Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Mercury-free, small-scale artisanal gold mining in Mozambique: utilization

of magnets to isolate gold at clean tech mine
Kevin Drace a, *, Adam M. Kiefer b, Marcello M. Veiga c, Matt K. Williams b, Benjamin Ascari a,
Kassandra A. Knapper b, Kaitlyn M. Logan b, Vanessa M. Breslin b, Ashley Skidmore a,
Daniel A. Bolt b, Grant Geist a, Lorlyn Reidy d, James V. Cizdziel d
a
Department of Biology, Mercer University, 1400 Coleman Avenue, Macon, GA 31207, USA
b
Department of Chemistry, Mercer University, 1400 Coleman Avenue, Macon, GA 31207, USA
c
Department of Mining and Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6350 Stores Road, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T1Z4
d
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS 38677, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Artisanal and small-scale gold mining accounts for a significant portion of the current global gold market.
Received 25 October 2011 Many artisanal gold miners use mercury to amalgamate gold and separate it from undesired gangue
Received in revised form minerals, because it is relatively inexpensive and readily available. Unfortunately, the inappropriate
19 March 2012
handling and use of mercury has created environmental and health concerns in artisanal mining camps
Accepted 21 March 2012
Available online 29 March 2012
throughout the world. While the vast majority of artisanal and small-scale gold mines in Mozambique
use mercury amalgamation in the gold mining process, the privately owned Clean Tech Mine in the
Manica Province has eliminated the use of mercury at their mine. Instead, gold is isolated by centrifu-
Keywords:
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining
gation and magnetic removal of gangue materials. Furthermore, the operation of this mine stands in
Mercury amalgamation contrast to other mines in the area due to the responsible business practices initiated by its owner to
Clean technologies ensure worker safety. This report details the mining practices employed by Clean Tech Mine to eliminate
Sustainability mercury use throughout the mining process, increase worker safety, and provide the surrounding
communities with an opportunity for sustainable employment.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction processing of ore. While estimates suggest that approximately 4.5

million women and 600,000 children are active artisanal gold
In 2002, artisanal and small-scale mining accounted for miners (Veiga et al., 2004; United Nations Industrial Development
approximately 25% of the estimated 3000 tons of annual global gold Organization (UNIDO), 2005), many additional women and chil-
production (Spiegel and Veiga, 2010; MMSD, 2002). Due to the dren participate in non-mining related activities in close proximity
current global economic crisis and rising price of gold (December to mining operations that utilize toxic substances such as mercury
2011 average of 1653 USD/troy ounce, www.lbma.org.uk), artisanal and cyanide.
and small-scale mining activities have dramatically increased in the The overwhelming majority of artisanal and small-scale gold
recent years (Shandro et al., 2009). As gold deposits are often miners utilize mercury to separate gold from the unwanted gangue
located in the developing nations, gold mining serves as a major materials (Telmer and Veiga, 2009). Miners use rudimentary tools
source of income for over 15 million people in impoverished to mine and process ore, adding elemental mercury to amalgamate
regions throughout the world (Veiga et al., 2004). Political insta- fine gold particles after grinding the ore in a ball mill and
bility, lack of governmental oversight, and the geographic isolation concentrating by panning. Miners separate the gold from the
of many mines contribute to dangerous working conditions and amalgam by “burning” the amalgam, volatilizing the elemental
detrimental health and environmental impacts for miners. These mercury and dispersing it throughout mining camps. The adverse
conditions ultimately affect all members of the mining community, environmental and health effects of inorganic and organic species
including those not directly involved in the extraction and are well established (Risher et al., 2002). Exposure to mercury via
inhalation during the burning process can result in memory loss,
impaired coordination and motor function, and ultimately death
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 478 301 2646. (Swain et al., 2007; Levin et al., 1988; Asano et al., 2000). The fate of
E-mail address: drace_km@mercer.edu (K. Drace). mercury in the environment is similarly well studied. Elemental

