal family. Paris was later asked to judge which
of the goddesses Juno, Minerva (Pallas) and Venus was the loveliest. They all tried to
bribe him, and he accepted Venus’ offer of the most beautiful woman in the world.
This was Helen, the daughter of the Greek heroine Leda and Jupiter, who had taken
the form of a swan and copulated with her. Helen was born in the little country
town of Therapnae, and when she was still a girl she was so attractive that the hero
Theseus abducted her, although he did return her when her brothers came and
demanded her back. Now she was the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Paris built
a fleet and prepared to sail off to Greece to get her. His sister Cassandra (who was a
prophetess, although nobody believed her prophecies, which were always true) pre-
dicted that he would bring a conflagration back with him (i.e. his return with Helen
Heroides 16: Paris to Helen 187
would end in the fiery destruction of Troy). When Paris landed, Menelaus gave him
a hospitable welcome. During the course of his visit Menelaus went off to view his
territory on the island of Crete. It is at this point that Paris writes the present letter
and sends it to Helen in an attempt to seduce her. Helen, of course, did elope with
Paris, and a huge Greek army besieged Troy to get her back. Many men died in the
war, including Paris’ brother (the formidable warrior Hector) and Paris. An archer
himself, Paris was killed by an arrow which was shot by the Greek hero Philoctetes
and guided home by Minerva (this was the heavenly arrow that Cassandra had
prophesied would hit Paris). After that Troy fell, was plundered and set on fire.
This is a highly entertaining poem. The whole idea of Paris sending a letter to
Helen at this point is rather comical in itself. The great length of the epistle shows
how determined and desperate he is to win over Helen, whom he obviously sees as
a very tough nut to crack. It is diverting to watch the renowned great lover writh-
ing and striving to get the affair going, especially as running on and on is quite
unnecessary. The goddess Venus has personally promised Helen to him, as he often
remarks himself. The heroine has already given him encouraging indications of her
interest in him, laughing rather than being outraged at his groans when she kisses
her husband (229f.), and letting Paris see her breasts (249ff.); but he is apparently
too unperceptive or too backward to get the hints. And we know that of course he
will get the girl (this is one of the most famous love affairs ever) and that their
elopement (and the subsequent war) are fated and in accordance with a divine plan.
So the longer Paris goes on the funnier it is.
On top of that he doesn’t even make a very good job of trying to win her over.
In fact Paris is an amusingly undignified and unimpressive hero: driven by love and
lust, he is selfish and rash; he is also foolishly unreflecting, or is deliberately putting
a positive spin on gloomy prophecies and wilfully closing his eyes to very probable
danger ahead as a result of a liaison with Helen. He has four main ploys: he protests
his love; he flatters her (via her beauty and fame); he attempts to impress her (with
his wealth, his high birth, his father’s kingdom, his contact with divinities etc.); and
he stresses that Venus has promised her to him (the implication being that Helen
has no choice but to accept him, as she can’t cross such a powerful goddess). Such
arguments seem sound enough in themselves; but they are employed over and over
again, as this eager young puppy repeats himself at length and is in danger of over-
doing it and boring or even irritating the addressee.
In addition, his remarks are often fatuous and inept. So, for instance, at 36ff. he
makes the implausible claim that he was in love with Helen before he even saw
her; at 43ff. he actually passes on an ominous dream about himself as a destructive
torch, referring it improbably to his burning love for her; at 93ff. he is bumptious
and obvious when he talks of all the females who have desired him; at 107ff. he goes
on at tedious length about ship-building; and at 187ff. he runs the risk of offending
the Greek heroine by criticizing her homeland and birthplace and contrasting it
unfavourably with Troy. As you read the poem, look for more examples of silly and
misguided comments. Really it is just as well for him that Helen fancies him (as we
learn in Heroides 17).
188 Heroides 16: Paris to Helen
There is also a darker tinge to the humour, in the extensive irony, obvious not
to Paris but to us, because we know the outcome of this affair. So he goes to such
lengths here to bring about ultimately the destruction of himself, his city and many
of his family and fellow-citizens. He speaks glibly of the fire of love and of arrows
and the wound of love, when Troy will soon be on fire and he will be wounded
by Philoctetes’ arrow. He describes with relish his judgment and the building of
ships to take him to Sparta, all of which leads eventually to disaster. He maintains
that fate is smiling on him and a relationship with Helen is fated, but the deadly
consequences of that are also destined. And he boasts about Trojan culture, riches
and resources, as he takes the first step to putting an end to all of that. See if you
can spot more instances of such tragicomic irony in the lines below (e.g. in 84, 91f.,
129 and 169).
From the son of Priam to Leda’s daughter – good day!

A good day for me depends entirely on you.
Should I speak out or is that unnecessary? Do you already know that
I’m inflamed with love, is that more obvious than I’d like?
I’d prefer it to go unobserved, until the time comes 5
when we can take our pleasure without fear,
but I’m not good at hiding it – who could conceal a love
which constantly betrays itself by burning so brightly?
But if you’re waiting for me to say it as well as show it by my actions,
I’m on fire – there, that tells you my feelings. 10
Please pardon my confession, and don’t read what follows with a
hard expression but with one befitting your beauty.
I’m already obliged to you: your acceptance of this letter makes
me hope that I too may win similar acceptance.
May that hope come true, may Venus’ promise to me of you be 15
made good (she was the one who urged this voyage on me)!
Just so you know, when you’re unfaithful with me: I sailed here on
divine instructions, aided in my enterprise by a mighty deity.
I’m asking for a great prize certainly, but one owed to me:
Cupid’s mother herself pledged you to me in marriage. 20
Guided by her I made the dangerous voyage from the Trojan coast
far across the sea in a ship built by Phereclus.
She provided helpful breezes and favourable winds: she was born
from the sea, and so of course has power over the sea.
May she stay kind, calm my agitation, as she calmed 25
the waves, and bring my desires safely to harbour!
I didn’t fall in love here, I was already on fire when I came,
and that was the reason for such a lengthy voyage.
I didn’t get lost, no savage storm brought me here:
I deliberately steered for Sparta with my fleet. 30
And don’t imagine that I’m sailing with merchandise to trade:
I already have wealth – may the gods preserve it!

I’m not here as a tourist, to see the cities of Greece:
the towns in my own kingdom are more sumptuous.
I come for you, betrothed to me by golden Venus. 35
I wanted you before I knew you.
I had a mental picture of your face before I actually saw it;
the wound in my heart began with the rumour that told me of you.
Yet, as the bow is so powerful, it’s no wonder that I’m in love
after being hit by an arrow of Cupid’s shot from afar. 40
Such is the will of fate. And so you don’t try to subvert that,
listen to a true and trustworthy tale.
By now my mother’s belly was swollen with a fully grown foetus,
but I was still held in her womb, slow to be born.
In her sleep she had a vision and dreamed that her pregnant 45
womb gave birth to a huge flaming torch.
She got up, terrified, and told old Priam about the dark
night’s dreadful dream, which he referred to his prophets.
One prophet predicted that Troy would burn with the fire of Paris –
that was the flame in my heart, which now exists. 50
Although people thought I was low-born, my good looks and mental
vigour showed that my noble lineage had been obscured.
In the midst of wooded Ida’s valleys there’s a remote
spot, enveloped by pine-trees and holm-oaks,
where the grass isn’t grazed by the gaping mouths of slow-moving 55
cows or placid sheep or rock-loving goats.
I was leaning against a tree, looking out from there
at Troy’s walls and lofty buildings and the sea –
suddenly the ground seemed to me to tremble beneath the tread of feet –
I’ll tell the truth, though you’ll hardly believe it’s true – 60
Mercury, the grandson of great Atlas and Pleione,
swiftly flew down and halted before my eyes
(I hope I’m permitted to speak of what I was permitted to see)
and there was a golden staff in the god’s hand.
At the same time three goddesses – Venus, Pallas and 65
Juno – set their tender feet on the grass.
I was stunned, a cold shudder made my hair stand on end,
when the winged messenger said to me: ‘Don’t be afraid.
You’re a judge of beauty. Put an end to the goddesses’ quarrel about
who deserves to beat the other two as the most beautiful.’ 70
So I wouldn’t refuse, he commanded me in the name of Jupiter
and immediately soared up through the sky to the stars.
I recovered my wits, suddenly became daring and wasn’t
afraid to gaze at each goddess observantly.
All of them deserved the prize, and as their judge 75
I expressed my regret that they couldn’t all win.

However, already then one of them was more attractive,
so you could tell she was the one who inspires love.
They wanted to win so much that they offered lavish gifts
in their eagerness to manipulate my verdict. 80
Juno went on about dominion, Pallas about prowess in war;
I didn’t know whether I wanted to be powerful or brave.
Venus laughed sweetly and said: ‘Paris, don’t be influenced by these
presents, both of which involve lots of anxiety and fear.
I’ll give you someone to love: pretty Leda’s still 85
prettier daughter will come into your arms.’
After she said that, I approved her gift and her beauty
equally, and she returned to heaven victorious.
Meanwhile – I suppose because fate now decided to smile on me –
thanks to reliable indications I was recognized as a prince. 90
The royal family was delighted to recover a long-lost son,
and Troy added that day to its festivals.
Just as I desire you, so girls have desired me;
you alone can have what many want.
It’s not just the daughters of kings and chieftains who have courted me: 95
nymphs too have cared for me and loved me.
Who was there to surpass Oenone’s marvellous beauty? After you
nobody in the world is more worthy of being Priam’s daughter-in-law.
But I despised all of those females once I was
given the hope of marrying you, Helen. 100
I saw visions of you when awake, I dreamed of you at night,
when the eyes are inactive, overcome by peaceful sleep.
Loved when not yet seen, what effect will you have on me in person?
I burned, although the cause of the fire was here, far away.
I couldn’t deny myself what I hoped for any longer, 105
I had to sail off to get the girl I wanted.
Our Phrygian axes hacked down Trojan pine-woods,
and all the trees that could be used for sea-going ships;
the lofty forests on Gargara’s heights were plundered,
and Ida’s mountain range supplied countless timbers. 110
Oak planks were bent to form the hulls for swift ships,
and a ribbed framework was attached to the curving keels.
We fitted on to the masts their cross-beams and attendant sails,
and added painted images of the gods to the rounded sterns.
On my boat is depicted the goddess who guarantees your 115
marriage to me, accompanied by a little Cupid.
After the finishing touch, when the ships were completed,
I wanted to sail off over the Aegean Sea at once.
But my father and mother kept me from my heart’s desire, delaying
the journey I planned with devoted appeals to me; 120

and my sister Cassandra, just as she was, with streaming hair,
when my fleet was now about to set sail, shouted out:
‘Where are you rushing? You’ll bring a huge fire back with you!
You don’t know what a blaze you’re seeking out over this sea!’
The prophetess told the truth. I’ve found the flames she spoke of, 125
and love burns fiercely in this tender heart of mine.
I left the harbour, made use of favourable winds
and landed in your country, royal bride of Sparta.
Your husband welcomed me hospitably – this too
happened in accordance with the will and plan of the gods. 130
He showed me everything that was notable and
worth showing in the whole of Sparta.
But I longed to see your acclaimed beauty,
and there was nothing else to beguile my eyes.
When I saw it, I was stunned, thunderstruck, and I felt 135
my inmost heart swell with extraordinary desire.
Venus had a face like yours, as far as I can recall,
when she came to be judged by me.
If you had come to that contest with her,
victory for Venus would have been doubtful. 140
Rumour has really spread your name far and wide,
and every land knows of your beauty.
No other lovely woman anywhere in Phrygia or from
the furthest east has fame equal to yours.
But trust me on this: your glory doesn’t live up to the real you, 145
and your reputation all but maligns your attractions.
I find here more than it promised, and your glory
is surpassed by the beauty that caused it.
So the great Theseus had good grounds for his lust, for viewing you
as worthy spoil, after getting to know all your charms, 150
while you exercised in the gleaming gymnasium, a naked female
amid naked men, according to Spartan custom.
I commend the abduction; I’m amazed that he ever returned you.
He should have held on resolutely to such fine booty.
This head of mine would have been severed from my bloody neck 155
before you were dragged off from my bedroom.
Would my hands ever have consented to let you go? While I still
lived, would I have allowed you to leave my arms?
If you had to be returned, I’d have got something from you first,
I wouldn’t have been completely inactive sexually. 160
I would have taken either your virginity or what could have
been stolen without the loss of your virginity.
Just give yourself to me, and you’ll come to know my constancy;
only the pyre’s flames will put an end to the flames in my heart.
I preferred you to the kingdoms which mightiest Juno, 165
Jupiter’s wife and sister, once promised me.
So long as I could put my arms around your neck, I despised
the prowess in war that Pallas bestowed on me.
I’ve no regrets, I’ll never think I made a foolish choice;
my mind’s made up – I continue to want you. 170
I’ve worked so hard pursuing you, but you’re worth it.
Just don’t let my hope prove to be in vain, please.
I’m not some peasant wanting to marry a noble lady;
you won’t be disgraced by being my wife, believe me.
If you look, you’ll find our line contains Jupiter and a Pleiad, 175
to say nothing of my ancestors after them.
My father rules the realm of Asia, the richest region on earth,
a territory almost too vast to be toured.
You’ll see innumerable cities and buildings of gold
and temples which you’d describe as fit for their gods. 180
You’ll gaze on Ilium and its walls, fortified by lofty towers,
and made to build themselves by the music of Apollo’s lyre.
Why tell you about the throng, the multitude of men?
There are almost too many people for that land to sustain.
Trojan matrons will hurry to meet you in a dense line, 185
there’ll be more of our young women than the palace can hold.
Oh, how often you’ll say: ‘How poor my Greece is!’ Any house
at all in Troy, you’ll find, contains the wealth of a city.
But it wouldn’t be right for me to despise your Sparta;
the land in which you were born is rich in my eyes. 190
But Sparta is a frugal place, not suited to beauty
such as yours: you deserve sumptuous clothing.
Adornments without end should be lavished on loveliness like
yours, it should luxuriate in new-fangled finery.
When you see the clothing of the men here from Troy, 195
what do you think our young women wear?
Just give in to me, and don’t disdain a Trojan
for your husband, you country girl from Therapnae.
Ganymede, who is now with the gods and mixes nectar with water
for their drinks, was a Trojan, and a member of my family. 200
Tithonus was a Trojan, but he was carried off as her husband by
a goddess – Dawn, who finally ends night’s journey.
Anchises was a Trojan too, and Venus, the mother of the winged
Cupids, enjoyed intercourse with him on Ida’s ridges.
The comedy continues in the rest of this letter. Paris’ silliness and ineptitude are
again evident. For example, it is probably not a good idea to remind Helen that
she has a beloved daughter (255), who she would be leaving behind if she went off
with him, or to talk of her bringing glory on her brothers (273), when eloping with
him would bring disgrace on them, or to suggest that she might be unfaithful to
him too, in Troy (295f.). And at 283f. he comes up with a ludicrously feeble pretext
for going to bed with her – so he can communicate his thoughts to her at greater
length face to face. Most of the main types of irony noted above are also still present
at 205ff., but it takes new forms too. Paris is now at several points flippant while
on the way to bringing about misery and disaster for Troy and his own death. He
of all people calls others simple-minded, stupid and ignorant. And at the end of the
epistle he solemnly assures Helen that there will be no expedition to recover her,
and foresees no problems if there actually is one after all. You will find lots more
irony as you read the lines below (e.g. at 263f., 324, 339f. and 351).
There are other novelties as well, to inject more variety and interest. Although
making Paris burble on has its entertaining side, this poem is nearly 400 lines long,
and Ovid must have been aware that he might eventually bore some of his readers.
So at this juncture he starts to give Paris some additional ploys. The hero now tries
hard to win pity, by describing his envy of Menelaus and his torment as a frustrated
lover. He also becomes flatteringly and alluringly roguish, and promises Helen great
sex. He depicts a very warm welcome in Troy, if she goes off with him. He attacks
her husband too. So at 207ff. he goes into detail about all the black sheep in Mene-
laus’ family: his father killed his own brother’s children and served them up to him
as a meal, making the Sun recoil in horror from the feast; his grandfather killed his
own father-in-law in a chariot race, bribing his charioteer Myrtilus to remove the
linchpins from his chariot so that it crashed, and then threw Myrtilus to his death in
the sea, which was named after him; and Menelaus’ great-grandfather Tantalus was
a sinner who was punished in hell by being rooted to the spot in a pool of water
(which receded when he tried to drink it) beneath a branch of fruit, which was
whisked away whenever he tried to eat it. Paris employs humour as well, mock-
ing Menelaus’ idiocy in going off to Crete and leaving him and Helen together.
There is also wit at 205f., where he depicts Helen (rather than himself) as a judge,
at 251f. and 274 (in connection with Jupiter’s coupling with her mother Leda) and
at 303–6, with play on the amatory sense of ‘care’.
Ovid introduces other new elements too. He brings in narrative at 221ff., in the
form of a lengthy and lively account of dinner-parties in the palace, with lots of
intimate details and voluptuous touches. At 249ff., when Helen reveals her breasts
to Paris at a banquet, there is foreshadowing with clever twists of the famous epi-
sode at the fall of Troy when Menelaus was about to kill Helen but dropped his
sword when he caught sight of her naked breasts. At 323ff. Paris now tries to get
Helen to elope with him, not just make love in secret. And at 353ff. the poem ends
with open (and comical) allusion to the Trojan War.
If you compare our looks and age, I don’t think 205

you’ll judge Menelaus to be preferable to me.
At least I won’t give you a father-in-law who makes the bright Sun
recoil and turns His horses back from a terrifying feast.

My grandfather isn’t spattered with his father-in-law’s blood
and didn’t stigmatize the Myrtoan Sea with a crime. 210
There’s no ancestor of mine in a pool in hell, grasping at
fruit and trying to drink in the midst of water.
But what does this matter, if a member of that family
has you, making Jupiter his father-in-law?
Oh, it’s criminal. He doesn’t deserve you, but he has you all night 215
long, taking his pleasure, with his arms around you.
I get to see you only when the tables are finally laid,
and even then there are many things that hurt me.
I wish on my enemies dinner-parties just like the ones
I often undergo, when the wine has been served. 220
I wish I wasn’t your guest when before my eyes
that peasant puts his arms around your neck.
Why not tell all? I burst with envy when he lays
his cloak over you and fondles your body.
But when you openly gave each other tender kisses, I picked up 225
my wine-cup and put it in front of my eyes.
When he holds you close, I look down and lose my
appetite, and the food swells and sticks in my throat.
I’ve often groaned, and noticed you not holding back
a laugh when I groaned, you naughty girl. 230
I’ve often wanted to quench love’s flame with wine, but
it grew, and drunkenness was fire on top of fire.
So that I miss seeing much, I recline with my head turned away,
but you immediately make me look at you again.
I don’t know what to do. It pains me to see those things, 235
but it pains me more not to look at your face.
As best I can, as much as I’m allowed, I try hard to hide my
madness; however, the love I conceal reveals itself.
I’m not lying; you’re aware of my wound, you’re aware of it!
And I hope you are the only one who knows. 240
Ah, how often have I turned my face aside as the tears came,
so he wouldn’t ask why I was crying!
Ah, how often have I described some love affair, when drunk,
referring to my own wound with every single word,
giving away things about myself under an invented name! 245
I was the real lover, in case you don’t know.
Yes, and so I could be more saucy in what I said,
I pretended to be intoxicated more than once.
I remember, your dress was loose and revealed your breasts,
giving my eyes the chance to see them naked, 250
breasts whiter than pure snow or milk or the swan that Jupiter
turned into when he made love to your mother.

I was stunned at the sight, and the spiral handle of the wine-cup
that I happened to be holding slipped from my fingers.
If you gave your daughter Hermione kisses, I joyfully 255
snatched them from her tender lips at once.
Now I sang songs about old love affairs, lying on my back,
now through nods I made signs that I should have kept secret.
I recently dared to make an ingratiating approach to
your principal maids, Clymene and Aethra, 260
but all they said was that they were afraid,
and they left me in the middle of my pleas and appeals.
I wish the gods would make you the prize in a major contest
and the victor could have you for his bed,
as Hippomenes claimed Atalanta as his reward in the foot-race, 265
as Pelops took Hippodamia to his arms,
as fierce Hercules in his pursuit of the hand of
Deianira broke off the horns of Achelous.
To win you, I’d have been bold and brave and done great things,
and you’d have known that I laboured hard for you. 270
As it is, my lovely, all I can do now is appeal to you
and grovel at your feet, if you’d let me.
Oh, you bring glory here on your two brothers; oh, you beauty;
oh, worthy bedmate for Jupiter, if you weren’t his daughter!
Either I’ll return to Troy’s harbour with you as my bride 275
or I’ll be buried here in Sparta, an exile.
My chest has not been slightly grazed by the tip of
Cupid’s arrow: my wound goes deep – to the bone.
My truthful sister prophesied this, I remember –
that I’d be shot by a heavenly arrow. 280
Helen, don’t despise a love allotted by fate –
if you don’t, may the gods listen kindly to your prayers!
I’ve lots of ideas, but so we can speak at greater length face to face,
receive me in your bed during the silent night.
Surely you’re not ashamed and afraid to violate your vows 285
and to flout a formal marriage’s requirement of fidelity?
Ah, Helen, you’re too simple-minded, not to say unsophisticated:
do you think that loveliness like yours can avoid misbehaving?
You must make yourself less lovely or stop being hard-hearted;
beauty and chastity are enemies. 290
Jupiter and golden Venus delight in such secret love-making;
he, of course, fathered you through such secret love-making.
If heredity determines character, fidelity in a daughter
of Jupiter and Leda is scarcely possible.
Do be faithful, however, when you’re in my Troy; 295
please confine your adultery to me alone.

