Chapter one

Introduction to GIS

An information system (IS) is an organized system for the collection, organization, storage and
communication of information. More specifically, it is the study of complementary networks that
people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and distribute data. An information
system is a group of components that interact to produce information.
A computer information system is a system composed of people and computers that processes or
interprets information.
IS allows the transformation of data into information via:
 Structuring
 Formatting
 Conversion
 Modeling

GIS stands for geographical information system which consists of three important words in
which geographic deals with spatial objects or features which can be referenced or related to a
specific location on the earth surface. The object may be physical, natural or may be cultural man
made. Likewise the word Information deals with the large volume of data about a particular
object on the earth surface. The data includes a set of qualitative and quantitative aspects which
the real world objects acquire. The term System is used to represent systems approach where the
complex environment which consists of a large number, of objects / features on the earth surface
and their complex characteristics is broken down into their component parts for easy
understanding and handling, but is considered to form an integrated whole for managing and
decision making.

So, GIS is a computer based information system which attaches a variety of qualities and
characteristics to geographical location and helps in planning and decision making. And as a
computerized system it facilitates the phases of data entry, data analysis and data presentation
especially in cases when we are dealing with geo referenced data. GIS uses a computer based
tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on earth.

Here we can conclude that a GIS user expects support from the system to enter geo referenced
data to analyze it in various ways and to produce output (maps and other) from the data. GIS
draws on concepts and ideas from many different disciplines, such as cartography, cognitive
science, computer science, engineering, environmental sciences, geodesy, landscape architecture,
law, photogrammetric, public policy, remote sensing, statistics and surveying. So, it involves not
only the study of the fundamental issues arising from the creation, handling, storage and use of

1
geographic information, but it also examines the impacts of GIS on individuals and society and
the influences of society on GIS.

To answer apparently simple geographical questions like: What is the population of a particular
city? What are the characteristics of the soils in a particular land parcel? Are there any trends in
the patterns of earthquakes which could help predict future quakes? How has the distribution of
urban and rural population changed between the past two censuses? All these questions are
pertinent and require the proper and accurate data derived from several sources, and is integrated
into a consistent form. The art, science, engineering and technology required to answer these
geographical questions constitute called Geographical Information System (GIS).

Components of the GIS system

A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware, software, data, people, and methods.

GIS primarily deals with geographic data to be analyzed, manipulated and managed in an
organized manner through computers to solve real world problems. So, GIS operation mostly
requires computer system and geographic data.

Computer System:

It includes both hardware and software. GIS runs through computer system ranging from
portable personal computers (PCs) to multi-user super computers which are programmed by
wide variety of software languages. In all ranges, there are a number of things, that are essential
for effective GIS operation. These include: a processor with sufficient power to run the software,
sufficient memory for the storage of large volume of data, a good quality, high resolution color
graphic screen and data input and output devices. There are a wide range of software packages
for GIS analysis, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Even those lists are too long
to be mentioned here, the important ones are different versions of ARC View, ARC Info, Map
Info., ARC GIS, and Auto Cad Map etc.

Data for GIS: Can be obtained from different sources like aerial photographs, satellite
imageries, digital data, conventional maps, Census, Meteorological department, field data
(surveys/GPS) etc. These data obtained from various sources can be classified into two types –
spatial data which describes location and attribute data which specifies the characteristics at that
location. Spatial data tells us, “Where the object is?” Attribute data tells us “What the object is?”
or “How much the object is?” In other words, it tells the characteristics at that location.

 Spatial Data

The spatial data or real world features are very complex. So, spatial data is simplified before they
are entered into the computer. The common way of doing this is to break down all geographic
features into three basic entity types – points, lines and areas. Points are ‘one dimensional’
objects, used to represent features that are very small, e.g. a post box, an electric pole, a well or

2
tube well etc. Only latitudinal and longitudinal values or a coordinate reference can be given to
these features to explain their location. Lines are two dimensional objects and are used to
represent linear features, for example roads and rivers. Lines are also used to represent linear
features such as administrative boundaries and international boundaries. Areas are three
dimensional objects and are represented by closed set of lines and are used to define features
such as agricultural fields, forest areas, administrative areas etc. Area entities are often referred
to as polygons.