0959-6526/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.03.022
 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95 89

mercury can be converted into inorganic mercury salts and then to Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of gold deposits in the
highly toxic organomercury complexes, which bioaccumulate in Manica province, and the difficulty for the Mozambican govern-
the environment (Morel et al., 1998). The disastrous effects of ment to oversee all active mines, gold mining is a largely unregu-
organomercury poisoning in humans have been documented in lated industry in Mozambique. It has been conservatively estimated
several outbreaks, notably in Minamata Bay, Japan, where that there are well over 13,000 workers mining for gold in the
consumption of fish contaminated with high levels of methylmer- Manica Province (Shandro et al., 2009), but only 3000 artisanal and
cury led to severe disease in the local population (Harada, 1995). small-scale gold miners are registered with the mining association.
However, an accurate number of miners in the area is difficult to
obtain because miners in the Manica Province tend to be transient
1.1. Reducing or eliminating mercury use in artisanal and small-
and foreign miners including illegal Zimbabwean immigrants avoid
scale gold mines
identification (DeLorenco, 2011). Gold mining is also largely
seasonal due to the rainy season.
Several international initiatives to educate artisanal and small-
Both placer mining and hard rock mining are practiced in Manica
scale gold miners about the dangers of mercury as well as
using rudimentary techniques, and amalgamation is the most
promote effective strategies to eliminate or reduce mercury
widely used method to separate gold from gangue concentrated by
contamination have resulted in limited success. Perhaps the most
panning. There are six main mining camps in the Manica Province:
viable alternative to mercury amalgamation is cyanidation.
Munhena, Tsetsera, Mimosa, Bandire (alluvial), Mpatangwenha, and
Recently, this substitute was effectively introduced to an artisanal
Clean Tech (DeLorenco, 2011). The Mozambican government
gold mining operation in Portovelo, Ecuador (Veiga et al., 2009).
recognizes these camps and permits have been issued allowing for
However, economic and technical constraints limit the feasibility of
the removal of gold. There are many more “illegal” mines that
this technology in the majority of artisanal and small-scale gold
operate on private property, rivers, or remote, uninhabited land.
mining camps. Mercury retorts, designed to collect mercury emis-
The extraction of gold from ore differs very little from one arti-
sions during gold processing, have the potential to reduce mercury
sanal and small-scale mining site to another in the Manica province.
contamination as well as mercury use (Hilson and van der Vorst,
Ore is crushed using a mortar and pestle, and the resulting rock is
2002). Unfortunately, retort use has only been marginally effec-
placed in a ball mill constructed from a discarded metal gas tank
tive in most cases (Jonsson et al., 2009; Hilson et al., 2007), but
containing stainless steel ball bearings of various sizes. Elemental
some sustained success has been reported in mining camps
mercury is then added to the ball mill, and a miner manually grinds
(Shandro et al., 2009; Jonsson et al., 2009).
the rock into a fine powder over the course of an hour. The resulting
Additional alternatives to replace the amalgamation process, including
material is transferred to a pan and loose debris and gangue
the use of borax, gravity concentration, sluice boxes, and centrifugation
minerals are separated by panning in open pits or rivers from
have also been introduced to various artisanal and small-scale gold mines
heavier gold amalgam. In our observations, additional mercury is
(Hilson and van der Vorst, 2002; Hilson et al., 2007; Vieira, 2006; Appel
added at the individual miner’s discretion throughout the entire
and Jonsson, 2010; Hylander et al., 2007). Educational and policy initia-
process. After panning is complete, the amalgam is isolated on a fine
