Theravada

1/12/2020 Theravada - Wikipedia
Theravada
Theravāda (/ˌtɛrəˈvɑːdə/; Pāli, lit. "School of the
Elders")[1][2] is the most commonly accepted name
of Buddhism's oldest extant school.[1][2] The
school's adherents, termed Theravādins, have
preserved their version of Gautama Buddha's
teaching in the Pāli Canon.[1][2] The Pāli Canon is
the only complete Buddhist canon surviving in a
classical Indian language, Pāli, which serves as the
school's sacred language[2] and lingua franca.[3]
For over a millennium, theravādins have
endeavored to preserve the dhamma as recorded in The Thuparamaya Stupa, the earliest Dagoba in
their school's texts.[web 1] In contrast to Mahāyāna Sri Lanka, dating back to the reign of King
and Vajrayāna, Theravāda tends to be conservative Devanampiya Tissa (247–207 BCE).
in matters of doctrine and monastic discipline.[4]
Modern Theravāda derives from the Mahāvihāra

sect, a Sri Lankan branch of the Vibhajjavādins, a
sub-sect of the Indian Sthavira Nikaya, which
began to establish itself on the island from the 3rd
century BCE onwards. It was in Sri Lanka that the
Pāli Canon was written down and the school's
commentary literature developed.
From Sri Lanka, the Theravāda Mahāvihāra

tradition subsequently spread to the rest of
Southeast Asia.[5] It is the dominant religion in
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and
Map showing the three major Buddhist divisions
Thailand and is practiced by minorities in India,
in Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal, East and Southeast
Bangladesh, China, Nepal, and Vietnam. The Asia.
diaspora of all of these groups, as well as converts
around the world, also practice Theravāda.
During the modern era, new developments have included Buddhist modernism, the Vipassana
movement which reinvigorated Theravāda meditation practice [web 1] and the Thai Forest Tradition
which reemphasized forest monasticism.
Contents
History
Origins
Transmission to Sri Lanka
Development of the Pāli textual tradition
Sri Lankan Theravāda sects
Mahāyāna influence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada 1/45
Reign of Parakramabahu I
Spread to Southeast Asia
Myanmar
Cambodia and Thailand
Tantric and esoteric innovations
Modernisation and spread to the West
Reaction against Western colonialism
Sri Lanka
Myanmar
Thailand and Cambodia
Modern developments
Texts
Pāli Canon
Vinaya (monastic discipline) and Abhidhamma
Non-canonical literature
Study (pariyatti)
Core doctrines
Dhamma theory
Characteristics
Classification of dhammas
Two truths
Doctrinal differences with other Buddhist schools
View of the Arhat
View of the Buddha
Insight is sudden and perfect
Philosophy of time
Rebirth and Bhavanga
Rupa (the physical)
Modern trends
Practice (paṭipatti)
Textual basis
Moral conduct
Meditation
Forms
Aims of meditation
Four stages of enlightenment
Historical development and sources
Other practices
Lay and monastic life
Distinction between lay and monastic life
Lay devotee
Monastic vocation
Ordination
Monastic practices
Bhikkunis
Monastic orders within Theravāda
Festivals and customs

Demographics
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Printed sources
Web sources
External links
History
Origins
The name Theravāda comes[a] from Sthāvirīya, one
of the early Buddhist schools from which
Theravādins trace their school's descent. The
Sthavira nikāya emerged from the first schism in
the Buddhist sangha. At issue was its adherents'
desire to add new Vinaya rules tightening monastic
discipline, against the wishes of the majority
Mahāsāṃghika.[6] According to its adherents'
accounts, the Theravāda school derives from the
Vibhajjavāda "doctrine of analysis" group,[7] which Ashoka and Moggaliputta-Tissa at the Third
was a division of the Sthāvirīya. Council, at the Nava Jetavana, Shravasti
Damien Keown denies that there is historical

evidence of the Theravāda school's existence before around two centuries after the Great Schism,
which occurred at the Third Council.[8] Theravadins' own accounts of their school's origins
mention that it received the teachings that were agreed upon during the putative Third Buddhist
council held around 250 BCE under the patronage of Indian Emperor Ashoka. These teachings
were known as the Vibhajjavāda.[9] Emperor Ashoka is supposed to have assisted in purifying the
sangha by expelling monks who declined to agree to the terms of Third Council.[10] The elder monk
Moggaliputta-Tissa chaired the Third council and compiled the Kathavatthu ("Points of
Controversy"), a refutation of various opposing views which is an important work in the Theravāda
Abhidhamma.
Later, the Vibhajjavādins, in turn, is said to have split into four groups: the Mahīśāsaka, Kāśyapīya,
Dharmaguptaka in the north, and the Tāmraparṇīya in South India. The Tambapaṇṇiya (later
Mahāvihāravāsins), was established in Sri Lanka (at Anuradhapura) but active also in Andhra and
other parts of South India (Vanavasa in modern Karnataka) and later across South-East Asia.
Inscriptional evidence of this school has been found in Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.[11]
According to Buddhist scholar A. K. Warder, the Theravāda.
spread rapidly south from Avanti into Maharashtra and Andhra and down to the Chola
country (Kanchi), as well as Sri Lanka. For some time they maintained themselves in
Avanti as well as in their new territories, but gradually they tended to regroup
themselves in the south, the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura, the ancient
capital of Sri Lanka, becoming the main centre of their tradition, Kanchi a secondary
center and the northern regions apparently relinquished to other schools.[12]
Transmission to Sri Lanka

Theravāda is said to be descended from the Tāmraparṇīya
sect, which means "the Sri Lankan lineage". Missionaries
sent abroad from India are said to have included Ashoka's
son Mahinda (who studied under Moggaliputta-Tissa) and
his daughter Sanghamitta. They were the mythical
founders of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, a story which scholars
suggest helps to legitimize Theravāda's claims of being the
oldest and most authentic school.[10] According to the
Mahavamsa chronicle, they arrived in Sri Lanka during the
reign of Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura (307–267
BCE) who converted to Buddhism and helped build the
first Buddhist stupas. According to S. D. Bandaranayake:
The rapid spread of Buddhism and the

emergence of an extensive organization of the
sangha are closely linked with the secular
authority of the central state ... There are no Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree
known artistic or architectural remains from
this epoch except for the cave dwellings of the
monks, reflecting the growth and spread of the
new religion. The most distinctive features of
this phase and virtually the only contemporary
historical material, are the numerous Brahmi
inscriptions associated with these caves. They
record gifts to the sangha, significantly by
householders and chiefs rather than by kings.
The Buddhist religion itself does not seem to
have established undisputed authority until the
reigns of Dutthagamani and Vattagamani (c.
mid-2nd century BCE to mid-1st century
BCE) ...[13]
The first records of Buddha images come from the reign of the King Vasabha (65–109 CE), and
after the 3rd century CE the historical record shows a growth of the worship of Buddha images as
well as Bodhisattvas.[13] In the 7th century, the Chinese pilgrim monks Xuanzang and Yijing refer
to the Buddhist schools in Sri Lanka as Shàngzuòbù (Chinese: 上座部 ), corresponding to the
Sanskrit Sthavira nikāya and Pāli Thera Nikāya.[14] Yijing writes, "In Sri Lanka, the Sthavira
school alone flourishes; the Mahasanghikas is expelled".[15]
The school has been using the name Theravāda for itself in a written form since at least the 4th
century, about one thousand years after the Buddha's death, when the term appears in the
Dīpavaṁsa.[16]
Between the reigns of Sena I (833–853) and Mahinda IV (956–972), the city of Anuradhapura saw
a "colossal building effort" by various kings during a long period of peace and prosperity, the great
part of the present architectural remains in this city date from this period.[17]
Development of the Pāli textual tradition

The Sri Lankan Buddhist Sangha initially preserved the
Buddhist scriptures (the Tipitaka) orally as it had been
traditionally done, however during the first century BCE,
famine and wars led to the writing down of these scriptures.
The Sri Lankan chronicle The Mahavamsa records: "Formerly
clever monks preserved the text of the Canon and its
commentaries orally, but then, when they saw the disastrous
state of living beings, they came together and had it written
down in books, that the doctrine might long survive."[18] Buddhaghosa (c. 5th century), the
most important Abhidharma scholar
Richard Gombrich remarks that this is "the earliest record we of Theravāda Buddhism, presenting
have of Buddhist scriptures being committed to writing three copies of the Visuddhimagga.
anywhere".[18] With few exceptions, surviving Theravādin Pāli
texts derive from the Mahavihara (monastic complex) of
Anuradhapura, the ancient Sri Lankan capital.[19]
Later developments included the formation and recording of the Theravāda commentary literature
(Atthakatha). Theravāda tradition holds that a tradition of Indian commentaries on the scriptures
existed even during Mahinda's early days.[20] Prior to the writing of the classic Theravādin Pāli
commentaries, there were also various commentaries on the Tipitaka written in the Sinhala
language, such as the Maha-atthakatha ("Great commentary"), the main commentary tradition of
the Mahavihara monks.[21]
Of great importance to the commentary, tradition is the work of the great Theravāda scholastic
Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century CE), who is responsible for most of the Theravāda commentarial
literature that has survived (any older commentaries have been lost). Buddhaghosa wrote in Pāli,
and after him, most Sri Lankan Buddhist scholastics did as well.[22] This allowed the Sri Lankan
tradition to become more international through a lingua franca so as to converse with monks in
India and later Southeast Asia.
Theravāda monks also produced other Pāli literature such as historical chronicles (e.g.
Mahavamsa), hagiographies, practice manuals, summaries, textbooks, poetry, and Abhidhamma
works such as the Abhidhammattha-sangaha and the Abhidhammavatara. Buddhaghosa's work
on Abhidhamma and Buddhist practice outlined in works such as the Visuddhimagga and the
Atthasalini are the most influential texts apart from the Pāli Canon in the Theravādin tradition.
Other Theravādin Pāli commentators and writers include Dhammapala and Buddhadatta.
Dhammapala wrote commentaries on the Pāli Canon texts, which Buddhaghosa had omitted, and
also wrote a commentary called the Paramathamanjusa on Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.
Sri Lankan Theravāda sects