Let’s have sex now (our wedding-day will legitimize it,
if only Venus didn’t make an empty promise to me).
Menelaus himself urges you on by his action, if not his words –
absenting himself to allow his guest to make love secretly. 300
What a wonderfully astute husband – he couldn’t find a more
suitable time for viewing his kingdom in Crete!
In his instructions on the point of leaving he delegated to you
care of his affairs and your Trojan guest.
I solemnly swear, you’re ignoring your absent husband’s instructions: 305
you don’t care for your guest at all.
Helen, do you entertain the hope that this man with no brain
is capable of properly recognizing your beauty’s riches?
You’re wrong – he doesn’t know. If he really valued what
he has, he wouldn’t entrust it to a stranger. 310
Even though you’re not aroused by my words and my ardour,
I’m forced to take advantage of his complaisance –
otherwise I’d be stupid, even more so than him,
if I let such a risk-free time go by unused.
He’s all but brought a lover to you with his own hands; 315
make use of this simple-minded king’s instructions.
The night’s so long, and you lie in bed all alone;
I myself also lie in bed all alone.
Let’s get together, you and me, me and you, in bed.
Our rapture will make that night more radiant than noon. 320
Then I’ll commit myself on oath to Greek marriage-rites,
swearing to you by whatever gods you like.
Then, with an appeal in person, I’ll get you to set off to my realm,
if my confidence in myself is not misplaced.
If you’re ashamed and afraid to be seen as willingly accompanying me, 325
I’ll bear all the blame for this offence on my own.
I’ll do what Theseus and your brothers did (there isn’t a
precedent closer to you than that to get to you).
Theseus carried you off, they carried off Leucippus’ two daughters;
I’ll be classed with them as the fourth example of an abductor. 330
My Trojan fleet is here, equipped with tackle and crews;
their oars and the wind will soon speed us on our way.
You’ll pass through towns ruled by Troy, a mighty queen,
and the people will think a new goddess is with them.
Wherever you walk, they’ll burn cinnamon in your honour, 335
and sacrificed animals will collapse on the bloody ground.
My father and brothers, my mother and sisters, the Trojan
women and all of Ilium will bring you gifts.
Ah, I’m hardly telling you even a part of what lies ahead.
You’ll find there’s a lot more for you than is mentioned here. 340
If you are abducted, don’t be afraid that fierce fighting will follow us
and that great Greece will mobilize her forces.
Of all the women snatched so far has any been recovered by combat?
Believe me, there’s nothing to fear in connection with kidnap.
Thracians took princess Orithyia captive (for Boreas, they said), 345
and yet war wasn’t made on the country of Thrace.
Jason carried off Medea from Colchis on the first ship,
but his land of Thessaly wasn’t harmed by a Colchian army.
Theseus, who abducted you, also abducted Ariadne,
but her father Minos didn’t call his men to arms. 350
In such matters the terror is usually greater than the actual danger;
fearing everything that can possibly be feared is shameful.
However, if you want, imagine that a major war does start up –
I am also mighty, my weapons also wound.
Asia has as many resources as your land has; 355
it’s rich in men, rich and abounding in horses.
And Menelaus, the son of Atreus, will not be more courageous
than Paris or be rated as a better fighter.
When still almost a boy, I recovered our cattle and killed the enemies
who stole them – that’s why I’m also called Alexander. 360
When still almost a boy, I beat young men in various sports,
and among them were Ilioneus and Deiphobus.
Don’t imagine that I’m only to be feared in close combat:
my arrows strike where I intend them to.
You can’t ascribe to Menelaus such exploits in his early youth, 365
you can’t attribute prowess like mine to him, can you?
You can claim he has all kinds of qualities, but not Hector for a brother,
who, you’ll find, on his own is equivalent to an immense army.
You’re unaware of my capabilities, of how strong I am;
you don’t know the man you’re going to marry. 370
So either there won’t be a violent invasion to get you back
or the Greek soldiers will surrender before my warlike spirit.
And yet I’d be proud to take up arms for such a fine
bride. When the prize is great, men fight.
Also, if the whole world battles over you, 375
you’ll be famous for all time to come.
Just leave here, hopeful and fearless, as the gods are on our side.
I promised you pleasure. Demand it with total confidence.
Roman readers familiar with a famous episode in book 3 of Homer’s Iliad

would have particularly appreciated the absurdity of Paris’ boasts at 353ff. At
the start of that book the Greek and Trojan armies advance to do battle, and
Paris steps out to challenge the best of the Greeks to fight with him. Menelaus
immediately comes forward to confront him, and Paris’ heart fails him and he
promptly slips back into the Trojan ranks. Hector attacks him as a pretty boy
who disgraces the Trojans with his cowardice, unwilling to stand up to the bet-
ter man, whose wife he stole. Paris accepts the justice of Hector’s taunts and
agrees to fight Menelaus (with the winner to keep Helen, and the war then to
end). There is a formal truce, and the two enemies arm themselves and stride
out, glaring grimly.
They took up their positions not far from each other on the
duelling-ground, angrily brandishing their spears. 345
First Paris hurled his long-shadowing lance
and it struck the circular shield of Menelaus.
But it did not break through: its bronze head was bent
back by the stout shield. Next Menelaus, son of Atreus,
attacked with his spear, praying to father Zeus: 350
‘Lord Zeus, let me get revenge on godlike Paris,
who wronged me first. Crush him at my hands,
so future generations will shudder at the thought
of wronging a host who shows them friendship.’
With that he poised and hurled his long-shadowing lance, 355
and it struck the circular shield of Paris.
The mighty lance pierced the glittering shield,
forced its way through his ornate breastplate
and sliced right on through the side of his war-shirt.
But he twisted aside and escaped dark death. 360
Menelaus drew his silver-studded sword, reared up
and brought it down on the ridge of Paris’ helmet, but the
blade splintered on it and fell from his hand in pieces.
Lifting his eyes to the broad sky, Menelaus groaned:
‘Father Zeus, no other god is more deadly than you. 365
I really thought that I’d got revenge for Paris’ crime,
but now my sword has shattered in my hand,
and I threw my spear for nothing – I missed him.’
He lunged at Paris, seized his helmet’s horsehair crest, swung
him round and pulled him towards the well-greaved Greeks. 370
Paris was choked by the pressure on his soft throat of the
embroidered helmet-strap, which he’d tied tightly under his chin,
and Menelaus would have dragged him off and won great glory
but for the sharpness of the goddess Aphrodite, who saw
what was happening and snapped the leather strap. 375
The helmet came away empty in his massive hand.
He whirled it around and threw it among the well-greaved
Greeks, where his loyal comrades looked after it.
He leapt at Paris again, keen to kill him with his
bronze-tipped spear, but Aphrodite snatched Paris away, 380

concealing him in a thick mist (a very easy feat for a goddess),
and set him down in his fragrant, perfumed bedroom.
After that Aphrodite sends Helen to Paris, and they make love, while Menelaus
prowls through the ranks, looking for his enemy in vain. Homer says that if the
Trojans had seen him there, they wouldn’t have hidden him from Menelaus, as they
all hated Paris like black death.
Heroides 17
HELEN TO PARIS
The double Heroides are more complex than the single ones because they inter-
lock, and the second in each pair responds to the first and adds to it – clarifying,
correcting, providing a different perspective, bringing out new aspects etc. Within
these doublets there are correspondences, to bring the two poems neatly together,
and also differences, making for enlivening variety. By way of a change from 16
this epistle is much shorter; this time the writer is calm, sensible and realistic; she is
trying to cool down rather than fire up the addressee; and she argues against going
off together to Troy rather than for it. In common with 16 the irony continues
(although it is much less extensive), and again there is a sad undercurrent (as Helen
here takes the next step, facilitating the affair, which will be followed by elopement
and war), and this is also a very amusing letter.
This poem increases the entertainment value of Heroides 16 by making it
clear that Helen wasn’t such a tough nut to crack after all and Paris didn’t need
to go on and on and try so hard with her: confirming the hints of her interest
in him that she has already given (see 16.229f. and 249ff.), and taking them
much further, she here reveals that she is already very attracted by his good
looks, is in love with him and is willing to have a secret affair, and that she
actually got Menelaus out of their way by urging him to go to Crete. There are
comic rebounds too, as when Paris’ mention of Oenone and his suggestion that
Helen might be unfaithful to him at Troy backfire. Also diverting is her adroit
fencing, as she responds tartly to his digs (e.g. about her being unsophisticated
and coming from backward Greece) and questions and tops his boasts (for
example, about his bravery and high birth). In addition, because this epistle is
written at an early stage, before the love affair starts, and because she is trying
to lessen Paris’ ardour, we are given a quaint and piquant picture of Helen of
Troy, one of the most notorious adulteresses in the world, as a virtuous wife,
leading a perfectly respectable life, entirely free from scandal, erotically naive
Heroides 17: Helen to Paris 201
and inexperienced in adultery, and criticizing others for deserting a partner and
for being fickle, unfaithful and shameless.
However, she is in fact on the point of entering into a liaison. As you read the
poem below, ask yourself what exactly she is trying to achieve in it, how she goes
about securing her aims and why the letter is so long.
Now that your letter to me has defiled my eyes,

I feel there’s little glory to be won from not replying.
You came here and dared to violate the sacred laws of hospitality
and to incite a lawfully wedded wife to infidelity!
Of course, the land of Sparta received you in its harbour 5
after your voyage across the windy waves
and our palace didn’t keep its doors closed to you,
even though you came from a different race,
so you could wrong us to repay such great kindness!
Were you a guest or an enemy, entering with such intentions? 10
No doubt, even though this complaint of mine is so justified,
you judge it to be unsophisticated and call it that.
Let me be unsophisticated by all means, provided I don’t forget about
decency, and provided my way of life is free from scandal.
Although I don’t feign a severe expression on my face, 15
and I don’t sit here frowning harshly and stern,
my respectability is well known, I’ve led a blameless life so far
and nobody enjoys the prestige of having an affair with me.
So I wonder all the more what gives you such confidence in your project
and what’s made you hope that you’d get into my bed. 20
Because I was abducted once (since Theseus used force)
do you think I deserve to be abducted a second time too?
If I’d been seduced, I would have been in the wrong;
since I was abducted, what could I do except say ‘no’?
He took me off for his pleasure, but didn’t get what he wanted; 25
I came back untouched, except by fear.
I struggled, and that animal only snatched a few kisses
from me; he got nothing more than that off me.
You’re so wicked you wouldn’t have been content with that –
heaven help me! He wasn’t like you. 30
He returned me still a virgin, his restraint reduced his culpability,
and it’s clear that the young man repented what he’d done.
Did Theseus repent only for Paris to follow in his footsteps,
so my name would always be on men’s lips?
But I’m not angry – who gets annoyed with a lover? – 35
if only you’re not pretending when you say you love me.
For I doubt that too – not because I’m not fully aware
of my beauty and don’t have confidence in it,
202 Heroides 17: Helen to Paris
but because credulity is usually ruinous for girls,

and they say that men’s words aren’t to be trusted. 40
You claim others misbehave and few married women are faithful.
Who’s to stop my name being among the few?
My mother seemed to you a suitable precedent, and makes
you think you could persuade me by citing her,
but you’re wrong about her infidelity: she was deceived, by a 45
misleading appearance – her lover was disguised as a bird.
I can’t plead ignorance of anything, if I were to misbehave;
there’ll be no mistake on my part to mask the criminal act.
She was mistaken, not immoral, and her lover’s divinity made up for it.
They won’t call me fortunate for having Jupiter as my boyfriend. 50
But you boast of your birth, your ancestors and their royal titles.
My family is noble itself and illustrious enough.
To say nothing of my father-in-law’s descent from Jupiter and all the
distinction of Tyndareus and Pelops (son of Tantalus),
Jupiter is my father, thanks to Leda, who was taken in by his 55
disguise as a swan and trustingly caressed the bird in her lap.
Now go and tell all and sundry about the Trojan race’s
origins and Priam and his father Laomedon!
I respect them; but your great glory Jupiter (you’ll find)
is five generations removed from you, one from me. 60
Although I believe your land’s dominion is mighty,
I don’t think that Sparta’s is inferior to it.
And even if this place is not as rich and has fewer
men, yours is indisputably a barbarian land.
It’s true, your letter is rich in promises of gifts so splendid 65
that goddesses themselves could be won over by them;
but if I was now willing to overstep the bounds of decency,
you yourself would be a better reason for committing adultery.
Either I’ll maintain my spotless reputation forever,
or I’ll go for you rather than your presents. 70
I don’t spurn them, but the most welcome gifts are always
the ones made precious by the identity of the giver.
It means much more that you love me, that you work hard
to win me, that you sailed so far in hope of me.
However much I try to conceal it, I also notice your 75
shameless behaviour these days at dinner:
now you gaze at me with bold, lecherous eyes,
mounting an offensive which my eyes can scarcely stand,
now you sigh, and now you pick up the goblet right
after me and drink from the part where I drank. 80
Ah, I’ve noticed over and over again covert signs being
made by your fingers and your all but vocal eyebrows.
I’ve often feared that my husband would see them

and blushed at the signals you didn’t keep secret enough.
I’ve often said in a low voice or under my breath: 85
‘He has no shame,’ and I wasn’t mistaken over that.
I also read on the round table’s surface under my name
i love (the letters were drawn out with spilled wine).
But I told you I couldn’t believe that by rolling my eyes –
oh dear, I’ve already learned you can speak like this! 90
If I’d been inclined to misbehave, I would have been moved by
such endearments, my heart could have been won by them.
Also you’re extraordinarily handsome, I confess, and a
girl might want to go to bed with you.
Rather than abandoning decency as an adulteress, I’d even 95
prefer some unmarried woman to be happy with you.
Just learn from examples that one can do without a pretty partner;
to abstain from blessings and delights is a virtue.
How many young men, do you think, want what you want,
but are sensible? Or is Paris the only one with eyes? 100
You’re not more perceptive than them, you’re more bold and rash;
you’re not brighter, but you are too assured.
I wish you’d sailed here on your swift ship when
I was a virgin courted by a thousand suitors.
If I’d seen you, I’d have ranked you first out of the thousand. 105
My husband himself will pardon this judgment of mine.
You’re slow, too late. The pleasures you hope for have already been
taken over and appropriated. Another man has what you’re after.
But, while I might want to become your wife in Troy,
at the same time Menelaus doesn’t have me against my will. 110
Please stop tearing at my tender heart with your words;
don’t hurt me – you do say you love me.
Let me keep the lot that fortune has assigned to me;
don’t be keen to shame me by plundering my honour.
But you say Venus agreed to that, and in lofty Ida’s 115
valleys three goddesses showed themselves to you naked,
and when one granted dominion and the other military prowess,
the third one said: ‘You’ll be Helen’s husband.’
I for my part can scarcely believe that heavenly beings
submitted their beauty to your judgment. 120
Even if that is true, certainly the other part is made up –
when you say I was given as a reward for your decision.
I don’t have such confidence in my body as to think that
on the authority of a goddess I was the finest gift.
I’m content for my beauty to be commended in the eyes of men; 125
praise by Venus exposes me to divine envy.
No, actually I don’t dispute such praise by her, I even incline to it:
why deny the compliment I desire in my heart of hearts?
Don’t be angry because I’ve been very reluctant to believe you:
people usually take time to credit something as momentous as this. 130
So I’m delighted firstly that Venus found me so attractive
and secondly that I seemed the greatest prize to you,
and after you’d only heard of Helen’s charms you didn’t
prefer the honours offered by Pallas and Juno.
In your eyes, then, I am valour, I am glorious dominion! 135
I’d be as hard as iron if I didn’t love a heart like yours.
Believe me, I’m not as hard as iron; but I resist loving
someone who I think can hardly become my man.
Why try to furrow the watery shore with a curved plough
in hope of a crop ruled out by the very nature of the place? 140
I haven’t had a furtive affair; I’ve never deftly deceived
my faithful husband (the gods are my witnesses);
and now, as I entrust my words to a secret letter,
this is for me a new function for writing.
I envy those with experience. I’m ignorant of the world 145
and suspect that adultery’s path is difficult.
My very fear is causing me problems; I’m already in a
turmoil, and think that all eyes are on my face –
with good reason: I’ve heard hostile muttering by the people,
and Aethra has reported certain comments to me. 150
Conceal your love, unless you prefer to terminate it.
But why terminate it? You’re capable of concealing it.
On with the game, but discreetly! We have greater but not
total freedom as a result of Menelaus’ absence.
Certainly he’s set out for a distant place, obliged to go by business; 155
he had sound, solid grounds for suddenly sailing off –
or so it seemed to me. When he was wavering over leaving,
I said: ‘Go, but come back as soon as you can.’
He was delighted at the omen. He kissed me and said:
‘Take care of the house, my affairs and our Trojan guest.’ 160
I only just held back a laugh. While I struggled to suppress it,
all I could say to him was: ‘I will.’
He has sailed off to Crete with favourable winds,
but don’t think that means you can do anything you want.
My man is absent, but mounts guard over me in his absence – 165
or don’t you know that kings have a long reach?
My beauty is a problem too: the more you men persist
in praising me, the more grounds he has for fear.
I enjoy my reputation for loveliness, but it’s a nuisance just now;
it would have been better if I didn’t deserve my fame. 170
And don’t be surprised that he’s gone off and left you here with me:
he had trust in my character and way of life.
My looks cause fear, my way of life arouses confidence; he is
reassured by my virtue, made afraid by my beauty.
You say we mustn’t waste this freely offered opportunity and 175
must make use of my simple-minded husband’s complaisance.
That both appeals and appals; I haven’t made my mind up
properly yet; I’m wavering, I’m doubtful.
My husband is away, and you are sleeping on your own;
you’re taken by my beauty, as I am in turn by yours; 180
and the nights are long, and we already make love by letter;
and you’re charming (oh dear me, yes!), and we’re under the same roof.
God strike me dead if all that doesn’t encourage adultery;
however, there’s some fear that holds me back.
I wish you could compel me to do what you can’t persuade me to do! 185
My lack of sophistication should have been disposed of by force.
Sometimes wrong is profitable for the very people who are wronged.
At all events I could have been compelled to be happy in that way.
Let’s rather fight against the love we’re starting to feel, while it’s still new!
It doesn’t take much water to quench a fire that’s just been lit. 190
The love of strangers is unreliable; it strays, like them,
and, when you hope it’s completely dependable, it’s gone.
Hypsipyle is witness to that, and so is Ariadne, both
cheated when marriage to the man didn’t materialize.
You are unfaithful too. They say you deserted your 195
Oenone after loving her for many years.
You don’t deny it yourself. In case you don’t know it,
I’ve investigated very carefully everything to do with you.
Also, even if you wanted to be a loyal and steadfast lover,
you can’t: your Trojans are already unfurling their sails; 200
while you talk to me, making preparations for the night of love you
hope for, you’ll already have a wind to take you home.
Half-way through the voyage you’ll relinquish your brand-new delight
in me; your love will be gone, off with the winds.
Should I go with you, as you urge, see your celebrated Troy 205
and marry you, the grandson of great Laomedon?
Rumour spreads the word quickly, and I’m not so disdainful
of it as to let it tell the whole world of my disgrace.
Whatever will Sparta and all Greece, whatever will the
peoples of Asia and your Troy find to say about me? 210
Whatever will Priam and his wife, whatever will all your
brothers and your Trojan sisters-in-law think of me?
How will you be able to hope I’ll be faithful, how won’t
you be troubled by the example you yourself have set?
Whenever a stranger enters the harbour at Ilium, 215

he’ll make you feel anxious and afraid.
How often will you say to me yourself angrily ‘adulteress’,
forgetting that you’re reproaching yourself as well as me!
You’ll criticize the offence but also be the person who inspired it.
May the earth cover my face in my grave before that happens! 220
But, you say, I’ll enjoy Troy’s wealth and sumptuous luxury,
and I’ll get even more presents than those you promise;
I’ll definitely be given expensive purple fabrics
and I’ll be rich, with a great heap of gold.
Forgive me for saying it: your gifts aren’t worth that much; 225
somehow this Sparta of mine keeps me from leaving.
If I go to Troy and I’m maltreated, who will help me?
I won’t find my brothers there or my father to aid me.
Lying Jason promised Medea everything,
but drove her from his home none the less. 230
She didn’t have her parents Aeetes and Idyia or her sister
Chalciope to go back to when she was spurned.
I don’t fear anything like that, but Medea didn’t either.
Anticipation often misleads us into high hopes.
You’ll find that for every ship now tossed on the ocean 235
the sea was calm as it left its harbour.
I’m also terrified by the bloody torch which your mother
dreamed she bore before the day of your birth;
and I’m afraid of the warnings of the prophets who (they say)
predicted that Ilium would burn with Greek fire. 240
Although Venus is friendly to you because she was victorious
and beat the other two thanks to your decision,
I fear the pair of goddesses who, if your bragging is
true, didn’t win as a result of your verdict.
I have no doubt an expedition will be mounted if I go with you. 245
Ah, our love will pick its way through the midst of swords.
Do you think that the Thessalians declared savage war on the
Centaurs for the seizure of Hippodamia of Atrax,
but Menelaus, my two brothers and Tyndareus will be slow
to take action if we give them such good grounds for anger? 250
Despite your brave boasts and talk of courageous exploits
your beauty is at variance with your claims.
Paris, your body is better suited to loving than fighting.
Leave war to strong men; you be a lover, always!
Tell your acclaimed Hector to campaign instead of you; 255
bed, not the battlefield, is the place for your services.
I’d avail myself of them, if I had any sense and was a
little bolder; any sensible girl will avail herself of them –
or perhaps I will be sensible, abandon decency