tives have also been introduced to address the negative consequences of
mesh cloth and excess mercury rung out by hand is collected and
artisanal and small-scale gold mining (Hilson et al., 2007; Hilson, 2006;
reused. Often, the amalgam is then placed on a smoldering log to be
Banchirigah, 2006, 2008; Spiegel, 2009). Some policies are more
“burned”. The miner blows on the glowing embers of the log,
successful than others. Addressing the unique needs and characteristics of
“burning” the amalgam, evaporating mercury and liberating the
a specific mining community appears to be key for any technological
gold. While the use of mercury in mining is an illegal activity in
alternative, educational program, or policy to be effective at limiting
Mozambique, its use is ubiquitous (Denniase, 2011).
mercury use (Hilson et al., 2007; Veiga et al., 2006). In addition, any
The burning process represents the largest source of environmental
suggested alternatives must be more cost effective and/or more efficient at
and human exposure to elemental mercury in the mining community.
obtaining gold (Hinton et al., 2003). Global policies and strategies that do
Most miners in Mozambique do not burn in a centralized location
not take into account the intricacies of each community will likely not be
downwind of the community, and often burn in their living quarters, in
accepted, and any initiative is unlikely to sustain success.
the presence of women and children, and near waterways. Projects
initiated in 2005 at the Munhena Mine led to the successful imple-
1.2. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining in the Manica Province mentation of retorts to recapture volatilized mercury during the burning
of Mozambique process (United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),
2005), but so far there is no evidence to suggest that other mines in the
Mozambique is a mineral-rich country located in Southeastern Manica Province use retort technology effectively to curb mercury
Africa, that is in the process of rebuilding after many years of war contamination. Local mining authorities contribute this to the lack of
decimated the country’s infrastructure and economy (Finnegan, communication between individual miners; the remoteness and isola-
1992; United Nations Development Programme, 2006). tion of individual mining camps; the lack of a powerful central mining
Mozambique has an estimated 60,000 artisanal and small-scale authority; and a large influx of illegal, first-time miners from Zimbabwe.
gold miners (MMSD, 2002; Shandro et al., 2009), with the Recently, Clean Tech Mine in the Penhalonga district of the
majority of gold mining located in the Manica and Sofala provinces. Manica Province eliminated the use of mercury in all gold mining
The Manica Province is located in Western Mozambique, and processes. Clean Tech Mine owner Chrispen Elias Chibaia invested
contains the mineral-rich Chimanimani and Cordilheiras mountain his own capital to introduce innovative technologies to design and
ranges. Manica is bordered by the provinces of Sofala to the East, implement safer, more responsible mining practices. This paper
Tete to the North, Gaza to the South and the nation of Zimbabwe to describes the implementation of these technologies and the unique
the West (Fig. 1). The inhabitants of Manica are culturally and business model of Clean Tech Mine, as well as the limitations of
traditionally related to the people of Eastern Zimbabwe, therefore these practices for other artisanal and small-scale mines moving
little distinction is made between Manicans and Zimbabweans in towards the reduction or elimination of mercury in the gold mining
this area. For this reason, the region is generally referred to as process. While the Clean Tech model cannot be universally applied
Manica land. Agriculture and gold mining are the two major sour- to all artisanal and small-scale gold mining operations (specifically
ces of employment in the Manica Province. those with variable gangue composition or large concentrations of
90 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95