Over much of the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, there were three subdivisions of
Theravāda, consisting of the monks of the Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri vihāra and Jetavana,[23] each of
which were based in Anuradhapura. The Mahāvihāra was the first tradition to be established, while
Abhayagiri Vihāra and Jetavana Vihāra were established by monks who had broken away from the
Mahāvihāra tradition.[23]
According to A. K. Warder, the
Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka
alongside the Theravāda, into which they were later
absorbed.[23] Northern regions of Sri Lanka also seem to have
been ceded to sects from India at certain times.[23]
When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the island in the early
5th century, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000 at the
Mahāvihāra, and 2000 at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra.[24] The restored Abhayagiri Dagoba
(stupa) in Anuradhapura
The Mahavihara ("Great Monastery") school became dominant
in Sri Lanka at the beginning of the 2nd millennium CE and
gradually spread through mainland Southeast Asia. It established itself in Myanmar in the late 11th
century, in Thailand in the 13th and early 14th centuries, and in Cambodia and Laos by the end of
the 14th century. Although Mahavihara never completely replaced other schools in Southeast Asia,
it received special favor at most royal courts. This is due to the support it received from local elites,
who exerted a very strong religious and social influence. [25]
Mahāyāna influence
Abhayagiri Theravādins maintained close relations with Indian
Buddhists over the centuries, adopting many of the latter's
teachings,[26] including many Mahāyāna elements, whereas
Jetavana Theravādins adopted Mahāyāna to a lesser
extent.[24][27] Xuanzang wrote of two major divisions of
Theravāda in Sri Lanka, referring to the Abhayagiri tradition's
adherents as "Mahāyāna Sthaviras" and those of the
Mahāvihāra tradition as "Hīnayāna Sthaviras".[28] Xuanzang
also wrote that the Mahāvihāravāsins reject Mahāyāna as
heretical, whereas Abhayagirivihāravāsins study "both
Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna".[24]
Abhayagiri was an influential university and center for the

study of Mahayana from the reign of Gajabahu I until the 12th
century.[29] It saw various important Buddhist scholars
Gilded bronze solid cast statue of
working in Sanskrit and Pāli. These include Upatissa (who
the Bodhisattva Tara, Sri Lanka, 8th
wrote the Vimuttimagga), Kavicakravarti Ananda (authored century CE. This sculpture was
the Saddhammopåyana), Aryadeva, Aryasura, and the tantric found on the east coast of Sri Lanka
masters Jayabhadra, and Candramåli.[30] between Batticaloa and Trincomalee
and is evidence of the presence of
Akira Hirakawa notes that the surviving Pāli commentaries Mahayana Buddhism in the
(Aṭṭhakathā) of the Mahāvihāra school, when examined Anuradhapura period of Sri Lanka.
closely, also include a number of positions that agree with
Mahāyāna teachings.[31] Kalupahana notes the same for the
Visuddhimagga, the most important Theravāda commentary.[32]
It is known that in the 8th century, both Mahāyāna and the esoteric Vajrayāna form of Buddhism
were being practised in Sri Lanka, and two Indian monks responsible for propagating Esoteric
Buddhism in China, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, visited the island during this time.[33]
Abhayagiri Vihāra appears to have been a center for Theravādin Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna
teachings.[34]
Reign of Parakramabahu I
The trend of the Abhayagiri Vihara being a dominant sect
changed in the 12th century, when the Mahāvihāra sect gained
the political support of Parakramabahu I (1153–1186), who
completely abolished the Abhayagiri and Jetavanin
traditions.[35][36] The Theravāda monks of these two traditions
were defrocked and given the choice of either returning to the
laity permanently, or attempting reordination under the
Mahāvihāra tradition as "novices" (sāmaṇera).[36][37] Richard
Gombrich writes:[38]
Parakramabahu I commissioned
Though the chronicle says that he reunited the various religious projects such as
Gal Vihara ('The Stone Shrine') in
Sangha, this expression glosses over the fact that
Polonnaruwa features three statues
what he did was to abolish the Abhayagiri and of the Buddha in three different
Jetavana Nikāyas. He laicized many monks from poses carved from the same large
the Mahā Vihāra Nikāya, all the monks in the other rock.
two – and then allowed the better ones among the
latter to become novices in the now 'unified'
Sangha, into which they would have in due course
to be reordained.
It seems that part of the reason for these radical moves was that Parakramabahu I saw the Sangha
as being divided, corrupt and in need of reform, especially the Abhayagiri.[39] The Cūḷavaṁsa
laments that at this time Theravāda monks had "turned away in their demeanor from one another
and took delight in all kinds of strife".[40] This chronicle also claims that many monks in the Sri
Lankan Sangha had even begun to marry and have children, behaving more like lay followers than
monastics.[41] Parākramabāhu's chief monastic leader in these reforms was Mahathera Kassapa, an
experienced monk well versed in the Scriptures and the Monastic discipline.[42]
Parakramabahu I is also known for rebuilding the ancient cities of Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruwa, restoring Buddhist stupas and Viharas (monasteries).[43] He appointed a
Sangharaja, or "King of the Sangha", a monk who would preside over the Sangha and its
ordinations in Sri Lanka, assisted by two deputies.[38] The reign of Parakkamabāhu also saw a
flowering of Theravāda scholasticism with the work of prominent Sri Lankan scholars such as
Anuruddha, Sāriputta Thera, Mahākassapa Thera of Dimbulagala Vihara and Moggallana
Thera.[43] They worked on compiling of subcommentaries on the Tipitaka, texts on grammar,
summaries and textbooks on Abhidhamma and Vinaya such as the influential Abhidhammattha-
sangaha of Anuruddha.
Spread to Southeast Asia

According to the Mahavamsa, a Sri Lankan chronicle, after the conclusion of the Third Buddhist
council, a mission was sent to Suvarnabhumi, led by two monks, Sona and Uttara.[44] Scholarly
opinions differ as to where exactly this land of Suvarnabhumi was located, but it is generally
believed to have been located somewhere in the area of Lower Burma, Thailand, the Malay
Peninsula, or Sumatra.
From the 8th to the 12th centuries Indian Buddhist traditions

arrived in Southeast Asia via the Bay of Bengal from India.[45]
Before the 12th century, the areas of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos,
and Cambodia were dominated by Buddhist sects from India,
and included the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[46][47] In
the 7th century, Yijing noted in his travels that in these areas,
all major sects of Indian Buddhism flourished.[46]
After the 12th century Buddhism mostly disappeared from

India and Theravāda Buddhism came to dominate Southeast
Asia.[48]
Myanmar
Though there are some early accounts that have been
interpreted as Theravāda in Myanmar, the surviving records
show that most Burmese Buddhism incorporated Mahāyāna,
Bawbawgyi Pagoda at Sri Ksetra,
and used Sanskrit rather than Pāli.[47][49][50] After the decline prototype of Pagan-era pagodas
of Buddhism in India, missions of monks from Sri Lanka
gradually converted Burmese Buddhism to Theravāda, and in
the next two centuries also brought Theravāda Buddhism to
the areas of Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where it
supplanted previous forms of Buddhism.[51]
The Mon and Pyu were among the earliest people to inhabit
Myanmar. The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli
language come from Pyu city-state of Sri Ksetra. The text,
which is dated from the mid 5th to mid 6th century, is written Ruins of Bagan, an ancient capital
on twenty-leaf manuscript of solid gold.[52] Peter Skilling of Myanmar. There are more than
concludes that there is firm evidence for the dominant 2,000 kyaung there. During the
presence of Theravāda in "the Irrawaddy and Chao Phraya height of Bagan's power, there were
basins, from about the 5th century CE onwards", though he some 13,000 kyaung.[web 2]
adds that evidence shows that Mahāyāna was also present.[53]
The Burmese slowly became Theravādin as they came into contact with and conquered the Pyu and
Mon civilizations beginning in the 11th century during the reign of the Bamar king Anawrahta
(1044–1077) of the Pagan Kingdom. He acquired the Pāli scriptures in a war against the Mon as
well as from Sri Lanka and build stupas and monasteries at his capital of Bagan.[54] Various
invasions of Burma by neighboring states and the Mongol invasions of Burma (13th century)
damaged the Burmese sangha and Theravāda had to be reintroduced several times into the country
from Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Cambodia and Thailand

The Khmer Empire (802–1431) centered in Cambodia was initially dominated by Hinduism;
Hindu ceremonies and rituals were performed by Brahmins, usually only held among ruling elites
of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class. Tantric Mahayana Buddhism was also a
prominent faith, promoted by Buddhist emperors such as Jayavarman VII (1181–1215) who
rejected the Hindu gods and presented himself as a Bodhisattva King.
During his reign, King Jayavarman VII (c. 1181–1218) sent his
son Tamalinda to Sri Lanka to be ordained as a Buddhist monk
and study Theravāda Buddhism according to the Pāli
scriptural traditions in the Mahavihara monastery. Tamalinda
then returned to Cambodia and promoted Buddhist traditions
according to the Theravāda training he had received,
galvanizing and energizing the long-standing Theravāda
presence, which had existed throughout the Angkor empire for
centuries. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Theravādin
Stairway to Wat Phnom guarded by
monks from Sri Lanka continued introducing orthodox Nagas, the oldest Buddhist structure
Theravāda Buddhism, which eventually became the dominant at the Cambodian capital of Phnom
faith among all classes.[55] Monastics replaced members of the Penh.
local priestly classes, purveying religion, education, culture,
and social service for Cambodian villages. This change in
Cambodian Buddhism led to high levels of literacy among
Cambodians.[56]
In Thailand, Theravāda existed alongside Mahayana and other

religious sects before the rise of Sukhothai Kingdom.[57]
During the reign of King Ram Khamhaeng (c. 1237/1247–
1298) Theravāda was made the main state religion and Sukhothai Historical Park, Thailand.
promoted by the king as the orthodox form of Thai Buddhism.
Despite its success in Southeast Asia, Theravāda Buddhism in China has generally been limited to
areas bordering Theravāda countries.
Tantric and esoteric innovations

During the pre-modern era, Southeast Asian Buddhism included numerous elements which could
be called tantric and esoteric (such as the use of mantras and yantras in elaborate rituals). The
French scholar François Bizot has called this "Tantric Theravāda", and his textual studies show
that it was a major tradition in Cambodia and Thailand.[58] Some of these practices are still
prevalent in Cambodia and Laos today.
Later Theravāda textual materials show new and somewhat unorthodox developments in theory
and practice. These developments include what has been called the "Yogāvacara tradition"
associated with the Sinhala Yogāvacara's manual (c. 16th to 17th centuries) and also Esoteric
Theravāda also known as Borān kammaṭṭhāna ('ancient practices'). These traditions include new
practices and ideas which are not included in classical orthodox Theravāda works like the
Visuddhimagga, such as the use of mantras (such as Araham), the practice of magical formulas,
complex rituals and complex visualization exercises.[59][60] These practices were particularly
prominent in the Siam Nikaya before the modernist reforms of King Rama IV (1851–1868) as well
as in Sri Lanka.
Modernisation and spread to the West