and finally surrender, conquered at last. 260
You want us to discuss your proposition in secret, face to face:
I know what you’re after, what you’re calling a ‘discussion’.
But you’re moving too fast; your crop hasn’t ripened yet.
Delaying might help you get what you want.
Enough. I’ve confided my secret feelings to this letter, and my fingers 265
are tired from this furtive writing, so let me end now.
Let’s continue our conversation through my allies Aethra
and Clymene, my two attendants and advisers.
Helen is not only more shrewd than Paris but also makes a much better job of
achieving her aims in her letter, using some excellent psychology. She begins by
pretending to be outraged by his proposals and depicting herself as a respectable
married woman and faithful wife, to get him worried and wrong-footed from
the start, so that he will value her and be grateful for what she is prepared to
do with him. She does want to enter into a relationship with him, but there is a
danger of detection, so it must be a secret affair and he must be discreet. She tries
to damp down the ardour evident in his epistle, so he won’t do anything impetu-
ous and open, and give the game away. Hence her various references to the risks
and Menelaus’ long reach and her criticism of Paris for being too obvious at din-
ner. Hence too her unaccommodating responses to his approach – countering his
claims, showing she has not been taken in by his ploys and assurances, coming out
with objections and expressing doubts (about his love and fidelity and the Judg-
ment and Venus’ use of her as a bribe etc.). She is trying to calm him down; but she
doesn’t want to put him off totally. So among the many negative comments she
also works in encouragement for him (at 35, 67ff., 91ff., 103ff., 132ff., 153f., 157f.,
177ff., 198, 246, 253f., 257ff.). All of that and various abrupt changes of mood and
direction take him on something of a rollercoaster ride, to keep him off-balance.
She is willing for an affair, on her terms, but she definitely does not want to go
away with Paris. She speaks out strongly against elopement at 205ff., producing
various arguments and showing it as something that frightens her (the woman he
loves) and will be bad for her and him and his city. So that this refusal will not turn
him off completely, she has saved it until late on, after lots of cheering hints for
him, and she follows it up immediately with a very positive passage (257ff.) which
intimates at length and at the very end (for impact on Paris) that she will enter into
a liaison with him. This leaves the ball in his court. Presumably she is now waiting
for him to convince her through her maids that in response to this epistle he will
content himself with just a love affair and will be circumspect.
Paris ran on and on in his passionate letter, so quite a long reply would seem
necessary to lessen his fervour. It also seems reasonable to deduce another reason
for the length of Heroides 17: Helen is attracted physically to Paris and is in love
with him, so she may well be trying to exert some control over her own feelings
here, reminding herself repeatedly of the risks and the need to be secretive and
convincing herself that eloping is a very bad idea. Tragically after the relationship
began she did go off with him after all, causing the war she foresees here and all the
other deaths (including that of her beloved Paris).
There is a further layer to this poem, making for intellectual entertainment and
deflating epic personages, in the close connection with Latin love elegy (even more
developed here than in Heroides 4). The basic situation is one commonly found in
Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid’s Amores: Paris is equivalent to the elegist, who loves
a puella, a sexy and beautiful girl (= Helen), appeals to her, writes elegiac poetry to
her and enters into a furtive affair with her, eluding her vir, the man currently in
possession of her, who guards her and is largely on the periphery, an enemy to be
outwitted (the role filled by Menelaus). More than that, Paris and Helen actually
conform to Ovid’s advice on how to conduct a love affair in the Ars Amatoria. So, as
the poet recommends at A.A. 1.437ff. and 597ff., Paris approaches his girl by means
of a letter filled with pleas and promises, and at a dinner party feigns drunkenness
so that he can speak freely. He also utilizes the opportunities in that situation men-
tioned by Ovid at 1.569ff.:
Here you can make lots of veiled remarks with hidden

meaning, so she can realize they are aimed at her, 570
and you can write compliments on the table in thin smears
of spilt wine, so she can read that she’s your girl,
and you can gaze into her eyes with patently passionate eyes
(a silent look often speaks volumes).
Make sure you’re the first to grab the goblet touched by 575
her lips, and drink from the part where she drank.
So too Helen ensures that Paris believes she loves him (in accordance with A.A.
3.673), and employs the tactics of delaying and blowing hot and cold which Ovid
urges on his female readers at 3.473ff.:
Write back after a brief delay: delay always

spurs on lovers, so long as it’s short.
However, when propositioned, don’t promise you’ll give in, 475
but don’t harshly refuse what the young man wants either.
Make him simultaneously fear and hope; and in each reply
increase his hope and decrease his fear.
There are also some twists to standard elegiac elements. Unlike the elegist this
lover is of noble birth, offers lavish presents, is inside the girls’ house (instead of
being locked out) and will be wounded and die literally (in battle) rather than
metaphorically (in love). Unusually for the puella, Helen is of high birth and at
present chaste and concerned with decency; she does not lie and is not merce-
nary, rating love as more important than gifts, and not scorning Paris’ poetry;
and she will be faithful to him. In fact, uniquely for elegy, their relationship will
be happy, long-lasting and solid, actually or in effect a marriage, terminated only

by Paris’ death.
Heroides 17 is also interesting from a narrative point of view. By presenting
Helen’s thoughts and arguments at this point Ovid gives new life to a very old
tale. He produces novel spins and often highlights the pathos of what did hap-
pen subsequently by conjuring up a whole series of alternative scenarios based on
Helen’s protestations, suggestions and fears – she maintains her respectability and
stays faithful to her husband; Paris and Helen fight against their love and terminate
it; Menelaus finds out what is going on (which would promptly put an end to rela-
tions); Paris leaves without her and forgets her; they have a furtive affair only and
do not elope; she goes with Paris to Troy, but he is unfaithful to her or suspects
her of infidelity (which might well finish the liaison). We are also given here an
incomplete narrative, which is intriguing. We know that she will depart with Paris
despite her strong opposition to that notion here, but we are left to speculate why.
Was it fate and/or the gods? Did she get carried away with passion when she started
having sex with him? Did he seduce or pressurize her into leaving? Or was there
some other cause?
What are we to make of Helen as she appears in antiquity? Was she the perfect
match for Paris? Or, as Oenone says at Heroides 5.71, a slut? Can we see her as a
modern woman – free to make her own choices and living an erotic life? Is she
a femme fatale, resplendent in her ageless beauty that is renowned far and wide?
A woman of great elegance and innocence, and a victim of the gods’ scheming? Or
is she the wilfull and willing harlot who abandons husband and daughter in order
to carry on a salacious affair? Or did only a phantom of Helen go to Troy? She is
frequently said to be the source of tremendous heartache and destruction for Tro-
jans and Greeks in ancient literature.Yet we also see that she is, perhaps surprisingly,
not always cast in a negative light. She is in fact a complex figure, with conflicting
portraits, as a glance at several ancient authors’ views of her will show.
The Homeric epics encapsulate the very essence of Helen’s story and the out-
come of her elopement (or in some versions abduction). In an important scene in
the Iliad Helen identifies the Greek heroes before Troy, pointing them out directly
to Priam early in the poem (3.178ff.), and although she is not the direct focus of the
epic, she embodies what the men are fighting for – kleos (glory) and geras (a prize of
honour) – two key concepts in heroic culture. But does this Helen, who is found
weaving, and who covers her face, weeps and is filled with self-reproach (6.342ff.)
and also regret, really seem like she has been a willing participant in the conflict?
Even Priam himself tells her that he blames the gods, not her, for the war (3.162ff.),
and she states at 3.428ff. that she wishes that Paris had been defeated by her hus-
band Menelaus in their recent duel. In addition to this depiction, several of her key
and recurring traits are brought to the fore. Helen’s arete (excellence), the beauty for
which she remains famous, is described as being like that of the immortals, and it is
the aspect which is emphasized repeatedly, both by other Homeric characters and
by the epithets attached to her by the poet, such as ‘of the white arms’ and ‘shining
among women’.
In the Odyssey Helen is again a woman of power and beauty, and she performs
the important role of hostess in a scene of domestic bliss where, back with Mene-
laus, she tells Odysseus’ son Telemachus the story of her recognizing his father at
Troy (4.219ff.). But not once does she ever accept responsibility for the effects of
her beauty, and not even long-suffering Penelope blames her (23.220ff.).Two other
significant elements are also brought out – Helen knows about drugs and their
ability to alleviate men’s suffering, and she appears to have prophetic powers, in that
she is able to foretell Odysseus’ successful return home to Ithaca. She is after all the
daughter of Zeus and Leda, and so exceptional qualities are not entirely surprising.
She receives mixed notices in Greek lyric poetry. Round about 600 bc the poet-
ess Sappho was very positive about Helen, depicting her as a great beauty under the
sway of love. At about the same time the male poet Alcaeus blamed her for causing
bitter grief for Priam and his sons and the destruction of Troy. A little later Stesi-
chorus in his Palinode painted an entirely different picture of her, or at least of her
culpability. He tells us that Helen never went to Troy, but rather a phantom of her
was sent there by the gods, and she herself was whisked away to Egypt, a suitably
mysterious place for such a famous woman.
In fifth-century Greek tragedy she figures especially in the dramas of Euripides
(Andromache, Hecuba, Electra, Iphigeneia in Tauris and Iphigeneia at Aulis). References
to her by characters in his plays are always hostile, and she is portrayed as clever and
treacherous. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon at 688ff. the chorus claim that her name is
very apt, connecting it with helein (= ‘destroy’), and criticize her as a destroyer of
ships, men and cities. The charge is repeated at 1455ff., and the only person who
defends her (at 1464ff.) is her half-sister Clytaemnestra, the adulteress who murders
her own husband.
The view of Helen in the Aeneid, with its pro-Trojan bias, differs from the earlier
Homeric one. In book 2 the Trojan hero Aeneas is up on the roof of Priam’s palace,
where he has just witnessed helplessly the death of the king, as Troy is captured
and burns. Suddenly he catches sight of her seeking refuge in a shrine, and he is so
bitter over the suffering she has caused that shockingly this devout hero is on the
point of violating sanctuary and killing an unarmed woman, until his mother Venus
intervenes. He tells the story in enraged and highly condemnatory lines at 567ff.:
And now I was the only one left, when I caught sight of
Helen, silently lurking in Vesta’s secluded shrine, keeping close
to the doorway: the fire provided a bright light for me, as I
wandered all over the roof and ran my eyes over everything. 570
Fearing Trojan hostility because of their city’s overthrow
and Greek punishment and the anger of the husband she’d
deserted, that hateful Fury, that scourge of Troy and her
own country too, had hidden and was sitting at the altar.
Rage blazed up in my heart, I burned to get revenge for the fall 575
of my fatherland and to inflict a criminal punishment.
‘Will she really get off unscathed, to set eyes on Sparta and
return to her Greek homeland as a queen in triumph?

She’ll look on her husband, her father’s palace and her children,
attended by a throng of Trojan women as her slaves, 580
after Priam has died by the sword and Troy has gone up in flames
and our shores have sweated with blood over and over again?
No! Even if there isn’t anything glorious or notable
in punishing a woman, such a victory is praiseworthy;
I’ll be praised nonetheless for exterminating an evil and inflicting 585
well-deserved punishment, and I’ll take pleasure in sating my rage
. . . and getting satisfaction for my dead countrymen.’
Later, when down in the Underworld, Aeneas encounters the ghost of the Tro-
jan prince Deiphobus, who became Helen’s husband after Paris was killed, and who
was betrayed by her on Troy’s final night. He was asleep, and she stole his sword and
then called Menelaus in, hoping that this act of treachery would make up for her
adultery. The ghost retains the cruel disfigurement of the living man facilitated by
Helen (6.494ff.):
Here too he saw Priam’s son Deiphobus: his whole body

was butchery; his face had been brutally hacked, 495
his face and both his hands; the ears had been ripped from his
ravaged temples; and his nose had been sliced off – a vicious wound.
This brief survey of a few ancient portraits of Helen leads into the big question
of her guilt. Is she innocent or guilty? Depending on the era to which the narrative
belongs, we find differing views on moral responsibility and the concept of guilt
(see Maguire 109ff.). Whether Helen is a willing participant in her departure from
Sparta (Aeschylus Agamemnon 57f.) or a victim of the gods (Homer Iliad 3.164) or
Paris (Iliad 3.39, 6.281f.), some authors mention a benefit to the abduction in so
far as the Greek world became unified (e.g. Euripides Andromache 167f.). And she
is such a beautiful prize that her husband Menelaus is willing to forget the past and
not do away with her as he had intended (Andromache 250ff.). The duality of praise
and blame is played out in Helen’s entire history. From a contemporary point of
view what we can see is that as a woman Helen is subject to the desires and designs
of men in the male-dominated Greek world. She is the object for which they vie,
and she has little or no say in what happens to her. And it is mainly male authors
who determine the presentation of her in literature.
For more on Helen see especially Grafton & Most & Settis 422ff. and Blondell.
Heroides 18
LEANDER TO HERO
Two young lovers, Leander and his girlfriend Hero, lived in towns on either side
of the strait (narrow strip of sea) called the Hellespont (now known as the Darda-
nelles, in north-east Turkey). He lived on the western side in Abydos, and she lived
in Sestos, just under a mile away across the channel. They had to keep their love
secret (at 13f. below we are told that he feared detection by his parents, who would
presumably have objected to the relationship for some reason). So Leander used to
swim across to her at night, guided not by the stars in the sky but by the lamp she
lit in her tower. (In 1810 the English poet Byron swam the strait, proving that the
crossing was practicable, despite a strong current.) At the time of this letter stormy
weather has made the trip too dangerous for a week, and Leander here writes to
Hero to assure her of his love and explain why he hasn’t visited her. Subsequently
(after her reply in Heroides 19) he couldn’t wait any longer, and tried to swim across
the still wild sea, but drowned. His body was washed up on the shore before Hero,
and when she recognized it, she committed suicide.
These two lovers are very different characters from Paris and Helen. There is
also variety in their circumstances (they are physically separated, both are unmar-
ried, and Leander is still subject to his parents) and in the purpose of this letter (and
Hero’s epistle). This time pathos is very much to the fore instead of humour, and
there are also many more mythological allusions.
Those allusions have subtle and sombre point, and so need to be explained. At
41ff., where there is reference to Boreas (the North Wind) enamoured of and car-
rying off the Athenian princess Orithyia, we can see a poignant contrast between
the mortal Leander and that wind god, who was unstoppable and had a lasting
union with his girl. At 49f. Leander wishes that he had the wings invented by the
master craftsman Daedalus, which enabled him to fly off with his little boy Icarus,
and he mentions the end of that child, who recklessly flew too close to the sun,
which melted the wax holding the feathers together, so that he plunged to his
Heroides 18: Leander to Hero 213
doom in the sea below. There is foreshadowing there of the young Leander’s own
death at sea due to his recklessness. Lines 61ff. concern the moon-goddess’ passion
for handsome Endymion, by whom she had fifty daughters, and so (unlike Leander
now) she had access to her darling and was lucky in love. Ovid may also want us
to think of the famous eternal sleep on Mount Latmos of Endymion (at his own
request or brought about by the Moon so that she could always visit him), which
ensured that he was immortal, in contrast to Leander, although the latter will soon
endure an endless sleep (of death) himself.There is also grim prefiguring at 81f.: the
heroine Alcyone’s beloved husband Ceyx was drowned (in a shipwreck), his body
was washed up before her and in deep despair she tried to kill herself, by leaping
into the ocean (but she was turned into a bird, the halcyon, and lived on, unlike
Hero). With a doubly ominous touch 117 and 139ff. bring up the origin of the
name of the Hellespont, which means literally ‘Helle’s Sea’. The boy Phrixus and
the girl Helle were rescued (from being sacrificed) by a flying ram with a golden
fleece, and flew east from Greece on it, but as they made their way over the strait
Helle fell off the ram and drowned. The young heroine Hero will also die in that
area; Leander will not survive, as the hero Phrixus did, but will end his life in the
waves there, like Helle. There are mournful associations in the myths attached to
the stars mentioned at 151–4: Andromeda was chained to a cliff and waited in ter-
ror to be devoured by a sea-monster (before being rescued by the hero Perseus);
Ariadne was abandoned and distraught on an island (until Bacchus appeared and
claimed her as his wife, turning her crown into a constellation); and Callisto was
impregnated by Jupiter and persecuted by Juno, being changed into a bear and
very nearly being shot by her own son (but Jupiter saved her from that by placing
her in the sky as the Great Bear). Like those females Hero will also suffer. But they
all happily escaped their sufferings and had a continued (and glorious) existence
in heaven. So too Perseus, Bacchus and Jupiter were powerful and prospered and
lived on, in contradistinction to Leander. Finally, at 181f. Leander actually compares
himself to a dead person in the Underworld, when he describes the punishment
there of the mythical sinner Tantalus, who was for all time rooted to the spot in a
pool of water, which always receded when he tried to drink it, and under a branch
of fruit, which was always whisked away when he tried to seize it and eat (hence
our verb ‘tantalize’).
There are also many other elements that help make this a dismal poem. Look for
them as you read the translation below.
Leander hereby sends Hero the greetings that he would rather

give her in person, if the sea became calm.
If the gods are friendly to me, if they support me in my love,
you’ll be disappointed that you’re only reading these words of mine.
But they’re not friendly: they stop me getting what I long for 5
and don’t let me quickly swim across the water I know so well.
You see yourself the sky blacker than pitch and the strait churned up
by the winds, scarcely approachable even for hollow ships.
214 Heroides 18: Leander to Hero
Only one sailor (a daring man) has set sail from the harbour –
the one who delivers my letter to you. 10
I would have boarded his ship, but for the fact that when he
undid its mooring-cables, all of Abydos was watching.
I couldn’t have kept things from my parents as before,
and the love we want hidden would have been revealed.
I promptly wrote this letter, and said: ‘Go, you lucky thing! 15
She will soon reach out her lovely hand to you.
Perhaps she’ll even put her lips to you and touch you with them,
as she tries to break your fastening with her snow-white teeth.’
I spoke those words to myself in a low murmur,
and let my right hand say the rest on paper. 20
I’d much rather have my hand swim than write
and diligently take me across those familiar waters.
It’s certainly more suited to thrashing through a tranquil sea;
and yet it is also suited to conveying my feelings.
It’s now the seventh night (a period longer than a year to me) 25
that the sea’s been seething and heaving with raucous waves.
If I’ve had a soothing sleep during those nights,
may the strait long continue to rage insanely!
Sitting on a rock, I sadly gaze at your shore, transported
in thought to a place where I can’t go physically. 30
What’s more, my eyes see or think they see
a light wide-awake at the top of your tower.
I’ve taken off my clothes and put them down on the dry sand three times;
I’ve tried to complete that arduous journey three times.
The furious sea obstructed my strenuous attempts, 35
engulfing my head with hostile waves as I swam.
But you, Boreas, wildest of the violent winds,
why are you intent on making war on me?
It’s me you’re raging against, not the ocean, let me tell you.
You couldn’t be crueller if you knew nothing of love yourself. 40
For all your coldness, you savage, surely you don’t deny that
you once burned with passion for Orithyia of Athens?
If someone had decided to block your access by air to that delightful girl
when you were about to carry her off, how would you have taken it?
Please spare me, be gentler, produce a helpful breeze – if you do, 45
may your king Aeolus have no harsh commands for you!
A pointless request: Boreas roars against my prayer himself,
and doesn’t calm the water churned up by him anywhere.
I wish Daedalus would give me his daring wings now, even though
the shore where his Icarus fell to his death is nearby. 50
I’ll endure whatever happens, provided I can raise into the air this
body of mine, which has often floated on dangerous waves.
Meantime, while the winds and the strait completely thwart me,
I turn over in my mind the start of my secret affair.
Night was just beginning (this is a happy memory for me) 55
when I left my father’s house on my journey of love.
Immediately, laying aside my fear along with my clothes,
I struck out through the yielding water with supple arms.
For most of my swim the Moon provided a flickering light for me,
like an attendant helping me on my way. 60
Looking up at her, I said: ‘Radiant goddess, be kind to me,
think of your Endymion on Mount Latmos.
In view of your love for him you can’t be a prude at heart.
Please take notice of my secret affair.
Though a goddess, you glided down from heaven in pursuit of that mortal; 65
let me speak the truth: the one I’m making for is a goddess herself.
To say nothing of her character, which is worthy of a divinity,
beauty like hers only falls to the lot of genuine goddesses.
Nobody has a lovelier face than hers, except for Venus and you;
don’t rely on what I say – see for yourself! 70
When your silvery rays gleam in a cloudless sky,
your blazing light surpasses all the stars by far:
that’s how much more beautiful she is than all other beauties.
If you doubt this, Moon, your bright eyes are blind.’
After saying this, or at any rate something close to this, 75
on I went through water that gave way to me voluntarily.
The waves were radiant with the reflected image of the moon,
producing the brightness of day in the silent night.
There was no sound anywhere, nothing came to my ears
apart from the ripple of the water parted by my body. 80
Only the halcyons, remembering beloved Ceyx,
seemed to me to make some sweet lament.
Now both my arms from the shoulder down were tired out, but with a
stout effort I raised myself up high on to the crest of a wave.
I saw your light from afar and said: ‘There’s the girl who gets 85
me on fire, the light of my life is on that shore.’
Suddenly strength returned to my weary arms
and the sea seemed gentler to me than it had been.
The love burning in my eager heart makes me
unable to feel the cold of the chilly water. 90
The closer I approach and the nearer the shore becomes
and the less that remains to be done, the more I enjoy going on.
And when I can be seen as well as see you, being watched by you
immediately gives me heart and makes me strong.
Now I also try hard to please my girlfriend with my swimming 95
and strike out with a flourish for your benefit as you look on.
Your nurse only just managed to stop you wading out into the sea
(I saw this too, and my eyes didn’t deceive me).
But, although she clung to you as you went forward, she didn’t keep
you from stepping into the shallows and getting your feet wet. 100
You hug me in welcome and give me happy kisses – great gods,
it was well worth crossing the strait for those kisses!
You take the cloak from your shoulders and give it to me,
and dry my hair dripping with sea-water.
We know what we did after that, and so do the night, and our accomplice 105
the tower, and the lamp that shows me the way through the waves.
The delights of that night are beyond counting,
as many as the strands of seaweed in the Hellespont.
The time granted to us for our secret love-making was short,
so we were all the more careful to make sure it wasn’t wasted. 110
And now Dawn, Tithonus’ wife, was about to chase away the night,
and the morning star had risen, leading the way for her –
in a rush we showered a welter of hasty kisses on each other
and complained that night only allowed us to linger briefly.
I stayed on and on doing that, until the nurse’s painful warning 115
made me leave your tower and go to the chilly shore.
We parted in tears, and I returned to Helle’s Sea,
continually looking back at my girlfriend, as long as I could.
Trust me, this is true: I seem to myself to be swimming when I
leave Abydos, but shipwrecked when I return here. 120
Also, if you’ll believe me, it seems the way to you is downhill,
while the return from you is uphill, and the water resists me.
I go back to my fatherland against my will (who could believe it?),
and I definitely remain in my city now against my will.
Ah, why are we united in soul but separated by the ocean, 125
two people of one mind, but not of one country?
Let your Sestos take me or my Abydos take you;
I’m as attracted to your land as you are to mine.
Why am I in a turmoil whenever the strait is in a turmoil?
Why can something as insubstantial as a wind hinder me? 130
By now the curving dolphins know about our love
and I think that the fish know me.
By now I’ve crossed so often you can see the track I’ve worn in the sea,
like a road that lots of wheels run over.
Before I complained that this was my only way to you; 135
but now I complain that the winds deny me this way too.
The Hellespont is foaming white with massive breakers,
and ships that stay in their harbours are scarcely safe.
I imagine the sea was as wild as this when it first got
the name it bears from Helle being drowned in it. 140
This place is infamous enough as a result of the loss of Helle;

even if it spares me, its crime is there in its name.
I envy Phrixus, for being carried safely across this savage
strait by the woolly ram with its golden fleece.
But I don’t want an animal or a ship to help me, 145
so long as I get the kind of sea I can swim through.
I don’t lack anything; if it just becomes feasible to breast the waves,
I’ll be ship, sailor and passenger all in one.
I’m not guided by Helice or by Arctos (like the Phoenicians):
my love isn’t interested in the stars commonly used by helmsmen. 150
Let others fix their eyes on Andromeda and the bright Crown
and the Arcadian Bear that glitters in the frozen pole.
I don’t want those who were loved by Perseus, Bacchus and
Jupiter to point me on my dangerous way:
there’s another light, for me much more trustworthy than them; 155
with its guidance your lover doesn’t go astray in the dark.
Provided I saw that, I could carry on to Colchis, to the
furthest part of the Black Sea, where the Argo sailed,
and I could swim further than the youthful Palaemon,
than Glaucus, who ate that herb and suddenly turned into a god. 160
My arms are often weary and weak from the continual strokes
and I can hardly drag them through that huge expanse of water.
When I say to them: ‘I’ll soon give you a splendid reward
for your hard work – my girlfriend’s neck to clasp’,
immediately they’re strong, straining towards their prize, 165
like a swift horse let out of an Olympic starting-gate.
So I keep my eyes on you, my darling, guiding myself by the girl
who I love, who is more worthy of a place in heaven.
You’re certainly worthy of that; but stay on earth for a while yet,
or tell me how I too can find a way up to the gods! 170
You are here, yet you have little contact with your miserable lover;
the sea’s in a frenzy, and so am I.
What’s the use to me of not being separated from you by a broad ocean?
Such a narrow strait is no less an obstacle to me, is it?
I wonder whether I’d prefer being remote, the whole world away
from you, 175
so my girlfriend and my hope of her were far from me.
Now the nearer you are to me, the nearer is the fire of love, burning me,
and the hope is always with me, but not the girl I hope for.
The one I love is almost close enough to be touched by my hand,
but, ah, that ‘almost’ often moves me to tears. 180
I’m like Tantalus, wanting to seize the fleeing fruit,
and pursuing with hopeful lips the receding water.
So then, will I never hug you except with the leave of the waves,
and will I always be miserable when there’s a storm?