Fig. 1. Location of Manica province and Clean Tech Mine. Source: adapted from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mz.html.

non-magnetic impurities) it is a valuable example of how local Organization (UNIDO), 2005). Personal interviews with local
practices can have a major impact on the surrounding communities mining authorities, Jimmy DeLorenço, President of the Mining
striving to succeed in the gold mining industry. This investigation Associations of Manica and Sofala Provinces and Olavo Denniase,
also demonstrates a connection and transfer of techniques from Director of Mines for the Manica Province suggested other possible
industrial gold mining to small-scale artisanal gold mining. Clean sites to investigate (DeLorenco, 2011; Denniase, 2011). Site assess-
Tech Mine offers a safer, more efficient, and environmentally ments at the mines at Upper Munhena, Lower Munhena, and Tse-
responsible alternative to typical small-scale artisanal gold mining tera verified previously reported information regarding traditional
practices. artisanal and small-scale gold mining operations in the Manica
Province. Data collected about Clean Tech Mine originated from
2. Materials and methods four days of touring the mine and personal interviews with J.
DeLorenço, O. Deniasse, and Clean Tech Mine owner, Crispin Elias
2.1. Site assessment and personal interviews Chibaia (DeLorenco, 2011; Denniase, 2011; Chibaia, 2011).

Four artisanal and small-scale gold mines in the Manica Prov- 2.2. Concentration of mercury in air
ince of Mozambique, representing traditional and developing
techniques, were surveyed during May and June of 2010 and 2011. The concentration of gaseous mercury in air was determined
Sites were initially chosen to follow up on previous research using a Lumex RA-915þ portable mercury vapor analyzer (detec-
initiatives in Munhena (United Nations Industrial Development tion limit: 2 ng m3, calibrated with an internal Hg vapor source).
 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95 91

The instrument analyzes samples in real time, with a time resolu- mine employs approximately 100 miners from the local commu-
tion of 1 s. Air samples were monitored and recorded over 1 min nity, the majority of which are responsible for extracting ore.
(60 samples), and the sample values averaged to produce an Although most of the mining techniques used are similar to tradi-
average ambient mercury concentration. tional small-scale methods, Clean Tech has eliminated the use of
mercury in all aspects of the mining process in favor of using
2.3. Concentration of mercury in soil magnets to manually separate the magnetic gangue materials from
the gold.
Surface soil was collected from two different sites where isola- Approximately 1e2 tonnes of ore is collected daily, in 2e5 kg
tion of gold occurs at the mine, and placed in clean brown glass batches, using an electric hammer in a timber-reinforced, multi-
vials. Approximately 0.1 g samples of soil were leached with 5 mL shafted mine. Small samples of ore are first sent to a miner who
each of high purity HNO3 and HCl acids (Seastar Chemicals Inc., grinds the ore by hand using a mortar and pestle (Fig. 2A). The
Sidney, BC, Canada) using a microwave digestion system (Ethos; powder obtained is panned with water to qualitatively determine
Milestone Inc., Shelton CT, USA) equipped with a multi-prep rotor gold concentration. This analysis is based on the miner’s experi-
(41 pfa vessels). The digestion program consisted of a 30 min ramp ence, and information gleaned from this process provides feedback
to 120  C, 20 min at 120  C, followed by a 60 min ramp to 180  C to miners extracting the ore. After testing, areas demonstrating
where the temperature was held for 20 more minutes. The result- qualitatively low gold yield upon inspection may be abandoned,
ing digest was transferred to centrifuge tube and diluted to 50-mL while high-yield areas provide the miners with a direction from
with deionized water (18.2 M U). The digests were allowed to sit which to obtain additional ore. The ore is transported by wheel-
overnight to let any particles settle before transferring 10-mL to barrow to a jaw crusher located approximately 500 m from the
another 50-mL tube. Then 500 mL of 0.2 N BrCl was added into each mine (Fig. 2B). The resulting material is transferred continuously to
tube and the sample was further diluted to 50-mL with DI water as a small ball mill where it is ground with steel ball bearings (Fig. 2C).
before. The resulting solutions contained 2% HNO3, 2% HCl and Although ore is only collected from the mines between the hours of
0.002 N BrCl. Mercury was determined using a quadrupole-ICPMS 0600 and 1500 local time, grinding and ball mill operations run
(X-Series 2; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). continuously. It was determined that stopping the ball mill over-
night caused settling of the material in the mill, immobilizing the
3. Non-traditional mining at Clean Tech mine ball bearings dramatically decreasing the efficiency of the mill.
Workers must then manually release the bearings from the settled
3.1. Innovative practices and Organizational Structure of Clean Tech material, which is dangerous, time intensive and leads to loss of
mine gold. Keeping the ball mill operating continuously improves effi-
ciency and limits expense.
Clean Tech Mine operates on an 80-ha, government approved Under standard operating conditions, the ground pulp from the
location a few kilometers east of the Zimbabwean border in the ball mill is processed in a centrifuge manufactured in Zimbabwe,
Penhalonga district. As of July 2011, there are two timber-reinforced which is a rudimentary copy of the Knudsen Concentrator devel-
mines in operation, as well as a third mine under construction. The oped decades ago in California. There is no fluidization in the riffled