In the 19th century began a process of mutual influence of both Asian Buddhists and Hinduists,
and a Western audience interested in ancient wisdom. Theravāda was also influenced by this
process, which lead to Buddhist modernism; especially Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott,
founders of the Theosophical Society, had a profound role in this process in Sri Lanka.
Simultaneously, vipassana-meditation was re-invented,

and in Theravāda countries a lay vipassana practice
developed. This took a high flight in East Asia from the
1950s onwards with the vipassana-movement, and from
the 1970s also in the west, with western students who
popularized vipassana-meditation in the west,[61] giving
way to the development and popularisation of
mindfulness-practice.[62]
Henry Olcott and Buddhists (Colombo,
1883).
Reaction against Western colonialism
Buddhist revivalism has also reacted against changes in
Buddhism caused by colonialist regimes. Western colonialists and Christian missionaries
deliberately imposed a particular type of Christian monasticism on Buddhist clergy in Sri Lanka
and colonies in Southeast Asia, restricting monks' activities to individual purification and temple
ministries.[63] Prior to British colonial control, monks in both Sri Lanka and Burma had been
responsible for the education of the children of lay people, and had produced large bodies of
literature. After the British takeover, Buddhist temples were strictly administered and were only
permitted to use their funds on strictly religious activities. Christian ministers were given control of
the education system and their pay became state funding for missions.[64]
Foreign, especially British, rule had an enervating effect on the Sangha.[65] According to Walpola
Rahula, Christian missionaries displaced and appropriated the educational, social, and welfare
activities of the monks, and inculcated a permanent shift in views regarding the proper position of
monks in society through their institutional influence upon the elite.[65] Many monks in post-
colonial times have dedicated themselves to undoing these changes.[66] Movements intending to
restore Buddhism's place in society have developed in both Sri Lanka and Myanmar.[67]
One consequence of the reaction against Western colonialism has been a modernization of
Theravāda Buddhism: Western elements have been incorporated, and meditation practice has
opened to a lay audience. Modernized forms of Theravādan practice have spread to the West.[61]
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, Theravādins were looking to Western culture
for means to revitalize their own tradition[68]. Christian
missionaries were threatening the indigenous culture.[69]
As a reaction to this, Theravādins became active in
spreading Buddhism and debating Christians. They were
aided by the Theosophical Society, whose members were
dedicated to searching for wisdom within ancient sources.
Anagarika Dharmapala was one of the Theravāda leaders
with whom the Theosophists sided. Dharmapala reached
out to the middle classes, offering them religious practice The Temple of the Tooth was renovated
and a religious identity, which were used to withstand the during the Buddhist revival.
British imperialists. As a result of Dharmapala's efforts,
lay practitioners started to practise meditation and study
Buddhism, which had been reserved specifically for the monks.[70]
The Pali Text Society's translation and publication of the Pāli Canon improved its availability to lay
audiences in the both the West and the East. The Theosophical Society promoted western-lay
interest in Theravāda Buddhism, which endured until the beginning of the 20th century. Interest
rose again during the 1970s, leading to a surge of Westerners searching for enlightenment, and
republication of the Pāli Canon, first in print, and later on the Internet.
Myanmar
An influential modernist figure in Myanmar Buddhism was
king Mindon Min (1808–1878). He promoted the Fifth
Buddhist council (1871) and inscribed the Pali canon into
marble slabs, creating the world's largest book in 1868. During
his reign, various reformist sects came into being such as the
Dwaya and the Shwegyin, who advocated a stricter monastic Convening of the Sixth Buddhist
conduct than the mainstream Thudhamma tradition.[71] council at the Great Cave.
During colonial Burma, there were constant tensions between
Christian missionaries and Buddhist monks (which included
one of the first Western convert monks, U Dhammaloka). After independence, Myanmar was also
the place for the Sixth Buddhist council (Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956), which was attended by monks
from eight Theravāda nations to recite the Pāli Canon. The Council synthesized a new redaction of
the Pāli texts ultimately transcribed into several native scripts. In Myanmar, this Chaṭṭha Saṅgīti
Piṭaka (Sixth council Pitaka) was published by the government in 40 volumes.
Modern vipassanā meditation practice was re-invented in Myanmar in the 19th century. The "New
Burmese method" was developed by U Nārada and popularized by his student Mahasi Sayadaw
and Nyanaponika Thera. Another prominent teacher is Bhikkhu Bodhi, a student of Nyanaponika.
The New Burmese Method strongly emphasizes vipassanā over samatha. It is regarded by
traditionalists as a simplification of traditional Buddhist meditation techniques, suitable not only
for monks but also for lay practitioners. The method has been popularized in the West by teachers
of the vipassana movement such as Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal and
Sharon Salzberg.
The Ledi lineage begins with Ledi Sayadaw.[72] S. N. Goenka is a well-known teacher in the Ledi-
lineage. According to S. N. Goenka, vipassana techniques are essentially nonsectarian in character,
and have universal application. Meditation centers teaching the vipassanā popularized by S. N.
Goenka exist now in India, Asia, North and South America, Europe, Australia, Middle East and
Africa.[73]

With the coming to power in 1851 of King Mongkut, who had been a monk himself for twenty-
seven years, the sangha, like the kingdom, became steadily more centralized and hierarchical, and
its links to the state more institutionalized. Mongkut was a distinguished scholar of Pāli Buddhist
scripture.[74] Moreover, at that time the immigration of numbers of monks from Burma was
introducing the more rigorous discipline characteristic of the Mon sangha. Influenced by the Mon
and guided by his own understanding of the Tipitaka, Mongkut began a reform movement that
later became the basis for the Dhammayuttika Nikaya. Mongkut advocated a stricter adherence to
the Vinaya (monastic discipline). He also emphasized study of the scriptures, and rationalism.[75]
His son King Chulalongkorn created a national structure for Buddhist monastics and established a
nationwide system of monastic education.[75]
In the early 1900s, Thailand's Ajahn Sao Kantasīlo and his student,
Mun Bhuridatta, led the Thai Forest Tradition revival movement. In
the 20th century notable practitioners included Ajahn Thate, Ajahn
Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah.[76] It was later spread globally by Ajahn
Mun's students including Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn
Chah and several Western disciples, among whom the most senior is
Luang Por Ajahn Sumedho.
Modern Buddhism in Cambodia was strongly influenced by Thai

Buddhism. The Dhammayuttika Nikaya was introduced into the
country during the reign of King Norodom (1834–1904) and benefited
from royal patronage.[77] The rule of the Khmer Rouge effectively
destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions by disrobing and killing
monks and destroying temples.[78] After the end of the regime the From 1824–1851 Prince
Sangha was re-established. An important figure of modern Mongkut spent his life as a
Cambodian Theravāda is Maha Ghosananda who promoted a form of monk.
engaged Buddhism to effect social change.
Modern developments
The following modern trends or movements have been
identified.[79][web 3]
Modernism: attempts to adapt to the modern world and adopt

some of its ideas; including, among other things:
Green movement, ecological work.[80]
Syncretism with other Buddhist as well as Hindu (in Sri
A man meditates in Myanmar
Lanka, India, Nepal, Bali and Thailand) traditions
Universal inclusivity
Reformism: attempts to restore a supposed earlier, ideal state of Buddhism; includes in
particular the adoption of Western scholars' theories of original Buddhism (in recent times the
"Western scholarly interpretation of Buddhism" is the official Buddhism prevailing in Sri Lanka
and Thailand).[81]
Ultimatism: tendency to concentrate on advanced teachings such as the Four Noble Truths at
the expense of more elementary ones
Neotraditionalism; includes among other things
Revival of ritualism
Remythologization
Social and political action, including engaged Buddhism, protesting and participating in election
politics.[82]
Devotional religiosity
Reaction to Buddhist nationalism
Renewal of forest monks
Revival of meditation practice (by monks and laypersons), emphasizing meditation centers and
retreats. Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) is particular important in this regard.
Revival of the Theravāda bhikkhuni (female monastic) lineage (not recognized by some male
sangha authorities).
Convert Buddhism in Western countries, establishment of Western monastic orders (especially
the Thai forest tradition) and development of Pāli scholarship in Western languages.
Texts
Pāli Canon
According to Kate Crosby, for Theravāda, the Pāli Canon is "the
highest authority on what constitutes the Dhamma (the truth or
teaching of the Buddha) and the organization of the Sangha (the
community of monks and nuns)."[83]
The Sutta and Vinaya portion of the Tipitaka shows considerable

overlap in content to the Agamas, the parallel collections used by non-
Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and
partially in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Tibetan, and the various non-
Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, both these sets of texts are
generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritative texts on
pre-sectarian Buddhism by scholars. It is also believed that much of
One of the 729 large marble
the Pāli Canon, which is still used in Theravādin communities, was tablets of the Pali Canon
transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of Ashoka. After being (the world's largest book)
orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) inscribed using the
for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the Burmese alphabet at the
last century BCE, at what Theravādins usually reckon to be the fourth Kuthodaw Pagoda in
Mandalay, Myanmar.
council, in Sri Lanka. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to
commit its complete Canon to writing.[84]
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravādan", but the collection of teachings
that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According
to Peter Harvey:
The Theravādans, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do
not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period.[85]
The Pāli Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the first two pitakas, which,
in the opinion of many scholars, were the only two pitakas at the time of the First Buddhist
Council. The Pāli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravāda school.
The Tipitaka is composed of 45 volumes in the Thai edition, 40 in the Burmese and 58 in the
Sinhala, and a full set of the Tipitaka is usually kept in its own (medium-sized) cupboard.
Vinaya (monastic discipline) and Abhidhamma