Although there’s nothing less reliable than the wind and the waves, 185
will my hopes always depend on the winds and the sea?
Yet it’s still summer. It will be worse for me later, at the rising
of the Pleiades, Bootes and Capra, when the ocean is enraged.
Either I’m less reckless than I think, or my love will throw caution
aside and send me out into the strait even then; 190
so you don’t think I’m promising this because that time is off in the future,
I’ll soon give you a guarantee of this commitment.
If the sea’s still rough for a few nights more,
I’ll try to cross even though the waves don’t want me to;
either I’ll survive and my daring will meet with success 195
or death will put an end to my anxious love.
But I’ll pray that I’m washed up on your shore
and that your harbour holds my shipwrecked body.
For then you’ll cry and see fit to touch my corpse
and say: ‘I was the cause of this man’s end!’ 200
I’m sure that you’re upset by this omen of my death
and find this part of my letter hateful.
I’ll speak no more of that. Don’t complain. But please add
your prayers to mine that the sea puts an end to its anger.
I need a brief period of calm, until I get over there to you; 205
when I’ve reached your shore, let the storm go on and on!
There’s a dockyard there that’s just right for my ship,
there’s no stretch of water where it’s laid up better.
Let Boreas confine me there, where it’s a pleasure to linger!
Then I’ll be slow to swim, then I’ll be wary, 210
and I won’t curse the unresponsive waves at all or complain that
the strait is savage when I’m on the point of swimming.
I want to be held by your tender arms and also by the winds,
prevented from leaving for both those reasons.
When this storm lets me, I’ll use my arms as oars – 215
just keep your lamp constantly where I can see it.
Meanwhile let this letter spend the night with you in place of me.
I’m praying that I’ll follow it after a very short delay.
As you will have seen, in addition to the allusions which were explained above
there is much more that makes for mournfulness here, and there is impact in the
concentration of so many dismal details (over a full 218 lines).There is great pathos
in the situation itself. Two young lovers are cruelly parted from one another, and
will soon meet early deaths as a result. Tragically, but for his fear of detection by
his parents, Leander could have sailed safely over to Hero with the sailor who car-
ried this letter (11–14), and not been drowned later on, trying to make his own
way to her. So too in this epistle we see clearly that Leander is deeply in love,
very frustrated and absolutely miserable, and the fact that he is in such a condition
after only one week’s separation from Hero shows the profundity of his passion.
Touchingly he is here desperate to reassure his girlfriend that he loves her, longs to
see her again and is only kept away by the extreme danger involved in negotiat-
ing the strait. But in his emotional state and because of youthful impetuosity he
thoughtlessly comes out with remarks which would upset his darling and make
things harder for her, as when he dwells on their blissful first tryst (101ff.) and the
pain of their separation then (111ff.) and depicts himself as dead (196ff.). At the
same time by recalling that initial encounter Leander would torment himself, and
make himself more likely to try to repeat that crossing, especially when he pictures
himself coping well with it before and inspired to great feats of swimming by the
thought of his girl (85ff., 155ff.).
On top of all that extensive foreboding is created by the frequent mentions of
the stormy weather and wild sea which will kill the young man, and by his claim
that Hero is a goddess at 66ff. (which might well offend heaven and invite punish-
ment), and by his words of ill omen at 196ff., where he refers to himself as drowned.
There is also foreshadowing of his demise at 35f., 83, 161f. and 193f. A depressing
futility is in evidence at several points – in the prayer to Boreas to be gentle and
produce a helpful breeze at 45f., in the wish for Daedalus’ wings at 49f. and in his
hopes for a calm Hellespont and a prolonged stay with his girlfriend at 205ff.There
is also lots of bleak irony. At 114 and 135f. Hero and Leander complain about
things, but they will soon have much more to complain about. In 124 he says that
he is remaining in his city against his will, when he should be happy to stay there,
until the storm is over. He depicts himself as swimming all the way to Colchis and
being a better swimmer than two sea-gods (157ff.), but he won’t even get as far as
Sestos and will prove to be far inferior to them in the water before long. And in
206 and 209 he imagines himself reaching Hero’s shore and lingering there, when
he will soon be doing that as a corpse. Look for more irony (for instance, in 183
and 187f.).
Ovid ensures that the pathos is not overdone and achieves a nuanced complexity
by working in just a few, slight touches of unconscious humour in Leander’s words,
thanks to a realistic and affecting naivety and boyish excitability and exaggeration,
so that we can smile now and then amid all the sadness. So his appeal to Boreas at
37ff. is quite comically inept, as he is so rude that he is most unlikely to win over
the god. He produces an amusingly pedantic correction of himself in 75 (‘after
saying this, or at any rate something close to this’). He promptly contradicts his
claim in 79 that the sea he swam through was totally silent by mentioning noises at
80–2; and he does the same thing again later, maintaining at 162 that he has to get
through a huge expanse of water to reach Hero, and then refuting that in 173, 174
and 179. He also asks a silly question in 130 (‘why can something as insubstantial as
a wind hinder me?’). See if you can find any other instances of such gentle humour
(for example, at 131f. and 133f.).
For other versions of this story, including a possible earlier Greek poem known
to Ovid, see Kenney 10ff. The late Greek poet Musaeus handled the love of this
pair in a rather different way. In the (typically ornate and elaborate) extract quoted
below (Hero and Leander 86ff.) he describes their first sight of each other. Which
poet is more convincing and more moving in presenting Leander’s passion? Which
one gives a better insight into the youth’s thoughts and feelings, and how does he
achieve that greater penetration?
Leander, when you saw that glorious girl you really suffered.
You didn’t want to be goaded and secretly exhausted by love,
but you couldn’t live without the beautiful Hero, now that
you’d been unexpectedly overcome by Eros’ fiery arrows.
At the bright gaze of her eyes Love’s torch flared up, 90
and the onset of that invincible fire made your heart seethe.
(For the far-famed beauty of a flawless woman
is for men something sharper than a winged arrow;
its route is the eye; beauty glides out of the eye’s
glances and makes its way into the hearts of men.) 95
Then he was seized by awe, shamelessness, trembling, shame:
his heart trembled, he was ashamed at succumbing, he felt
awe at her exceptional beauty, and passion drove out shame.
Passion made him boldly embrace shamelessness,
and he quietly went up and stood before the girl. 100
Looking out of the side of his eyes, he darted out insidious glances,
nodding without speaking, and trying to allure the girl.
She understood that the artful Leander desired her
and was elated at his handsomeness; she herself quietly
turned her lovely gaze on him again and again, 105
sending him a message with slight nods of her head,
and then turning away again. And his heart glowed inside him,
because she understood his desire and didn’t reject it.
At Metamorphoses 4.55–166 Ovid tells the story of Pyramus and Thisbe, another
pair of parted and doomed young lovers. There is pathos in that passage too, but
much more (dark) humour (for example, the lovers talk to a wall, and when they
meet together outdoors at night there is a grim comedy of errors and a gruesome
simile). Compare and contrast that account with Ovid’s tale of Hero and Leander.
Heroides 19
HERO TO LEANDER
The second poem in this pair responds to the first, giving us Hero’s (very similar)
reaction to the enforced absence of Leander, and taking the tragedy a step further
on. Contrasts with Heroides 18 make for the usual enlivening variety: for example,
19 is nothing like as densely packed with allusions, contains much less irony and
has no unconscious humour to lighten the tone a bit. But the correspondences
are much more numerous, and they are very effective. Both letters are filled with
pathos and foreboding, so the gloom is reinforced here. There are many other con-
nections which bring out how close and well-suited to each other these two young
people are, shortly before their separation becomes permanent. Like Leander, Hero
is deeply in love, frustrated and miserable. She also links herself to him: her first and
last couplets pick up his first and last couplets; in line 5 she states that she burns with
an equal fire; and in 22 she says that she uses almost the same words as he does to
berate the sea. In addition, she too finds a week’s delay long, speaks about their love-
making warmly but with a delicate restraint, fantasizes about him being blissfully
trapped in Sestos with her by bad weather and complains to a god and appeals to
him in the name of his own love to calm the sea. As you read the translation below,
see if you can find any more parallels and echoes, which draw the letters and the
lovers together. Also decide what Hero is likely to achieve here.
Leander, so that I can enjoy in actuality

the greetings you sent me in your letter, come!
For me all delay that puts off our pleasure is long.
Pardon my confession: I’m not a patient lover.
We burn with an equal fire, but my resolve isn’t equal to yours; 5
I suspect that men have a greater strength of purpose.
A tender girl’s will is weak, like her body –
if you delay a little longer, I’ll die.
222 Heroides 19: Hero to Leander
You men expend a lot of time in various pursuits:

sometimes you hunt, sometimes you farm your delightful land; 10
or the forum or god’s gift of oiled wrestling holds your attention,
or you ride an obedient horse, guiding it with the bridle;
you haul in now a bird with a net, now a fish with a hook;
you’re served wine which makes the evening glide away.
I’m denied all that; there’s nothing left for me to do but love, 15
and that would be so even if my passion wasn’t this fierce.
I do what’s left for me to do, and love you, my one and only heart’s
delight, even more than you could possibly love me in return.
Either I whisper about you to my grey-haired nurse,
wondering what stops you from coming to me, 20
or I look out at the sea churned up by the hateful wind
and berate the water, using almost the same words as you,
or, when the obnoxious waves become a little less savage,
I complain that you certainly could come, but don’t want to,
and while I complain, tears flow from my loving eyes, 25
which my old confidante dries with her shaking fingers.
Often I look to see whether your footprints are on the shore,
as if the sand would preserve marks made on it,
and so I can inquire about you and write to you, I ask if
anyone has come from Abydos or is going to Abydos. 30
Why mention how often I kiss the clothes which you take off
when you’re about to swim back across the Hellespont?
So too, when the light has gone and the friendlier time of night
has driven off the day and brought out the bright stars,
I immediately place at the top of my tower the wide-awake lamp 35
as a signal and marker for your customary crossing,
and we while away the lengthy wait with the women’s work of spinning,
drawing out the twisted threads as the spindle twirls.
Do you ask what I say meanwhile during that long, long time?
Nothing but the name of Leander is on my lips. 40
‘Nurse, do you think my darling has already left home,
or is he too scared, because all his family’s awake?
Do you think he’s already pulling his clothes off over his shoulders,
and already greasing his body with rich olive oil?’
She usually inclines her head, not because she cares about our kisses: 45
it’s sleep creeping up on the old woman and making her nod off.
After a very short delay I say: ‘He’s already at sea for sure,
stroking out with his supple arms and parting the water.’
When I’ve spun a few strands and the spindle has touched the floor,
I ask whether you could be half-way across the strait. 50
Now I look out, now I pray in a timid voice that
a helpful breeze will make your journey easy.
Heroides 19: Hero to Leander 223
My ears strain to make out indistinct noises, and I believe

that every one of them is the sound of you arriving.
After I have spent most of the night being frustrated 55
like this, sleep steals over my weary eyes.
(Perhaps you go to bed with me against your will, you traitor,
and come although you don’t personally want to come.)
For I dream that now I see you already swimming nearby
and now I feel the weight of your wet arms around my shoulders, 60
now I put the clothes I usually provide on your dripping body,
now I warm your chest pressed to mine,
and I’m too embarrassed to describe the many other things,
which I enjoy doing but must decorously pass over in silence.
Ah no, this is a momentary and unreal pleasure, as it’s 65
always your way to leave me when sleep does.
Oh, if only our passionate encounters could finally be more stable
and our loving delights could actually be real!
Why have I passed so many nights alone and cold? Why are you
so often absent, slow to come to me, lingering? 70
I admit, a swimmer couldn’t cope with the sea as it is now,
but last night the wind was gentler.
Why was that ignored? Why did you fear what wasn’t going to happen?
Why was such a good chance to cross not seized by you but wasted?
Even if a similar opportunity to come was given to you right away, 75
that one was surely better, as it was earlier.
You’ll object that the ocean’s peaceful appearance changed quickly,
but, when you hurry, you often arrive in less time than that.
If you’d been caught by the storm here, you’d have nothing to complain of,
I think, and while you held me close, no squall would hurt you. 80
Then I’d surely be delighted to hear the roaring winds,
and I’d pray for the water never to be calm.
But what has happened to make you more afraid of the waves
and frightened now of the strait you scorned before?
I remember when the sea was no less fierce and 85
threatening, or not much less, but you came,
when I shouted to you: ‘Be bold, but not so bold as to make me
miserable and in tears because you’ve been too brave.’
Where does this new fear come from, where has that daring gone?
Where’s that mighty swimmer who despised the water? 90
But be cautious like this rather than rash as you used to be before,
and cross the sea in safety when it’s calm,
provided you keep on loving me back, as you say you do in your letter,
provided that fire doesn’t turn into cold ashes.
I don’t dread the winds that impede my desire as much as 95
I fear that your love may be like a wind and wander off,
that I’m not worth it all, and I cause you too much danger,
and I don’t seem enough of a reward for your labours.
Sometimes I’m afraid my birthplace may be a problem, and as a girl
from Thrace I may be called unworthy of a husband from Abydos. 100
However, I can bear everything with more patience than I could bear it
if you’re idling because you’re captivated by some rival or other,
and another girl’s arms are placed around your neck,
and a new love is putting an end to our love.
Ah, I’d rather die than be wounded by such a crime of yours 105
and pass away before you’re unfaithful to me.
I don’t say this because you’ve given me some indication that I’ll
be hurt or I’ve been alarmed by some new rumour,
but because I’m afraid of everything (has any lover not worried?).
And being absent makes the heart more fearful. 110
How lucky they are, those girls who are with their lover, and so know
if he’s really unfaithful and don’t fear non-existent infidelity!
Baseless suspicions upset me as much as an affair I’m ignorant of would do;
in either case being deluded is equally painful.
Oh, I wish that you’d come, or that it’s the wind or your father – 115
certainly no woman – that keeps you there.
But if I do learn of some female, I’ll die of grief, believe me;
have an affair right now, if you want to kill me.
But you won’t have an affair, and my fears of that are groundless:
it’s the malevolent storm that opposes your arrival. 120
Ah, how huge the waves are that pound the shore,
how dark the clouds are that block and hide the daylight!
Perhaps Helle’s devoted mother has come to this strait,
and this downpour is her tears for her drowned daughter –
or is Helle’s stepmother, now changed into a marine goddess, 125
attacking the sea called by the hated name of her stepdaughter?
This place, as it now appears, is not kind to tender girls:
Helle died in these waters, and they cause me pain.
But you shouldn’t have let any romance be hindered by the winds,
Neptune, if you remembered your own loves – 130
that is if the stories are true about your misbehaviour with
Tyro and that highly celebrated beauty Amymone
and radiant Alcyone and Hecataeon’s daughter Calyce
and Medusa, before she had snakes entwined in her hair,
and blonde Laodice and Celaeno, who was admitted into the heavens, 135
and others whose names I remember reading.
Neptune, the poets tell that these for sure and more
slept with you, their soft flanks next to yours.
So, when you’ve experienced the power of love so often,
why close off our usual route with a tornado? 140
Have mercy, fierce god, and conduct your battle out on the ocean!
This stretch of water separating two lands is narrow.
As a great deity it is fitting for you to toss great
ships or even to savage entire fleets;
it’s disgraceful for the god of the sea to terrify a swimming youth; 145
you win less glory from that than from rippling any pond.
He’s definitely of noble birth and from an illustrious family,
but he’s not descended from the suspect Ulysses.
Be kind, and save us both. It’s Leander who swims, but
his body and my hopes depend on the same waves. 150
Look, my lamp has sputtered (it’s by me as I write),
it sputtered and gave us a good omen.
See, my nurse drips wine on to the auspicious flame and says:
‘Tomorrow there’ll be three of us,’ and drinks some herself.
Oh Leander, you’ve been welcomed deep inside my heart, right into it: 155
overcome the sea, glide over it and make us three.
Return to your camp, you deserter from our amorous alliance:
why do I sleep alone in the middle of the bed?
There’s nothing to fear! Venus herself will support your venture:
she was born of the sea, and will smooth your path across the sea. 160
I often have a good mind to go through the midst of the waves myself,
but this strait tends to be safer for men.
For, when Phrixus and his sister both rode this way, why did
the female alone give her name to these desolate waters?
Perhaps you’re afraid that you won’t have enough time to get back again 165
or you won’t be up to the hard work of swimming both ways.
Well then, let’s come together in the middle of the sea from our different
shores, let’s meet and kiss on the crest of a wave,
and then let’s each go back to our own city once more –
this won’t be much, but it’ll be more than nothing. 170
If only one of them would end – either this shame which makes us love
in secret or this love that’s afraid of what people will say!
As it is, passion and concern about public opinion (an ill-matched pair)
are at war, and I don’t know whether to go for propriety or pleasure.
Jason of Pagasae entered Colchis just once, and took 175
Medea on board his swift ship and carried her off;
the Trojan adulterer arrived at Sparta just once,
and returned with Helen as his spoil immediately.
But as often as you make for the girl you love, you leave her,
swimming off when it’s dangerous for ships to travel. 180
You have conquered the swollen sea, young man, but please,
please be sure to fear the strait while despising it.
Boats built with laborious skill are sunk by the ocean:
do you think your arms are more powerful than oars?
What you want – to swim – is what sailors dread, Leander, 185