Fig. 2. Clean Tech Mining Practices. (A) Manual crushing of ore with mortar and pestle. (B) Grinding rough ore into small fragments. (C) Crushing ore with an industrial ball mill. (D)
Centrifuge basin for collecting gold particles.
92 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95

ribs and there is no exchange process in the concentrate bed. A steel techniques, including utilizing magnets and summarized in Fig. 4,
arm scratches the surface of the bed and gold is lost when the riffles eliminate the need for elemental mercury in the gold mining
are full (Fig. 2D). Approximately 30e33 kg of gravity concentrate is process, providing a safer work environment for miners and
produced from a batch of 15e20 tonnes of processed ore. Mr. members of surrounding communities. This is a situation unique to
Chibaia initially noticed that less gold was recovered from the ball Clean Tech, as the heavy minerals concentrated by gravity separa-
mill than when it was milled manually (Chibaia, 2011). The pulp tion processes are predominately magnetite and thus magnetically
was too dilute and it was carrying gold and heavier materials (that separated easily.
were supposed to be trapped on the centrifuge) out with the tail-
ings. Angling the pipe slows the flow of water and acts as 3.3. Sustainability and worker benefits
a secondary trap for gold and heavier materials. Mr. Chibaia esti-
mates that 50% of the gold recovered comes from the connecting Clean Tech Mine strives for safer mining practices, and continues
pipe (Chibaia, 2011). The gold from the centrifuge concentrate is to reinvest profits in order to develop a sustainable business. Most
recovered without mercury. Most likely the gold recovery efficiency of the ground tailings are saved and converted into brick for
is low due to the fact that the centrifuge is rudimentary and the construction and sale (Fig. 5B). The iron-rich tailings removed
grinding process is in open circuit. Therefore, Mr. Chibaia retains during the gold purification process are stored on site for further
the tailings for future reprocessing using more efficient techniques refinement intended for future use or potential sale. In addition,
such as cyanidation. unlike most of the artisanal and small-scale gold mines in
Mozambique all of the shafts in the Clean Tech mine are timber-
3.2. Gold separation using magnets reinforced. Mr. Chibaia uses local timber (referred to as “gum
trees”) for this purpose and has started a tree nursery to replace the
The isolation of the gold occurs once daily. Basins are used to lumber used in mine construction (Fig. 5A). The timber farm
collect the heavy minerals from the ball mill pipes, centrifuge, and provides additional income when mining is not as lucrative, and
centrifuge drain. This material is panned using water pumped from has allowed Mr. Chibaia to hire a small team of local “foresters” to
a nearby water source, leaving a mixture of gold, iron minerals and grow and replant trees throughout Clean Tech’s property.
iron shavings (Fig. 3AeB). At this point, artisanal and small-scale By diversifying operations, Clean Tech ensures its opportunity to
gold miners will traditionally add mercury to amalgamate the make a profit (and remain stable), even when gold production is
gold in the pan, squeeze the amalgam, and vaporize the mercury. At lower than anticipated. An important aspect of Clean Tech’s busi-
Clean Tech magnets are used to remove magnetite and iron shav- ness model is that 100% of the profit (after salaries and operation
ings. A speaker magnet re-purposed from a discarded radio is expenses) earned from operations is continually reinvested for
passed over the basin, removing iron and other magnetic species technological advancement to seek further efficiency in the mining
(Fig. 3C). This process is repeated several times, and once all visible and purification process (Chibaia, 2011).
magnetic material is separated from the gold, 89e93% pure gold The work environment at Clean Tech is one of the most unique
remains (Fig. 3D) (Chibaia, 2011). The gold is sold “as is” to aspects of the mine. Every work-day (MondayeSaturday), breakfast
government buyers in the city of Manica. Clean Tech’s mining and lunch is provided to all miners. Safety is always a priority, and

Fig. 3. Gold separation using magnets. (A) Ore from the connecting pipe and centrifuge is collected and panned. (B) Sediment containing gold and iron. (C) A speaker magnet is used
to remove iron and magnetic species. (D) After separation, mostly gold remains.
 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95 93

Fig. 4. Flowchart of the mining operations at Clean Tech Mine.