According to Kate Crosby:
Since much Sutta material overlaps with that found in the Sūtra collections of other
Buddhist traditions, it is the Vinaya (monastic discipline) and Abhidhamma that are
the most distinctive formal aspects of Theravāda Buddhism, unique to Theravāda.[86]
The Vibhajjavāda school (‘the analysts’), the branch of the Sthāvira school from which Theravāda is
derived, differed from other early Buddhist schools on a variety of teachings.[87] The differences
resulted from the systematization of the Buddhist teachings, which was preserved in the
Abhidharmas of the various schools.[88] The unique doctrinal positions of the Theravāda school are
expounded in what is known as the Abhidhamma-piṭaka, as well as in the later Pāli commentaries
(Aṭṭha-kathā) and sub-commentaries (ṭīkā). Because of the size of this canonical and
commentarial literature the Pāli tradition developed a tradition of handbooks and doctrinal
summaries, the most influential of which are the Visuddhimagga and the
Abhidhammaṭṭhasaṅgaha.[89]
The Pāli Abhidhamma is "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized
language ... assumed to constitute a consistent system of philosophy".[90] Its aim is not the
empirical verification of Buddhist teachings,[90] but "to set forth the correct interpretation of the
Buddha's statements in the Sutra to restate his 'system' with perfect accuracy".[90] Because
Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional
structure of consciousness, the system has often been compared to a kind of phenomenological
psychology by numerous scholars such as Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi and Alexander
Piatigorsky.[91]
The Theravāda school has traditionally held the doctrinal position that the canonical Abhidhamma
Pitaka was actually taught by the Buddha himself.[92] Modern scholarship in contrast, has
generally held that the Abhidhamma texts date from the 3rd century BCE.[93] However some
scholars, such as Frauwallner, also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out of
exegetical and catechetical work which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in the suttas,
called matikas.[94][95]
Non-canonical literature
In the 4th or 5th century Buddhaghosa Thera wrote the first Pāli commentaries to much of the
Tipitaka (which were based on much older manuscripts, mostly in old Sinhala), including
commentaries on the Nikayas and his commentary on the Vinaya, the Samantapāsādikā.
Buddhaghosa wrote as part of the Mahavihara tradition in Sri Lanka, a tradition which came to
dominate the island and all of Theravāda after the 12th century.[96]
After him many other monks wrote various texts, which have become part of Theravāda's heritage.
These texts do not have the same authority as the Tipitaka does, though Buddhaghosas
Visuddhimagga is a cornerstone of the commentarial tradition.
Another important genre of Theravādin literature is shorter handbooks and summaries, which
serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentarial works. Two of the more
influential summaries are Sariputta Thera's Pālimuttakavinayavinicchayasaṅgaha, a summary of
Buddhaghosa's Vinaya commentary and Anuruddha's Abhidhammaṭṭhasaṅgaha (Manual of
Abhidhamma).[89]
The Pāli texts and language are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravādins;
however, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings though vernacular literature, oral
teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media.[97] According to Kate
Crosby, "there is a far greater volume of Theravāda literature in vernacular languages than in
Pāli."[98]
An important genre of Theravādin literature, in both Pāli and vernacular languages are the Jataka
tales, stories of the Buddha's past lives. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered
in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. The Vessantara Jātaka is one
of the most popular of these.[99]
Theravāda Buddhists consider much of what is found in the Chinese and Tibetan Mahāyāna
scriptural collections to be apocryphal, meaning that they are not authentic words of the
Buddha.[100]
Study (pariyatti)
Theravāda traditionally promotes itself as the Vibhajjavāda
"teaching of analysis". This doctrine holds that insight must
come from the aspirant's experience, application of knowledge,
and critical reasoning. However, the Theravādin school's
scriptures also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise,
considering such advice and evaluation of one's own
experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be
judged. Yet, in its actual praxis, according to Braun, "the
majority of Theravadins and dedicated Buddhists of other
traditions, including monks and nuns, have focused on
cultivating moral behavior, preserving the Buddha’s teachings
(dharma), and acquiring the good karma that comes from
generous giving."[web 1]
Core doctrines Painting of Buddha's first sermon

from Wat Chedi Liem in Thailand
The core of Theravāda doctrine is contained in the Pāli Canon,
the only complete collection of Early Buddhist texts surviving
in a classical Indic language.[101] These ideas are shared by
other Early Buddhist schools as well as by Mahayana traditions. They include central concepts such
as:
The Middle Way

The four noble truths
The Noble Eightfold Path
Three marks of existence (impermanence, suffering, not-self)
Five aggregates
Dependent arising
Karma and rebirth
Jhana
The Bodhipakkhiyādhammā (37 factors conducive to awakening)
Kleshas (mental defilements) and asavas
Avidyā (Ignorance)
Nirvana
Dhamma theory
In the Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through a method in which experience is explained using
various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called dhammas.
Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha include the twelve sense 'spheres' or ayatanas,
the five aggregates or khanda and the eighteen elements of cognition or dhatus.[102]
Expanding this model, the Pāli Abhidhamma concerned itself with analyzing "ultimate truth"
(paramattha-sacca) which it sees as being composed of all possible dhammas and their
relationships. The central theory of the Pāli Abhidhamma is thus known as the "Dhamma
theory".[103][104]
Characteristics
"Dhamma" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst),
"psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" (Nyanaponika Thera).[105][3] Dhammas
are defined by the Theravāda commentary, the Atthasalini, as:
Dhammas bear their own particular natures (sabhāva). Alternatively, dhammas are
borne by conditions, or according to particular natures.[106]
According to Y. Karunadasa, a dhamma, which can be translated as "a 'principle' or 'element'

(dharma)", is "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate
limits".[103] However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it is "only
for the purposes of description" that they are postulated.[107] Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the
constituents of sentient experience; the irreducible ‘building blocks’ that make up one's world,
albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances."[108] Noa Ronkin also
argues that there was gradual shift from the early canonical texts which tended to explain
experience in terms of changing processes, to the Abhidhamma tradition which analyzed these
processes into distinct mental events.[109]
Dhammas are not permanent, discrete and separate entities, they are always in dependently
conditioned relationships with other dhammas and always changing, arising and vanishing. It is
thus only for the sake of description that they are said to have their "own nature" (sabhāva).[110]
Alternatively, Theravāda commentaries sometimes equate the two terms, such as the
Visuddhimagga which states that ‘dhamma means sabhava’.[106] According to Peter Harvey, the
Theravāda view of a dhamma's sabhāva is that it refers to an individualizing characteristic
(salakkhana) that "is not something inherent in a dhamma as a separate ultimate reality, but arise
due to the supporting conditions both of other dhammas and previous occurrences of that
dhamma".[111] Noa Ronkin argues that in Theravāda Abhidhamma, "sabhava is predominantly
used for the sake of determining the dhammas’ individuality, not their existential status".[112]
Ronkin also adds:
the concept of sabhava attests to the Theravadins’ interest in unveiling the nature of
conscious experience: this, they presumed, could be carried out by enumerating the
possible types of those events constituting one’s experience and by individuating them.
To individuate the dhammas the Abhidhammikas had to provide a method for
determining what any given dhammic instance of every possible event-type is and what
makes it so, and for this purpose they used the concept of sabhava.[113]
Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they
are not seen as substances, essences or independent particulars, since they are empty (suñña) of a
self (attā) and conditioned.[114] This is spelled out in the Patisambhidhamagga, which states that
dhammas are empty of svabhava (sabhavena suññam).[115]
According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and
"does not take much interest in ontology" in contrast with the Sarvastivada tradition. Paul
Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on the practicalities of insight
meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored".[116] Ronkin does note however that later
Theravāda sub-commentaries (ṭīkā) do show a doctrinal shift towards ontological realism from the
earlier epistemic and practical concerns.[117]
Classification of dhammas
The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of
these are conditioned (sankhata), while one is unconditioned, which is nibbana. The 81
conditioned dhammas are divided into three broad categories, consciousness (citta), associated
mentality (cetasika) and materiality, or physical phenomena (rupa).[118] Since no dhamma exists
independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a citta, arises associated
(sampayutta) with at least seven mental factors (cetasikas).[119] In Abhidhamma, all awareness
events are thus seen as being characterized by intentionality and never exist in isolation.[118]
Much of Abhidhamma philosophy deals with categorizing the different consciousnesses and their
accompanying mental factors as well as their conditioned relationships (paccaya).[119] The mental
factors for example, are divided into:
1. Universal mental factors (sabbacittasādhāraṇa cetasikas), which are basic and rudimentary
cognitive functions.
2. Occasional or particular mental factors (pakiṇṇaka cetasikas).
3. Unwholesome mental factors (akusala cetasikas), accompanied by one or another of the three
unwholesome roots – greed, hatred, and delusion.
4. Beautiful mental factors (sobhana cetasikas), accompanied by the wholesome roots – non-
greed or generosity, non-hatred or loving-kindness, and non-delusion or wisdom.
Two truths
According Y. Karunadasa, for the Theravāda, the two truths theory which divides reality into
sammuti (worldly conventions) and paramattha (ultimate, absolute truths) is a doctrinal
innovation of the Abhidhamma, but it has its origins in some statements from the early Pāli
Nikayas. This can mainly be seen in the distinction made in the Aṅguttara-nikāya between
statements (not truths) that are nītattha (explicit, definitive) and neyyattha (requiring further
explanation).[120] Karunadasa notes that in the Nikayas, "no preferential value judgment is made
between nītattha and neyyattha. All that is emphasized is that the two kinds of statement should
not be confused."[120] Another early source of this doctrine is the Saṅgīti-sutta of the Dīgha-nikāya,
which lists four kinds of knowledge: (a) the direct knowledge of the doctrine (dhamme ñāna), (b)
the inductive knowledge of the doctrine (anvaye ñana), (c) knowledge of analysis (paricchede
ñana), and knowledge of (linguistic) conventions (sammuti-ñana).[120] However, in the earlier
Nikayas, as opposed to the Abhidhamma, sammuti (linguistic conventions) is not analyzed down
into existents called paramattha (ultimate).[120] In the Theravāda Abhidhamma, the distinction
does arise, referring to:
two levels of reality, namely that which is amenable to analysis and that which defies
further analysis. The first level is called sammuti because it represents conventional or
relative truth or what is called consensual reality, and the second is called paramattha
because it represents the absolute truth or ultimate reality.[121]
Thus, in orthodox Theravāda Abhidhamma, when a situation is explained in terms of what cannot
be empirically analyzed further into smaller components with different characteristics (lakkhana)
that explanation is paramattha-sacca (ultimate truth), and when it is explained in terms of what is
analyzable further due to being dependent on the mind's synthesizing function (i.e. paññatti), that
explanation is sammuti-sacca (truth by convention), which exists in a relative or conventional
sense due to mental conception (attha-paññatti) and linguistic construction (nama-paññatti).[120]
However, even these ultimate components (i.e. dhammas) are dependently originated, "necessarily
co-existent and positionally inseparable (padesato avinibhoga)".[120] Unlike in the Sanskrit-based
Buddhist tradition which refer to the conventional truth as samvrti (which has the meaning of
concealing or covering), the Pāli Abhidhamma term sammuti just means human convention and
does not have this connotation of an inferior truth hiding a higher truth.[120] Therefore, as pointed
out by K.N. Jayatilleke, the Theravāda version of two truths "does not imply that what is true in the
one sense is false in the other or even that the one kind of truth is superior to the other".[122] As
Karunadasa writes:
the distinction between sammuti-sacca and paramattha-sacca does not refer to two
kinds of truth as such, but to two ways of presenting what is true. Although they are
formally introduced as two truths, they are explained as two modes of expressing what
is true. They do not represent two degrees of truth, of which one is superior or inferior
to the other. Nor do they represent two parallel truths.[120]
Because of this, in Pali Abhidhamma, even paramattha-sacca is explained through concepts,

though the ultimate itself is not a product of the mind's conceptual function (paññatti), it cannot
be explained without the medium of paññatti.[120] Furthermore, according to Tse Fu Kuan, the
Dhammasaṅgaṇi, "does not appear to uphold that dhammas are ultimate realities as against
conventional constructs like persons." This text also states that “all dhammas are ways of
designation (paññatti)”, that “all dhammas are ways of interpretation (nirutti)” and that “all
dhammas are ways of expression (adhivacana)”.[121] Therefore, the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka
does not uphold the interpretation of the two truths as referring to primary ontological realities (as
seen in the later commentarial Theravāda and also in Sarvastivada).[121]
Doctrinal differences with other Buddhist schools