as this is normally their fate if they are shipwrecked.
Poor me! I want to fail to persuade you in urging caution,
and I pray that you’re strong enough to withstand my warnings –
provided you make it to me, and put around my shoulders those
weary arms that have often struck out through the waves. 190
But whenever I turn to the dark blue waves, my heart
is chilled and paralyzed by some strange fear.
And I’m equally disturbed by a dream I had last night,
even though I’ve averted its bad omen by sacrificing.
For towards dawn, as the lamp was already drowsing, 195
at the time when we tend to see true visions,
my fingers went slack with sleep and dropped the threads,
and I laid my head down on a pillow to support it.
At that point I dreamt that I saw unmistakably
a dolphin swimming through the windswept waves, 200
then the sea threw the poor creature up on to the thirsty sand,
and the waves and life left it at the same time.
Whatever this means, I’m afraid; don’t laugh at my dream,
and don’t entrust yourself to the water unless it’s calm.
If you don’t spare yourself, spare the girl you love: 205
I’ll never be safe and sound, if you’re not safe and sound!
However, the sea is less violent, so I hope it will soon be at peace;
strike out through it when it’s tranquil with all your heart.
Meanwhile, since the strait can’t be crossed by a swimmer,
let this letter sent to you ease the hateful delay. 210
In Heroides 18 Leander teetered on the brink of crossing to Hero, but just man-
aged to hold back. In Her. 19 she admits at 5f. that she does not have such strength
of purpose, and she demonstrates her lack of self-control by asking him to come to
her in the very first couplet, and immediately following that up with the persuasive
3–8 (and much more subsequently).We are left to infer that this epistle reached him
and pushed him over the edge, making him decide to swim. This means that her
final words in line 210 are deeply ironical, and his image of her as the cause of his
death in 18.200 comes all too true.
Hero does refer to the danger, and she does tell Leander not to attempt the trip,
but not as frequently and not as fully as she should. She does this at greatest length
at 183ff., but after all she has written before this it is too little and too late, and she
undermines her own words even as she urges him not to come, at 187f. (where she
openly admits that she does not want to persuade him to stay where he is), 194 and
207. She also engages in the same kind of subversion of such admonition at 72ff.,
93ff. and 129ff. More significantly she includes a great deal that would positively
encourage him to swim, and in fact make him very keen to do so. She actually tells
him to cross at various points of the poem. She frequently parades her love, and also
her loneliness and frustration and misery without him, painting a pathetic picture
of herself. Twice she intimates that heaven supports the journey (151ff., 159f.) and
holds out the enticing prospect of sex with her (63f. and 158). And she questions his
motives for not arriving several times, and suggests that it is because he is a coward
and unfaithful, which would make him very eager to get to her and prove himself.
If you look through Her. 19 again, you will find other such inducements as well.
Hero is conflicted. She is fully aware of the risk, but she is young and passionate,
and she loves and misses Leander so much that she writes a rash letter, and in fact
thereby destroys her chance of being reunited with him, bringing about the death
of the man she loves so much (and her own demise).This epistle may be a conscious
and deliberate attempt to get him to brave the sea. But it could also be that she is
so naive and impetuous and unreflecting that she drives him to make the crossing
without really meaning to do that. Ovid has left this open, to intrigue us, and it is
hard to say which of the two possibilities is more tragic.
There is a further aspect to the tragedy (which also means that we cannot be
too critical of the heroine). It is easy enough to deduce that she was spurred on to
write as she did by his letter (intended to reassure her of his feelings for her), with
all its protestations of passion, the lengthy recollection of their blissful first tryst
(18.55ff.), the sketch of them happily together in the future (18.205ff.) and the
repeated depiction of him making his way to her across the Hellespont. So there is
a grim rebound of his well-meaning words, and a sad reciprocity, as these two lovers
feed off each other and impel each other to disaster.
There are still more factors contributing to the mournfulness. There are affect-
ing (and imaginative) touches throughout, like Hero looking for Leander’s foot-
prints on the shore (27f.), kissing the clothes he left behind (31f.), speculating about
his progress to her (41ff.), fearing that she isn’t worthy of him (97ff.) and engaging
in the futile fantasy of them meeting in the middle of the strait (167ff.). In addition,
numerous contrasts with Leander bring out how the situation is now and has been
all along even worse for Hero, so that there is extra pain for her. He cannot sleep,
but she has very upsetting dreams. Then there is her enforced passivity: (apart from
the joint letter-writing) he could swim in the past and can now try to swim, but all
she could do before and can do at present is wait for him. She is condemned to a
state of worrying uncertainty too: when he could cross, he knew full well that he
was on his way to her, but she didn’t; and now he is aware that it is the bad weather
alone that holds him back, but she can’t be sure of that, and, while he is certain of
her love for him, the vulnerable heroine is prey to fears about his commitment to
her and his fidelity. There is also a gloomy impact in the climax at 181ff., with all
the references there to fear, shipwreck and death, and the clear foreshadowing of
Leander’s end, especially in the sinister vision of the dolphin, which cancels out the
dream of the young man’s arrival at 59ff. and the favourable omen of the sputter-
ing lamp at 151ff. Note also that hardly anyone else figures in these two poems, so
that the focus is squarely on the doomed pair, without any real distractions or relief,
which makes for an intensity and a fixation on them in keeping with their own
intensity and fixation on themselves.
Ovid only hints at the drowning of Leander and Hero’s suicide. Musaeus
describes them at 324ff.:
He was carried along, battered by the overwhelming assault of the

waves massed all around him; his feet kicked out less vigorously; 325
his strong hands never rested, but they made no headway.
A great flood of water poured itself into his throat, and he swallowed
a mouthful of the irresistible sea, which did him no good.
A cruel blast of wind extinguished the treacherous lamp
and with it the life and love of long-suffering Leander. 330
Dawn arrived and Hero didn’t see her bridegroom.
She looked out everywhere over the sea’s broad back
and condemned and cursed the barbaric wind.
As the dead Leander had still not arrived, she already had
a presentiment of his death. She stood there gazing out 335
vigilantly, seething with abject anxiety, and hoping
to catch sight of her husband swimming off course,
now that the lamp was out. At the base of her tower
she saw her husband’s corpse being lacerated on the rocks.
She tore the finely-embroidered robe from her chest 340
and hurled herself headlong from the high tower.
Hero ended her life beside her dead husband,
and they made each other happy in the finality of death.
In Chapman’s continuation of Marlowe’s Hero and Leander sestiad VI lines 260ff.

there is an addition which makes for a more upbeat ending, as the lovers are given an
extended existence, changed into goldfinches. Which conclusion is most effective?
Thus cried she, for her mixèd soul could tell 260
Her love was dead. And when the Morning fell
Prostrate upon the weeping earth for woe,
Blushes that bled out of her cheeks did show
Leander brought by Neptune, bruised and torn
With cities’ ruins he to rocks had worn,
To filthy usuring rocks, that would have blood,
Though they could get of him no other good.
She saw him, and the sight was much much more
Than might have served to kill her: should her store
Of giant sorrows speak? Burst, die, bleed, 270
And leave poor plaints to us that shall succeed.
She fell on her love’s bosom, hugged it fast,
And with Leander’s name she breathed her last.
Neptune for pity in his arms did take them,
Flung them into the air, and did awake them
Like two sweet birds, surnamed th’ Acanthides,

Which we call thistle-warps, that near no seas
Dare ever come, but still in couples fly,
And feed on thistle-tops, to testify
The hardness of their first life in their last: 280
The first in thorns of love, and sorrows past;
And so most beautiful their colours show,
As none (so little) like them: her sad brow
A sable velvet feather covers quite,
Even like the forehead-cloths that in the night,
Or when they sorrow, ladies use to wear;
Their wings, blue, red, and yellow mixed appear;
Colours that, as we construe colours, paint
Their states to life; the yellow shows their saint,
The devil Venus, left them; blue, their truth; 290
The red and black, ensigns of death and ruth.
And this true honour from their love-deaths sprung,
They were the first that ever poet sung.
Heroides 20
ACONTIUS TO CYDIPPE
After all the doom and gloom of the letters by Leander and Hero we are now
taken on to two entertaining and witty epistles, which have a happy ending, with
the lovers united, married and living on. In this way light-hearted pairs (16 and 17;
20 and 21) frame the tragic duo (18 and 19), and there is a happy ending for the
whole collection too.
A young man from Cea called Acontius, while attending a religious festival
on the Greek island of Delos, caught sight of and immediately fell in love with
Cydippe, a beautiful young woman from Naxos, who was also at the festival, along
with her mother. While Cydippe was in Diana’s temple, Acontius rolled up to her
an apple on which he had inscribed the words: ‘I swear by Diana to marry Acon-
tius’. She picked up the apple, read out the words (the ancients normally read aloud)
and thereby unwittingly bound herself to him on oath. She returned to Naxos
and to the marriage arranged for her by her father, but as the day of the wedding
approached, she fell seriously ill (due to a fever sent by Diana, as Cydippe was about
to break her word). The ceremony was called off, after which she recovered. At
the time of Acontius’ letter the wedding has been rearranged another two times
and she has fallen ill each time, and she is now still on her sickbed, with her fiancé
in attendance. Her father has sent to the oracle of Apollo at Delphi for advice on
how she might get well again. Acontius has come to Naxos to find out how she is,
and he gets to her this letter (trying to win her heart, on top of the oath) before
the response from Delphi is received. That will inform her father about Cydippe’s
oath and urge him to fulfil it, and as a result of that he will marry his daughter to
Acontius.
In his epistle Acontius tells Cydippe that Diana is responsible for her sickness,
and he presses her to keep her oath because the goddess reacts violently when she
sees an offence against her divinity. At 101ff. he cites three examples by way of proof.
When the king of Calydon didn’t sacrifice to Diana, she sent an enormous boar
Heroides 20: Acontius to Cydippe 231
which ravaged the fields there (the king’s son Meleager organized a hunt which
disposed of the boar, but in a quarrel over who got its hide he killed his mother’s
brothers, and in revenge for that she brought about his death). Actaeon, while out
hunting, inadvertently saw Diana bathing naked, so she turned him into a stag, and
his own hunting-hounds attacked him and killed him. The heroine Niobe boasted
that she had more children than Latona (the mother of Diana and Apollo), so the
divine pair slaughtered her children, and she was changed into a rock, although her
eyes continued to weep for her loss.
As you read the translation below, ask yourself what kind of a person Acontius
comes across as in his letter, and how successful his approach to Cydippe is likely
to be.
Don’t be afraid! You won’t read out in this letter another oath for
your lover. It’s enough that you promised yourself to me once.
Look through it to the very end. May you get well again, if you do!
It pains me that you feel pain in any part of your body.
Why are you blushing before you’ve seen it? (I suspect that, 5
as in Diana’s temple, your pretty cheeks have gone red.)
I’m asking for marriage, the fidelity you pledged, nothing reprehensible:
I love you, girl, as your destined husband, not as an adulterer.
Recall, if you will, the words brought to your chaste hands
by the fruit I plucked from the tree and threw to you: 10
you’ll find that with them you give an undertaking
which I pray that you remember rather than the goddess.
I still long for the same thing, but I long for it more keenly now;
the fire in me has grown and got stronger due to the delay;
my love was never slight, and it has now increased because of 15
the length of time that’s passed and the hope that you gave me.
You gave me hope, and my passionate heart trusted you.
You can’t deny this happened: the goddess is my witness.
She was there, actually present, and noted what you said,
nodded her head and seemed to have heard your words. 20
I’ll allow you to say you were taken in by a trick of mine,
so long as you mention that love motivated my trick.
The sole aim of my trick was to be joined to you in marriage.
You’re complaining about something that could make you warm to me.
I’m not so crafty by nature or by practice: 25
believe me, girl, you’re the one who makes me clever.
I drew up the words, but it was ingenious Love who bound you to me
with them (if I have in fact achieved anything).
It was with words dictated by him that I betrothed us,
and I acquired my legal cunning from Love the lawyer. 30
Describe what I did as a trick and call me deceitful,
if it is in fact deceit to want to have the person you love.
232 Heroides 20: Acontius to Cydippe
Look, I’m writing once again, sending an appeal to you:

this is another ‘trick’ for you to complain about.
If I wrong you by loving, I confess I’ll wrong you forever, 35
and even though you’re wary of being pursued, I’ll always pursue you.
Others have used the sword to carry off girls they found attractive:
will a carefully composed bit of writing by me be seen as a crime?
I wish the gods would enable me to bind you still tighter,
so you’d find no escape at all from keeping your pledge. 40
A thousand ruses remain – I’m only sweating at the base of the slope;
my passion will leave nothing untried.
Though it’s doubtful if you can be won, I’ll certainly try to win you;
the outcome rests with the gods, but you will be won.
Even if you escape some, you won’t evade all of the nets 45
(more than you think) which Love has stretched out for you.
If artifice achieves nothing, I’ll resort to weapons:
you’ll be seized and carried off in arms that yearn for you.
I’m not the type of person given to criticizing Paris for what he did
or anyone who acted as a man so he could be some girl’s man. 50
I too – but I say no more. Though death is the punishment for
such abduction, not having you will be worse than that.
Otherwise, if you weren’t so attractive, you’d be pursued with restraint;
it’s your beauty that forces me to be reckless.
You are responsible for this, you and your eyes, which are brighter than 55
the fiery stars, and which were the cause of my burning love;
your blonde hair and ivory neck are responsible for this,
and also those hands, which I long to feel clasping my neck,
and your lovely face, demure but refined, and those feet –
I can scarcely believe that Thetis has such pretty ones. 60
I’d be happier if I could praise the rest of your charms,
but I don’t doubt the whole masterpiece is equally splendid.
It’s not surprising if I was compelled by such beauty
to want to have a pledge spoken by you.
In short, I’ll allow that you’re a girl caught by a trap of mine, 65
provided that you’re forced to confess that you have been caught.
I’ll endure the dislike, so long as I’m duly recompensed after enduring it.
Why does such a great crime lack its due reward?
Hesione was captured by Telamon, Briseis by Achilles, and each, of course,
accepted the conqueror as her man and went off with him. 70
I’ll let you make accusations and be angry as much as you like,
provided you let me have the right to enjoy you while you’re angry.
I’m the cause of it, and I’ll lessen the anger that I’ve caused,
if only I get some slight opportunity to placate you.
Let me stand before your face, weeping, 75
let me add sad words to the sad tears
and stretch out submissive hands to you in an appeal,

as slaves generally do when they fear a savage flogging.
You’re not aware of your authority. Summon me! Why am I charged in my
absence? Order me to come right now, just like a mistress. 80
You can imperiously tear my hair yourself
and bruise my face with your fingers.
I’ll endure all that; my only fear will be that
you might possibly hurt your hands on my body.
But don’t use shackles or chains to confine me: the bonds 85
of my steadfast love will keep me in your possession.
When you’ve thoroughly sated your anger, as much as you want,
you’ll say to yourself: ‘How enduring his love is!’
You’ll say to yourself when you see me bearing it all:
‘Let such a good slave be my slave!’ 90
Now I’m miserable – prosecuted in my absence; and although my case
is excellent, it’s lost, because I have no defence counsel.
Also, however unfair on you what I wrote on the apple was,
you surely can’t complain about anyone else’s conduct.
You broke your word to Diana as well as me, and she didn’t deserve that; 95
if you refuse to keep your promise for me, keep it for the goddess.
She was there and saw when you were duped and blushed;
she heard your words, stored them away and remembers them.
May nothing bad come of mentioning this! She’s supremely violent when
she sees an offence against her divinity (which I hope she won’t). 100
I’ll cite as a witness to that the Calydonian boar, a savage creature,
but not as savage as his mother was found to be to Meleager.
Actaeon’s a witness too (in days gone by the dogs with which he’d
previously killed wild animals imagined that he was a wild animal),
and so is the arrogant mother Niobe, who still stands on the soil of 105
Mygdonia, motionless and weeping, her body turned to stone.
Ah, Cydippe, I’m afraid to tell you the truth, in case you think
my warning is something made up in my own interests,
but I must tell it: believe me, this is the reason why
you often lie ill on the very eve of your wedding. 110
The goddess herself is looking out for you, is at pains to save you from
breaking your oath: she wants you to keep your word and be well.
So it is that whenever you try to prove yourself to be a perjurer,
she prevents that crime by you every time.
Don’t provoke the cruel bow of that proud virgin; 115
she can still soften, if you’d let her.
Please don’t allow your tender limbs to be wasted by fever;
preserve that beauty of yours for me to enjoy.
Preserve that face, which was born to set me on fire,
and the gentle blush under the surface of your snowy cheeks. 120
My usual state when you’re unwell is something I wish on my

enemies and anybody who opposes you becoming mine.
I’m equally tormented whether you’re getting married or you’re ill,
and I can’t say which of the two I’d like less.
There are times when I’m distressed because I’m a cause of pain for you 125
and I think that you’re being hurt because of my cunning.
I pray that my girl’s perjury may fall on my head;
let me be punished, let her be safe!
However, so I can find out how you are, I often
prowl about anxiously near your doorway. 130
I follow your servants (the maid and the boy) on the sly,
asking them what good sleep and food have done you.
I’m miserable because I’m not giving you your medicine,
stroking your hands and sitting beside your bed.
I’m also miserable because I’m far away from you and perhaps 135
the other man (the last person I’d want) is there with you.
He strokes those hands of yours and sits beside your sickbed,
hateful to the gods and to me as well as the gods,
and, while he takes your pulse with his fingers, he uses that
as a pretext to hold your white arm frequently, 140
and fondles your breasts and perhaps kisses you.
His services don’t deserve as great a reward as that!
Man, who gave you permission to reap my crop before me?
Who enabled you to trespass on another person’s land?
Those breasts are mine! The kisses you’re taking are mine! 145
It’s disgraceful. Hands off a body promised to me!
Hands off, you criminal! The girl you’re touching is going to be mine.
From now on if you do that, you’ll be committing adultery.
Choose somebody not attached, not claimed by another man;
in case you don’t know it, this property has an owner. 150
Don’t take my word for it – let the terms of the agreement be recited;
so you can’t say they’re fictitious, make her read them out herself.
You, I’m talking to you: get out of this bedroom – it’s another man’s.
What are you doing here? Get out! This bed is taken.
Although you too have a verbal agreement like mine, 155
you’ll find that doesn’t make your case as strong as mine.
She pledged herself to me, her father pledged her to you; he’s her nearest
kin, but she’s surely more closely related to herself than he is.
Her father only promised her, she vowed herself to her lover on oath;
he invoked men as witnesses, she invoked a goddess. 160
His fear is of being called a liar, hers of being called that and a perjurer;
you must know which of these two is the greater fear.
To put it briefly, so you can compare the respective dangers, look at
what’s happened: she is in bed sick, he is in good health.

Also, we’re in competition with different states of mind: 165
you’re hoping for less than I am, and I have more to dread.
You risk nothing in your courtship, refusal for me is worse than death,
and I already love one who you will perhaps come to love.
If you’d cared for justice and what’s right, you’d have felt bound
to give way before my passion of your own accord. 170
As it is, Cydippe, that savage persists in fighting for his unfair
cause, so what does my letter come down to?
He’s the one behind you being sick and viewed with suspicion by Diana;
if you were sensible, you’d tell him not to come to your house.
It’s his doing that your life is so cruelly in danger – 175
he’s behind that, so let him die instead of you!
If you reject him and refuse to love a man damned by Diana,
then you’ll immediately be saved, and I will be, for sure.
Put an end to your fear, girl! Lasting good health will be yours,
if you just honour the shrine that witnessed your promise. 180
What pleases the gods of heaven is not sacrificing oxen but being
true to one’s word, which should be done even without witnesses.
To get well, some women endure surgery and cautery,
others do themselves good by taking horribly bitter medicine.
There’s no need for all that: just avoid perjury, 185
keep your promise and keep yourself and me alive.
Ignorance will provide an excuse for your former misconduct:
you’d forgotten the agreement you read out loud.
Now you’ve been reminded by this letter and by the trouble
you habitually have whenever you try to break your word. 190
Presumably, even if you escape that, when you give birth you’ll pray
to her to help by laying her radiant hands on you, won’t you?
She’ll hear you, and recall the pledge she heard, and ask
who is your husband and the father of the child.
You’ll promise a votive offering – she knows your promises are false; 195
you’ll swear an oath – she knows you can break your word to gods.
I am not the issue here. I care more and I’m really bothered
about somebody else. It’s you I’m worried about.
Recently, when you were in a critical state, why did your frightened parents
weep for you, in ignorance of your misconduct thanks to you? 200
And why should they be ignorant? You could tell your mother everything.
There’s no need for blushes over what you did, Cydippe.
Make sure you describe in order how I first became aware of you
while she herself was performing a rite to the archer goddess Diana,
how (if you happened to notice this) right after I saw you 205
I stood stock-still, with my eyes fixed on your body,
in utter amazement at you, and my cloak slipped from my

shoulders and fell off (a sure sign of love’s madness),
and later from somewhere or other the apple came rolling up
with insidious words cleverly inscribed on it, 210
and because you read them out in holy Diana’s presence you bound
yourself to abide by your promise before a divine witness.
But so that she’ll understand the gist of what was written,
repeat now the words you once read out.
She’ll say: ‘Please marry the man who the kindly gods join you to; 215
you swore he’d be my son-in-law – let him be that!
Whoever he is, Diana approved of him, so you should approve of him.’
That’ll be your mother, if she turns out to be a real mother.
However, do see that she asks who I am and what sort of a man I am:
she’ll find that the goddess had the interests of you both at heart. 220
There’s an island in the Aegean Sea called Cea, which was
once much frequented by the Corycian nymphs.
That’s the land of my birth; and I’m indisputably descended from
impressive ancestors (if your family values aristocratic names);
I have wealth too and a blameless character; and even 225
without all that, I’m bound to you by Love.
Even if you hadn’t sworn, you’d want a husband like that; once you swore,
you should have accepted me, even if I wasn’t like that.
Diana of the hunting spear ordered me to write this to you in a dream;
Love ordered me to write this to you when I was awake; 230
out of those gods his arrows have already wounded me,
and you must take care that hers don’t wound you.
My survival is linked to yours – have pity on me and on yourself;
why hesitate to help out two people at one and the same time?
If you do help, then on the day when trumpets signal the rite of 235
dedication and Delos is stained by blood shed in sacrifice,
a golden replica of the successful apple will be set up,
with the reason for the offering recorded in two short verses:
by means of this image of the apple acontius declares
that what was written on it has come true. 240
You’re weak, and I don’t want you to be tired out by too long a letter,
so I’ll close with the usual ending: fare well!
Some readers will disapprove of Acontius’ conduct, because he has tricked an