The representation of real world features using the point, line and area entity types appears
relatively simple. However, the appropriate entity to represent real world features is often
difficult and it depends upon the scale of the map. On a world map, cities are represented by
points. It only gives information about number of cities shown on the world map. At national or
regional scale, the ‘point’ entity to represent cities is considered too simple, as it tells us nothing
about the real size of the city. In this case, cities are represented by ‘area’ entity. At the local
scale, ‘area’ entity to represent cities would be considered too simple. In this case, cities are
represented by mixture of ‘point’, ‘lines’ and ‘areas’ as entities. Points may be used to represent
features such as electric poles, post boxes etc. Likewise lines and areas may be used to represent
road networks and residential blocks respectively. So, the decision makers decide the ‘entities’
through which different features of real world would be represented.

 Attribute Data

As it is mentioned earlier, attribute data tells the characteristics of different objects / features on
the earth surface. These are descriptions, measurements or classification of geographic features.
Attribute data can be both qualitative (like land use type, soil type, name of the city/river etc.)
and quantitative (like elevation, temperature, pressure of a particular place, crop yield per acre
etc.). So, the attribute can be both numeric and textual.

People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans
for applying it to real-world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work.

Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practices unique to each organization.

GIS Tasks
General purpose geographic information systems essentially perform six processes or tasks:

 Input
 Manipulation
 Management
3
  Query and Analysis
 Visualization

Input
before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted into a suitable digital
format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitizing.

Modern GIS technology can automate this process fully for large projects using scanning
technology; smaller jobs may require some manual digitizing (using a digitizing table). Today
many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-compatible formats. These data can be
obtained from data suppliers and loaded directly into a GIS.

Manipulation
It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project will need to be transformed or
manipulated in some way to make them compatible with your system. For example, geographic
information is available at different scales (detailed street centerline files; less detailed census
boundaries; and postal codes at a regional level). Before this information can be integrated, it
must be transformed to the same scale (degree of detail or accuracy). This could be a temporary
transformation for display purposes or a permanent one required for analysis. GIS technology
offers many tools for manipulating spatial data and for weeding out unnecessary data.

Management
For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic information as simple files.
However, when data volumes become large and the number of data users becomes more than a
few, it is often best to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organize, and
manage data. A DBMS is nothing more than computer software for managing a database.

There are many different designs of DBMSs, but in GIS the relational design has been the most
useful. In the relational design, data are stored conceptually as a collection of tables. Common
fields in different tables are used to link them together. This surprisingly simple design has been
so widely used primarily because of its flexibility and very wide deployment in applications both
within and without GIS.

Query and Analysis

Once you have a functioning GIS containing your geographic information, you can begin to ask
simple questions such as

 Who owns the land parcel on the corner?

 How far is it between two places?
 Where is land zoned for industrial use?

And analytical questions such as

 Where are all the sites suitable for building new houses?

4
  What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?
 If I build a new highway here, how will traffic be affected?

GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities and sophisticated analysis tools to
provide timely information to managers and analysts alike. GIS technology really comes into its
own when used to analyze geographic data to look for patterns and trends and to undertake "what
if" scenarios. Modern GISs have many powerful analytical tools, but two are especially
important.

Proximity Analysis

 How many houses lie within 100 m of this water main?

 What is the total number of customers within 10 km of this store?
 What proportion of the alfalfa crop is within 500 m of the well?

To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a process called buffering to determine the
proximity relationship between features.

GIS works by storing information about the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be
linked together by geography. This simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept has
proven invaluable for solving many real-world problems from tracking delivery vehicles, to
recording details of planning applications, to modeling global atmospheric circulation.

Components of a GIS
Geographical Information Systems have three important components, namely, computer
hardware, sets of application software modules, and a proper organizational setup. These three
components need to be in balance if the system is to function satisfactorily. GIS run on the whole
spectrum of computer systems ranges from portable personal computers to multi-user
supercomputers, and are programmed in a wide variety of software packages. Systems are
available that use dedicated and expensive work stations, with monitors and digitizing tables
built in. In all cases, there are a number of elements that are essential for effective GIS
operations.
(i) The presence of a processor with sufficient power to run the software
(ii) Sufficient memory for the storage of large volumes of data
(iii) A good quality, high resolution color graphics screen and
(iv) Data input and output devices, like digitizers, scanners, keyboards, printers and plotters.
There are a number of essential software elements that must allow the user to input, store,
manage, transform, analyze and output data. Therefore, the software package for a GIS consists
of four basic technical modules. These basic modules are data input and verification, data storage
and database Management, data transformation and manipulation, and data output and
presentation. The GIS software package should have the capabilities performing all the four GIS
subsystems.

Applications of GIS

5
1. GIS in Mapping: Mapping is a central function of Geographic Information System,
which provides a visual interpretation of data. GIS store data in database and then
represent it visually in a mapped format. People from different professions use map to
communicate. It is not necessary to be a skilled cartographer to create maps. Google map,
Bing map, Yahoo map are the best example for web based GIS mapping solution.
Maps have a special place in GIS. The process of making maps with GIS is much more
flexible than are traditional manual or automated cartography approaches. It begins with
database creation. Existing paper maps can be digitized and computer-compatible
information can be translated into the GIS. The GIS-based cartographic database can be
both continuous and scale free. Map products can then be created centered on any
location, at any scale, and showing selected information symbolized effectively to
highlight specific characteristics.

Fig 1 Mapping process

Surveying: Surveying is the measurement of location of objects on the earth’s surfaces.

Land survey is measuring the distance and angles between different points on the earth
surface. An increasing number of national and governments and regional organizations
are using GNSS measurements. GNSS is used for topographic surveys where a
centimeter level accuracy is provided. These data can be incorporated in the GIS system.
GIS tools can be used to estimate area and also, digital maps can prepared.

2. Telecom and Network services: GIS can be a great planning and decision
making tool for telecom industries. It enables wireless telecommunication organizations
to incorporate geographic data in to the complex network design, planning, optimization,
maintenance and activities. This technology allows telecom to enhance a variety of
application like engineering application, customer relationship management and
location based services.

3. Accident Analysis and Hot Spot Analysis: GIS can be used as a key tool to
minimize accident hazard on roads, the existing road network has to be optimized and
also the road safety measures have to be improved. This can be achieved by proper traffic
management. By identifying the accident locations, remedial measures can be planned by
the district administrations to minimize the accidents in different parts of the world.
Rerouting design is also very convenient using GIS.

6
 4. Urban Planning: GIS technology is used to analyze the urban growth and its
direction of expansion, and to find suitable sites for further urban development. In order
to identify the sites suitable for the urban growth, certain factors have to consider which
is: land should have proper accessibility, land should be more or less flat, land should be
vacant or having low usage value presently and it should have good supply of water.

5. Transportation Planning: GIS can be used in managing transportation and

logistical problems. If transport department is planning for a new railway or a road route
then this can be performed by adding environmental and topographical data into the GIS
platform. This will easily output the best route for the transportation based on the criteria
like flattest route, least damage to habitats and least disturbance from local
people. GIS can also help in monitoring rail systems and road conditions.

A state department of transportation needs to

 store information on the state of pavement everywhere on the state highway

network
 maintain an inventory of all highway signs
 analyze data on accidents, look for 'black spots'

A traveling salesperson needs

 a system in the car for finding locations, routes

A school bus operator needs to

 plan efficient collection routes
A transit authority needs to
 know where transit vehicles are at all times

6. Agricultural Applications: GIS can be used to create more effective and efficient
farming techniques. It can also analyze soil data and to determine: what are the best crop
to plant?, where they should go? How to maintain nutrition levels to best benefit crop to
plant? It is fully integrated and widely accepted for helping government agencies to
manage programs that support farmers and protect the environment.

7. Disaster Management and Mitigation: Today well-developed GIS systems are

used to protect the environment. It has become an integrated, well developed and
successful tool in disaster management and mitigation. GIS can help with risk
management and analysis by displaying which areas are likely to be prone to natural or
man-made disasters. When such disasters are identified, preventive measures can be
developed.

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF GIS?

7
 The advantages of using a geographic information system include:

Improved decision making – decisions are made easier because specific and detailed information
is presented about one or more locations.

 Reduce costs and increase efficiency – especially regarding maintenance schedules, fleet
movements or scheduling timetables.

 Improved communication between any involved organizations or departments as the visual

format is easily understood by all.

 Easy recordkeeping – geographical changes are easily recorded by GIS for those responsible of
recording the changes.

 Managing geographically – knowing what is and will be occurring in a geographic space in order
to plan a course of action.

 Visualize spatial information

 Power to create maps with images shown

 Can be used for a vast range of tasks involving geography

 Provide solutions for problems