The doctrinal stances of the Theravāda school vis-a-vis other early Buddhist schools is presented in
the Pāli text known as the Kathāvatthu, "Points of Controversy", which said to have been compiled
by the scholar Moggaliputta-Tissa (c. 327–247 BCE). It includes several philosophical and
soteriological matters, including the following.
View of the Arhat

Theravādins believe that an awakened arahant (lit. worthy one) has an "incorruptible nature",
unlike other early Buddhist schools like the Mahāsāṃghika, whose adherents believed that
arahants could regress.[123] Theravādins also reject the idea that an arahant may lack knowledge,
harbour doubts, or have nocturnal emissions, thereby still exhibiting some residual attachment to
sensuality.[124] They also argued against the Uttarapathaka school's view that a layperson can
become an arahant and continue to live the household life.[124]
View of the Buddha

The Theravāda school rejected the view of the Lokottaravada schools which held that even the
Buddha's conventional speech was supramundane or transcendental.[125] They also rejected the
proto-Mahayana docetic view of the Vetulyaka school that the Buddha himself did not teach the
Dharma, but that it was taught by his magical creation or "phantom" while he himself remained in
Tavatimsa Heaven.[126]
Insight is sudden and perfect

According to the Theravāda, "progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' (abhisamaya)
does not come 'gradually' (successively – anapurva)", a belief known as subitism.[127] This is
reflected in the Theravāda account on the four stages of enlightenment, in which the attainment of
the four paths appears suddenly and the defilements are rooted out at once. The same stance is
taken in the contemporary vipassana movement, especially the "New Burmese Method".
Philosophy of time
On the Philosophy of time, the Theravāda tradition holds to philosophical presentism, the view
that only present moment dhammas exist, against the eternalist view of the Sarvāstivādin tradition
which held that dhammas exist in all three times – past, present, future.[128]
The early Theravādins who compiled the Kathāvatthu also rejected the doctrine of momentariness
(Skt., kṣāṇavāda, Pāli, khāṇavāda) upheld by other Buddhist Abhidharma schools like the
Sarvāstivāda, which held that all dhammas lasted for a "moment", which for them meant an
atomistic unit of time, that is the shortest possible time interval.[129] According to Noa Ronkin,
Theravādins meanwhile used the term "moment" (khāṇa) as a simple expression for a "short
while", "the dimension of which is not fixed but may be determined by the context".[129] In the
Khanikakatha of the Kathavatthu, the Theravādins also argue that "only mental phenomena are
momentary, whereas material phenomena endure for a stretch of time".[129]
Rebirth and Bhavanga

Orthodox Theravādins, following the Kathavatthu, rejected the doctrine of the intermediate state
between death and rebirth (antarabhāva), holding instead that rebirth is immediate.[130] However,
some Theravādin monks, such as Ven. Balangoda Ananda Maitreya, have recently written in favor
of the idea.[131]
The doctrine of the Bhavanga ("ground of becoming", "condition for existence") is an innovation of
the Theravāda Abhidhamma, where it is a passive mode of consciousness (citta). According to
Rupert Gethin, it is "the state in which the mind is said to rest when no active consciousness
process is occurring", such as that which prevails during deep, dreamless sleep.[132] It is also said
to be a process conditioning future rebirth consciousness.[132]
Rupa (the physical)
Orthodox Theravāda's position on the nature of the physical (rupa) is that it is one of the two main
dependently originated processes of a person (as part of the mind-body complex called nama-
rupa). However, there is no dualism between these two, they are merely clusters of interacting
processes, each depending on the other.[133] As noted by Buddhaghosa (Vism. 596), each can only
occur "supported by" (nissaya) the other, they are like a blind man that carries a crippled man, or
two sheaves of reeds which lean on each other and support each other.[133]
Rupa is mainly defined in terms of the four mahabhuta, the four 'primary' physical phenomena:
solidity (literally 'earth'), cohesion (literally 'water'), heat (literally 'fire') and motion (literally
'air').[133] In the Pāli Abhidhamma, the four primaries began to refer to the irreducible factors or
data that make up the physical world.[107] These basic phenomena come together to make up
secondary physical phenomena, such as the sense organs. Thus, according to Y Karunadasa, Pāli
Buddhism does not deny the existence of the external world and thus is a kind of realism. However,
Theravāda also follows the view that rupa, like all skandhas, is void (suñña), empty (ritta) and
essence-less (asara).[134] Rupa dhammas are thus not atomic ontological substances and are
merely outlined as a pragmatic descriptions of the world of experience.[135] According to
Karunadasa, this steers a middle course between the view that "all is an absolute unity" (sabbam
ekattam) and that it is absolute separateness (sabbam puthuttam).[136] Also, according to Noa
Ronkin, Theravāda Abhidhamma:
did not incorporate the Northern Buddhist atomistic theory as such into their system.
As Karunadasa indicates, the Theravadin canonical texts do not mention the idea of a
unitary atom or the term paramanu. Rather, the post-canonical texts employ the term
kalapa (literally ‘package’), which corresponds to the collective atom of the
Sarvastivada-Vaibhasika, that is, the smallest material unit that contains the eight
elements.[137]
Furthermore, the term kalapa for the collective atom only became standard in the sub-
commentarial literature and it is not a singular particle, but a collection of rupa-dhammas, which
are inseparable from each other and always occur simultaneously (sahajata).[137]
Modern trends
The modern era saw new developments in Theravāda scholarship due to the influence of Western
thought. As Donald K Swearer writes:
Although monastic education is still grounded in the study of Buddhist texts, doctrine,
and the Pali language, the curricula of monastic colleges and universities also reflect
subject matter and disciplines associated with Western education.[138]
Buddhist modernist trends can be traced to figures like Anagarika Dhammapala and King
Mongkut.[139] They promoted a form of Buddhism that was compatible with rationalism and
science, and opposed to superstition. Walpola Rahula’s, What the Buddha Taught is seen by
scholars as an introduction to modernist Buddhist thought and this book continues to be widely
used in universities.[138] Another phenomenon is Buddhist philosophers educated in the West,
such as K. N. Jayatilleke (a student of Wittgenstein) and Hammalawa Saddhatissa, going on to
write modern works on Buddhist philosophy (Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, 1963 and
Buddhist Ethics, 1987 respectively).
The colonial clash with Christianity also led to debates (such as the Panadura debate) and doctrinal
works written in defense of Buddhism or attacking Christian ideas, such as Gunapala Dharmasiri's
A Buddhist critique of the Christian concept of God (1988).
Another development has been modern literature promoting socially Engaged Buddhism and
Buddhist economics from thinkers such as Buddhadasa, Sulak Sivaraksa, Prayudh Payutto, Neville
Karunatilake and Padmasiri de Silva.
Modern scholarship by Western Buddhist monks such as Nyanaponika Thera was also a new
development in the modern era.
Practice (paṭipatti)
Textual basis
In the Pāli Canon, the path (magga) or way
(patipada) of Buddhist practice is described in
various ways, one of the most widely used
frameworks in Theravāda is the Noble Eightfold
Path:
The Blessed One said, "Now what,

monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path?
The Dharma wheel with eight spokes usually
Right view, right resolve, right speech, symbolizes the eightfold path.
right action, right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness, right
concentration." [web 4]
The Noble Eightfold Path can also be summarized as the Three Noble Disciplines of sīla (moral
conduct or discipline), samādhi (meditation or concentration) and paññā (understanding or
wisdom).[web 5][140][web 6]
Theravāda orthodoxy takes the seven stages of purification as outlined in the Visuddhimagga as
the basic outline of the path to be followed. The Visuddhimagga, a Sinhala Theravāda doctrinal
summa written in the fifth century by Buddhaghosa, became the orthodox account of the
Theravāda path to liberation in Sri Lanka after the 12th century and this influence spread to other
Theravāda nations.[96] It gives the sequence of seven purifications, in three sections:
The first section (part 1) explains the rules of discipline, and the method for finding a correct
temple to practice, or how to meet a good teacher.
The second section (part 2) describes samatha (calming) practice, object by object (see
kammaṭṭhāna for the list of the forty traditional objects). It mentions different stages of samādhi.
The third section (parts 3–7) is a description of the five khandhas, ayatanas, the Four Noble
Truths, dependent origination, and the practise of vipassanā (insight) through the development
of wisdom. It emphasizes different forms of knowledge emerging because of the practice. This
part shows a great analytical effort specific to Buddhist philosophy.
This basic outline is based on the threefold discipline. The emphasis is on understanding the three
marks of existence, which removes ignorance. Understanding destroys the ten fetters and leads to
nibbana.
Theravādins believe that every individual is personally responsible for achieving his or her own
self-awakening and liberation, each being responsible for his or her own kamma (actions and
consequences). Applying knowledge acquired through direct experience and personal realization is
more heavily emphasized than beliefs about the nature of reality as revealed by the Buddha.
Moral conduct
Sīla, meaning moral conduct, is mainly defined as right
speech, right action, and right livelihood. It is primarily
understood through the doctrine of kamma. In Theravāda,
one's previous intentional actions strongly influence one's
present experience. Whatever intended actions are carried out
will have future consequences, whether in this life or
subsequent lives.[141] Intention is central to the idea of
kamma. Actions done with good intentions, even if they have
Giving (Dana) is an important
bad results, will not have negative kammic consequences.
Buddhist virtue. The community of
monastics is seen as the most
Several sets of precepts or moral trainings (sikkhāpada) guide meritorious field of karmic
right action. After taking refuge in the three jewels, lay fruitfulness.
Theravādins traditionally take the five precepts (whether for
life or for a limited time) in the presence of a monastic.[142]
Laypeople also sometimes take an extended set of eight precepts, which includes chastity during
special occasions such as religious holidays.
Performing good deeds is another important feature of Theravāda ethics. Doing so is said to make
"merit" (puñña), which results in a better rebirth. The "ten wholesome actions" is a common list of
good deeds:[143]
1. Generosity (dāna); This typically involves providing monks with “the four requisites”; food,
clothing, shelter, and medicine; however, giving to the lay needy is also considered dāna.
2. Moral conduct (sīla); Keeping the five precepts and generally refraining from doing harm.
3. Meditation (bhāvanā).
4. Transferring merit; doing good deeds in the name of someone who has died or in the name of
all beings.
5. Rejoicing in merit of good deeds done by others, this is common in communal activities.
6. Rendering service to others; looking after others.
7. Honoring others; showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and
Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together in Añjali
Mudrā, and sometimes bowing.
8. Preaching Dhamma; the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
9. Listening to Dhamma
10. Having correct views; mainly the four noble truths and the three marks of existence.
Meditation
Meditation (Pāli: Bhāvanā, literally "causing to become" or cultivation) means the positive
cultivation of one's mind.
Forms
Theravāda Buddhist meditation practice varies