to ensure worker safety Clean Tech provides hard hats, gloves, personally isolate. Clean Tech is one of the few artisanal and small-
rubber boots, and coveralls to all employees. The mines from which scale gold mines in Mozambique where miners work on salary, and
the ore is extracted are well constructed, likely reducing the chance the consistent income provides a much more stable working
of workplace accidents and incidents. Timber reinforcements environment.
placed every three feet in the mineshafts add the important Clean Tech provides many additional worker benefits that are
element of structural integrity that is often missing in other small- unexpected in artisanal and small-scale mines around the world.
scale mines in the surrounding areas. The owner ensures that proper education is available to all of his
Workers earn a salary that is not dependent on weekly gold employee’s children by providing transportation and some mone-
production. The starting salary earned is the government-specified tary assistance. The company provides health and survivor benefits,
miner’s wage. This starts at approximately 2500e3000 Meticais should an accident occur at the mine. In addition to providing
(90e110 USD) per month (Denniase, 2011; Chibaia, 2011). In uniforms (coveralls) and hard hats for all employees, to encourage
contrast, many unorganized artisanal and small-scale gold miners employee solidarity and promote safe practices, employees are also
in Manica work independently and earn money from the gold they provided with jerseys, as the company supports employee football

Fig. 5. Sustainable practices. (A) Clean Tech tree nursery. (B) Waste rocks are crushed and converted into bricks.
94 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95

teams as a safe form of recreation and relieve stress in the work- (Hylander et al., 2007). Clean Tech has adopted and innovated this
place. These and other benefits increase worker satisfaction and method to fit the specific resources of their community, which is an
encourage employee loyalty, and are not found in other artisanal important strategy for any mining community looking to adapt
and small-scale mining operations in the Manica Province. new technologies to their specific circumstances.
Several factors unique to this mine led to the success of elimi-
3.4. Reduced mercury concentrations in ambient air and soil nating mercury. First, the ore mined in this area contains high
concentrations of gangue material that can be removed with
Mercury concentration in air is a major source of mercury magnets. This process results in an efficient and cost effective way
pollution in artisanal and small-scale mining camps. In 2005, Veiga to obtain gold that may not be applicable to other areas. Second,
and coworkers utilized a Lumex RA-915þ atomic absorption this mine is a highly organized privately owned mine. Most mines
spectrometer to measure mercury concentrations at Munhena in the area are very loosely organized making the successful
mine in the Manica Province of Mozambique (Shandro et al., 2009; implementation of new and safer technologies more difficult due to
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), a lack of resources. Lastly, this mine is owned and operated by
2005; Spiegel et al., 2006). Munhena is located approximately a local, former artisanal gold miner. He has a unique understanding
6 km east of Clean Tech, and in 2005 Munhena miners used and commitment to the surrounding community that allows for
amalgamation to isolate gold and openly burned their amalgam in integration and sustainability of these technologies that would be
the mining camp without the use of retorts. Veiga reported that the less successful from an outside initiative.
average ambient concentration of elemental mercury in the camp
was 400 ng Hg/m3 of air (United Nations Industrial Development 4. Conclusions
Organization (UNIDO), 2005). Miners at Munhena who chose to
sell gold to the Mozambican government would bring their gold to Artisanal and small-scale gold mining is a growing industry in
the Provincial Directorate of Mineral Resources in Manica City, the developing world. It provides an opportunity for individuals in
where levels of mercury in the offices would reach 35,000 ng m3, impoverished areas with high unemployment to earn a living
35 times higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) without the need of advanced education or upfront capital.
guideline for public exposure to mercury (Spiegel and Veiga, 2010). However, the vast majority of artisanal and small-scale miners
In 1998, Malm reported that mercury concentrations in the air work in unsafe conditions. Currently, the easiest and most cost
during the burning of amalgam could exceed 60,000,000 ng Hg/m3 effective way of isolating gold from ore is through amalgamation,
of air (Malm, 1998). At Clean Tech, we utilized a Lumex RA-915þ to leading to long-term detrimental environmental and health
determine the ambient mercury concentration and found that the impacts. However, the global supply of mercury will become more
average concentration of mercury throughout the property was expensive and difficult to acquire now that the European trade ban
w25 ng m3. This level of ambient mercury concentration is well on mercury is in effect and the United States Mercury Export Ban
within the safety guidelines recommended by the WHO (Risher, Act of 2008 goes into effect in 2013 (United States Congress, 2008).
2003). While the impact of these regulations on artisanal and small-scale
Long-term accumulation of mercury in the soil of artisanal and gold miners is not fully realized, Clean Tech is at a strategic
small-scale mining sites is problematic. In 2000, van Straaten advantage to continue gold mining with little effect from these
measured the concentration of mercury in soil at artisanal and policies. Gold miners that rely on the use of mercury for processing
small-scale gold processing sites in Tanzania and Zimbabwe, and must gain additional resources or technologies to continue mining.
reported mercury/soil concentrations of 2.50 mg Hg/kg soil (van Clean Tech Mine has initiated a safe alternative to traditional
Straaten, 2000). In 2006, Feng and coworkers reported Hg artisanal and small-scale gold mining techniques. At the heart of
concentrations in soils near gold processing areas in the Shaanxi the company’s success is its innovative mining practices that use
province ranging from 0.9 to 76 mg Hg/kg of soil (Feng et al., 2006). magnets to isolate gold while eliminating the use of elemental
At Clean Tech, two soil samples were taken from separate gold mercury, and developing a sustainable and safe working environ-
processing areas with mercury concentrations of only 0.02 and ment for its employees. Clean Tech is owned and operated by
0.49 mg Hg/kg soil, 150 fold less than was reported in the Shaanxi a native Mozambican, who after working as an artisanal gold miner
Province and five fold less than reported in Tanzania (van Straaten, in the Manica Province for several decades has a unique under-
2000; Feng et al., 2006). Preliminary soil and air samples indicate standing of the impact that the gold mining industry plays in the
that mercury levels at Clean Tech are much lower than sites that local community (Chibaia, 2011). This will lead to profound positive
actively use mercury. The difference between mercury concentra- impacts on the health of employees, as well as the surrounding
tion in soil and air, human exposure to mercury, and the effects of environment.
mercury on human health due to artisanal and small-scale gold Clean Tech Mine demonstrates that innovative and inexpensive
mining activities indicates that miners at Clean Tech Mine operate techniques for gold mining without mercury and provides a viable
in a much safer environment than those at more traditional arti- source for economic growth without compromising worker safety.
sanal and small-scale mining camps. Most importantly, the technology utilized at Clean Tech is readily
available in areas around the world where artisanal and small-scale
3.5. Eliminating mercury at Clean Tech mine gold mining with mercury is an important source of employment
and the geology of the ore supports magnetic isolation of gold. In
The benefits of eliminating mercury from the artisanal and the appropriate situations, this technology could allow for an
small-scale gold mining process are clearly evident, and the economically viable reduction in mercury use for artisanal and
complete absence of mercury use in the gold mining practices sets small-scale gold miners.
Clean Tech apart from other mines in the area. Mr. Chibaia, com-
mented that not only is mercury harmful to his employees and the Acknowledgements
surrounding environment, but it is also relatively expensive and
would cut down on profits reinvested in his mine (Chibaia, 2011). The authors express our gratitude to the Department of Geology at
This technology is known to be an effective and efficient method for the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, especially Dr. Salvador Mon-
processing gold, when the ore is of appropriate composition dlane, Dr. Daud Jamal and Dr. Mussa Achimo for their help arranging
 K. Drace et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 32 (2012) 88e95 95

logistical support in Mozambique. This work would not have been Jonsson, J.B., Appel, P.W.U., Chibunda, R.T., 2009. A matter of approach: the retort’s
potential to reduce mercury consumption within small-scale gold mining
possible without Mr. Olavo Deniasse, Director of Mines in the Manica
settlements in Tanzania. Journal of Cleaner Production 17, 77e86.
Province, and Mr. Jimmy DeLorenço, President of the Mining Associa- Levin, M., Jacobs, J., Polos, P., 1988. Acute mercury poisoning and mercurial pneu-
tions of Manica and Sofala Provinces. Their willingness to share infor- monitis from gold ore purification. Chest 94, 554e556.
mation about local mining techniques and organization was crucial in Malm, O., 1998. Gold mining as a source of mercury exposure in the Brazilian
Amazon. Environmental Research 77, 73e78.
the development of this paper. We would also like to express our deep MMSD, 2002. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development: Breaking New
gratitude to the owner of Clean Tech Mine, Mr. Chibaia, for his openness Ground. International Institute for Environment and Development and World
and willingness to allow us to tour and report on his mining process. Business Council for Sustainable Development, London, UK.
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The authors wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful mercury. Annual Review of Ecological Systems 29, 543e566.
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