unsuspecting young woman into binding herself to him with an oath, and has
thus been responsible for her falling dangerously ill on three occasions, and with
this letter is trying to manipulate her. Several scholars have felt like this and have
been critical of Acontius, accusing him of being in this epistle coldly calculating,
ruthless and obsessed. This may be right. What do you think? Do you see anything
militating against this point of view? Think about this before moving on to the
next paragraph.
In our opinion that serious and solemn approach takes no account of the perva-
sive wit, humour and cheekiness in Heroides 20. It also makes this into a pedestrian
poem, a full 242 dull lines, by Ovid. And such an interpretation does not cohere
well with Her. 21, where Cydippe, after Acontius’ obnoxious qualities have sup-
posedly been brought out at length here, intimates that she loves him and gladly
accepts him as her husband.You may well disapprove of the ruse with the apple, but
it was love that made him do that (something which often makes humans behave
badly). As for manipulation, he doesn’t need to win her heart (he has got her as his
wife by means of the oath), but he wants to – obviously because he loves her. We
think that those scholars are being too severe and too negative about what Ovid
presents as simply the eager attempts of an infatuated young man to bring round
his beloved. In our opinion Ovid is (rightly or wrongly) having fun yet again,
and Acontius’ performance was meant to entertain his Roman readers, something
which it could easily have done in such a society, especially in view of the happy
ending to come.
This is a letter of courtship, so, as well as explaining that she is legally his and
risks punishment if she doesn’t marry him (as part of the pressure on her), he
comes out with a series of ploys to secure her affection. Something which is very
important given what he has done to her, he tries hard to convince her of his love
and concern for her (as early as 3f. and 8, and frequently after that). He also com-
pliments her on her beauty, offers her subservience, shows a flattering jealousy in
connection with her fiancé, tries to impress her with his credentials and so on. And,
divertingly, he can be quite deft while doing this: for example, when he attacks his
rival at 143ff. and predicts how her mother will react to him at 215ff., his words are
aimed at Cydippe. Such overtures would stand a good chance of working. But what
are we to make of all the levity, wit and cheek?
He begins the epistle with a joke about her oath (1f.), actually claims that she
gave him hope at 16f. (when she swore involuntarily), generously allows her to say
that she was taken in by a trick of his in 21, maintains that he is not crafty in 25,
is flippant about revered legal matters at 28ff., and so on and so forth. Most outra-
geous of all is his strained and sophistic exoneration of himself, ascribing the blame
for Cydippe’s illness to Diana, Love, the young woman herself and his rival. As the
above-mentioned ploys and the ruse with the apple show, Acontius is no fool, so he
cannot expect to convince her with this (especially as he admits his culpability at
21ff. and 125f.), but must be engaging in banter and attempting to impress her with
his mental agility. We believe that with all the humour and impudence he is trying
to lighten things up (so she won’t be too serious about the whole situation), put
himself across as an amusing and roguish type (someone fun to be with) and dazzle
her with his cleverness and stylish way with words (on which see further below).
This is all very amusing for us, but he is sailing close to the wind as far as concerns
the addressee (when he doesn’t really know her), and there is a definite danger that
she might find such frivolity and ingenuity inappropriate and offensive. She could
easily be put off as well by his remarks at 47ff., 61f. and 143–50, by his naughty
attempts to get her to swear again (152, 213f.) and by the threats of divine punish-
ment (even though they are veiled and attributed to worry for her wellbeing). We
know that he will get to marry her, but we are left wondering if he will actually
win her heart with this letter, or alienate her affections on a temporary or even
permanent basis. So on this interpretation Her. 20 coheres effectively with Her. 21,
since (as well as being similarly light-hearted) it makes us keen to read her reply, so
we can see how she will react and find out if he has caused a setback for himself
on the emotional front.
Acontius’ expression is frequently elegant, especially when he is making witty
points. It is not always easy to appreciate this kind of thing when you are working
with a translation (which serves you right for not taking Latin!). Sometimes the
neatness does come across in the English (for instance the verbal play in 50 and the
parallel arrangement and effective repetition of words at 195f., 229f. and 231f.). But
often it is impossible to do justice in our language to the dexterity. For example,
35f., 43f. and 227f. are much shorter and snappier in the Latin. In 168 (idque ego iam,
quod tu forsan amabis, amo) the word order in the Latin is pointed. This breaks down
as idque quod tu forsan amabis (‘and one who you will perhaps come to love’) ego iam
amo (‘I already love’). The punch comes at the end with amo (‘I love’), of Acontius’
existing passion, deliberately delayed, and placed beside amabis (‘you will come to
love’), of the rival possibly coming to love Cydippe after they marry. The two verbs
are put right next to each other (this device is called juxtaposition) to bring out the
contrast in the feelings of the two men. There is also alliteration, repetition of the
letters a and m, which lends forcefulness to Acontius’ amo (‘I love’). There is juxta-
position and vigorous alliteration at 95f. as well, where Acontius says to Cydippe
si non vis (‘if you refuse’) mihi (‘for me’) promissum reddere (‘to keep your promise’),
redde deae (‘keep [it] for the goddess’). There we find in addition an ABBA arrange-
ment of words (named chiasmus) in mihi (‘for me’) reddere (‘to keep’) redde (‘keep’)
deae (‘for the goddess’).
Such attention to style and sound is an important feature of Ovid’s poetry in
general, and often goes hand in hand with humour. So he makes a female character
claim that Roman women are promiscuous and come out with the epigram casta
est quam nemo rogavit = ‘she [alone] is chaste whom nobody has propositioned’
(memorably translated by Guy Lee as ‘chaste means never asked’).There is also droll
compression in Ovid’s advice to short girls on how to present themselves to their
best advantage: si brevis es (‘if you’re short’), sedeas (‘sit down’), ne (‘so you don’t’)
stans (‘when standing up’) videare sedere (‘appear to be sitting down’). Sometimes he
takes all this to flippant extremes, as when he describes the Minotaur (the monster
that was partly a human and partly a bull) as semibovemque virum semivirumque bovem
(‘the half-bull man and the half-man bull’). Many enjoy such flourishes, but this sort
of thing led an ancient critic called Quintilian to accuse the poet of being too fond
of his own ingenuity, and some modern scholars have agreed with that assessment.
What do you think?
It may strike you as odd that Acontius wrote the oath on a piece of fruit. How-
ever, we do find inscribed apples elsewhere. Most famously, at the wedding of
Peleus and Thetis the goddess Strife rolled among the divinities present a golden
apple which bore the words for the fairest, and which was claimed by Juno,
Minerva and Venus. This led to Paris judging the naked charms of the three of
them, and awarding the prize of the apple to Venus, who promised him as a bribe
the most beautiful woman in the world (Helen), and so set in train the Trojan War.
In fact, for Acontius’ message an apple was a variously appropriate receptacle. This
fruit was connected with marriage in the ancient world: for example, Strabo notes
that Persian brides on their wedding-day are allowed to eat only apples and camel-
marrow (yuk!). Throwing an apple to someone was a sign of affection. So Plato’s
epigram (Greek Anthology 5.80) to a girl runs as follows:
I’m an apple. Someone who loves you throws me at you. Give in

to him, Xanthippe.You and I are both decaying.
Apples were also commonly love-gifts. For instance,Virgil at Eclogue 3.70f. has the
shepherd Menalcas sing:
I’ve sent my boy all I could – ten golden apples picked from
a tree in the wood; tomorrow I’ll send him another ten.
The fruit also symbolized the female breast. Paulus Silentiarius (Greek Anthology
5.291) writes:
If you gave me these apples as tokens of your breasts, you charming

girl, then I bless you for this great favour.
In addition, apples were associated with the deities of love. So Sappho (fragment
25) presides over a rite in a grove sacred to Aphrodite (Venus) and summons the
goddess to join her there in some sensuous lines:
Come here to me from Crete to this holy

temple, where your lovely grove of
apple-trees stands, and altars smouldering with frankincense;
in there cool water babbles through the
apple boughs, the whole place is shadowed
by roses, and a trance comes down from
glancing foliage.
Heroides 21
CYDIPPE TO ACONTIUS
Ovid now presents Cydippe’s perspective on the trick with the apple and the idea
of marriage to Acontius, and he gives us her reaction to his letter of courtship. Our
poet here takes a major step forward in the story and clearly foreshadows the happy
ending, as near the conclusion of Heroides 21 he makes Cydippe agree to marry the
young man and intimate that she loves him. It turns out that like Her. 20 this is also
a manipulative, clever and light-hearted poem. There are further links in her reas-
suring allusion to the rival at her bedside, Acontius’ claim of Diana’s responsibility
for the sickness being confirmed here by an oracle of Apollo and the fact that his
suggestion that the young woman should tell her mother everything has been taken
up by her and carried out. By way of variety, for much of the epistle she attacks his
ruse with the oath (which he defended), refrains from saying that she will marry
him (whereas he frequently pressed for that) and conceals her affection for him (in
contrast to his parading of his love for her).
Cydippe refers to the tale that Delos was originally a floating island, until Latona
gave birth there to the healing god Apollo (and his sister Diana) and he rooted
it to the sea-bed. She also mentions the tree on Delos which Latona supposedly
clutched during her birth pangs and the altar there which Apollo was said to have
constructed from the horns of wild goats killed by the huntress Diana. At 177ff.
she picks up Acontius’ allusions to Actaeon (who saw Diana bathing naked), the
king of Calydon (who did not sacrifice to the goddess) and Niobe (who scorned
Latona because she had fewer children), and at 209f. she connects Acontius’ name
with the Greek word acontion (meaning ‘javelin’). Other mythological references are
explained in the glossary.
As you read her letter, ask yourself exactly what Cydippe is up to in it.
I was very afraid, and read your letter in complete silence,

so my tongue wouldn’t swear unwittingly by some god.
Heroides 21: Cydippe to Acontius 241
I think you would have tried to trap me again, if you didn’t know
that one promise from me was enough, as you say yourself.
I wasn’t going to read it, but if I’d behaved harshly towards you, 5
perhaps that savage goddess’ anger would have increased.
Do what I will, although I devoutly offer Diana incense,
despite all that she supports you, more than is fair,
and avenges you with unforgetting anger (as you want me to believe);
she hardly did as much for her own dear Hippolytus. 10
As a virgin goddess, she should rather have supported a young virgin,
but I fear she doesn’t want me to live much longer.
For I’m chronically ill, for no apparent reason, I’m exhausted,
and nothing that the doctor does to help me works.
How thin do you think I am now, hardly able to write this reply to you, 15
and how pale my body, that I can hardly raise on my elbow?
On top of all that I’m now afraid that someone other than the nurse
who is my accomplice might realize that we’re exchanging letters.
She sits before my bedroom door, and when people ask how I am in there,
she says: ‘She’s asleep,’ so I can write in safety. 20
Sleep is a very good pretext for my protracted seclusion, but later on,
when it stops being credible because it has gone on so long,
and she now sees people coming who it’s hard not to let in,
she alerts me with the agreed signal by clearing her throat.
I leave my words unfinished, just as they are, and rush to hide 25
the letter I’ve started down the front of my dress, trembling.
Afterwards I take it out again and weary my fingers with it:
my handwriting shows you the labour you cause me.
God strike me dead if you were worth that, to tell the truth!
But I’m kinder than is right or you deserve. 30
So it’s thanks to you that it’s so often doubtful that I’ll survive,
and I have been and still am punished for your ploy?
Is this the reward for my beauty, made proud by your
praise? Being attractive to you means pain for me?
If I’d seemed ugly to you (as I’d prefer), you’d have found fault 35
with my body, and it wouldn’t be in need of medical aid;
I was praised, and now I groan; you two men are now killing me
with your rivalry, and I am hurt by my own loveliness.
You don’t yield to him, and he doesn’t consider himself second to you,
so you hinder his desires, and he hinders yours. 40
I myself am tossed about like a ship which the north wind steadily
drives out to sea, and the tide and the waves bring back again,
and when the day that my dear parents long for is upon me,
at the same time a blazing fever consumes my body –
ah, on the very eve of my marriage the cruel queen of 45
the Underworld knocks at my door prematurely.
242 Heroides 21: Cydippe to Acontius
By now I’m ashamed and afraid that, although I know I’m not guilty,
people will think the gods are deservedly displeased with me.
One man claims that my illness is coincidental, another maintains
that my fiancé has not won heaven’s approval; 50
and, just so you don’t imagine that gossip has nothing to say against you too,
others think that you’ve used spells to make me sick.
My trouble is obvious, its cause is not.You two have rejected peace
and are fighting fiercely, and I’m the one who gets hit.
Come on, tell me now (none of your usual deceit): as your love is 55
so harmful, what will you do to someone you hate?
If you hurt the one you love, you’ll be wise to love your enemy;
to save my life, you terrible man, please plan on killing me.
Either you no longer care for the girl you hoped to have
and are cruelly letting her waste away and die undeservedly, 60
or, if you’re begging savage Diana on my behalf but achieving nothing,
you can’t boast to me of having influence with her.
Choose your story: you don’t want to placate the goddess –
you’ve forgotten me; you can’t – she’s forgotten you.
I wish I’d never got to know Delos in the Aegean Sea 65
or not done so at that particular time!
That was when my ship was launched on an ocean of troubles,
and it was an ill-omened hour for starting my voyage.
I stumbled inauspiciously when I stepped forward and left my home,
and when I set foot on the swift, painted ship. 70
Yet twice a contrary wind blew on our sails and turned us back –
ah, I’m mad, that’s not the truth – it was a favourable breeze.
It was a favourable breeze that carried me back on my journey
and hindered a trip that didn’t hold much happiness for me.
If only it had kept on blowing against my canvas! 75
But it’s foolish to complain about a wind being fickle.
I was excited by Delos’ fame, in a hurry to visit the place,
and I felt that the boat I was sailing on was sluggish.
How often did I curse the oars for being slow and complain
that they weren’t letting out enough sail to catch the wind! 80
And now I’d passed Myconos, now Tenos and Andros,
and gleaming Delos was before my eyes.
When I saw it far off, I said: ‘Why are you eluding me, island?
Surely you’re not floating around on the great sea, as you used to?’
I set foot on its soil when the daylight had almost gone and the Sun 85
was now about to unharness his chariot’s radiant horses.
After he brought them back for his usual rising,
my mother told the maid to do my hair.
She herself put jewelled rings on my fingers and a gold crown on my head,
she herself put my clothes on me over my shoulders. 90

Immediately we set out and greet the gods to whom Delos is
sacred and offer them wine and yellow incense;
and while my mother stains the altar with blood shed in sacrifice
and places severed entrails on its smoking fire,
my attentive nurse leads me inside the lofty temples as well, 95
and we roam at random throughout the holy places.
Now I stroll in the colonnades, now I marvel at the gifts
of kings and at the statues standing everywhere.
I marvel also at the altar constructed of countless horns
and the tree which Latona strained against as she gave birth 100
and the other sights on Delos (I don’t remember and don’t
feel like mentioning everything that I saw there).
Perhaps while I was inspecting all that I was inspected by you,
Acontius, and I seemed to be an easy prey in my naivety.
I returned to Diana’s shrine, set high up on its steps – 105
no place should have been safer than that.
In front of my feet is thrown an apple with the following verse –
ah, I nearly swore the oath to you now all over again.
My nurse picked it up and said in amazement: ‘Read this!’
I read out your trap, mighty poet. 110
At the mention of the word ‘marry’ I was upset and embarrassed
and felt the blush spread all over my cheeks.
I kept my eyes on my lap, as if they were fixed there,
those eyes that you made help you gain your objective.
Why are you pleased, you criminal? What glory have you won? 115
What renown do you have, as a man who tricked a girl?
I didn’t square up to you, armed with an axe and shield,
like Penthesilea in the land of Troy;
I was no Hippolyte, with an Amazonian sword-belt
of engraved gold, that you took home as spoil. 120
Why exult if your words deceived me and I was
an incautious girl caught out by your cunning?
An apple caught out Cydippe, as one caught out Atalanta;
no doubt you’ll now present yourself as a second Hippomenes!
But if Love (the boy who you say possesses some torches or other) 125
did have you under his control, it would have been better to do what
good men usually do, and not ruin your hopes of success by being dishonest:
you should have won me over with appeals, not caught me out.
When you went after me, why didn’t you think you should openly state
the qualities which would have made me go after you yourself? 130
Why did you want to compel me rather than persuade me,
if I could have been won by listening to a proposal?
What use to you now is the set form of the oath or the fact that
my tongue invoked as a witness the goddess who was present?
It’s the mind that swears. But I swore nothing with mine. 135
It alone can add a guarantee to what someone says.
It’s a decision, a conscious intention of the brain, that swears;
the only valid obligations are those incurred deliberately.
If I made an undertaking to wed you willingly,
claim the rights of the promised marriage which are due to you; 140
but if I gave you only speech without intellect behind it,
what you have is useless – words without a force of their own.
I did not swear an oath – I read out words that formed an oath;
that wasn’t the way for you to be chosen as my husband.
Deceive other girls like this – with an apple followed up by a letter! 145
If this is legally valid, extract immense wealth from the rich,
get kings to swear to hand over their kingdoms to you
and take for yourself whatever you fancy in the whole world.
Believe me, this makes you much mightier than Diana herself,
if what you write possesses such dynamic divine power. 150
However, after saying all this, after firmly denying myself to you,
after completing effectively my case concerning my promise,
I admit I fear nonetheless the anger of savage Diana
and suspect that she is the cause of my sickness.
For why else, whenever there are preparations for the marriage ceremony, 155
does the bride-to-be become ill and collapse on each occasion?
Three times now the wedding-god has come to the altars put up
for me and fled, running from my marriage-bed.
He’s slow to keep on replenishing the lamps (which revive reluctantly)
and to wave his torches (whose flames flare up reluctantly). 160
Again and again the perfume drips from his garlanded hair,
and he trails behind him his cloak, bright from lots of saffron dye;
but when he reaches our doorway and sees tears and fear
of death and much that is alien to his worship,
with his own hand he pulls the garlands from his brow and flings them down 165
and wipes away the viscous scent from his glistening hair;
he’s ashamed to stir himself joyfully among the mournful crowd,
and his cheeks become as red as his cloak.
But, ah, my poor body burns up with fever,
and the bedclothes feel heavier than they should, 170
and I see my parents leaning over me in tears, and the
wedding-torch will soon be replaced by the torch for my pyre.
Goddess glorying in the embroidered quiver, I’m in pain, spare me;
take on your brother’s role: help me now and save my life.
It’s demeaning for you that he eradicates the causes of death, 175
but you on the other hand have the credit for killing me.
Surely it can’t be that when you wanted to bathe in a shady pool,

I unwittingly looked at the place where you were washing,
or that out of all the gods’ altars I neglected yours,
or that my mother showed contempt for your mother? 180
I’ve done nothing wrong, except for reading out a false oath
and showing my literacy with a ruinous line of verse.
You too, Acontius, if your love for me is no lie, must offer incense
on my behalf; let the hands that harmed me help me.
You’re indignant that the girl pledged to you isn’t yours yet, 185
so why carry on in such a way as to prevent her becoming yours?
While I’m still alive you have everything to hope for; why is the savage
goddess taking away life from me and your hope of me from you?
And don’t imagine that the man I’m betrothed to lays his
hands on me and caresses my feverish body. 190
He does sit beside me, uninvited, as much as he’s allowed to,
but he doesn’t forget that mine is a virgin’s bed.
Also he already seems to sense something about me:
he often sheds tears for no apparent reason,
he’s not as bold with his endearments, kisses me only 195
rarely, and calls me his in a voice that is timid.
I’m not surprised he’s sensed something, as I betray myself by
obvious signs: when he comes, I turn away on to my right side,
and I don’t speak, and I close my eyes, pretending to sleep,
and I push his hand off when he tries to touch me. 200
He groans and sighs, without saying anything, and finds that
through no fault of his he has made me resentful.
Oh dear, you’re elated, delighted by this attitude of mine.
Oh dear, I’ve confessed my feelings to you.
But if I felt any anger, you would deserve it with 205
more justification, for spreading the net to catch me.
You write for permission to visit me on my sickbed.You’re apart
from me, but you’re causing me harm from where you are.
I wondered why you’re called Acontius: it’s because
you have the sharp point that wounds from a distance. 210
At any rate I haven’t recovered yet from just such a wound, hit from
afar by what you wrote on the apple, as if by a javelin.
But why would you come here? You’d see a body in a really
pitiful state, a notable trophy won by your ingenuity.
I’ve wasted away and collapsed; my complexion is bloodless, 215
like the colour of your apple, as I recall it,
and my face is white, without an added red glow beneath the skin.
Freshly cut marble usually looks like this;
this is the colour of a silver goblet at a banquet,
pale from the chill touch of ice-water. 220
If you were to see me now, you’ll claim you’ve never seen me before,
and say: ‘I didn’t use my skills to try to win that girl.’
To avoid being married to me, you’ll let me off my
promise and want the goddess to forget it.
Perhaps you’ll make me swear again, but the exact opposite, 225
and send me words to read out a second time.
However, I wish you would sit beside me (as you requested yourself),
looking at the feverish body of your fiancée.
Even supposing your heart was harder than iron, Acontius,
you yourself would beg Diana to release me from my oath. 230
But, for your information, Apollo’s oracle at Delphi
is being asked how I can recover my health.
A vague rumour whispers now that he too is complaining, on the
evidence of his sister, about the failure to keep some pledge.
This is what the god, his prophet and the solemnly intoned oracle say – 235
ah, there’s full divine support for what you desire!
Why are they on your side? – unless perhaps you’ve devised some
new writing to ensnare the mighty gods when read out.
Since you’ve got control of the gods, I obey their will of my own accord;
I’m beaten, and I gladly yield to your desires. 240
I’ve confessed to mother the agreement my tongue was tricked into making,
keeping my eyes on the ground, deeply embarrassed.
The rest is your responsibility. Even as it is, I’ve done more than a girl
should in not being afraid to communicate with you by letter.
I’m weak, and I’ve already tired myself out enough with writing; 245
my sickly hand refuses to do its duty any longer.
Since I want to be joined to you in marriage soon, nothing
remains except for my letter to add: fare well!
By the time we reach the end of this poem we can deduce that Cydippe was
certainly angered by Acontius’ trick but is just about over that now (see especially
205) and his letter, with its compliments, show of love and concern, flattering jeal-
ousy etc., has got to her and has won her heart. It also appears that his ingenuity and
roguish humour and cheek have not in fact backfired. She was not put off by and
may well have been impressed by his clever and stylish expression, as she responds
with lots of that of her own (for example at 55–64). And it looks as if his levity
has succeeded in loosening her up, since she indulges in wit herself (playing on the
derivation of his name at 209f.) and makes a joke out of his ruse with the apple (at
237–9) and teases him.
As part of this tease, amusingly, for much of her epistle Cydippe conceals her real
feelings for Acontius and says nothing about her willingness to marry him (and she
holds all that back with extensive retardation by going into unnecessarily full detail
at 17ff., 77ff., 85ff. and 155ff.). As well as not owning up about things Cydippe also
positively misleads Acontius (and us) with what she does say. So it would be very
worrying for him to find her dwelling so much on all the suffering he has caused
her, and being critical and contemptuous about his trick, and wishing that she had
never gone to Delos at all. So too she calls him a terrible man (58) and a criminal
(115), accuses him of cruelty in 60, is cuttingly sarcastic in 110 and 117ff., and
talks of him having ruined his hopes of her in 127. (At the same time, so he won’t
give up and not read the letter to the end, she works in a few brief and unclear
hints that she may possibly have some time for him after all at 33f., 40, 43, 128 and
130.) Entertainingly Cydippe is getting her own back by deceiving Acontius as
he deceived her, and manipulating him in return, making him despondent before
suddenly adding much to cheer him at 187ff., where she reveals that actually he
has everything to hope for with her, and reassures him about his rival, and implies
that she does have real affection for him. But even now she plays with him: she
doesn’t actually go so far as to state openly that she loves him, she takes her time
before saying she agrees to marry him (gladly) and she leaves it up to him to set up
the wedding, thereby maintaining her dignity and making sure that he values her
acceptance of him.
Ovid ends the Heroides collection with one of his most appealing heroines.
Cydippe often describes herself as a girl (puella and virgo), and several of her (touch-
ing) characteristics evident in Her. 21 fit with that. Still under the influence of her
mother and nurse, she is timid, modest and naive (as she says herself in 104), and
she reveals a girlish excitement over the trip to Delos and the sightseeing there. She
is also tender and vulnerable – hence she is won over by Acontius’ letter with its
assurances of love etc. But she is no push-over, and she actually exerts control in
her epistle. She shows spirit getting her own back on the young man. She is also an
intelligent young woman. For instance, in addition to the stylistic neatness, she caps
his arguments about responsibility and his legalisms with much more logical and
just argumentation of her own at 135ff., and she gives a deft twist to his protesta-
tion of affection at 183f. Cydippe has a real sense of humour too. On top of the
extended mischievous tease of Acontius and the witty play on his name at 209f. and
the joke at 237–9 about the gods being ensnared by his writing, there is the wryly
mocking exaggeration of the valid powers of the ruse with the oath at 146ff. Look
back through the poem for further traits of Cydippe.
The story of Acontius and Cydippe had been told a couple hundred years ear-
lier by a Greek poet called Callimachus in his Aetia, a long and learned composi-
tion on the origins of various things (cults, cities etc.). Parts of that account have
survived (for all the fragments see Trypanis & Gelzer & Whitman 50ff.). Heroides
20 and 21 were written with the Greek poem in mind. There are clear similarities:
for example, as you will see shortly, Her. 20.25ff. echoes Aetia fragment 67.1ff., and
Her. 20.97 looks to Aetia fragment 75.26f. But typically Ovid also showed inde-
pendence and told the tale in his own way. As you read the two fragments translated
below, look to see how Ovid made variations on his model, what he added and
what he reduced.
In fragment 67 there is reference in 5 to Acontius’ home town of Iulis on Cea

and at 12ff. to girls on Cydippe’s island of Naxos.
Love himself taught Acontius the trick, when the boy

burned with love for the beautiful virgin
Cydippe (for he wasn’t cunning), so he could acquire
for all his life the name of lawful husband.
For he came from Iulis and she came from Naxos to the 5
sacrifice of oxen to you, lord Apollo, on Delos.
Both beautiful stars of the islands, he was from Euxantius’
family, and she was a descendant of Prometheus.
When she was still a little girl, many mothers asked for Cydippe
as a bride for their son, offering a dowry of horned oxen. 10
For no other girl had a face more like dawn than
she did out of those who came to the dripping
rock of hairy old Silenus or set their delicate feet
to the dance about sleeping Ariadne.
Unfortunately we have lost Callimachus’ lines on Acontius falling in love and

trapping Cydippe. The next fragment (75) depicts her back home on Naxos just
before her arranged marriage. As one of the various minor differences in detail
we see at 1ff. that in the Greek poet her first illness was epilepsy. At 20f. the text is
unsure, but it seems that her father (called Ceyx) went to Delphi, and Apollo spoke
to him in a dream, as he spent the night in the god’s temple, and told him about the
oath by Artemis (= Diana). Here is the start of fragment 75:
In the afternoon an unsightly pallor seized her, as she was afflicted

by the disease which we exorcise on to the wild goats
and mistakenly call the holy disease. It was so severe then that it
made her waste away and took her right up to death’s door. 15
The wedding-bed was spread a second time, and the girl was sick
a second time, with a quartan fever for seven months.
They thought of marriage a third time, and a third time
again a deadly chill settled on Cydippe.
Her father didn’t wait any more for a fourth time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
to Apollo. The god said this to him during the night:
‘A solemn oath by Artemis is preventing marriage for your child.
For my sister wasn’t off causing trouble for Lygdamis then,
and she wasn’t plaiting rushes in her shrine at Amyclae or washing
herself clean in the river Parthenios after the hunt, 25
but she was at home on Delos when your daughter swore
that she would wed Acontius, and no other.
Ceyx, if you’re willing to take me as your advisor
. . . . . . . . . . . . . you’ll make your daughter’s oath come true.
For I say that in marrying Acontius to her you won’t be uniting lead 30
with silver but a gold-silver alloy with gleaming gold.
You, the bride’s father, have Codrus for an ancestor, while the bridegroom
from Cea descends from the priests of Zeus Aristaeus
the Icmian, those whose task it is on the mountain crests to lessen
the heat of the fierce Dog-Star when it rises 35
and to pray to Zeus for the wind that blows lots of
quails into the bird-catchers’ linen nets.’
So spoke the god. The father went back to Naxos and questioned
the girl herself, who revealed the whole story truthfully.
And she was well again . . . . . . . . . . . . It remained for you, Acontius, 40
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to go to Naxos to fetch your wife.
The oath by Artemis was kept, and the girls of Cydippe’s own age
sang her wedding-song immediately and without delay.
Acontius, I don’t think that in return for that night
when you took her virginity you would have accepted 45
then the speed of Iphicles, who skimmed over the ears
of corn, or the possessions of Midas of Celaenae,
and all men who have experience of the harsh
god of love would corroborate my judgment.
Cean Acontius, from that marriage a great name was 50
destined to arise – the Acontiadae, your clan,
who still inhabit Iulis in large numbers and in great
honour. I learned of this love of yours from ancient
Xenomedes, who once set down your whole island
in a mythological account, beginning with 55
how it was inhabited by the Corycian nymphs,
who were driven from Parnassus by a huge lion.
We have to be cautious, as we do not have all of Callimachus’ narrative, but on

the basis of what we do have it would appear that Ovid (in addition to introducing
the epistolary form with its exchange between the couple) dropped a lot of the
rather dry erudition, added much humour and really developed the characters of
the young people and brought out their thoughts and feelings, giving Cydippe in
particular a new prominence and a voice of her own. For more on the relationship
to Callimachus consider Barchiesi 119ff.
GLOSSARY OF CHARACTERS
IN THE HEROIDES
Achelous a river-god defeated by Hercules for the hand of Deianira.

Achilles the greatest of the Greek fighters at Troy and the man who killed Hector.
Acontius the lover of Cydippe.
Actaeon a hunter who inadvertently saw Diana naked and was turned by her
into a stag and was then killed by his own dogs.
Adonis a very handsome young hero loved by Venus.
Aeetes father of Medea, king of Colchis and possessor of the Golden Fleece.
Aegeus father of Theseus.
Aegina a nymph, ancestress of Achilles.
Aegisthus lover of Orestes’ mother (Clytaemnestra), killed by Orestes.
Aegyptus brother of Danaus and father of fifty sons, whom he married to Dan-
aus’ daughters.
Aeneas trojan hero (son of Venus) who had an affair with Dido.
Aeolus the king who controlled the winds, father of Canace and Macareus.
Aethra daughter of king Pittheus, and mother of Theseus; also (in Her. 16 and 17)
the name of one of Helen’s maids.
Agamemnon commander in chief of the Greek forces at Troy and father of
Orestes.
Ajax a great Greek warrior at Troy, cousin of Achilles.
Alcaeus a lyric poet on Lesbos contemporary with Sappho.
Alcyone one of Neptune’s conquests.
Alexander another name for Paris.
Allecto one of the Furies (dread goddesses of the Underworld).
Amphitryon husband of Alcmena who passed as Hercules’ father.
Amymone a heroine who slept with Neptune.
Anactoria a woman of Lesbos loved by Sappho.
Anchises father of Aeneas by Venus.
Glossary of characters in the Heroides 251
Androgeos son of Minos, killed in Athens.

Andromache wife of the Trojan hero Hector, enslaved after the fall of Troy.
Andromeda an Ethiopian princess rescued from a monster and married by
Perseus.
Anna Dido’s sister.
Antaeus an African giant killed by Hercules.
Antenor a wise old man of Troy.
Antilochus a Greek warrior killed in the fighting at Troy.
Antinous a leading suitor for the hand of Penelope.
Apollo a god of music and healing, who built the walls of Troy and shot Achilles.
Argonauts the Greek heroes who sailed with Jason on the ship called the Argo
on the quest for the Golden Fleece.
Ariadne daughter of Minos (king of Crete) and sister of Phaedra; she helped
Theseus kill the Minotaur, and was later abandoned by him, and then married
by Bacchus.
Ascanius son of Aeneas.
Astydamia a nymph impregnated by Hercules.
Atalanta a beautiful heroine and great huntress loved by Meleager and Hip-
pomenes; she would only marry a man who beat her in a race, and Hip-
pomenes won her by throwing golden apples, which she stopped to pick up.
Atlas a giant who carried the sky on his shoulders; grandfather of Mercury.
Atreus father of Agamemnon, and grandfather of Orestes and Hermione.
Atthis a woman of Lesbos loved by Sappho.
Auge a heroine raped by Hercules.
Bacchantes female worshippers of Bacchus.
Bacchus god of wine.
Boreas the North Wind, lover of the Athenian princess Orithyia.
Briseis Achilles’ slave girl, taken away from him by Agamemnon.
Busiris a king of Egypt who sacrificed strangers.
Calyce one of Neptune’s conquests.
Canace a daughter of Aeolus who loved her own brother (Macareus).
Cassandra prophetic daughter of Priam.
Celaeno one of Neptune’s conquests.
Centaurs violent mythical creatures (half-man half-horse) defeated by Theseus
and also by Hercules.
Cephalus a hero loved and carried off by the goddess Dawn.
Cepheus father of Andromeda.
Cerberus the three-headed watchdog of the Underworld.
Ceres a goddess of agriculture and mystic rites.
Ceyx Alcyone’s husband, who was drowned in a shipwreck.
Chalciope Medea’s sister.
Charaxus brother of Sappho.
Charybdis a monster (opposite Scylla) that sucked down the sea three times a
day, creating an inescapable whirlpool.
252 Glossary of characters in the Heroides
Clymene one of Helen’s maids.

Creon king of Corinth and father of Creusa.
Creusa the daughter of Creon whom Jason married, leaving Medea.
Cupid the god of love (son of Venus); sometimes there are several Cupids.
Cybele a mother-goddess worshipped in the Trojan area by frenzied devotees.
Cydippe a beautiful young woman loved by Acontius.
Cydro a woman of Lesbos loved by Sappho.
Daedalus Icarus’ father, a craftsman who invented wings for men.
Danaus brother of Aegyptus and father of fifty daughters who were married to
Aegyptus’ fifty sons.
Daphne a nymph loved by Apollo.
Deianira wife of Hercules.
Deiphobus a son of Priam.
Demophoon a son of Theseus who was given shelter by Phyllis and took her
virginity, but then left her.
Deucalion a hero who loved Pyrrha.
Diana a goddess of hunting and the wilds, identified with Hecate.
Dido queen of Carthage, who had an affair with Aeneas.
Diomedes a savage king of Thrace with man-eating horses.
Dolon a Trojan spy killed by Ulysses and Diomedes.
Endymion a handsome young hero loved by the Moon.
Enyo a goddess who drove her worshippers into an ecstatic frenzy.
Europa a heroine abducted by Jupiter in the form of a bull.
Eurymachus a leading suitor for the hand of Penelope.
Eurystheus a king who ruled over Hercules and imposed the Labours on him.
Eurytus father of Iole.
Fates goddesses of fate who spin the threads on which the lives of mortals depend.
Fauns minor gods of the countryside.
Faunus a minor rustic god.
Fury a sinister goddess of the Underworld.
Ganymede a handsome Trojan prince abducted by Jupiter and made his cup-bearer.
Geryon a giant with three bodies.
Glaucus a sea-god.
Gorge sister of Deianira.
Hecataeon father of Calyce.
Hecate a goddess of magic and the Underworld.
Hector a son of Priam and the Trojans’ best fighter.
Hecuba wife of Priam and mother of Paris.
Helen the wife of Menelaus who eloped with Paris.
Helle a young heroine who fell from the golden ram into the sea.
Hercules the super-hero who performed the twelve Labours.
Hermione Helen’s daughter.
Hero a beautiful heroine loved by Leander.
Hesione a heroine taken captive by the hero Telamon.
Hippodamia ancestor of Hermione and a princess whose father was beaten in a

chariot race by Pelops, who thus won her as his wife; also (in Her 17) the name
of a heroine whom the Centaurs tried to carry off at her wedding, and who
was defended by her husband’s Thessalian subjects.
Hippolyte an Amazon queen whose sword-belt Hercules had to seize and bring
back as one of his Labours.
Hippolytus a son of Theseus, loved by his stepmother Phaedra, and dear to the
goddess Diana, whom he worshipped with great reverence.
Hippomenes a Greek hero who beat the heroine Atalanta in a foot-race by throw-
ing golden apples, which she stopped to pick up, and thus won her as his wife.
Hydra a many-headed snake killed by Hercules.
Hyllus son of Hercules and Deianira.
Hymen god of marriage.
Hypermestra the daughter of Danaus who refused to kill her husband.
Hypsipyle queen of Lemnos, married and abandoned by Jason.
Iarbas an African chieftain and suitor for the hand of Dido.
Icarius Penelope’s father.
Icarus Daedalus’ son who flew too close to the sun.
Idyia Medea’s mother.
Ilioneus a Trojan hero.
Io a river-nymph who was loved by Jupiter.
Iole a princess whom Hercules fell in love with after taking her captive.
Irus a beggar who sided with Penelope’s suitors.
Itys son of Procne, killed by her to get revenge on her husband.
Jason the Greek hero who went on the quest for the Golden Fleece, and who
married Hypsipyle, Medea and Creusa.
Juno wife and sister of Jupiter, the queen of the gods and goddess of marriage.
Jupiter king of the gods, husband and brother of Juno.
Laertes father of Ulysses.
Lamus son of Hercules and Omphale.
Laodamia the young wife of Protesilaus.
Laodice one of Neptune’s conquests.
Laomedon Priam’s father.
Latona the mother of Diana and Apollo.
Leander the young man who loved Hero and swam to her of a night.
Leda mother of Helen, raped by Jupiter in the form of a swan.
Leucippus the father of two heroines who were carried off by Helen’s brothers
Castor and Pollux.
Lynceus the son of Aegyptus whose life was spared by Hypermestra.
Macareus a son of Aeolus, who loved his own sister (Canace).
Mars the god of war and lover of Venus.
Medea daughter of Aeetes and a witch, who helped Jason get the Golden
Fleece.
Medon a herald who associated with Penelope’s suitors.
Medusa a beautiful heroine loved by Neptune before her hair was turned to snakes.
Melanthius Ulysses’ goatherd who sided with Penelope’s suitors.
Meleager a Greek hero (brother of Deianira) cursed by his mother for killing her
brothers (after they objected when he awarded Atalanta the hide of the huge
Calydonian boar killed in a hunt, as she had inflicted the first wound on it)
and killed by her.
Menelaus brother of Agamemnon and husband of Helen and father of Hermione.
Mercury the divine messenger of the gods.
Minerva goddess of wisdom and crafts who favoured the Greeks at Troy.
Minos a king of Crete, father of Phaedra and Ariadne.
Minotaur a monster (half-man and half-bull) born of Pasiphae’s mating with a
bull; it lived in the Labyrinth and was killed by Theseus.
Muses the goddesses who inspire poets.
Neptune the god of the sea, who built the walls of Troy.
Nereus a sea-god, father of Thetis and grandfather of Achilles.
Nessus a Centaur killed by Hercules.
Nestor the aged king of Pylos who fought at Troy.
Niobe a queen who boasted that she had more children than Diana’s mother,
with the result that they were all killed by Diana and Apollo, and Niobe was
turned into a rock.
Nymph goddess of the countryside.
Oenone a water-nymph loved by Paris before he eloped with Helen.
Omphale an oriental queen served and loved by Hercules.
Orestes son of Agamemnon, and husband and cousin of Hermione.
Orithyia an Athenian princess loved by the god Boreas.
Palaemon a sea-god.
Pallas another name for Minerva.
Pans minor gods of the countryside.
Paris the Trojan prince who eloped with Helen, causing the Trojan War.
Patroclus a Greek warrior killed at Troy and a close friend of Achilles.
Pelasgus a king of Argos.
Pelias the king of Thessaly who sent Jason on the quest for the Golden Fleece.
Pelops grandfather of Menelaus and great-grandfather of Orestes and Her-
mione; he beat Hippodamia’s father in a chariot race and thus won her as his
bride.
Penelope wife of Ulysses.
Penthesilea an Amazon queen who fought at Troy on the Trojan side.
Perseus a hero who rescued Andromeda from a sea-monster and married her.
Phaedra wife of Theseus and sister of Ariadne, who loved her stepson Hippolytus.
Phaon a ferryman on the island of Lesbos loved by Sappho.
Phereclus builder of Paris’ ship.
Phoebus another name for Apollo.
Phoenix one of the Greeks at Troy who went on the embassy to Achilles.
Phrixus Helle’s brother who rode on the golden ram.
Phyllis a princess of Thrace who gave her love to Demophoon but was left by him.
Pirithous a king of northern Greece who was a great friend of Theseus.
Pisander one of Penelope’s suitors.
Pittheus the king of Troezen, father of Aethra and grandfather of Theseus.
Pleiad a divine daughter of Atlas.
Pleione a sea-nymph.
Pluto god of the Underworld.
Polybus one of Penelope’s suitors.
Polydamas a Trojan hero and friend of Hector.
Priam king of Troy and father of Paris and Hector.
Procne wife of the Thracian king Tereus, who raped her sister; in revenge Procne
killed her son Itys, cooked him and served him up to Tereus; she was then
changed into a nightingale.
Procrustes a murderer killed by Theseus.
Protesilaus husband of Laodamia, and the first man killed in the Trojan War.
Pygmalion Dido’s evil brother.
Pyrrha a heroine loved by Deucalion.
Pyrrhus son of Achilles.
Rhesus a Trojan ally killed by Ulysses and Diomedes.
Sappho a Greek lyric poetess who loved Phaon.
Satyrs minor gods of the countryside.
Sciron robber killed by Theseus.
Scylla a six-headed monster, with dogs growing from her lower body, who lived
in a cave near the sea (opposite Charybdis) and attacked passing ships.
Sinis a murderer killed by Theseus.
Sychaeus Dido’s husband who was killed before Aeneas met Dido.
Tantalus son of Jupiter and father of Pelops and an ancestor of Hermione and
Orestes, he was punished in the Underworld with perpetual hunger and
thirst.
Telamon a hero who took captive the heroine Hesione.
Thalia one of the Muses.
Theseus an Athenian hero (father of Demophoon and Hippolytus), who
abducted Helen when she was young, and who killed the Minotaur and then
abandoned Ariadne after she had helped him.
Thespius a Greek king whose fifty daughters were impregnated by Hercules.
Thetis a goddess of the sea, famous for her silvery feet.
Thoas father of Hypsipyle.
Tisiphone one of the Furies (dread goddesses of the Underworld).
Tithonus a handsome Trojan abducted by the goddess Dawn and who became
her husband.
Tlepolemus a Greek fighter killed at Troy.
Triton a sea-god.
Tydeus a brother of Deianira.
Tyndareus Hermione’s grandfather and husband of Leda.
Typhos a monster which was defeated by Jupiter and imprisoned under Mount
Etna.
Tyro a heroine seduced by Neptune.
Ulysses (Greek name: Odysseus) Penelope’s husband who fought at Troy and
who was hated by Neptune.
Venus the goddess of love.
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INDEX
Abydos 212, 216, 224 Alcmene 99

Achelous 99, 103 Alcyone 213
Achilles 7, 9, 32, 33, 35, 75, 89, 91, 95, 140, Alexander 186, 197
232; Heroides 3 32 – 42 Allan, W. 149
Acontius 3; Heroides 20 230 – 9; Heroides 21 Allius 159
240 – 9 Amazons 46, 74, 75
Actaeon 231, 240 Ambracia 177
Adonis 46, 128 Amores (Ovid) 3, 4, 6, 48, 120, 208
Aeetes 66 – 7, 132, 134, 149, 206 Amphitryon 99
Aegeus 111, 140 Amyclae 248
Aegina 34 Amymone 224
Aegisthus 89, 95 Anacreon 184
Aegyptus 164 Anactoria 174
Aeneas 40, 42, 211; Heroides 7 76 – 88 Anchises 76, 191
Aeneid (Virgil) 1, 40, 76, 82 – 7, 93, 128, Androgeos 111
210 – 11 Andromache 40, 41, 42, 59, 89
Aeolus 121, 123, 128 – 9 Andromache (Euripides) 40, 96 – 7, 211
Aeschylus 141; Agamemnon 40, 211; Andromeda 40, 174, 213
Eumenides 184; Suppliants 171 Andros 242
Aeson 66 Anna 85
Aetia (Callimachus) 247 – 9 Annals (Tacitus) 98
Africa 77, 81, 129 Antigone (Sophocles) 184
Agamemnon 32, 33 – 6, 37, 38, 56, 57, 89, Antilochus 8
95 – 6, 153 Antinous 10
Agamemnon (Aeschylus) 40, 211 Apamea 18
Agenor 82 Aphrodite 38, 52, 62, 64, 66, 75, 173, 181,
Agrippina 124 199, 239
Aissa 55 Apollo 9, 60, 114, 174, 177, 178, 230,
Ajax 33 231, 240
Alcaeus 184 Apollonius of Rhodes 73 – 4, 142, 144
Alcestis 109, 162 apples 239, 243, 246
Alcestis (Euripides) 109, 162 – 3 Apsyrtus 67, 139
Alcman 184 Arctos 217
Index 261
Ares 75 Capra 218
Argo 66, 133, 140, 217 Carthage 77, 80, 81, 82, 86 – 7, 129
Argonauts 66 Cassandra 40, 61, 186 – 7, 191
Argos 164 Catholic church 16
Ariadne 22, 43, 45, 111, 205; Heroides 10 Catullus 115 – 17, 118, 120, 159 – 60,
111 – 20 162, 179
Aricia 54 Celaeno 224
Aristaeus 249 Centaur 99, 103, 106
Aristophanes 108 Cephalus 46, 176
Armstrong, R. 3, 88 Cepheus 174
Ars Amatoria (Ovid) 3, 4, 6, 48, 120, 208 Cerberus 100, 102, 108, 169
Artemis 52, 75 Ceres 23
Ascanius 41, 42, 79, 83 Ceyx 213, 215, 248
Astynanax 41 – 2, 97 Chalciope 132, 206
Atalanta 46 Chaonia 42
Athena 11, 13, 32, 97 Chaon of Troy 42
Athens 24, 52, 111, 114 – 15, 140, 143 Charaxus 176
Atlas 100 Charybdis 135, 142
Atreus 89, 197, 198 Chaucer, G. 4
Atthis 174, 180 Chiusi Vase 17
Atwood, M. 17 Cicero 124
Auge 101 Cinyras 127
Augustus 1, 86 Circe 18
Aulis 85 Claassen, J.-M. 3
‘authentic realism’ 169 Clashing Rocks 135, 142
Clauss, J.J. 144, 149
Bacchantes 45, 112, 119 Cleis 179
Bacchus 22, 112, 113, 119, 120, 174, Clodia 124
213, 217 Clodius 124
Barchiesi, A. 249 Clymene 207
Barsby, J. 6 Clytaemnestra 40, 95, 211
Baudelaire, C. 179 Codrus 249
Bellerophon 40 Coen, E. 16
Betto, Bernardino di 18 Coen, J. 16
Black Sea 133, 217 Colchis 66, 69, 70, 133, 140, 141, 144, 197,
Blok, J.H. 75 217, 219, 225
Blondell, R. 211 Collateral Damage (Crossland) 149
Bootes 218 Corinth 91, 132 – 4, 137
Boreas 212, 214, 219 Creon 132, 134, 139, 146 – 8
Boyd, B.W. 3 Cretan Crown constellation 112, 120
Boyle, A.J. 3 Crete 43, 45, 47, 55, 111, 113, 119, 191,
Brindel, J.R. 54 – 5 196, 204, 239
Briseis 60, 232; Heroides 3 32 – 42 Creusa 132, 134, 139 – 40, 142, 143,
Brussels 18 146 – 8, 151
Busiris 100, 102 Crossland 149
Byron, G.G. 179, 212 Cupid 23, 47, 49, 77, 79, 81, 83, 126, 175,
178 – 9, 189, 190
Caligula 124 – 5 Cybele 45
Callimachus 98, 247 – 9, 249 Cydippe 3; Heroides 20 230 – 9; Heroides 21
Callisto 63, 213 240 – 9
Calyce 224 Cydro 174
Calydon 230, 240 Cynthia 161
Calypso 12, 16 Cyprus 30
Canace, Heroides 11 121 – 31 Cythera 79
262 Index
Daedalus 97 – 8, 212, 214, 219 Fiorenza, G. 19, 20

Danaids 164, 169 – 71 Foley, H. P. 141, 144
Danaus 164, 167 Francis I, King of France 19
Daphne 63, 174 Fratantuono, L. 3
Dardanelles 212 Frogs (Aristophanes) 108
Dawn 46, 176, 191 Fulkerson, L. 5, 104, 139, 140
Deianira, Heroides 9 99 – 110 Furies 22, 68, 124, 184
Deiphobus 59, 197, 211
Delacroix, E. 151 – 2 Galinsky, G.K. 3
Delos 240, 242 – 3, 247, 248 Gallus 1
Delphi 96, 230, 248 Ganymede 191
Demeter 184 Gelzer, T. 247
Demophoon, Heroides 2 22 – 31 Geryon 100, 102
Dia 111, 112, 115 Glaucus 217
Diana 45, 46, 47, 50, 52, 134 – 5, 141, 153, golden apple 239
154, 230, 236, 237, 240 Golden Fleece 66 – 7, 132, 136, 137,
Dido 129; Heroides 7 76 – 88 144 – 5
Diomedes 13, 100, 102 Gorge 104
Dionysus 108 Grafton, A. 16, 51, 88, 120, 211
Dolon 7, 9, 11 Graziosi, B. 17
Donne, J. 4 Great Bear 213
Doom 62, 74 Greene, E. 179, 183
Drusilla 125 Green, P. 3
Dryads 45 Greenwood, E. 17
Dryden, J. 4, 131 Griffiths, E. 144, 149
Dublin 16 Grube, G.M. 149
Dulichium 10
Dunbabin, R-M. 18 Hades 170
Durrell, H.D. 179 Haemus 25
Hagen, R. 18, 19, 20
Eclogues (Virgil) 239 Hagen, R-M. 18, 19, 20
Egypt 164 Hall, E. 149
Electra (Euripides) 95 Hardie, P. 3
Eleusis 45 Hartt, F. 18
Elysian Fields 143 Hebrus 23, 25
Endymion 62, 213, 215 Hecate 141
Epistulae ex Ponto (Ovid) 3 Hector 7, 8, 32, 35, 36, 40 – 2, 58, 64, 80, 89,
Eros 179 154, 156, 187, 198
Ethiopia 174 Hecuba 40, 56, 57, 94, 186
Eumenides (Aeschylus) 184 Hecuba (Euripides) 40
Euripides 5, 54, 141, 144, 151; Alcestis 109, Helen 3, 7, 14, 15, 20, 56, 57, 61, 89, 91 – 3,
162 – 3; Andromache 40, 96 – 7, 211; 95, 153, 156, 212, 225; Heroides 16
Electra 95; Hecuba 40; Hippolytus 43, 186 – 99; Heroides 17 200 – 11
48, 52; Medea 146 – 9; The Trojan Helenus 40, 41 – 2
Women 40 Helice 217
Eurydice 169 Hellespont 212, 213, 216, 219
Eurymachus 10 Hercules, Heroides 9 99 – 110
Eurystheus 100 Hermes/Mercury 15
Eurytus 99, 103 Hermione 41; Heroides 8 89 – 98
Hero 3; Heroides 18 212 – 20; Heroides 19
Fasti (Ovid) 3, 63, 120 221 – 9
Faunus 60 Hero and Leander (Marlowe) 228 – 9
Felson-Rubin, N. 11 Hero and Leander (Musaeus) 220, 228
Fetterley, J. 50 Hesione 232
Index 263
Hesperides 100 Kane, S. 55

Hippodamia 40, 89, 91, 206 Kauffman, A. 19 – 21
Hippolytus, Heroides 4 43 – 55 Kelly, M. 37
Hippolytus (Euripides) 43, 48, 52 Kenney, E.J. 6, 219
Hippomenes 243 Knox, P.E. 3
Homer 5, 183; Iliad 13, 32, 37 – 40, 63 – 4,
97, 197 – 9, 209, 211; Odyssey 10, 12 – 13, Labyrinth 111, 115
15 – 16, 19, 28 – 9, 39, 210 Laertes 10, 33
Horace 1, 15, 169 – 70, 179 Lamus 101
Hughes, T. 54 Land of the Dead 15
Hydra 100, 102 Laodamia, Heroides 13 153 – 63
Hylas 63 Laodice 224
Hyllus 104 Laomedon 202
Hymen 68 Lara 63
Hypermestra, Heroides 14 164 – 72 Larson, 63
Hypsipyle 138 – 40; Heroides 6 66 – 75 Latium 77
Latona 231, 240, 243
Ibis (Ovid) 3 Leander 3; Heroides 18 212 – 20; Heroides 19
Icarius 10 221 – 9
Icarus 97 – 8, 212, 214 Leda 89, 156, 186, 191
Idyia 206 Lee, G. 238
Iliad (Homer) 13, 32, 37 – 40, 63 – 4, 97, Lefkowitz, M.R. 75
197 – 9, 209, 211 Lemnos 66, 67, 68, 70, 71
Ilioneus 197 Lesbos 173, 183
Ilium 186, 192, 196, 206 Leucas 173 – 4, 178
incest 124 – 31 Leucippus 196
infanticide 143 Lindheim, S.H. 5, 11, 139, 140, 183
Io 63, 172 Liveley, G. 3, 6
Iolcus 66, 145 Lucretius 153 – 4, 170 – 1
Iole 99 Lyde 169 – 70
Iphigenia 153 Lydia 180
Irus 10 Lygdamis 248
Isbell, H. 139 Lynceus, Heroides 14 164 – 72
Isles of the Blessed 179
Italy 173 Macareus, Heroides 11 121 – 31
Ithaca 12 Macintosh, F 149
Mack, S. 3, 6, 36
Jacobson, H. 4, 6, 88, 92, 104, 115, 126, 139, Maguire, L.E. 211
159, 173 Mail and Female (Lindheim) 5
James, E. 51, 54 Marlowe, C. 4, 228 – 9
Jason 197, 206, 225; Heroides 6 66 – 75; Mars 35, 66, 68, 81, 134
Heroides 12 132 – 52 Martial 98
Jason and the Argonauts (Chaffey) 149 – 50 Mayer, R. 51, 54
Johnson, M. 179 Meander 101
Johnston, S.I. 144, 149 Medea 20, 66 – 73, 158, 197, 206; in art
Jondorf, G. 51, 54 150 – 2; dance version of story
Joyce, J. 16 149; in film 149 – 50; Heroides
Juno 23, 44, 56, 57, 68, 77, 82, 84, 99 – 100, 12 132 – 52; popularity in
101, 108, 128 – 9, 135, 165, 169, 172, 186, literature 149
189, 191, 204, 213, 239 Medea: A Ballet in One Act (Tbilisi Z.
Jupiter 32, 34, 44, 47, 89, 99, 101, 108, Paliashvili Opera and Ballet State
111, 113, 165, 186, 189, 191, 202, Theatre) 149
213, 217 Medea (Euripides) 146 – 9
Juturna 63 Medea (Ovid) 3
264 Index
Medea (Paolozzi) 152 O Brother,Where Art Thou? (Coen &

Medea (Pasolini) 150 Coen) 16
Medeaspiel (Müller) 149 Odes (Horace) 1
Medea: Stimmen (Wolf) 149 Odysseus see Ulysses
Medicamina Faciei Femineae (Ovid) 3 Odyssey (Homer) 10, 12 – 13, 15 – 16, 19,
Medon 10 28 – 9, 39, 210
Medus 140 Oechalia 99, 100
Medusa 224 Oenone 190, 200, 205, 209; Heroides 5
Melanthius 10 56 – 65
Meleager 35, 46, 100, 104, 231 Olympus 112
Menelaus 8, 11, 56, 59, 64, 89, 90, 153, Omphale 100, 101, 102, 107, 110
186 – 7, 191, 196, 197 – 9, 203 – 4, 206, On the Nature of the Universe (Lucretius)
209, 211 170 – 1
Mercury 77, 169 Orestes 41, 89; Heroides 8 89 – 98
Metamorphoses (Ovid) 3, 38, 40, 50, 97, 99, Orithyia 197, 212, 214
106, 120, 125, 126, 140, 144, 220 Orpheus 127 – 8, 169
Methymna 174 Ovid: Amores 3, 6, 15, 208; Ars Amatoria 3, 4,
Midas 249 6, 48, 120, 208; Epistulae ex Ponto 3;
Millard, E. 169 Fasti 3, 63, 120; Heroides 3 – 6; Ibis 3;
Mills, S. 51, 169 life 1 – 3; Medea 3; Medicamina Faciei
Minerva 20, 32, 56, 57, 186, 239 Femineae 3; Metamorphoses 3, 38, 40,
Minos 43, 47, 70, 111, 114, 116, 197 50, 97, 99, 106, 120, 125, 126, 140,
Minotaur 22, 24, 43, 111, 118 144, 220; Remedia Amoris 3, 6, 30,
Montiglio 18 38, 154; Tristia 3, 183
Moon 122, 176, 213, 215 Ovidian Heroine as Author,The (Fulkerson) 5
Most, G.W. 16, 51, 88, 120, 211 Ovid’s Heroides ( Jacobson) 4
Mountain of Sorrows 185 Ovid’s Toyshop of the Heart (Verducci) 4
Mount Erymanthus 100
Mount Etna 174 – 5 Palaemon 217
Mount Helicon 184 Pallas 186 – 7, 189, 191, 204
Mount Ida 186, 191 Palmer, A. 173
Mount Latmos 213, 215 Pan 15, 184
Mount Oeta 99, 103 Pans 48
Mozley, J.H. 3 Paolozzi, E. 152
Müller, H. 149 Paris 3, 15, 89, 159, 212, 232, 239; Heroides 5
Murgatroyd, P. 3, 63 56 – 65; Heroides 16 186 – 99; Heroides 17
Musaeus 219 – 20, 228 200 – 11
Mycenae 81 Parnassus 249
Myconos 242 Pasiphae 43, 111
Mynes 39 Pasolini, P. 150
Myrrha 126 – 8 Patroclus 7, 8, 32, 33, 36, 38
Patterson, C. 143
Naples 185 Pearce, L. 169
Nausicaa 28 – 9 Pelasgus 164
Naxos 230, 248, 249 Peleus 239
Neptune 23, 36, 43, 53 Pelias 66, 132, 136, 139, 145 – 6, 150
Nereus 34 Pelops 89, 91, 202
Nero 124 – 5 Penelope: in art 17 – 21; Heroides 1 7 – 21;
Nessus 99, 103, 104 popularity in literature 16 – 17
Nestor 8, 9, 11 Penelope Invoking Minerva’s Aid for the Safe
Nicoteles 98 Return of Telemachus (Kauffman)
Nile River 165 19 – 20
Nine Roads 30 Penelopiad,The (Atwood) 17
Niobe 231, 233, 240 Penthesilea 74 – 5
Index 265
Pergamum 42 Resisting Reader,The (Fetterley) 50

Perseus 174, 213, 217 Reynolds, M. 179
Peter, Saint 16 Rhesus 7, 9, 11
Phaeacians 28 Rhodope 25
Phaedra 173; Heroides 4 43 – 55 Rilke, R.M. 179
Phaedra: A Novel of Ancient Athens (Brindel) Roller, D.W. 17
54 – 5 Roller, K. 18
Phaedra (Seneca) 52, 55 Rome 86, 185
Phaedra’s Love (Kane) 55 Romulus 77
Phaedra (Sophocles) 88 Rosenthal, A. 20
Phaon, Heroides 15 173 – 85 Roworth, W.W. 19
Philemon 184
Philippus 98 Salmacis 63
Philoctetes 187, 188 Same 10
Philonoe 40 Sappho 3, 239; Heroides 15 173 – 85
Phoebus 178 Satires (Horace) 15
Phoenix 33 Satyrs 48, 60, 112, 119
Phrixus 213 Sciron 24
Phthia 75 Scylla 135, 142
Phyllis, Heroides 2 22 – 31 Scythia 69, 133
Pindar 144, 184 Sejanus 98
Pintoricchio, F. 19, 20 Seneca 52, 54, 55, 144
Pirithous 43, 46, 50 Sestos 212, 219
Pisander 10 Settis, S. 16, 51, 88, 120, 211
Pittheus 46 Shakespeare, W. 4
Plato 239 Sicily 135, 173, 174 – 5, 184
Pleiades 218 Silenus 119
Polybus 10 Simois 41
Polydamas 59 Sinis 24
Polyxena 41 Sirens 18
Posthomerica (Quintus Smyrnaeus) 39 – 40, Sophocles: Antigone 184; Phaedra 88;
61 – 3, 74 – 5 Trachiniae 104
Pound, E. 179 Sparta 6, 8, 9, 56, 89, 186, 188, 191,
Priam 7, 9, 32, 33, 40, 41, 56, 65, 93 – 5, 186, 201 – 2, 225
189, 190, 202, 205 Spaull, S. 169
Primaticcio, F. 19 Spentzou, E. 5
Pro Caelio (Cicero) 124 Spoth, F. 4
Procrustes 24 Stanford, W.B. 17
Propertius 1, 160 – 2, 208 ‘Stockholm Syndrome’ 37
Protesilaus, Heroides 13 153 – 63 Styx 53
Pygmalion 81, 82 – 3 Suetonius 125
Pylos 8, 9, 10 Suppliants (Aeschylus) 171
Pyrrha 174, 177 Swinburne, A.C. 179
Pyrrhus 40, 41, 89, 90, 92 – 7 Sychaeus 82, 83
Quintilian 238 Tacitus 98, 124

Quintus Smyrnaeus 39 – 40, 61 – 3, 74 – 5 Tanais 69
Tantalus 89, 202, 213
Racine, J. 54 Taplin, O. 149
Raeburn, D. 3 Tbilisi Z. Paliashvili Opera and Ballet State
Readers and Writers in Ovid’s Heroides Theatre 149
(Spentzou) 5 Telamon 232
Remedia Amoris (Ovid) 3, 6, 30, 38, 154 Telemachus 7 – 8, 10, 11, 16, 20
Remus 77 Tennyson, A. 4
266 Index
Tenos 242 Ugone, J. 16

Thalia 176 Ulysses 28 – 9, 33, 63, 225; Heroides 1
Therapnae 186 7 – 21
Theseus 22, 43, 50, 53, 55, 59, 186, 191; Ulysses and Penelope (Primaticcio) 19
Heroides 10 111 – 20 Ulysses ( Joyce) 16 – 17
Thessaly 66, 67, 81, 132, 135, 145, 153 Underworld 53, 100, 108, 169,
Thetis 32, 239 213, 242
Thoas 70 Underworld Painter 151
Thornton, A. 11
Thorsen, T.S. 173 Valerius Flaccus 144
Thrace 22, 24 Venus 23, 41, 43, 46, 52, 56, 57, 76, 77,
Tiberius 98 78 – 9, 82, 84, 86, 178, 186, 189, 196,
Tibullus 1, 208 229, 239
Tiresias 15 – 16 Verducci, F. 4
Tlepolemus 8 Vesuvius 185
Toledo Museum of Art 19 Virgil 5, 183 – 5; Aeneid 1, 40, 76, 82 – 7, 93,
Tomis 3 – 4 128, 210 – 11; Eclogues 239
Trachiniae (Sophocles) 104
Tristia (Ovid) 3, 183 Whitman, C. 247
Troezen 46 Wilkins, D. 18
Trojan Women,The (Euripides) 40 Williams, G.D. 3
Troy 6, 8, 9, 15, 28, 32, 36, 38, 40, 41, 56, Wolf, C. 149
75, 79, 81, 86, 154, 159, 186 – 7, 191, Woodard, R.D. 3
206, 209 Wyke, 26
Trypanis, C.A. 247
Turkey 173 Xanthus 57
Turner, P. 3
Tydeus 104 Zacynthus 10
Tyndareus 15, 89, 202, 206 Zeus 14, 32, 75, 181, 198
Tyrians 82 Zeus Aristaeus the Icmian 249

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What is the book about?

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OVID’S HEROIDES

Sarah Parker is a part-time instructor in the Classics department at Brock Uni-

Paul Murgatroyd, Bridget Reeves

Heroides 1 Penelope to Ulysses 7

Heroides 2 Phyllis to Demophoon 22

Heroides 3 Briseis to Achilles 32

Heroides 4 Phaedra to Hippolytus 43

Heroides 5 Oenone to Paris 56

Heroides 6 Hypsipyle to Jason 66

Heroides 7 Dido to Aeneas 76

Heroides 8 Hermione to Orestes 89

Heroides 9 Deianira to Hercules 99

Heroides 10 Ariadne to Theseus 111

Heroides 11 Canace to Macareus 121

Heroides 12 Medea to Jason 132

Heroides 13 Laodamia to Protesilaus 153

Heroides 14 Hypermestra to Lynceus 164

Heroides 15 Sappho to Phaon 173

Heroides 16 Paris to Helen 186

Heroides 17 Helen to Paris 200

Heroides 18 Leander to Hero 212

Heroides 19 Hero to Leander 221

Heroides 20 Acontius to Cydippe 230

Heroides 21 Cydippe to Acontius 240

Glossary of characters in the Heroides250

This work is aimed in particular at Classical Civilization students taking courses on

be written or sent to the addressees). Their epistolary form is a literary device

From Penelope to Ulysses, her dilatory husband.

tracing out the whole of Troy in a little wine:

you could be captivated by some foreign mistress.

This poem is a good introduction to the whole collection. When composing

home after twenty years full of suffering. 170

‘If he’s a lecher, don’t wait to be asked, be obliging and 75

a month later, when the moon was full again.

I trusted your seductive words (there were lots of them),

well-known example from Homer’s Odyssey – Nausicaa, the captivating young

‘Stranger, for you don’t seem to be a bad man or a fool,

Nausicaa in her heaven-sent beauty

What else harmed Phyllis but the secluded forest?

In contrast to the previous poem, Her. 3 is not a despairing announcement of

What you’re reading comes from stolen Briseis,

as your wife – not that you’re short of a wife.

Ah, fear of that makes me shudder in misery.

mighty arm of yours right into Hector’s side.

As part of an intricate network of links in the collection Ovid here makes

But then Briseis, who looked like golden Aphrodite,

When I went from this hut, I left you alive,

Most of all, in an agony of grief, Briseis, who had

Such were her words of lament for the dead Achilles,

She looked down and said in a low voice: 320

At his death part of the kingdom passed by bequest

Andromache too, sad at the final parting, and not to be

From the Cretan girl to Hippolytus: I hope that all is well

I feel the urge to go off hunting wild animals.

whether you hurl a tough javelin with it

in childbirth before it could harm you like this.

Heroides 1 Penelope to Ulysses 7

Heroides 2 Phyllis to Demophoon 22

Heroides 3 Briseis to Achilles 32

Heroides 4 Phaedra to Hippolytus 43

Heroides 5 Oenone to Paris 56

Heroides 6 Hypsipyle to Jason 66

Heroides 7 Dido to Aeneas 76

Heroides 8 Hermione to Orestes 89

Heroides 9 Deianira to Hercules 99

Heroides 10 Ariadne to Theseus 111

Heroides 11 Canace to Macareus 121

Heroides 12 Medea to Jason 132

Heroides 13 Laodamia to Protesilaus 153

Heroides 14 Hypermestra to Lynceus 164

Heroides 15 Sappho to Phaon 173

Heroides 16 Paris to Helen 186

Heroides 17 Helen to Paris 200

Heroides 18 Leander to Hero 212

Heroides 19 Hero to Leander 221

Heroides 20 Acontius to Cydippe 230

Heroides 21 Cydippe to Acontius 240

Glossary of characters in the Heroides250

home after twenty years full of suffering. 170

‘If he’s a lecher, don’t wait to be asked, be obliging and 75

She looked down and said in a low voice: 320

instead men should deposit in your temples 620

My face and chest were drenched with tears. 70

Among them Phoenician Dido wandered in that vast wood, 450

Pyrrhus, who’s as haughty as his father Achilles, holds me 3

I did what I could – refused to be held here willingly – 5

When she went into the palace, on her own, 900

be neglected, and the poor woman wept whenever she 905

You’ll go to Athens’ harbour and be welcomed home, 125

so he’d have looked on my death-wound with dry eyes. 10

Turning over these thoughts in her blazing heart, the goddess 50