considerably in technique and objects.[144]
Currently, there are also various traditions of
Theravāda meditation practice, such as the
Burmese Vipassana tradition, the Thai Forest
tradition, the esoteric Borān kammaṭṭhāna
('ancient practices'), the Burmese Weikza tradition,
Dhammakaya meditation and the Western Insight
Meditation movement.
Theravādin monks meditating in Bodh Gaya
Theravāda Buddhist meditation practices or
(Bihar, India)
bhavanas (cultivations) are categorized into two
broad categories: Samatha bhavana (calming), and
Vipassanā bhavana (investigation, insight).[web 7] Originally these referred to effects or qualities of
meditation, but after the time of Buddhaghosa, it also referred to two distinct meditation types or
paths (yāna).[145][146][web 8]
Samatha ("calm") consists of meditation techniques in which the mind is focused on a single
object, thought, or mantra, leading to samadhi'. In traditional Theravāda, it is onsidered to be the
base for vipassanā ("insght"). In the Theravāda-tradition, as early as the Pāli Nikayas, the four
jhānas are regarded as a samatha-practice. The eight and final step of the Eightfold Path, Right
Samadhi, is often defined as the four jhanas.[147] In the Pāli Nikayas, Jhānas are described as
preceding the awakening insight of the Buddha, which turned him into an awakened being.[web 9]
Yet, the interpretation of jhana as single-pointed concentration and calm, may be a later re-
interpretation, in which the original aim of jhana was lost.[148]
Vipassana ("insight", "clear seeing") refers to practices which aim to develop an inner
understanding or knowledge of the nature of phenomena (dhammas), especially the characteristics
of dukkha, anatta and anicca, which are seen as being universally applicable to all constructed
phenomena (sankhata-dhammas). Vipassana is also described as insight into dependent
origination, the five aggregates, the sense spheres and the four noble truths.[149][146] It is the
primary focus of the modernist Burmese Vipassana movement. In western countries, it is
complemented with the four divine abidings, the development of loving-kindness and
compassion.[150][151]
Vipassana practice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice of sila, morality, giving up
worldly thoughts and desires.[152][153] The practitioner then engages in anapanasati, mindfulness
of breathing, which is described in the Satipatthana Sutta as going into the forest and sitting
beneath a tree and then to simply watch the breath. If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is
long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short.[154][155] In the "New Burmese
Method," the practitioner pays attention to any arising mental or physical phenomenon, engaging
in vitaka, noting or naming physical and mental phenomena ("breathing, breathing"), without
engaging the phenomenon with further conceptual thinking.[156][157] By noticing the arising of
physical and mental pohenomena, the meditator becomes aware how sense impressions arise from
the contact between the senses and physical and mental phenomena,[156] as described in the five
skandhas and paṭiccasamuppāda. The practitioner also becomes aware of the perpetual changes
involved in breathing, and the arising and passing away of mindfulness.[158] This noticing is
accompanied by reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings, leading to insight into
dukkha, anatta, and anicca.[159][158]

When the three characteristics have been comprehended,
reflection subdues, and the process of noticing accelerates, noting phenomena in general, without
necessarily naming them.[160][161][162]
According to Vajiranāṇa Mahathera, writing from a traditional and text-based point of view, in the
Pāli Canon whether one begins the practice by way of samatha or by way of vipassanā is generally
seen as depending on one's temperament. According to Vajiranāṇa Mahathera, it is generally held
that there are two kinds of individuals. Those of a passionate disposition (or those who enter the
path by faith), attain Arahatship through vipassanā preceded by samatha. Those of a skeptical
disposition (or those who enter by way of wisdom or the intellect), achieve it through samatha
preceded by vipassanā.[146]
Aims of meditation
Traditionally, the ultimate goal of the practice is to achieve
mundane and supramundane wisdom. Mundane wisdom
is the insight in the three marks of existence.[web 8] The
development of this insight leads to four supramundane
paths and fruits, these experiences consist a direct
apprehension of Nibbana.[web 10] Supramundane
(lokuttara) wisdom refers to that which transcends the
world of samsara.[web 10]
Apart from nibbana, there are various reasons why

traditional Theravāda Buddhism advocates meditation,
including a good rebirth, supranormal powers, combating
fear and preventing danger. Recent modernist
Theravādins have tended to focus on the psychological
benefits and psychological well being.[164]
Four stages of enlightenment

According to Theravāda doctrine, liberation is attained in
four stages of enlightenment:[web 11][web 8] Ajahn Mun, a key figure in the founding of
the Thai Forest Tradition, is widely
1. Stream-Enterers: Those who have destroyed the first considered to have been an Arahant in
three fetters (false view of Self, doubt, and clinging to Thailand.[163]
rites and rituals);[web 12][web 13]
1. Once-Returners: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters and have lessened the
fetters of lust and hatred;
1. Non-Returners: Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters, which bind beings to the
world of the senses;[165]
1. Arahants: Those who have reached Enlightenment – realized Nibbana, and have reached the
quality of deathlessness –are free from all defilements. Their ignorance, craving and
attachments have ended.[165]
Historical development and sources
The practice of Theravāda meditation can be traced back to the 5th century exegete Buddhaghosa,
who systematized the classic Theravāda meditation, dividing them into samatha and vipassana
types and listing 40 different forms (known as "kammaṭṭhānas", "workplaces") in his magnum
opus, the Visuddhimagga.[166][167] This text has remained central for the study and practice of
Theravāda meditation. Buddhaghosa's commentary on the Satipatthana sutta ("Bases of
mindfulness discourse"), as well as the source text itself, are also another important source for
meditation in this tradition.[168] Buddhaghosa's work drew heavily on the Pali suttas as well as the
Pali Abhidhamma. Kate Crosby notes that Buddhaghosa's work also "explicitly refers to the
contemporaneous existence of secret meditation manuals but not to their content."[168]
Regarding post Visuddhimagga Theravāda meditation, according to Kate Crosby,
In the period between the Visuddhimagga and the present, there have been numerous
meditation texts, both manuals and descriptive treatises. Many of the texts found in
manuscript collections relate to meditation, some on a single, simple subject such as
the recollection of the qualities of the Buddha, others more complex. Little research has
been done to assess their variety. One difficulty is that meditation manuals as such are
often in a mixture of a classical language, that is, Pali, and a vernacular that may or may
not be a currently used language. Also, actual manuals often contain prompts or
reminders rather than an in-depth explanation. In recent years it has emerged that
there is still extant a relatively high number of manuals and related texts pertaining to a
system of meditation called – among other things – borān kammaṭṭhāna or yogāvacara.
Its core text, the Mūla-kammaṭṭhāna “original, fundamental or basic meditation
practice,” circulated under a number of different titles, or without a title, throughout
the Tai–Lao–Khmer and Sri Lankan Buddhist worlds. Some versions of this text are
simple lists of kammaṭṭhāna and from that perspective look entirely in accord with the
Visuddhimagga or Theravada Abhidhamma texts. Other versions contain extensive
narratives, explanations of symbolism, and of the somatic locations involved in the
practice that make it clear that we are dealing with techniques of practice not described
in the Canon or Visuddhimagga.[169]
According to Crosby, the esoteric borān kammaṭṭhāna or yogāvacara meditation tradition was the
dominant form of meditation in the Theravāda world during the 18th century, and may date as far
back as the 16th century. Crosby notes that this tradition of meditation involved a rich collection of
symbols, somatic methods and visualizations which included "the physical internalisation or
manifestation of aspects of the Theravada path by incorporating them at points in the body
between the nostril and navel."[170] In spite of the novel elements in this meditation tradition, close
study of borān kammaṭṭhāna texts reveals that they are closely connected to Theravada
Abhidhamma and the works of Buddhaghosa.[171] Modernist reforms which emphasized Pali
Canon study, a shift in state support to other traditions and modern wars in Indochina led to this
tradition's decline, and it now only survives in a few Cambodian and Thai temples.[172]
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Theravāda world saw a modernist revival and reinvention
of meditation practice, as exemplified by the Burmese Vipassana movement.[173][174] According to
Buswell vipassana, "appears to have fallen out of practice" by the 10th century, due to the belief
that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of
Maitreya.[175] The practice was revived in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by Medawi
(1728–1816) and by later figures such as Ledi Sayadaw and Mahāsī Sayadaw during the 19th and
20th centuries. These Burmese figures re-invented vipassana-meditation and developed simplified
meditation techniques, based on the Satipatthana sutta,

the Visuddhimagga, and other texts, emphasizing
satipatthana and bare insight.[173][174] These techniques
were globally popularized by the Vipassana movement in
the second half of the 20th century.
Similar revival movements developed in Thailand, such as

the Thai forest tradition and Dhammakaya meditation.
These traditions are influenced by the older borān
kammaṭṭhāna forms.[176] Thailand and Cambodia also saw
attempts to preserve and revive the ancient "borān
kammaṭṭhāna" tradition of meditation.[177] In Sri Lanka,
the new Buddhist traditions of the Amarapura and
Rāmañña Nikāyas developed their own meditation forms
based on the Pali Suttas, the Visuddhimagga, and other
manuals, while borān kammaṭṭhāna mostly disappeared
by the end of the 19th century.[178]
Mahasi Sayadaw
Though the Vipassana movement has popularised
meditation both in traditional Theravāda countries among
the laity, and in western countries, "meditation plays a minor if not negligible role in the lives of
the majority of Theravāda monks."[179][180][web 1] Meditation is especially popular laypersons,[181]
especially during special religious holidays or in their old age, when they have more free time to
spend at the temple.[180] Buddhist modernists tend to present Buddhism as rational and scientific,
and this has also affected how Vipassana meditation has been taught and presented. This has led in
some quarters to a playing down of older non-empirical elements of Theravāda, associated with
'superstition'.[182] Strains of older, traditional Theravāda meditation known as "borān
kammaṭṭhāna" still exist, but this tradition has mostly been eclipsed by the Buddhist modernist
meditation movements.[183]
Other practices
Laypersons and monks also perform various types of religious practices daily or during Buddhist
holidays. One of these is keeping a Buddhist shrine with a picture or statue of the Buddha for
devotional practice in one's home, mirroring the larger shrines at temples.[184] It is common to
offer candles, incense, flowers and other objects to these shrine.[184] Gestures of respect are also
done in front of Buddha images and shrines, mainly the respectful salutation with the hands
(añjalikamma), and the five-limb prostration (pañc'anga-vandana).[184]
Buddhist forms of chanting is also widely practiced by both monks and laypersons, who may recite
famous phrases such as the taking of refuge, the metta sutta and the mangala sutta in front of their
shrine. Chanting may also be part of the practice of recollection (anussati), which refers to
contemplating various topics such as the sublime qualities of the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha or
the five subjects for daily recollection.[184] This may be done as part of a daily puja ritual.
Another important religious practice for the devout is the keeping of special religious holidays
known as Uposatha which are based on a lunar calendar. Laypersons commonly take the eight
precepts while visiting a temple or monastery and commit to focusing on Buddhist practice for the
day.[184]
Study (ganthadhura) of the Buddhist texts and listening

to Dhamma talks by monks or teachers are also important
practices.
Lay and monastic life
Distinction between lay

and monastic life
Traditionally, Theravāda
Buddhism has observed a
distinction between the
practices suitable for a lay
person and the practices
undertaken by ordained
monks (in ancient times,
there was a separate body of Circumambulation around a temple or a
Young Burmese monk stupa is also a common devotional
practices for nuns). While the
practice.
possibility of significant
attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the
Theravāda, it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in the Mahāyāna and
Vajrayāna traditions, with monastic life being hailed as a superior method of achieving
Nirvana.[185] The view that Theravāda, unlike other Buddhist schools, is primarily a monastic
tradition has, however, been disputed.
Some Western scholars have erroneously tried to claim that Mahāyāna is primarily a
religion for laymen and Theravāda is a primarily monastic religion. Both Mahāyāna
and Theravāda have as their foundation strong monastic communities, which are
almost identical in their regulations. Schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism without monastic
communities of fully ordained monks and nuns are relatively recent and atypical
developments, usually based on cultural and historical considerations rather than
differences in fundamental doctrine. Both Mahāyāna and Theravāda also provided a
clear and important place for lay followers.
— Ron Epstein, "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism"[186]
This distinction between ordained monks and laypeople – as well as the distinction between those
practices advocated by the Pāli Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks –
have motivated some scholars to consider Theravāda Buddhism to be composed of multiple
separate traditions, overlapping though still distinct. Most prominently, the anthropologist
Melford Spiro in his work Buddhism and Society separated Burmese Theravāda into three groups:
Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic
Buddhism (concerned with making merit for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned
with attaining the liberation of Nirvana, as described in the Tipitaka). He stresses that all three are
firmly rooted in the Pāli Canon. These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually
considered non-exclusive by those who employ them.
The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly
termed merit-making (falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit-making
activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples
and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, and chanting
protective or merit-making verses from the Pali Canon. Some lay practitioners have always chosen
to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicated lay
men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the
financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in
tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities,
etc.). Lay activities have traditionally not extended to study of the Pāli scriptures, nor the practice
of meditation, though in the 20th century these areas have become more accessible to the lay
community, especially in Thailand.
A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition,

including Buddhadasa, Ajahn Maha Bua, Ajahn Plien
Panyapatipo, Ajahn Pasanno, and Ajahn Jayasaro, have begun
teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay
disciples. Ajahn Sumedho, a disciple of Ajahn Chah, founded
the Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in Hertfordshire, which
has a retreat center specifically for lay retreats. Sumedho
extended this to Harnham in Northumberland as Aruna
Ratanagiri under the present guidance of Ajahn Munindo, Thai monks on pilgrimage in their
another disciple of Ajahn Chah. orange robes.
Lay devotee
In Pāli the word for a male lay devotee is Upasaka and a female
devotee is Upasika. One of the duties of the lay followers, as
taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the
monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer
from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and
medicine. As neither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an
occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their
sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead
The ceremony walks with lighted exemplary lives.
candles in hand around a temple on
Vesakha Puja in Uttaradit, Thailand.In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still
regarded as a seat of learning. In fact today about half of the
primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries.
Religious rituals and ceremonies held in a monastery are always accompanied by social activities.
In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel. Traditionally, a
ranking monk will deliver a sermon four times a month: when the moon waxes and wanes and the
day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the
monks during these times.
It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. As Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, "The Suttas
and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana.
However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic
order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant householders,
for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving."[187]
In the modern era, it is now common for lay disciples to practice meditation, attend lay meditation
centers and even aim for awakening. The impetus for this trend began in Myanmar and was
supported by prime minister U Nu who himself established the International Meditation Center
(IMC) in Yangon.[188] Modern lay teachers such as U Ba Khin (who was also the Accountant
General of the Union of Burma) promoted meditation as part of a laypersons daily routine.[188]
According to Donald K Swearer, another development in modern Theravāda is "the formation of
lay Buddhist associations that have partially assumed the social service responsibilities formerly
associated with the monastery".[188] These include social service and activist organizations such as
the Young Men's Buddhist Association of Colombo, the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress, the
Sarvodaya Shramadana of A. T. Ariyaratne, the NGO's founded by Sulak Sivaraksa such as Santi
Pracha.[189]
Monastic vocation
Theravāda sources dating back to medieval Sri Lanka (2nd
century BCE to 10th century CE) such as the Mahavamsa show
that monastic roles in the tradition were often seen as being in
a polarity between urban monks (Sinhala: khaamawaasii,
Pāli: gamavasi) on one end and rural forest monks (Sinhala:
aranyawaasii, Pali: araññavasi, nagaravasi, also known as
Tapassin) on the other.[190] The ascetic focused monks were
known by the names Pamsukulikas (rag robe wearers) and
Araññikas (forest dwellers).[191] A cave kuti (hut) in the Sri Lankan
forest monastery Na Uyana Aranya.
The Mahavamsa mentions forest monks associated with the
Mahavihara. The Pāli Dhammapada Commentary mentions
another split based on the "duty of study" and the "duty of contemplation".[192] This second
division has traditionally been seen as corresponding with the city – forest split, with the city
monks focusing on the vocation of books (ganthadhura) or learning (pariyatti) while the forest
monks leaning more towards meditation (vipassanadhura) and practice (patipatti).[168] However
this opposition is not consistent, and urban monasteries have often promoted meditation while
forest communities have also produced excellent scholars, such as the Island Hermitage of
Nyanatiloka.[168]
Scholar monks generally undertake the path of studying and preserving Theravāda's Pāli
literature.[193] Forest monks tend to be the minority among Theravāda sanghas and also tend to
focus on asceticism (dhutanga) and meditative praxis.[194] They view themselves as living closer to
the ideal set forth by the Buddha, and are often perceived as such by lay folk, while at the same
time often being on the margins of the Buddhist establishment and on the periphery of the social
order.[195]
While this divide seems to have been in existence for some time in the Theravāda school, only in
the 10th century is a specifically forest monk monastery, mentioned as existing near
Anuradhapura, called "Tapavana".[196] This division was then carried over into the rest of
Southeast Asia as Theravāda spread.
Today there are forest based traditions in most Theravāda countries, including the Sri Lankan
Forest Tradition, the Thai Forest Tradition as well as lesser known forest based traditions in
Burma and Laos, such as the Burmese forest based monasteries (taw"yar) of Pa Auk Sayadaw.[197]
In Thailand, forest monks are known as phra thudong (ascetic wandering monks) or phra thudong
kammathan (wandering ascetic meditator).[198]
Ordination
The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years,
reckoned from conception. However, boys under that age are allowed
to ordain as novices (sāmaṇera), performing a ceremony such as
shinbyu in Myanmar. Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow
robes, and observe the Ten Precepts. Although no specific minimum
age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures, traditionally boys as
young as seven are accepted. This tradition follows the story of the
Buddha's son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age
of seven. Monks follow 227 rules of discipline, while nuns follow 311
rules.
In most Theravāda countries, it is a common practice for young men

to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Candidates for the Buddhist
Myanmar, young men typically ordain for the retreat during Vassa, monkhood being ordained
the three-month monsoon season, though shorter or longer periods of as monks in Thailand
ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even

more flexible among Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial
ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time,
though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout Southeast Asia,
there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after
acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill health.
Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast
Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay" his parents for their work and
effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination accrues to them as well. Thai men who
have ordained as a monk may be seen as more fit husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who
have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature
and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men
traditionally gave peasant boys an opportunity to gain an education in temple schools without
committing to a permanent monastic life.
In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practised, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon.
The continuing influence of the caste system in Sri Lanka plays a role in the taboo against
temporary or permanent ordination as a bhikkhu in some orders. Though Sri Lankan orders are
often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the
conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way
that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.
Men and women born in Western countries, who become Buddhists as adults, wish to become
monks or nuns. It is possible, and one can live as a monk or nun in the country they were born in,
seek monks or nuns which has gathered in a different Western country or move to a monastery in
countries like Sri Lanka or Thailand. It is seen as being easier to live a life as a monk or nun in
countries where people generally live by the culture of Buddhism, since it is difficult to live by the
rules of a monk or a nun in a Western country. For instance, a Theravāda monk or nun is not
allowed to work, handle money, listen to music, cook and so on, which are extremely difficult rules
to live by in cultures which do not embrace Buddhism.
Some of the more well-known Theravādan monks are Mun Bhuridatta, Ajahn Chah, Ledi Sayadaw,
Webu Sayadaw, Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, Ajahn Sumedho, Ajahn Khemadhammo, Ajahn Brahm,
Bhikkhu Bodhi, Buddhadasa, Mahasi Sayadaw, Nyanaponika Thera, Preah Maha Ghosananda, U
Pandita, Ajahn Amaro, Ajahn Sucitto, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Walpola Rahula, Henepola
Gunaratana, Bhante Yogavacara Rahula and Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro.
Monastic practices
The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries
within Theravāda. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the
monk usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha
and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest,
mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient
traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline
in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.
In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3 month vassa

period, the monk will wake up before dawn and will begin the day
with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to
surrounding villages bare-footed on alms-round and will have the
only meal of the day before noon by eating from the bowl by hand.
Most of the time is spent on Dhamma study and meditation. A Buddhist Monk chants
Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dhamma talk to the evening prayers inside a
monastery located near the
visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the
town of Kantharalak,
traditional eight Buddhist precepts. Thailand.
The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex

than the life of the forest monk. In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours
every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preaching bana,[199] accepting alms,
officiating funerals, teaching dhamma to adults and children in addition to providing social
services to the community.
After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to
find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is
suitable for the work of self-development. When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go
wherever they feel inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These
generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a
kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.
The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free
they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of
them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two
and seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious
animals live in order to aid their meditation.
Those monks who have been able to achieve a high level of attainment will be able to guide the
junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment.
Bhikkunis
A few years after the arrival of Mahinda, the bhikkhu
Saṅghamittā, who is also believed to have been the daughter of
Ashoka, came to Sri Lanka. She ordained the first nuns in Sri
Lanka. In 429, by request of China's emperor, nuns from
Anuradhapura were sent to China to establish the order there,
which subsequently spread across East Asia. The prātimokṣa of
the nun's order in East Asian Buddhism is the
Dharmaguptaka, which is different than the prātimokṣa of the
current Theravāda school; the specific ordination of the early Dhammananda Bhikkhuni.
Sangha in Sri Lanka not known, although the Dharmaguptaka
sect originated with the Sthāvirīya as well.
The nun's order subsequently died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century and in Burma in the 13th
century. It had already died out around the 10th century in other Theravādin areas. Novice
ordination has also disappeared in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as
renunciates in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor
formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or
status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries. These "precept-holders" live in Myanmar,
Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular, the governing council of Burmese Buddhism
has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese
monks disagree. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice
ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better education
than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests.[200] In Tibet there is
currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but the Dalai Lama has authorized followers of the Tibetan
tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination.
In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan women were ordained fully as Theravāda bhikkhunis by a team of
Theravāda monks in concert with a team of Korean nuns in India. There is disagreement among
Theravāda vinaya authorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. The Dambulla chapter of
the Siam Nikaya in Sri Lanka also carried out a nun's ordination at this time, specifically stating
their ordination process was a valid Theravādin process where the other ordination session was
not.[201] This chapter has carried out ordination ceremonies for hundreds of nuns since then. This
has been criticized by leading figures in the Siam Nikaya and Amarapura Nikaya, and the
governing council of Buddhism in Myanmar has declared that there can be no valid ordination of
nuns in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree with this.[202]
In 1997 Dhamma Cetiya Vihara in Boston was founded by Ven. Gotami of Thailand, then a 10
precept nun; when she received full ordination in 2000, her dwelling became America's first
Theravāda Buddhist bhikkhuni vihara.
A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen,

became the first woman to receive the going-forth ceremony of a novice (and the gold robe) in
Thailand, in 2002.[203] On February 28, 2003, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, formerly known as
Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination as a
Theravāda nun.[204] Dhammananda Bhikkhuni was ordained in Sri Lanka.[205] The Thai Senate
has reviewed and revoked the secular law passed in 1928 banning women's full ordination in
Buddhism as unconstitutional for being counter to laws protecting freedom of religion. However
Thailand's two main Theravāda Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya,
have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks.
In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravāda nuns, the first time
such ordination had occurred in Australia.[206] It was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October
2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and
Hasapanna were ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full
accordance with the Pāli Vinaya.[207]
In 2010, in the US, four novice nuns were given the full bhikkhuni ordination in the Thai
Theravāda tradition, which included the double ordination ceremony. Henepola Gunaratana and
other monks and nuns were in attendance. It was the first such ordination ever in the Western
hemisphere.[208]
The first bhikkhuni ordination in Germany, the ordination of German woman Samaneri Dhira,
occurred on June 21, 2015 at Anenja Vihara.[209]
In Indonesia, the first Theravāda ordination of bhikkhunis in Indonesia after more than a
thousand years occurred in 2015 at Wisma Kusalayani in Lembang, Bandung in West Java.[210]
Those ordained included Vajiradevi Sadhika Bhikkhuni from Indonesia, Medha Bhikkhuni from
Sri Lanka, Anula Bhikkhuni from Japan, Santasukha Santamana Bhikkhuni from Vietnam, Sukhi
Bhikkhuni and Sumangala Bhikkhuni from Malaysia, and Jenti Bhikkhuni from Australia.[210]
Monastic orders within Theravāda

Theravāda monks typically belong to a particular nikaya,
variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These
different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines,
but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic
rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination,
typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks
that established a new ordination tradition within a particular
country or geographic area. Thai monks blessing the King of
Thailand in Wat Nong Wong,
In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into Amphoe Sawankhalok, Sukhothai,
nikayas. Some Theravāda Buddhist countries appoint or elect a Thailand.
sangharaja, or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest
ranking or seniormost monk in a particular area, or from a
particular nikaya. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some
countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand. Myanmar and Cambodia
ended the practice of appointing a sangharaja for some time, but the position was later restored,
though in Cambodia it lapsed again.
Bangladesh:
Sangharaj Nikaya
Mahasthabir Nikaya
Myanmar (Myanmar):
Thudhamma Nikaya
Shwekyin Nikaya
Hngettwin Nikaya
Dwara Nikaya
Sri Lanka:
Siam Nikaya
Rohana
Malwaththa
Asgiriya
Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya)
Amarapura Nikaya has many Sub orders including
Dharmarakshitha
Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)
Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)
Ramañña Nikaya
Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha (or 'Galduwa Tradition')
Delduwa
Maha Nikaya
Dhammayuttika Nikaya
Festivals and customs

1. Magha Puja
2. Vesakha Puja
3. Asalha Puja
4. Uposatha
5. Vassa (Rain Retreat)
Demographics
Rank Country Population Buddhist % Buddhist total Importance of religion
1 Thailand 66,720,153[web 14] 95%[web 15] 63,117,265 97%[web 16]
2 Myanmar 56,280,000[web 17] 89%[web 18] 50,649,200 96%[web 16]
3 Sri Lanka 20,277,597 70% 14,222,844 100%[web 16]
4 Cambodia 14,701,717[web 19] 96%[web 19] 14,172,455 95%[web 16]
5 Laos 6,477,211[web 20] 67%[web 20] 4,339,731 98%[web 16]
Theravāda Buddhism is practiced in the following countries and by people worldwide:
In South Asia:
Nepal
Sri Lanka (by 70% of the population)
Bangladesh (by 2% of the population) mainly in Chittagong Hill Tracts and
Kuwakata,Barishal
India, traditional Theravāda mainly in the Seven Sister States
In Southeast Asia:
Cambodia (by 95% of the population)
Laos (by 67% of the population)
Myanmar (by 89% of the population)

Thailand (by 90% of the population, 94% of the population that practices religion)
Vietnam (by the Khmer Krom in the south and central parts of Vietnam and Tai Dam in
northern Vietnam)
Malaysia (in peninsular Malaysia especially north-western parts of Malaysia, primarily by
the Malaysian Siamese and Malaysian Sinhalese)
Indonesia
Singapore
In East Asia:
China (mainly by the Shan, Tai, Dai, Hani, Wa, Achang, Blang ethnic groups mainly in
Yunnan province )
Theravāda has also recently gained popularity in the Western world.
Today, Theravādins number over 150 million worldwide, and during the past few decades
Theravāda Buddhism has begun to take root in the West[b] and in the Buddhist revival in
India.[web 22]
See also
Buddhahood
Buddhism in Cambodia
Buddhism in China
Buddhism in India
Buddhism in Myanmar
Buddhism in Nepal
Buddhism in Sri Lanka
Buddhism in Thailand
Buddhist pilgrimage
Gautama Buddha
Schools of Buddhism
Supreme Patriarch of Thailand
Thai Forest Tradition
Notes
a. Source says,"Technical terms from Sanskrit were converted into Pali by a set of conventional
phonological transformations". Vowels and diphthongs from Sanskrit to Pali follow this pattern.
Thus 'Sthavira' in Sanskrit becomes 'Thera' in Pali. Sanskrit 'avi' becomes Pali 'e' (i.e. Sthavira
→ ai → Thera).
b. John Bullit: "In the last century, however, the West has begun to take notice of Theravāda's
unique spiritual legacy and teachings of Awakening. In recent decades, this interest has
swelled, with the monastic Sangha from the schools within Theravāda, establishing dozens of
monasteries across Europe and North America."[web 21]
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Theravada (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/591236) at the Encyclopædia
Britannica
Access to Insight (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/) – Readings in Theravāda Buddhism

The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice (http://info-buddhism.com/Bodhisattva
-Ideal-Theravada_JeffreySamuels.html) by Jeffrey Samuels
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theravada&oldid=935377802"
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1/12/2020 Theravada - Wikipedia

Modern Theravāda derives from the Mahāvihāra

From Sri Lanka, the Theravāda Mahāvihāra

Festivals and customs

Damien Keown denies that there is historical

Transmission to Sri Lanka

The rapid spread of Buddhism and the

Development of the Pāli textual tradition

Sri Lankan Theravāda sects

Abhayagiri was an influential university and center for the

Spread to Southeast Asia

From the 8th to the 12th centuries Indian Buddhist traditions

After the 12th century Buddhism mostly disappeared from

Cambodia and Thailand

In Thailand, Theravāda existed alongside Mahayana and other

Tantric and esoteric innovations

Modernisation and spread to the West

Simultaneously, vipassana-meditation was re-invented,

Thailand and Cambodia

Modern Buddhism in Cambodia was strongly influenced by Thai

Modernism: attempts to adapt to the modern world and adopt

The Sutta and Vinaya portion of the Tipitaka shows considerable

Vinaya (monastic discipline) and Abhidhamma

Core doctrines Painting of Buddha's ﬁrst sermon

The Middle Way

According to Y. Karunadasa, a dhamma, which can be translated as "a 'principle' or 'element'

Because of this, in Pali Abhidhamma, even paramattha-sacca is explained through concepts,

Doctrinal differences with other Buddhist schools

View of the Arhat

View of the Buddha

Insight is sudden and perfect

Rebirth and Bhavanga

Rupa (the physical)

The Blessed One said, "Now what,

Theravāda Buddhist meditation practice varies

dukkha, anatta, and anicca.[159][158]

Apart from nibbana, there are various reasons why

Four stages of enlightenment

Historical development and sources

Regarding post Visuddhimagga Theravāda meditation, according to Kate Crosby,

meditation techniques, based on the Satipatthana sutta,

Similar revival movements developed in Thailand, such as

Study (ganthadhura) of the Buddhist texts and listening

Lay and monastic life

Distinction between lay

— Ron Epstein, "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Buddhism"[186]

A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition,

In most Theravāda countries, it is a common practice for young men

ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even

In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3 month vassa

The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex

A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen,

Monastic orders within Theravāda

Festivals and customs

1 Thailand 66,720,153[web 14] 95%[web 15] 63,117,265 97%[web 16]

2 Myanmar 56,280,000[web 17] 89%[web 18] 50,649,200 96%[web 16]

3 Sri Lanka 20,277,597 70% 14,222,844 100%[web 16]

4 Cambodia 14,701,717[web 19] 96%[web 19] 14,172,455 95%[web 16]

5 Laos 6,477,211[web 20] 67%[web 20] 4,339,731 98%[web 16]

Theravāda Buddhism is practiced in the following countries and by people worldwide: